Ernő Gereben (18 June 1907 – 16 May 1988) was a Hungarian–Swiss chess master whose half-century career extended from the mid-1920s to the late 1970s.

Born in Sopron, a Hungarian town at the Austrian border, Ernő Gereben used, until 1935, the German-language form of his name, Ernest (or Ernst) Grünfeld. In 1926, he tied for 1st–2nd in Körmend. In 1928, he won in Šumperk. In 1930, he took 5th in Budapest and tied for 7–8th in Győr. In 1932, he took 7th in Budapest. In 1934, he tied for 5–7th in Sopron (Rudolf Spielmann won). In 1934, he tied for 13–14th in Budapest (Maróczy Jubilee), which was won by Erich Eliskases. In 1935 he tied for 2nd–3rd with Albert Becker, behind László Szabó, in Tata-Tóváros. In 1936, he took 4th, behind Mieczysław Najdorf, Lajos Steiner and Endre Steiner in Budapest.

Following World War II, Gereben played in several Hungarian Chess Championships. In 1947, he won team gold medal and individual silver medal at sixth board in the 2nd Balkan Games in Sofia. In 1947, he took 7th in Vienna (2nd Schlechter Memorial; Szabó won). In 1948, he took 5th in Bad Gastein (Erik Lundin won). In 1951, he won in Sopot. In 1952, he took 15th in Budapest (Paul Keres won).

Due to the Hungarian uprising in 1956, Gereben emigrated to Switzerland and began playing extensively in the west. In 1957, he took 2nd, behind Gedeon Barcza, in San Benedetto del Tronto. In 1958/59, he took 3rd in Hastings. In 1959, he tied for 1st in Bognor Regis. In 1960, he tied for 4-5th in Zurich. In 1963/64, he tied for 1st-4th in Reggio Emilia. In 1967, he tied for 2nd-5th in Amsterdam (Master Tournament). In 1969, he took 4th in Monte Carlo (Master Tournament).

Gereben played four times in the Chess Olympiads; once for Hungary at first reserve board (+6 −3 =6) in the 11th Olympiad at Amsterdam 1954, and thrice for Switzerland; at third board (+5 −4 =7) at Siegen 1970, at second reserve (+3 −5 =5) at Skopje 1972, and at first reserve board (+3 –3 =7) at Nice 1974.

He remained a keen player in his adopted country even into his seventies. The British Chess Magazine editor, Bernard Cafferty, described him as "a delightfully friendly personality, rather different to many of the continental masters of that time. Chess was fun for him, not just a way to make a living."

Gereben was awarded the International Master (IM) title in 1950. He died in Switzerland in the year of his 81st birthday.

Further reading
 Gottardo Gottardi: Ernö Gereben. Kecskemét, 1991.

References

British Chess Magazine - Obituary, July 1988.

External links

Hungarian chess players
Swiss chess players
Jewish chess players
Chess International Masters
Hungarian Jews
Swiss Jews
People from Sopron
1907 births
1988 deaths
Place of death missing
20th-century chess players

Ernő Gereben


Moses Woodruff Dodd (November 11, 1813 – April 8, 1899) was the founder of a publishing company that eventually became Dodd, Mead and Company in New York City.

Biography
He was the son of Ira Dodd (1786–1869) and Anna Harrison (1785–1867) of Bloomfield, New Jersey. After graduation at Princeton in 1837, he entered the Princeton Theological Seminary, but he did not graduate because of his health problems. In 1839, he formed a partnership with John S. Taylor, a publisher of New York City. When Taylor retired in 1840, Dodd continued the business under the name of M. W. Dodd until his retirement in 1870.

He died on April 8, 1899.

Family
He had the following siblings:
Mary Kingsland Dodd (1811–1833)
Phebe Pierson Dodd (1816–1894)
Amarintha Dodd (1821–1889).

He married Rachel Hoe (1817–1897) and had the following children:
Ira Seymour Dodd (1842–1922)
Frank Howard Dodd (1844–1916) who took control of the company at his father's retirement.
Charles Townley Dodd (1846–1917)
Robert Hoe Dodd (1848–1934)
William Mead Dodd (1851–1928) who married Jean MacNeill
Edward Winslow Dodd (1853)
Dodd's granddaughter, Marion Elza Dodd, co-founded the Hampshire Bookshop in Northampton, Massachusetts.

Notes

References

1813 births
1899 deaths
American publishers (people)
Princeton University alumni
Princeton Theological Seminary alumni
19th-century American businesspeople
People from Bloomfield, New Jersey

Moses Woodruff Dodd


The Sale of Goods and Supply of Services Act, 1980 is an act of the Oireachtas, the Parliament of Ireland. It  offers protection to the consumer when they purchases or hires new goods or services from a business for their own personal use. It states that goods must be of merchantable quality, they must fit their description and that services must be carried out with care.

References
Sale of Goods and Supply of Services Act, 1980, electronic Irish Statute Book

Acts of the Oireachtas of the 1980s
1980 in Irish law

Sale of Goods and Supply of Services Act 1980


Ataque de pánico! () is a 2009 Uruguayan science fiction short film directed by independent filmmaker Fede Álvarez.

Plot
Giant robots appear out of the mist and attack Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay. Accompanied by a squadron of spacecraft, they fire weapons at the city and destroy key buildings, leading to mass panic. The military fights back to little avail. At the end of the film, the robots fuse together to form a giant sphere, which then detonates and engulfs the city in a fireball. No explanation is given for the attack.

Production
A trailer of the film was uploaded to YouTube in October 2006, with some scenes from the finished version. The official production budget of the film was stated as only $300. In addition to writing, editing and directing the film, Álvarez created the visual effects based on computer-generated imagery.

Release
The film was premiered on October 31, 2009 at the Buenos Aires Rojo Sangre film festival and uploaded to YouTube on November 3, 2009. Following widespread media coverage, Álvarez was offered a 30-million-dollar Hollywood deal to develop and direct a full-length film.

Soundtrack
The music accompanying most of the short is "In the House – In a Heartbeat", an instrumental piece by John Murphy.  The music was originally composed for the 2002 film 28 Days Later.

Reaction
After being uploaded to YouTube, the film's reputation spread by word of mouth, and received a boost when it was linked from the blog of Kanye West. Fede Álvarez stated in a BBC interview: "I uploaded Panic Attack! on a Thursday and on Monday my inbox was totally full of e-mails from Hollywood studios."

As a result of the popularity of the short, Ghost House Pictures signed with Álvarez for him to develop a new project. The resulting film was Evil Dead, the fourth film in the Evil Dead franchise, released in the United States on April 5, 2013.

The film has been cited as an example of the increasing influence of the Internet in finding new talent for Hollywood studios.

Cast
Diego Garrido
Pedro Luque
Ariadna Santini
Rodo Sayagues
Martín Sarthou (real-life Uruguayan news anchor)

References

External links

2009 films
2000s science fiction horror films
Uruguayan short films
2009 YouTube videos
2000s disaster films
Films directed by Fede Álvarez
Films produced by Fede Álvarez
Films set in Montevideo
Films with screenplays by Fede Álvarez
Films with screenplays by Rodo Sayagues
Alien invasions in films

Ataque de pánico!


Ruby Yang (楊紫燁; Simplified Chinese: 杨紫烨), is a Hong Kong American documentary filmmaker.

Biography
Originally from Hong Kong, Yang has worked on a range of feature and documentary films exploring Chinese themes as director and editor. She studied Filmmaking at the San Francisco Art Institute in 1977. After graduation, she worked as an editor on many Chinese American documentaries and mainstream Hollywood films. She won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject for The Blood of Yingzhou District (2006) and received other awards including an Emmy, the DuPont-Columbia Journalism Award, FilmAid Asia's Humanitarian Award, the Global Health Council Media Award and two IDA Pare Lorentz Award nominations.

In 2003, along with filmmaker Thomas F. Lennon, Yang founded the Chang Ai Media Project to raise HIV/AIDS awareness in China. Since then, its documentaries and public service announcements have been seen by hundreds of millions of Chinese viewers. Lennon and Yang made a trilogy of short documentary films about modern China, including The Blood of Yingzhou District, Tongzhi in Love (2008) and The Warriors of Qiugang, which was nominated for Best Documentary Short Subject in 2011.

Yang relocated to Beijing in 2004 and moved back to Hong Kong in 2013.  She was appointed by the University of Hong Kong as Hung Leung Hau Ling Distinguished Fellow in Humanities in the fall of 2013. Her recent feature documentary My Voice, My Life  《争氣》opened in 13 theatres in Hong Kong and Macau. The Wall Street Journal named it "Hong Kong's five most notable films of 2014". It won the 2015 NPT Human Spirit Award at the Nashville Film Festival.

In 2015, Yang led the establishment of a new documentary project, named HK Documentary Initiative, aiming at fostering the development of the Hong Kong documentary industry. The efforts of the project fall into three categories, Seed Grants, Master Class, and Documentary Literacy. Yang herself is the director and one of the creative advisors to support emerging documentary filmmakers in Hong Kong.

Selected filmography (as director)
My Voice, My Life Revisited  《繼續爭氣》/《继续争气》2020
Ritoma 《仁多瑪/《仁多玛》2018
In Search of Perfect Consonance 《尋找完美第五度》/《寻找完美第五度》2016
My Voice, My Life  《爭氣》/《争气》2014
The Warriors of Qiugang  《仇崗衛士》/《仇岗卫士》2010
A Moment in Time  《聲光轉逝》/《声光转逝》2009
Tongzhi in Love  《彼岸浮生》2008
The Blood of Yingzhou District《颍州的孩子》2006
Julia's Story《朱力亞的故事》/《朱力亚的故事》2005
China 21  《中國一二》/《中国一二》2002
Citizen Hong Kong  《風雨故園》/《风雨故园》1999

Selected filmography (as editor)

Becoming American : The Chinese Experience"  2003
Autumn in New York 2000
Xiu Xiu: The Sent Down Girl 1998
Street Soldier 1997
All Power to the People 1996
"A.K.A. Don Bonus"  1995
China: The Wild East  1994

See also
HIV/AIDS in the People's Republic of China

References

External links
Official website

Directors of Best Documentary Short Subject Academy Award winners
American documentary film producers
American film directors of Hong Kong descent
American film producers
American television directors
American people of Chinese descent
Hong Kong emigrants to the United States
American expatriates in China
Living people
Chinese documentary filmmakers
American documentary film directors
Hong Kong artists
Hong Kong women artists
American women documentary filmmakers
Year of birth missing (living people)
American women television directors
21st-century American women

Ruby Yang


The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in, the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Owing in the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magnetism, and chemical kinetics, to more distant applied fields such as meteorology, information theory, and biology (physiology), and to technological developments such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, cryogenics and electricity generation. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by atomic theory. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in probability and statistics; see, for example, the timeline of thermodynamics.

Antiquity
The ancients viewed heat as that related to fire. In 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians viewed heat as related to origin mythologies. The ancient Indian philosophy including Vedic philosophy believed that five classical elements (or pancha mahā bhūta) are the basis of all cosmic creations. In the Western philosophical tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier pre-Socratic philosophers, Empedocles proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from earth, water, air, and fire. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as phlogiston and caloric. Around 500 BC, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three principal elements in nature were fire, earth, and water.

Vacuum-abhorrence

The 5th century BC Greek philosopher Parmenides, in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled On Nature, uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a vacuum, in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of Aristotle, but was criticized by Leucippus and Hero of Alexandria. From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.

Atomism
Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as  Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.

17th century

Early thermometers

The European scientists Cornelius Drebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei and Santorio Santorio in the 16th and 17th centuries were able to gauge the relative "coldness" or "hotness" of air, using a rudimentary air thermometer (or thermoscope). This may have been influenced by an earlier device which could expand and contract the air constructed by Philo of Byzantium and Hero of Alexandria.

"Heat is Motion" (Francis Bacon)
The idea that heat is a form of motion is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by the English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum.  Bacon surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else."

Atmospheric pressure replaces "vacuum-abhorrence"
In 1643, Galileo Galilei, while generally accepting the 'sucking' explanation of horror vacui proposed by Aristotle, believed that nature's vacuum-abhorrence is limited. Pumps operating in mines had already proven that nature would only fill a vacuum with water up to a height of ~30 feet. Knowing this curious fact, Galileo encouraged his former pupil Evangelista Torricelli to investigate these supposed limitations. Torricelli did not believe that vacuum-abhorrence (Horror vacui) in the sense of Aristotle's 'sucking' perspective, was responsible for raising the water.  Rather, he reasoned, it was the result of the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding air.

To prove this theory, he filled a long glass tube (sealed at one end) with mercury and upended it into a dish also containing mercury. Only a portion of the tube emptied; ~30 inches of the liquid remained. As the mercury emptied, a partial vacuum was created at the top of the tube. The gravitational force on the heavy element mercury prevented it from filling the vacuum.

René Descartes

Precursor to work

In 1637, the French philosopher René Descartes wrote:

In 1686, the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz wrote essentially the same thing: The same force ["work" in modern terms] is necessary to raise body A of 1 pound (libra) to a height of 4 yards (ulnae), as is necessary to raise body B of 4 pounds to a height of 1 yard.

Quantity of motion

In 1644, Descartes defined quantity of motion thus:

He claimed that merely by letting things run their course, God preserves the same amount of motion as He created, and that thus the total quantity of motion in the universe is conserved.

Boyle's law

Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: P.V=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later.  Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring. Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law.

Gas laws in brief

Boyle's law (1662)
Charles's law was first published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by Jacques Charles from around 1787. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of Guillaume Amontons in 1702.
Gay-Lussac's law (1802)

Steam digester

Denis Papin, an associate of Boyle's, built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated. Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first steam engine.

Heat transfer (Halley and Newton)

The phenomenon of heat conduction is immediately grasped in everyday life. The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686.

In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton published his law of cooling.

18th century

Phlogiston theory

The theory of phlogiston arose in the 17th century, late in the period of alchemy. Its replacement by caloric theory in the 18th century is one of the historical markers of the transition from alchemy to chemistry. Phlogiston was a hypothetical substance that was presumed to be liberated from combustible substances during burning, and from metals during the process of rusting.

Limit to the "degree of cold"

In 1702 Guillaume Amontons introduced the concept of absolute zero based on observations of gases.

Kinetic theory (18th century)

The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by Mikhail Lomonosov, in which he wrote:

"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."

During the same years, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamics (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proved that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with Gottfried Leibniz's vis viva principle, an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history.

Thermochemistry and steam engines

Caloric theory

In the mid- to late 18th century, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the caloric. Like phlogiston, caloric was presumed to be the "substance" of heat that would flow from a hotter body to a cooler body, thus warming it. The utility and explanatory power of kinetic theory, however, soon started to displace the caloric theory. Nevertheless, William Thomson, for example, was still trying to explain James Joule's observations within a caloric framework as late as 1850. The caloric theory was largely obsolete by the end of the 19th century.

Heat capacity
Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term heat capacity, named and first investigated by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s.

In the mid- to late 19th century, heat became understood as a manifestation of a system's internal energy. Today heat is seen as the transfer of disordered thermal energy. Nevertheless, at least in English, the term heat capacity survives. In some other languages, the term thermal capacity is preferred, and it is also sometimes used in English.

Steam engines

Prior to 1698 and the invention of the Savery engine, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the Newcomen engine, and later the Watt engine. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work.  In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output. Hence the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born.

Calorimetry

Joseph Black and Antoine Lavoisier made important contributions in the precise measurement of heat changes using the calorimeter, a subject which became known as thermochemistry. The development of the steam engine focused attention on calorimetry and the amount of heat produced from different types of coal. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by Lavoisier using an ice calorimeter following research by Joseph Black on the latent heat of water.

Thermal conduction and thermal radiation

Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguished heat transfer by thermal radiation (radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777.

In the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different heat capacities. Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of electricity in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators. Jan Ingen-Housz in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did Benjamin Thompson during the same period.

In 1791, Pierre Prévost showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Sir John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation.

Heat and friction (Rumford)

In the 19th century, scientists abandoned the idea of a physical caloric. The first substantial experimental challenges to the caloric theory arose in a work by Benjamin Thompson's (Count Rumford) from 1798, in which he showed that boring cast iron cannons produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to friction. His work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory.

As a result of his experiments in 1798, Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion, though no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the vis viva principle.

Early 19th century

Modern thermodynamics (Carnot)

Although early steam engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. Most cite this book as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science. (The name "thermodynamics", however, did not arrive until 1854, when the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) coined the term thermo-dynamics in his paper On the Dynamical Theory of Heat.)

Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing.  Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "work": weight lifted through a height. The desire to understand, via formulation, this useful effect in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.

Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process.

Reflection, refraction, and polarisation of radiant heat

Though it had become to be suspected even from Scheele's work, in 1831 Macedonio Melloni demonstrated that radiant heat could be reflected, refracted and polarised in the same way as light.

Kinetic theory (early 19th century)

John Herapath independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with momentum rather than vis viva or kinetic energy. His work ultimately failed peer review, even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Humphry Davy, and was neglected.

John James Waterston in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review.

Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann.

Mechanical equivalent of heat

Quantitative studies by Joule from 1843 onwards provided soundly reproducible phenomena, and helped to place the subject of thermodynamics on a solid footing. In 1843, Joule experimentally found the mechanical equivalent of heat. In 1845, Joule reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight to spin a paddle-wheel in a barrel of water, which allowed him to estimate a mechanical equivalent of heat of 819 ft·lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). This led to the theory of conservation of energy and explained why heat can do work.

Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale

The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin.

Late 19th century

Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics

Lord Kelvin
In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of Joule, Lord Kelvin started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the heat death of the universe.

William Rankine
In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine started to make use of what he called thermodynamic function in calculations. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of entropy formulated by the famed mathematical physicist Rudolf Clausius.

Rudolf Clausius

In 1865, Clausius coined the term "entropy" (das Wärmegewicht, symbolized S) to denote heat lost or turned into waste. ("Wärmegewicht" translates literally as "heat-weight"; the corresponding English term stems from the Greek τρέπω, "I turn".) Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics the same year.

Statistical thermodynamics

Temperature is average kinetic energy of molecules
In his 1857 work On the nature of the motion called heat, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules.

Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

Clausius' above statement interested the Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. The Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann subsequently generalized this distribution for the case of gases in external fields. In association with Clausius, in 1871, Maxwell formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called statistical thermodynamics, which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at equilibrium, i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature T, pressure P, and volume V become important.

Degrees of freedom

Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their degrees of freedom. The Boltzmann equation for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of thermodynamic probability as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.

Definition of entropy

In 1875, the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann formulated a precise connection between entropy S and molecular motion:

being defined in terms of the number of possible states W that such motion could occupy, where k is the Boltzmann constant.

Gibbs free energy

In 1876, chemical engineer Willard Gibbs published an obscure 300-page paper titled: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, wherein he formulated one grand equality, the Gibbs free energy equation, which suggested a measure of the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems.

Enthalpy

Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as enthalpy H, calling it "a heat function for constant pressure". The modern word enthalpy would be coined many years later by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who based it on the Greek word enthalpein meaning to warm.

Stefan–Boltzmann law

James Clerk Maxwell's 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of electromagnetic wave led to the start of the quantitative analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, Jožef Stefan observed that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The law was derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.

20th century

Quantum thermodynamics

In 1900 Max Planck found an accurate formula for the spectrum of black-body radiation. Fitting new data required the introduction of a new constant, known as Planck's constant, the fundamental constant of modern physics. Looking at the radiation as coming from a cavity oscillator in thermal equilibrium, the formula suggested that energy in a cavity occurs only in multiples of frequency times the constant. That is, it is quantized. This avoided a divergence to which the theory would lead without the quantization.

Third law of thermodynamics

In 1906, Walther Nernst stated the third law of thermodynamics.

Erwin Schrödinger
Building on the foundations above, Lars Onsager, Erwin Schrödinger, Ilya Prigogine and others, brought these engine "concepts" into the thoroughfare of almost every modern-day branch of science.

Kinetic theory

The idea that heat is a form of motion is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum. The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by Mikhail Lomonosov, in which he wrote:

"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."

During the same years, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamics (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proved that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with Gottfried Leibniz's vis viva principle, an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history. Though Benjamin Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion as a result of his experiments in 1798, no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the vis viva principle.

John Herapath later independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with momentum rather than vis viva or kinetic energy. His work ultimately failed peer review and was neglected. John James Waterston in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Davy.

Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann. In his 1857 work On the nature of the motion called heat, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.

Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their degrees of freedom. The Boltzmann equation for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of thermodynamic probability as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.

Entropy and the second law

Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Sadi Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process. In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of James Prescott Joule, Lord Kelvin started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the heat death of the universe.

In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine started to make use in calculation of what he called his thermodynamic function. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of entropy formulated by Rudolf Clausius in 1865. Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics the same year.

Heat transfer

The phenomenon of heat conduction is immediately grasped in everyday life. In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton published his law of cooling. However, in the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different heat capacities.

Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of electricity in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators. Jan Ingen-Housz in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did Benjamin Thompson during the same period.

The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686. Sir John Leslie observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its speed in 1804.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguished heat transfer by thermal radiation (radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777. In 1791, Pierre Prévost showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. Though it had become to be suspected even from Scheele's work, in 1831 Macedonio Melloni demonstrated that black-body radiation could be reflected, refracted and polarised in the same way as light.

James Clerk Maxwell's 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of electromagnetic wave led to the start of the quantitative analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, Jožef Stefan observed that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The law was derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.

Absolute zero
In 1702 Guillaume Amontons introduced the concept of absolute zero based on observations of gases. In 1810, Sir John Leslie froze water to ice artificially. The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin. In 1906, Walther Nernst stated the third law of thermodynamics.

Branches of thermodynamics
The following list is a rough disciplinary outline of the major branches of thermodynamics and their time of inception:
 Thermochemistry – 1780s
 Classical thermodynamics – 1824
 Chemical thermodynamics – 1876
 Statistical mechanics – c. 1880s
 Equilibrium thermodynamics
 Engineering thermodynamics
 Chemical engineering thermodynamics – c. 1940s
 Non-equilibrium thermodynamics – 1941
 Small systems thermodynamics – 1960s
 Biological thermodynamics – 1957
 Ecosystem thermodynamics – 1959
 Relativistic thermodynamics – 1965
 Rational thermodynamics – 1960s
 Quantum thermodynamics – 1968
 Black hole thermodynamics – c. 1970s
 Theory of critical phenomena and use of renormalization group theory in statistical physics – 1966-1974
 Geological thermodynamics – c. 1970s
 Biological evolution thermodynamics – 1978
 Geochemical thermodynamics – c. 1980s
 Atmospheric thermodynamics – c. 1980s
 Natural systems thermodynamics – 1990s
 Supramolecular thermodynamics – 1990s
 Earthquake thermodynamics – 2000
 Drug-receptor thermodynamics – 2001
 Pharmaceutical systems thermodynamics – 2002

Concepts of thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:
 Thermoeconomics – c. 1970s

See also
 Conservation of energy: Historical development
 History of Chemistry
 History of Physics
 Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
 Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes
 Timeline of heat engine technology
 Timeline of low-temperature technology
 Timeline of thermodynamics
 Vacuum
 Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics

References

Further reading

External links

History of Thermodynamics – University of Waterloo
Thermodynamic History Notes – WolframScience.com
Brief History of Thermodynamics – Berkeley [PDF]

History of thermodynamics


Sheshan is the name for a pair of hills in Songjiang District in Shanghai, China. These two hills are West Sheshan, which is 97 meters high, and East Sheshan, which is 100.8 meters high.

The Chinese name is Shéshān (佘山). Shé (佘) is the name of a Chinese family, and shān (山) is a word that can mean "mountain", "mountains", "hill", or "hills". Some people say that the hills' name used to be Shéshān (蛇山), meaning "Snake Hill", but that the Chinese character was changed because people don't like snakes.

The hills are part of a forest park that is 64.08 square kilometers big. The park is open from 8  to 4:30 .

The top of the West Hill has Our Lady of Sheshan Catholic Church and the Sheshan Observatory. The East Hill has an amusement park.

Sheshan Station is a Shanghai Subway station on Line 9.

Hills of Asia
Shanghai

Geography of the People's Republic of China

Sheshan


Acacia viscidula, also known as sticky wattle, is a shrub of the genus Acacia and the subgenus Plurinerves that is endemic to an area of eastern Australia.

Description
The shrub typically grows to a height of  or occasionally to  and a width of about  and has an erect or spreading habit with smooth, grey or grey-brown coloured bark and angled to flattened, resinous and hairy branchlets that have ribbed. Like most species of Acacia it has phyllodes rather than true leaves. The ascending, thin, hairy or glabrous and evergreen phyllodes have a linear shape that can be slightly incurved with a length of  and a width of  and have three to seven impressed, distant and resinous nerves. It blooms between August and October producing simple inflorescences that occur singly or in pairs in the axils with spherical flower-heads that have a diameter of  and contain 15 to 35 light to bright yellow coloured flowers. The firmly papery and hairy seed pods that form after flowering are usually straight but can be slightly curved and are raised alternately over each of the seeds and sometimes a little constricted between some seeds. The pods have a length of  and a width of  and contain longitudinally arranged seeds.

Taxonomy
The species was first formally described by the botanist George Bentham in 1842 as a part of the William Jackson Hooker work Notes on Mimoseae, with a synopsis of species as published in the London Journal of Botany. It was reclassified as Racosperma viscidulum in 1987 by Leslie Pedley then transferred back to genus Acacia in 2006. The specific epithet  is in reference to the sticky or viscid nature of the plant. It has a similar appearance to Acacia lanigera which is found further south and also resembles Acacia dawsonii.

Distribution
The is found in the Darling Downs region of south eastern Queensland and eastern parts of New South Wales. In Queensland the range extends as far west as Injune and in New South Wales as far west as around Coonabarabran where it is found un upland areas with granite based soils and is usually a part of low woodland communities along with species of Eucalyptus and other Acacias. In New South Wales it is mostly located in the Tablelands Region from around Tamworth in the south out to Mount Kaputar National Park in the west and to around Tenterfield in the west where it is usually  part of dry sclerophyll forest communities or among the heath in crevices of granite outcrops.

Cultivation
The plant is available commercially in seedling or in seed form. The seeds have to be treated with boiling water before sowing. Growing by propagation of cuttings should be possible. It is useful as a screen or as an informal hedge. It can be quite dense making it a suitable nesting sites for small native birds. It is fast growing, will tolerate full sun or partial shade, can tolerate a light frost, is drought tolerant once established and prefers well-drained soil.

See also
List of Acacia species

References

viscidula
Taxa named by George Bentham
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Queensland
Plants described in 1842
Endemic flora of Australia

Acacia viscidula


Rigdzin Kumaradza (1266–1343) was a Dzogchen master in the lineage of the Vima Nyingthig.

Nomenclature, orthography and etymology

Kumārarāja, Kumārāja and Kumaraja (Sanskrit) is sometimes also orthographically represented as Kumārarādza and Kumārādza.

Overview
Kumaradza was a Tibetan yogic mendicant famous for his austere nomadic lifestyle and deep flow meditation styles. Nomadic in orientation and obscure in siddhi, he was renowned as genuine realizer of Vajrayana Buddhist luminous clarity. Kumaradza's esoteric processes reflected a kindly though abrupt and forceful demeanor. There are accounts of how some of his students were meditating in mere animal skin shelters as quasi-impromptu protection against ferocious high desert winds. These small camps subsisted on scant donations. The focus of his practices concentrated on secret cognizance yogas of "naked awareness" or "natural mind" (rigpa).

His striking purview of existence was very powerful, particularly in how he applied his consciousness to matters at hand. For he was considered one of the most realized masters of his day. Sought after and admired but his processes and teachings were stringent for most beings to undertake due to his rigorous approaches and dogged regimens.

He stolidly adhered to tenets of Dzogpa Chenpo methods of enlightening awareness. And he was also versed in Maha Mudra processings of liberation from "afflictions" and "obscurations" kleshas of mind. He was likely familiar with Maha Madyamika and various intellectual traditions of meditational development current in those Himalayan regions. But recountings indicate he must have preferred Dzog Chen or some combination of Dzog Chen and Maha Mudra.

Kumaradza's name can be recognized and translated as an epithet for Vajra Kilaiya or Dorje Phurbu, one of the chief protectors of Nyingmapas and important to Sakyapa and Kahjyupa schools. Rikzin Kumaradza could be said to mean "Rigpa Holder Of Kilaiya Regency", or "Awakened Ruler Of Royal Purba", or "Awareness Master King Of Tri-Dagger". Implication being, that Kumaradza is accomplished in realization and liberation and enlightening for beings of the three worlds of past and present and future, as well desire realms and form ranges and formless zones, and also could be interpreted as glowing with Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya eyes.

Instructor
Kumaradza was a senior disciple of Melong Dorje (1243–1303). Kumaradza studied with the grand master Orgyenpa (1230–1309), who conveyed teachings of 'Vimalamitra's Seminal Heart' () upon him.

Successor
Kumararaja transmitted the complete set of all the Nyingthig teachings he held upon Longchen Rabjam who became his 'heart son', principal disciple and lineage successor.

Dudjom (1904–1987) et al. (1991: p. 579) hold that just prior to the arrival of Longchenpa, Kumaraja relates to his disciples:
"Last night I dreamt that a wonderful bird, which announced itself to be a divine bird, came with a large flock in attendance, and carried away my books in all directions. Therefore, someone will come to hold my lineage."

Kumaraja accepted no outer tribute from Lonchenpa for the teachings he received as Kumararaja through his supernormal cognitive powers discerned that Longchenpa was blameless and had offered his tribute internally.

Rigdzin Kumaradza is acclaimed as the seminal instructor for both Longchen Rabjampa and the Third Karmapa Rangjyung Dorjy. Kumaradza held the teachings of the 'Innermost Spirituality' (bi ma snying thig) which would have given both Lonchenpa and Rangjyungla the impetus to undergo the journey to receive his instruction and endure the significant privation of the teaching environment. Kumaradza, was crucial in drawing out Longchenpa's and Rangjyung Dorjy's realizations and luminances and interests, especially in collecting and compiling texts relevant to profound awakening. For both Longchen and Rangjyung are praised and read and recited even today as master realizers, as great writers and strong thinkers with particularly keen minds. Gompas and monasteries, nunneries and centers of meditation, on worldwide scale though in rarefied manner, practice those proven techniques and wonderful yogas of devotion on daily basis. Kumaradza is in the process of becoming a more regarded figure in Tibetan spiritual lore as it spreads internationally and translations are now somewhat more frequently referring to his remarkable influences.

The Longchen Nyingtik tradition of the Nyingma school as revealed by Jikmey Lingpa, who flourished in the seventeen hundreds, is through Longchenpa greatly indebted to Kumaradza. The Karma Kamtsang branch, as well as others of the Kahjyupa school, are additionally beholden and certainly enhanced via Rangjyung Dorjy's potent songs and dohas and meditation pujas where Kumaradza's spacious mind flow is evident in fine resonance.

Namtars
Kumaradza accounts, or namtars, of his life are available in recent translations into English, The Nyingma School Of Tibetan Buddhism, Masters Of Meditation And Miracles, Marvelous Garland Of Rare Gems, among others. Nobly, he conversed fluently with glowing deities of enlightening liberation for all beings. Since, in being trained as an artist, his vivid and vital awareness visions were exquisite arrays of mandalas. For he was proficient devotee of Vajra Yogini, acknowledged as mother of all buddhas. He was inspirited by essential protectors: Ekajati and Kyabjyuk Rahula and Vajra Sadhu Lekpa.

There are no known extent writings, or not currently translated, by him.

See also
Nelug Dzö (gnas lugs mdzod)

Notes

References

 Thondup, Tulku & Harold Talbott (Editor)(1996). Masters of Meditation and Miracles: Lives of the Great Buddhist Masters of India and Tibet. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala, South Asia Editions.  (alk. paper);
 Khenpo, Nyoshul (2005). A Marvelous Garland of Rare Gems: Biographies of Masters of Awareness in the Dzogchen Lineage (A Spiritual History of the Teachings of Natural Great Perfection). Translated by Richard Barron. .

1266 births
1343 deaths
13th-century Tibetan people
14th-century Tibetan people
Dzogchen lamas
Nyingma lamas
Tibetan Buddhists from Tibet
Tibetan Buddhist yogis

Rigdzin Kumaradza


The Tornados were an English band formed in 1962. They are best known for their instrumental space-sounding sounds.

Their most well known lineup was: Heinz Burt (bass), Clem Cattini (drums), Roger LaVern (keyboard), George Bellamy (guitar; Bellamy is son of Muse frontman Matthew Bellamy), and Alan Caddy (guitar).

Telstar
Their biggest hit was Telstar, a song about the communications satellite. The song was the first song by a British band to hit number one on American charts.

Discography

Albums

 The Original Telstar – The Sounds of the Tornadoes (1962)
 Away from It All (1963)
 We Want Billy! (1963)

English musical groups

The Tornados


Brooks M. Pennington Junior (October 21, 1925 – May 23, 1996) was a businessman, author, politician and philanthropist from Georgia.

Early years
He attended North Georgia College in 1943-1944, before serving as a USAF captain in the Korean War, and later graduated from University of Georgia with degrees in engineering and agronomy.

Pennington Seed
Whilst still at college, Pennington began working in the family retail feed and seed store founded in Madison, Georgia in 1945 on Main Street by his father, Brooks Pennington Sr. Over the course of 50 years, he built a warehouse and developed the wholesale side of the business and also developed new agricultural crop varieties, seed coatings and seed treatments. He retired as President and Chairman of Pennington Seed Inc. due to ill health in the mid-1990s., the annual turn-over had grown to over $200 million. Pennington was also served as president of the Georgia Seedsmen's Association, the Southern Seedsmen's Association, and the Southern Field Seed Council. His book Seeds and Planting in the South
 is regarded as a standard text-book for many agricultural colleges. In September 2003, Pennington was entered posthumously into the Georgia Agricultural Hall of Fame.

Politics
Pennington served as a member of the Georgia House of Representatives and was elected to the Georgia State Senate, serving for eight years as Chairman of the Georgia Senate Agriculture and Natural Resources Committee, as well as holding positions on a number of other committees. He was also State Campaign Chairman for President Jimmy Carter's first campaign for governor of Georgia in 1966 (unsuccessful), and later an agricultural campaign advisor during Carter's 1976 presidential campaign.

Philanthropy
Pennington donated his political pay to the Brooks Pennington Sr. Scholarship Fund (named after his father), which by September 2003, had enabled over 30 students to attend college. He served as the chairman of the Morgan County Hospital Authority, vice chairman of Morgan County Foundation, president of the Morgan County Touchdown Club, and was the Commander of the Morgan County, Georgia VFW, among other positions. After his death, his estate endowed the Brooks Pennington Jr. Military Leadership Center at North Georgia College & State University (NGCSU) in November 2004.

Accolades
He was recognised by the NGCSU Alumni Association in the Hall of Fame (1973) and as Distinguished Alumnus (1974).

Personal life
He married Jacquelyn Christian Pennington, with whom he had four children. In October 2006, his son, Brooks "Sonny" Pennington III, resigned after 10 years as president and CEO of Pennington Seed (now part of Walnut Creek based conglomerate Central Garden & Pet) to take on the role of Director of Special Projects. Another son, Dan Pennington, is in charge of the manufacturing strategic business unit.

References

1925 births
1996 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American politicians
United States Air Force personnel of the Korean War
Georgia (U.S. state) state senators
Members of the Georgia House of Representatives
University of Georgia alumni
People from Madison, Georgia

Brooks Pennington Jr.


Donald Trump (born June 14, 1946) is the 45th president of the United States, as well as an American businessman and television personality.

Donald Trump may also refer to:

People
 Donald Trump Jr. (born 1977), American businessman and first child of Donald Trump
 Donald L. Trump (born 1945), American oncologist

Other uses
 "Donald Trump" (song), a 2011 single by rapper Mac Miller
 "Donald Trump (Black Version)", a song by The Time from the 1990 album Pandemonium
 "Donald Trump" (Last Week Tonight), a February 28, 2016 segment on the news satire program Last Week Tonight with John Oliver

Related pages
 Presidency of Donald Trump, his presidency
 r/The_Donald, a former Internet forum hosted on Reddit
 Donaldtrumpi (disambiguation)
 List of things named after Donald Trump
 Trump (disambiguation)
 Donald Crump (1933–2011), commissioner of the Canadian Football League
 Jeff Trachta, appeared as "The Singing Trump" on America's Got Talent (season 12)

Trump, Donald

Donald Trump (disambiguation)


Alexander Pantages (, Periklis Alexandros Padazis; 1867 – February 17, 1936) was a Greek American vaudeville impresario and early motion picture producer. He created a large and powerful circuit of theatres across the Western United States and Canada.

At the height of his empire, he owned or operated 84 theatres across the United States and Canada. In 1929, he was accused of raping a 17-year-old dancer named Eunice Alice Pringle; the negative publicity led to the selling of his operations and he permanently ceased being a force in exhibition or vaudeville. He is largely forgotten today in historical accounts of the early development of motion pictures. He died in February 1936.

Early life
There is dispute about his year of birth, but it is likely that he was born in 1867 on the island of Andros, Greece. It is suggested that he was born "Pericles" Pantages but changed it to "Alexander" when he heard about Alexander the Great.  In a personal correspondence between Rodney Pantages, son of Alexander, and Arthur Dean Tarrach, Pantages's biographer, this claim is denied.  At the age of nine he ran away while with his father on a business trip in Cairo, Egypt. He then went to sea and spent the next two years working as a deck hand. He arrived in the United States in the early 1880s. His ties to his homeland seem mercurial; he never set foot in Greece again although he did assist his relatives financially and even brought his brother, Nicholas, to live in the United States. He used to call himself "King Greek", perhaps in emulation of Louis B. Mayer's "Super Jew".

After having been at sea for two years he disembarked in Panama and spent some time there helping the French to dig the Panama Canal, but after contracting malaria he was warned by a doctor to move to cooler climates. He headed north, stopping briefly in Seattle but eventually settling in San Francisco where he worked as a waiter and also, briefly and unsuccessfully, as a boxer. He left San Francisco in 1897, and made his way to Canada's Yukon Territory during the Klondike Gold Rush, ending up in the mining boom-town of Dawson City.

In his time in the bitter cold of Dawson City, he worked as a waiter and as a porter at the Dawson City Opera House, saving his money to invest in local show business.  Subsequently he managed the venue, presenting shows with a stock company.  The venture ended when the Opera House was destroyed in a fire, on January 9, 1900, but Pantages and the company arranged to build a new house, with electrical lighting and brick chimneys.  Originally scheduled to open less than two weeks after the fire, on February 26, 1900, the Orpheum Theatre had its first "typical night of 'wine, women and song,'" closing at 2:30 the next morning, and taking in over $3,000 ($ in ) for "wine and other 'concoctions.'" In June, Pantages acquired a projector and made motion pictures a regular part of the Orpheum bill of fare.  In autumn 1900, he and performer Kathleen 'Kate' Rockwell started working and living together, after she left the troupe that had brought her north from Victoria, BC, just the previous August and joined Pantages's Orpheum company. In November 1902 she returned to Victoria, leasing the Orpheum Theatre there, by February 1903, to present vaudeville and moving pictures.  Although details of his departure from the Yukon are unknown, Pantages was proprietor and manager of the theatre by April 1903.

Starting exhibition

Pantages moved to Seattle, Washington, where he opened the Crystal Theater, a short-form vaudeville and motion picture house of his own. He ran the operation almost entirely by himself, and charged 10 cents admission. This took place a few months after Rockwell had opened up a small storefront movie theater in Vancouver, and later built a theater there in 1907 that stood until 2011, and another in 1914.  That same year, he married a musician named Lois Mendenhall (1884–1941). Rockwell filed a breach-of-promise-to-marry lawsuit against him as 'Klondike Kate' that was settled out of court; she later wrote that he had stolen from her the money with which he purchased the Crystal. It would be more than two decades before they saw each other again.

In 1904, Pantages opened a second Seattle theatre, the Pantages; in 1906 he added a stock theater, the Lois, named after his wife. By 1920, he owned more than 30 vaudeville theatres and controlled, through management contracts, perhaps 60 more in both the United States and Canada. These theatres formed the "Pantages Circuit", a chain of theatres into which he could book and rotate touring acts on long-term contracts.

In Seattle Pantages competed with another impresario, John Considine. Their competition included such clandestine methods as stealing acts from each other and committing various forms of sabotage. This competition lasted for several decades and was one of the defining features of the vaudeville circuit of the times.

Pantages Theatre Circuit

Pantages showcased both film and live vaudeville to his audiences. Despite initially refusing to allow African-Americans into his theatres he eventually yielded after being successfully sued by an African-American who had been refused entry into a Pantages theater in Spokane, Washington.

The starting point of the Pantages Circuit was the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Pantages built the Pantages Playhouse in 1914. All Pantages tours originated in Winnipeg and moved from there around the circuit of theatres.

While most of the theatres were owned by others and managed by Pantages, beginning in 1911 he became a builder of theatres all over the western U.S. and Canada. His favored architect in these ventures was B. Marcus Priteca (1881–1971), of Seattle, who regularly worked with muralist Anthony Heinsbergen. Priteca devised an exotic, neo-classical style that his employer called "Pantages Greek".

Pantages often sought out and judged performers personally instead of relying on New York agents like many of his competitors did. Pantages invested his theatrical profits into new outlets and eventually moved to Los Angeles. His showcase theatre at 7th and Hill Street in downtown L.A. also housed his offices.

Entering Movieland
Around 1920, Pantages entered into partnership with the motion picture distributor Famous Players, a subsidiary of film producer Paramount Pictures, and further expanded his "combo" houses, designed to exhibit films as well as staging live vaudeville, to new sites in the western U.S. Throughout the 1920s, the Pantages Circuit dominated the vaudeville and motion picture market in North America west of the Mississippi River.  Pantages was effectively blocked from expansion into the eastern market by New York-based Keith-Albee-Orpheum (KAO).

In the late 1920s, with the looming advent of talking pictures, David Sarnoff, the principal of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), which held a number of patents in film/sound technology, established the film production company Radio Pictures, in which Joseph P. Kennedy held an option and a managing interest, and moved to acquire control of the KAO theatres through quiet purchases of the company's stock. In 1927, Kennedy and Sarnoff were successful in gaining control of KAO and, in 1928, changed the name of the company to Radio Keith Orpheum (RKO). They then approached Alexander Pantages with an offer to purchase his entire chain. Pantages rejected the offer.

Rape trial

In the midst of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Pantages was arrested and charged with the rape of 17-year-old California-born Eunice Pringle. Pringle, an aspiring vaudeville dancer, alleged that Pantages had attacked her in a small side-office of his downtown Los Angeles theater after she came to see him to discuss her audition.

Newspaper coverage of the trial, particularly by William Randolph Hearst's Los Angeles Examiner, was strongly antagonistic towards the Greek-accented Pantages while portraying Pringle as an innocent victim. Both before and during the trial, stories in the Examiner portrayed Pantages as alone, aloof, cold, emotionless, effete, and "European", while the American-born Pringle was humanized through portraits with her family, emotional outbursts in court and interviews in the press. Pantages granted no interviews during the trial.

On October 27, 1929, Pantages was convicted and sentenced to 50 years in prison. He was subsequently jailed for several months. Pantages engaged attorney Jerry Giesler and San Francisco lawyer Jake Ehrlich to file an appeal on his behalf. Giesler successfully petitioned for a new trial with the California Supreme Court, basing his argument on the original trial judge's exclusion of testimony relating to Eunice Pringle's moral character.

Pantages was acquitted in the second trial in 1931, after Giesler portrayed Pringle as a woman of low morals; he also demonstrated that a rape would have been impractical in Pantages's broom closet and suggested to the court that Pringle should have been able to fight off the 5' 6.5", 126 lb., 62-year-old Pantages.

Post-trial years
Although Pantages was acquitted, the trials ruined him financially. He sold the theatre chain to RKO for a lower sum than that originally offered—far less than what his "Pantages Greek" vaudeville palaces had cost him to build—and went into retirement. Pantages died in 1936 and was interred in the Great Mausoleum, Sanctuary of Benediction, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.

The rumour, begun at the second trial, that RKO and Kennedy paid Eunice Pringle to frame Alexander Pantages, was revived in Ronald Kessler's 1997 biography of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. titled The Sins of the Father: Joseph P. Kennedy and the Dynasty He Founded. The alleged conspiracy against Pantages also plays a prominent role in the book Hollywood and the Mob by Tim Adler.

Pantages was the grandfather of actors John Considine III and Tim Considine via his daughter Carmen who married John Considine Jr.

Fictional representation

Paul Porcasi portrayed George Apolinaris, a short, heavily accented Greek owner of a chain of movie theaters, in the 1933 Busby Berkeley musical Footlight Parade.

See also

 Pantages Theatre
 Pantages Tower in Toronto, Canada

Notes

References

External links

 Ilias Chrissochoidis, "From the Shores of the Aegean to the Edge of the Pacific: A tribute to Alexander Pantages (1864/75–1936)," NEO Magazine, April 2022, 54-55.
 Pantages, Alexander from HistoryLink.org: The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History
 Alexander Pantages (Stanford University).

American entertainment industry businesspeople
American racehorse owners and breeders
Greek emigrants to the United States
Vaudeville producers
1860s births
1936 deaths
People from Andros
People acquitted of rape
People of the Klondike Gold Rush
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Theatre owners
19th-century Greek Americans

Alexander Pantages


Eliyahu Menachem of London (1220-1284) was a rabbi and communal leader in 13th-century England.

He is not to be confused with Elias of London (Elijah ben Moses or Elias le Evesque), the chief rabbi of English Jewry from 1243-1257.

Biography
He was born to one of the leading families of English Jewry at the time, which held many official positions until the final expulsion in 1290. His family had its origin in the Rhineland, unlike most English Jews whose family origin was in France. His father was Moses of London. His brother was Berechiah de Nicole. His nephew was Hagin Deulacres.

In his youth he was sent to study in France, apparently in Sens in one of the Tosafist academies. In 1251 he wrote his commentary to the Mishnah, and then returned to London. For the next three decades he engaged in business, finance, and real estate in England. Many details of his business history are recorded, including dealings with the king and queen. In the Second Barons' War his family lost much property, but were physically unharmed and apparently managed to escape to Normandy. When the fighting ceased, they returned to England and resumed business. When legal restrictions were placed on the Jews in the 1270s, Eliyahu and his brothers were given an exemption from some of them. In addition to business, he also served as a doctor.

He was known among Jews as a leading halachic authority, quoted under the name R"M meLondrish or HaRav meLondrish in such works as that of Mordechai ben Hillel. A few of his rulings are observed by Jews to this day. He was also involved in mysticism.

References

13th-century English rabbis
Rabbis from London
Medieval Jewish physicians of England
English Orthodox Jews

Eliyahu Menachem of London


Ad blocking or ad filtering is a software capability for blocking or altering online advertising in a web browser, an application or a network. This may be done using browser extensions or other methods.

History
The first ad blocker was Internet Fast Forward, a plugin for the Netscape Navigator browser, developed by PrivNet and released in 1996. The AdBlock extension for Firefox was developed in 2002, with Adblock Plus being released in 2006. uBlock (now called uBlock Origin) was first released in 2014.

Technologies and native countermeasures

Online advertising exists in a variety of forms, including web banners, pictures, animations, embedded audio and video, text, or pop-up windows, and can even employ audio and video autoplay. Many browsers offer some ways to remove or alter advertisements: either by targeting technologies that are used to deliver ads (such as embedded content delivered through browser plug-ins or via HTML5), targeting URLs that are the source of ads, or targeting behaviors characteristic of ads (such as the use of HTML5 AutoPlay of both audio and video).

Prevalence
Use of mobile and desktop ad blocking software designed to remove traditional advertising grew by 41% worldwide and by 48% in the U.S. between Q2 2014 and Q2 2015. As of Q2 2015, 45 million Americans were using ad blockers. In a survey research study released Q2 2016, Met Facts reported 72 million Americans, 12.8 million adults in the UK, and 13.2 million adults in France were using ad blockers on their PCs, smartphones, or tablet computers. In March 2016, the Internet Advertising Bureau reported that UK ad blocking was already at 22% among people over 18 years old.

As of 2021, 27% of US Internet users used ad blocking software, a trend that has been increasing since 2014.

Among technical audiences the rate of blocking reaches 58% as of 2021.

Benefits
For users, the benefits of ad blocking software include quicker loading and cleaner looking web pages with fewer distractions, protection from malvertising, stopping intrusive actions from ads, reducing the amount of data downloaded by the user, lower power consumption, privacy benefits gained through the exclusion of web tracking, and preventing undesirable websites from making ad revenue out of the user's visit.

Publishers and their representative trade bodies, on the other hand, argue that web ads provide revenue to website owners, which enable the website owners to create or otherwise purchase content for the website. Publishers state that the prevalent use of ad blocking software and devices could adversely affect website owner revenue.

User experience
Ad blocking software may have other benefits to users' quality of life, as it decreases Internet users' exposure to advertising and marketing industries, which promote the purchase of numerous consumer products and services that are potentially harmful or unhealthy and on creating the urge to buy immediately. The average person sees more than 5000 advertisements daily, many of which are from online sources.

Unwanted advertising can also harm the advertisers themselves if users become annoyed by the ads. Irritated users might make a conscious effort to avoid the goods and services of firms which are using annoying "pop-up" ads which block the Web content the user is trying to view. For users not interested in making purchases, the blocking of ads can also save time. Any ad that appears on a website exerts a toll on the user's "attention budget" since each ad enters the user's field of view and must either be consciously ignored or closed, or dealt with in some other way.  A user who is strongly focused on reading solely the content that they are seeking likely has no desire to be diverted by advertisements that seek to sell unneeded or unwanted goods and services. In contrast, users who are actively seeking items to purchase, might appreciate advertising, in particular targeted ads.

Security
Another important aspect is improving security; online advertising subjects users to a higher risk of infecting their devices with computer viruses than surfing pornography websites. In a high-profile case, malware was distributed through advertisements provided to YouTube by a malicious customer of Google's Doubleclick. In August 2015, a 0-day exploit in the Firefox browser was discovered in an advertisement on a website. When Forbes required users to disable ad blocking before viewing their website, those users were immediately served with pop-under malware. The Australian Signals Directorate recommends individuals and organizations block advertisements to improve their information security posture and mitigate potential malvertising attacks and machine compromise. The information security firm Webroot also notes employing ad blockers provide effective countermeasures against malversating campaigns for less technically sophisticated computer users. Ad blocking is recommended by the FBI to prevent online scams.

Monetary
Ad blocking reduces page load time and saves bandwidth for the users. Users who pay for total transferred bandwidth ("capped" or pay-for-usage connections) including most mobile users worldwide have a direct financial benefit from filtering an ad before it is loaded. Using an ad blocker is a common method of improving internet speeds. Analysis of the 200 most popular news sites (as ranked by Alexa) in 2015 showed that Mozilla Firefox Tracking Protection lead to 39% reduction in data usage and 44% median reduction in page load time. According to research performed by The New York Times, ad blockers reduced data consumption and sped upload time by more than half on 50 news sites, including The New York Times itself. Journalists concluded that "visiting the home page of Boston.com (the site with most ad data in the study) every day for a month would cost the equivalent of about $9.50 in data usage just for the ads".

It is a known problem with most web browsers, including Firefox, that restoring sessions often plays multiple embedded ads at once. However, this annoyance can easily be averted simply by setting the web browser to clear all cookies and browsing-history information each time the browser software is closed. Another preventive option is to use a script blocker, which enables the user to disable all scripts and then to selectively re-enable certain scripts as desired, in order to determine the role of each script. The user thus can very quickly learn which scripts are truly necessary (from the standpoint of webpage functionality) and consequently which sources of scripts are undesirable, and this insight is helpful in visiting other websites in general. Thus by precisely controlling which scripts are run in each webpage viewed, the user retains full control over what happens on their computer CPU and computer screen.

Methods

One method of filtering is simply to block (or prevent auto play of) Flash animation or image loading or Microsoft Windows audio and video files. This can be done in most browsers easily and also improves security and privacy. This crude technological method is refined by numerous browser extensions. Every web browser handles this task differently, but, in general, one alters the options, preferences or application extensions to filter specific media types. An additional add-on is usually required to differentiate between ads and non-ads using the same technology, or between wanted and unwanted ads or behaviors.

The more advanced ad-blocking filter software allows fine-grained control of advertisements through features such as blacklists, whitelists, and regular expression filters. Certain security features also have the effect of disabling some ads. Some antivirus software can act as an ad blocker. Filtering by intermediaries such as ISP providers or national governments is increasingly common.

Browser integration
As of 2015, many web browsers block unsolicited pop-up ads automatically. Current versions of Konqueror, Microsoft Edge, and Firefox also include content filtering support out-of-the-box. Content filtering can be added to Firefox, Chromium-based browsers, Opera, Safari, and other browsers with extensions such as AdBlock, Adblock Plus, and uBlock Origin, and a number of sources provide regularly updated filter lists. Adblock Plus is included in the freeware browser Maxthon from the People's Republic of China by default.

Another method for filtering advertisements uses Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) rules to hide specific HTML and XHTML elements. This was once handled directly by a browser's user style sheet and custom CSS files. The CSS files employed regular expressions to describe a general advertisement profile. An example CSS selector from the once popular Floppy Moose (2003) style sheet is below. It simply hides anything with a link containing the characters "ad."

A:link[HREF*="ad."]  IMG

Stylesheets are still used to block ads today. However they are almost always used by an ad-blocking extension that combines CSS with other techniques. AdBlock Plus syntax includes CSS selectors which they call "element hiding" rules. The newer uBlock Origin even allows "cosmetic filters" which inject custom CSS declarations. Due to changes in advertising techniques, modern ad-blockers use more specific selectors, more frequently updated selectors, and a greater quantity of selectors. For example, the Floppy Moose style sheet originally contained 40 lines of CSS. In 2022, Easylist contains thousands of CSS selectors. In contrast to the general example above, below is one of the many specific CSS selectors from Easylist (2022).

a[href^="https://topoffers.com/"][href*="/?pid="]

In January 2016, Brave, a free, ad-blocking browser for Mac, PC, Android, and iOS devices was launched. Brave users can optionally enable Brave's own ad network to earn Basic Attention Tokens (BATs), a type of cryptocurrency, which can be sent as micro-payments to publishers.

At the beginning of 2018, Google confirmed that the built-in ad blocker for the Chrome/Chromium browsers would go live on 15 February: this ad blocker only blocks certain ads as specified by the Better Ads Standard (defined by the Coalition for Better Ads, in which Google itself is a board member). This built-in ad blocking mechanism is disputed because it could unfairly benefit Google's advertising itself.

In 2019, both Apple and Google began to make changes to their web browsers' extension systems which encourage the use of declarative content blocking using pre-determined filters processed by the web browser, rather than filters processed at runtime by the extension. Both vendors have imposed limits on the number of entries that may be included in these lists, which have led to (especially in the case of Chrome) allegations that these changes are being made to inhibit the effectiveness of ad blockers.

External programs

A number of external software applications offer ad filtering as a primary or additional feature. A traditional solution is to customize an HTTP proxy (or web proxy) to filter content. These programs work by caching and filtering content before it is displayed in a user's browser. This provides an opportunity to remove not only ads but also content that may be offensive, inappropriate, or even malicious (Drive-by download). Popular proxy software which blocks content effectively include Netnanny, Privoxy, Squid, and some content-control software. The main advantage of the method is freedom from implementation limitations (browser, working techniques) and centralization of control (the proxy can be used by many users). Proxies are very good at filtering ads, but they have several limitations compared to browser-based solutions. For proxies, it is difficult to filter Transport Layer Security (SSL) (https://) traffic and full webpage context is not available to the filter. As well, proxies find it difficult to filter JavaScript-generated ad content.

Hosts file and DNS manipulation

Most operating systems, even those which are aware of the Domain Name System (DNS), still offer backward compatibility with a locally administered list of foreign hosts. This configuration, for historical reasons, is stored in a flat text file that by default contains very few hostnames and their associated IP addresses. Editing this hosts file is simple and effective because most DNS clients will read the local hosts file before querying a remote DNS server. Storing black-hole entries in the hosts file prevents the browser from accessing an ad server by manipulating the name resolution of the ad server to a local or nonexistent IP address (127.0.0.1 or 0.0.0.0 are typically used for IPv4 addresses). While simple to implement, these methods can be circumvented by advertisers, either by hard-coding, the IP address of the server that hosts the ads (this, in its turn, can be worked around by changing the local routing table by using for example iptables or other blocking firewalls), or by loading the advertisements from the same server that serves the main content; blocking name resolution of this server would also block the useful content of the site.

Using a DNS sinkhole by manipulating the hosts file exploits the fact that most operating systems store a file with IP address, domain name pairs which is consulted by most browsers before using a DNS server to look up a domain name. By assigning the loopback address to each known ad server, the user directs traffic intended to reach each ad server to the local machine or to a virtual black hole of /dev/null or bit bucket.

DNS filtering
Advertising can be blocked by using a DNS server which is configured to block access to domains or hostnames which are known to serve ads by spoofing the address. Users can choose to use an already modified DNS server or set up a dedicated device running adequate software such as a Raspberry Pi running Pi-hole themselves. Manipulating DNS is a widely employed method to manipulate what the end-user sees from the Internet but can also be deployed locally for personal purposes. China runs its own root DNS and the EU has considered the same. Google has required their Google Public DNS be used for some applications on its Android devices. Accordingly, DNS addresses/domains used for advertising may be extremely vulnerable to a broad form of ad substitution whereby a domain that serves ads is entirely swapped out with one serving more local ads to some subset of users. This is especially likely in countries, notably Russia, India and China, where advertisers often refuse to pay for clicks or page views. DNS-level blocking of domains for non-commercial reasons is already common in China.

Recursive Local VPN
On Android, apps can run a local VPN connection with its own host filtering ability and DNS address without requiring root access. This approach allows ad blocking app to download ad blocking host files and use them to filter out ad networks throughout the device. AdGuard, Blokada, DNS66, and RethinkDNS are few of the popular apps which accomplish ad blocking without root permission. The ad blocking is only active when the local VPN is turned on, and it completely stops when the VPN connection is disconnected. The convenience makes it easy to access content blocked by anti-adblock scripts.

This approach optimizes battery usage, reduces internet slowdown caused by using external DNS or VPN ad blocking and needs overall less configuration.

Hardware devices
Devices such as AdTrap or Pi-hole use hardware to block Internet advertising. Based on reviews of AdTrap, this device uses a Linux Kernel running a version of PrivProxy to block ads from video streaming, music streaming, and any web browser, while PiHole act as local DNS to block advertisement servers, stopping connected devices from showing most ads. Another such solution is provided for network-level ad blocking for telcos by Israeli startup Shine.

By external parties and internet providers

Internet providers, especially mobile operators, frequently offer proxies designed to reduce network traffic. Even when not targeted specifically at ad filtering, these proxy-based arrangements will block many types of advertisements that are too large or bandwidth-consuming, or that are otherwise deemed unsuited for the specific internet connection or target device. Many internet operators block some form of advertisements while at the same time injecting their own ads promoting their services and specials.

Major software

The following software is known for ad blocking.
 AdBlock
 Adblock Plus
 AdGuard
 uBlock Origin

Multiple browsers including Opera and Brave come with built in ad blocking.

Economic consequences for online business
Some content providers have argued that widespread ad blocking results in decreased revenue to a website sustained by advertisements and e-commerce-based businesses, where this blocking can be detected.

Business models
Tools that help block ads have to work on different business models to stay in operation:

 Free and open source: Several tools work under a FOSS model, powered by community contributions and donations, e.g. uBlock Origin
 Whitelisting: Companies have resorted to maintaining a whitelist against a share of the ad revenue to allow "acceptable ads". This has faced criticism, such as Adblock Plus
 Subscription/Upfront: Some companies in this field have started a subscription or upfront payment model for the tools, e.g. Wipr
 Freemium: Other companies offer some level of service for free while charge for additional features, e.g. AdGuard

Response from publishers

Countermeasures
Some websites have taken countermeasures against ad blocking software, such as attempting to detect the presence of ad blockers and informing users of their views, or outright preventing users from accessing the content unless they disable the ad blocking software, whitelist the website, or buy an "ad-removal pass". There have been several arguments supporting and opposing the assertion that blocking ads is wrong. Indeed, there is evidence to show that these countermeasures may hurt a website's SEO performance, as users unwilling to turn off their AdBlock, may instead go to a competitor's website listed in the search results. Due to the little amount of time the user spends on the website, and the greater time spent on a competitor's, search engines may view the webpage less favourably and reduce its search ranking. The back-and-forth elevation of technologies used for ad-blocking and countering ad-blocking have been equated to an "ad blocking war" or "arms race" between all parties.

It has been suggested that in the European Union, the practice of websites scanning for ad blocking software may run afoul of the E-Privacy Directive. This claim was further validated by IAB Europe's guidelines released in June 2016 stating that there indeed may be a legal issue in ad blocker detection. While some anti-blocking stakeholders have tried to refute this it seems safe to assume that Publishers should follow the guidelines provided by the main Publisher lobby IAB. The joint effort announced by IAB Sweden prior to IAB Europe's guideline on the matter never materialized, and would have most likely been found against European anti-competition laws if it did.

In August 2017, a vendor, Admiral, of such counter-measures issued a demand under section 1201 of the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act, to demand the removal of a domain name associated with their service from an ad-blocking filter list. The vendor argued that the domain constituted a component of a technological protection measure designed to protect a copyrighted work, and thus made it a violation of anti-circumvention law to frustrate access to it.

After several months of testing that began in July 2023, in late September 2023 the American mass video hosting site YouTube began launching countermeasures at viewers with adblocker software running when viewing videos. A popup message appears warning the user is breaking the terms of service and may experience blocked viewing after three videos unless they whitelist the site, or purchase YouTube Premium. This has sparked backlash and considerable controversy among the communities.

Alternatives
As of 2015, advertisers and marketers look to involve their brands directly into the entertainment with native advertising and product placement (also known as brand integration or embedded marketing). An example of product placement would be for a soft drink manufacturer to pay a reality TV show producer to have the show's cast and host appear onscreen holding cans of the soft drink. Another common product placement is for an automotive manufacturer to give free cars to the producers of a TV show, in return for the show's producer depicting characters using these vehicles during the show.

Some digital publications turned to their customers for help as a form of tip jar. For example, The Guardian is asking its readers for donations to help offset falling advertising revenue. According to the newspaper's editor-in-chief, Katharine Viner, the newspaper gets about the same amount of money from membership and donations as it does from advertising. The newspaper considered preventing readers from accessing its content if usage of ad-blocking software becomes widespread, but so far it keeps the content accessible for readers who employ ad-blockers.

A new service called Scroll, launched in January 2020, worked with several leading website publishers to create a subscription model for ad-free browsing across all supported websites. Users would pay Scroll directly, and portions of the subscription fees are doled out to the websites based on proportional view count.

See also

 Adware
 Adversarial information retrieval
 Criticism of advertising
 Content filter
 Commercial skipping
 DNSBL
 Hosts file filtering
 Privacy
 Proxomitron
 Internet tracking

References

Advertising-free media
Anti-spam
Online advertising
Promotion and marketing communications

Ad blocking


Gold Eagle Guy is a 1934 Broadway five scene drama written by Melvin Levy,
produced by the Group Theatre with D. A. Doran, Jr., staged by Lee Strasberg,
choreography by Helen Tamiris with scenic design by Donald Oenslager and costume design by Kay Morrison. It ran for 65 performances from November 28, 1934, to January 1935 at the Morosco Theatre.

Cast

 Luther Adler as Emperor Norton and as Tang Sin
 Stella Adler as Adah Menken
 Alan Baxter as MacNaurty and as Kohler and as postman
 Roman Bohnen as Macondray
 J. Edward Bromberg as Guy Button
 Morris Carnovsky as Will Parrott
 William Challee as Pearly and as Ah Kee
 Russell Collins as a deserter and as Ed Walker
 Walter Coy as Adam Keane
 Jules Garfield as sailor and as Mackay
 Elia Kazan as Polyziodes
 Alexander Kirkland as Lon Firth
 Lewis Leverett as a miner	and as Captain Roberts and as André
 Bob Lewis as Gus and as Okajima
 Sanford Meisner as Ortega and as 	Guy, Jr. (in  Act 3)
 Clifford Odets as	Burns and as Jolais
 Art Smith as Merg and as Wallin
 Margaret Barker as Jessie Sargent
 Jackie Jordan as Guy, Jr. (in Act 2)
 David Kortchmar as another miner and as Rev. Brown
 Gerrit Kraber as Tony Sorrenson and as Joe
 Herbert Ratner as bartender and as Jacobs and as A.D.T. boy
 Marietta Bitter as harpist Miss Grackle
 Jack Kaiser as Accordion Ed

Girls of the "Mantic" barroom

 Ruth Nelson and as Mrs. McElvay and as Miss Richards
 Phoebe Brand and as Elizabeth Jolais
 Joan Madison and as Mrs. Muller
 Paula Miller and as Mrs. Sheldon and as Mrs. Nass
 Florence Cooper and as Mrs. DaSilva
 Evelyn Geller
 Helen Carrm and as Mrs. Halstead
 Eunice Stoddard and as Mrs. Lemon and as Frances Williams and as Mrs. Kummer and as Mrs. Guadalla
 Dorothy Patten and as Miss Simmonds

References

 Playbill Vault Gold Eagle Guy

External links

1934 plays
Broadway plays
Plays set in California
Plays set in San Francisco

Gold Eagle Guy


The Review of International Organizations is a peer-reviewed academic journal that analyzes operations and policies of both governmental and non-governmental organizations. Scientific contributions cover agencies such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, the G7, the NATO, the European Court of Human Rights, the United Nations, and similar formal institutions. In addition, the journal offers research on networks of international cooperation, including the Global Development Network and the International Competition Forum.

The journal is published by Springer Boston. Its current editors are Axel Dreher (editor-in-chief, Heidelberg University), James Vreeland (associate editor, Princeton University) and Todd Sandler (associate editor, University of Texas at Dallas).

According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 7.795, ranking it 5th out of 163 journals in the category "Political Science" and 1st out of 86 journals in the category "International Relations".

See also
 List of international relations journals
 List of political science journals
 List of economics journals

References

Academic journals established in 2006
Political magazines published in Germany
International relations journals

Quarterly journals
Springer Science+Business Media academic journals

Review of International Organizations


Robert J. Young (born 1942) is a Canadian historian and former professor of history at the University of Winnipeg (1968–2008). He specializes in 20th century European international politics. A graduate of the University of Saskatchewan and the London School of Economics, Young's doctoral dissertation was written under the supervision of Donald Cameron Watt. It was published by Harvard University Press as In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military Planning, 1933-1940. Over the last forty years, Professor Young, a Canadian, has written numerous academic books and articles including France and the Origins of the Second World War and Louis Barthou: Power and Pleasure. Throughout, he has consistently rejected the la décadence thesis that the alleged decadence of France in the 1930s made the Fall of France inevitable.

Work
"Preparations for Defeat: French War Doctrine in the Inter-War Period" pages 155-172 from Journal of European Studies, Issue #2, June 1972.
"The Aftermath of Munich: The Course of French Diplomacy, October 1938 to March 1939" pages 305-322 from French Historical Studies, Fall 1973.
"The Strategic Dream: French Air Doctrine in the Inter-War Period, 1919-1939" pages 31–42 from Journal of Contemporary History, October 1974.
In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military planning, 1933-1940, Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1978, .
"La Guerre de Longue Durée: Some Reflections on  French Strategy and Diplomacy in the 1930s" pages 41–64 from General Staffs and Diplomacy Before the Second World War edited by Adrian Preston, London: Colm Helm, 1978.
French Foreign Policy, 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials, Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1981, .
"French Military Intelligence and Nazi Germany" pages 271-309 from Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment Before the Second World War edited by Ernest May, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
"The Use and Abuse of Fear: France and the Air Menace in the 1930s" pages 88–109 from Intelligence and National Security, Issue #4, 1987.
Power and Pleasure : Louis Barthou and the Third French Republic, Montreal : McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991, .
France and the Origins of the Second World War, St. Martin's Press: New York, 1996,
"In the Eye of the Beholder: The Cultural Representation of France and Germany by the New York Times 1939-1940" pages 245-268 from The French Defeat of 1940 Reassessments edited by Joel Blatt, Berghahn Books, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America, 1998, .
"A Douce and Dextrous Persuasion: French Propaganda and Franco-American Relations in the 1930s" pages 195-214 from French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918-1940 The Decline and Fall of A Great Power edited by Robert Boyce, London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 1998, .
Marketing Marianne : French Propaganda in America, 1900-1940, New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press, 2004, .
An Uncertain Idea of France : Essays and Reminiscence on the Third Republic, New York : P. Lang, 2005, .

References

1942 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian historians
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Academic staff of University of Winnipeg
Historians of interwar France
Writers from Winnipeg
21st-century Canadian historians

Robert J. Young


Uluslarası Türkçe Sözlü Müzik Festivali (Turkish: International Festival of Music with Turkish Lyrics), or simply Türkçevizyon is an annual music festival in Denizli, Turkey since 2009. The festival is hosted by Denizli municipality and Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Unlike Türkvizyon, a similar contest hosted by TRT, Türkçevizyon is not solely competitive, during the festival, concerts and other cultural activities are also scheduled. The Gala night is located in Pamukkale Antique Theatre, and all participants sing only in Turkish language.

The festival aims to emphasize the importance of Turkish, however it is widely criticized for having "-vision" or "festival" words, which are not Turkish originated. The festival, as well as Turkvizyon contest, are both considered as a Turkish alternative to Eurovision Song Contest, which Turkey is inactive since 2012.

The festival logo contains a rooster, which is the symbol of Denizli.

Years

See also

 Türkvizyon Song Contest

References

External links
 Türkçevizyon at Denizli municipality
 Türkçevizyon at TRT

Music festivals in Turkey
Music festivals established in 2009
2009 establishments in Turkey
Denizli

Türkçevizyon