Public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. Education is the second-largest sector of government spending in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, which is nearly double the global average of 4.6%. Islamic studies are part of the education system alongside scientific and social studies that vary from educational institution to another.

Before 1957, when King Saud University was founded, many Saudi Arabians immigrated to other countries to attend universities.

Background

Saudi education is noted for its religious content. As of 2016, religious studies average a total of nine periods a week at the primary school level, compared to an average about 23 periods a week total for mathematics, science (physics, chemistry, biology and geology), social studies, Arabic language, English language and physical education. At the university level, nearly two-thirds of graduates are women.

The education system was also criticized in the 1980s and 1990s for "poorly trained teachers, low retention rates, lack of rigorous standards, weak scientific and technical instruction", despite generous budgets, that have compelled the kingdom to depend on large numbers of expatriates workers to fill technical and administrative positions. Cultural theology has also historically held influence over women's education in Saudi Arabia as well. By 2019, however, the Saudi embassy in the U.S. noted that "While the study of Islam remains at its core, the modern Saudi educational system also provides quality instruction in diverse fields of arts and sciences."

Education management system

Education is free at all levels. The education system in Saudi Arabia is primarily under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC). Other authorities such as the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the Presidency of the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior provide their affiliates and children with education at all levels, consistent with Ministry of Education guidelines. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963.

According to the World Bank database, public spending on education is 6.8 percent of GDP, and public spending on education as a percentage of government expenditure was 27.6 percent in 2004. Education spending as a percentage of overall spending tripled from 1970 to 2000, and neither economic growth nor the price of oil had much impact on this trend.

The Ministry of Education developed The Ministry of Education Ten–Year Plan 1425–1435, which set the following goals:
 The education of 4- to 6-year-old children and the consideration of kindergarten as an independent stage as compared with other educational stages in terms of its buildings and syllabi
 Accommodation of all age categories from 6 to 18 years old at various stages of education
 Deepening the spirit of loyalty and pride of the country through intellectual awareness of Saudi Arabia's national issues
 Preparing students academically and culturally at the local and international levels to be able to achieve advanced international posts in the fields of mathematics and science for various age categories, taking into account International tests' standards
 Organization of girls' technical education
 Development of an educational system for students with special needs
 Development and growth of educational and administrative training for the Ministry's personnel
 Improvement of internal and external sufficiency for the educational system
 Development of syllabi based on Islamic values leading to the development of male and female students' personality and to their integration in society as well as to the achievement of scientific and thinking skills and life characteristics resulting in self-education and lifelong learning
 To improve the quality of male and female teachers and to increase the citizens' rate in the education sector to achieve the full use of Saudi human resources
 To develop the educational structure and to update the school map to meet the expected quantitative and qualitative changes in the next stage
 To develop the infrastructure of information and communication technology and its employment in education and learning
 To develop male and female adults' education and to eradicate illiteracy
 The Ministry's comprehensive administrative development
 Expansion of social participation in education
 To establish integrated systems for accountability

Pre-primary education

In Saudi Arabia, children aged 3–5 years go to kindergarten. However, attendance of kindergartens is not a prerequisite for enrollment of first grade of primary education and kindergartens are not part of the official education ladder. Some private numbers have been established with technical and financial first aid-kit from the government.
According to government data, 100,714 children (51,364 male and 49,350 female) were in pre-primary education in 2007. The gross enrollment percentage was 10.8%, for boys 11.1 percent and for girls 10.4 percent.

Intermediate and secondary education
Intermediate education in Saudi Arabia lasts three years.
According to government data, 1,144,548 students (609,300 male and 535,248 female) were in intermediate education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 108,065 (54,034 male and 54,031 female) in 2007. According to gross enrollment the total rate was 95.9 percent in 2007.

Secondary education in Saudi Arabia also lasts three years and is the final stage of general education. After the intermediate education, students have the opportunity for both general and specialized secondary education. Technical secondary institute which provide technical and vocational education and training programs lasts three years in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture.

According to the educational plan for secondary (high school) education 1435–1438 Hijri, students enrolling in the "natural sciences" path are required to take five religion subjects which are tawhid, fiqh, tafsir, hadith and Islamic education and Quran. However, in 2021 the Saudi Ministry of Education merged the multiple Islamic subjects into one single book as part of a series of reforms to revamp the school education system. In addition, students are required to take six science subjects which are math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology and computer.

According to government data, 1,013,074 students (541,849 male and 471,225 female) were in secondary education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 87,823 (41,108 male and 46,715 female) in 2007.

As of 2007, gross enrollment rates were 91.8% in secondary education.

Post-secondary/higher education

Investment in higher education has outstripped the western world in some cases.

Higher education in Saudi Arabia lasts four years in the field of humanities and social sciences, and five to six years in the field of medicine, engineering and pharmacy. The establishment of the King Saud University in 1957 was the starting point of the modern higher education system in Saudi Arabia. This was also the first university in all the Arab states of the Arabian Gulf.

There are 24 government universities in Saudi Arabia, established in a short span of time. Among them, Taibah University, Qassim University and Taif University were established under the Seventh Development Plan. The universities consists of colleges and departments that offer diplomas, and bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various scientific and humanities specializations. Some colleges and departments also provide distance learning. There also exist private colleges, community colleges affiliated to universities, and girls colleges, in addition to government agencies and institutions that provide specialist university-level education.

According to a World Bank report, more than 70 percent of the students in Saudi Arabia are in the fields of humanities and social sciences, a figure similar to that of other Arab countries, like Djibouti, Egypt, Morocco, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza.

According to government data, a total of 636,245 (268,080 male and 368,165 female) students were enrolled in higher education in 2006. Among them, 528,146 students (187,489 male and 340,657 female) were in Bachelor programs, 9,768 students (5,551 male and 4,217 female) were in Master programs, and 2,410 students (1,293 male and 1,117 female) were in Ph.D. programs. Another 93,968 students (72,199 male and 21,769 female) were in Intermediate Diploma courses and 1,953 students (1,548 male and 405 female) were in Higher Diploma course. According to the World Bank, in 2006 the gross enrollment ratio for females was 36.1 percent, the gross enrollment ratio for males was 24.7 percent, and the total gross enrollment ratio was 30.2 percent.

In 2005, King Abdullah implemented a government scholarship program to send young Saudi nationals to Western universities for undergraduate and postgraduate studies. The program offers funds for tuition and living expenses for up to four years. An estimated 5,000 Saudi students received government scholarships to study abroad for the 2007/2008 academic year. Students mostly studied at universities in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland, France, and Germany.

The universities in the United Kingdom which provide distance learning in Saudi Arabia include the University of Leicester. It has ranked in the top 1% of universities in the world by THE World University Rankings.

In the United Kingdom alone, more than 15,000 Saudi students, 25% of whom are women, attend universities. The large number of students also includes Saudis paying their own tuition. The large influx of Saudi students to the United Kingdom prompted the Saudi Ministry of Higher Education in 2010 to close access to the country for further study.

Girls' and women's education

In 1957, the Dar al-Hanan and Nassif private schools for girls opened in the city of Jeddah. The openings were prompted by Iffat, the wife of Faisal of Saudi Arabia. Afterwards the Saudi government began opening state-operated girls schools. Religious fundamentalists protested the openings of the schools. In 1963 King Faisal brought soldiers to control protesters when a girls' school opened in Buraydah. During Saudi Arabia's first oil boom many Saudi males who studied abroad brought foreign wives back to Saudi Arabia. This caused concern among Saudi fathers with daughters eligible for marriage. In the late 1970s the Saudi government greatly increased university spots for women as a way of slowly progressing and not to clash with traditional culture at the time.

The General Administration of Girls' Education (also called the General Presidency for Girls' Education) was established independently from the Ministry of Education when girls education was started in Saudi Arabia 1960. Girls education was put under the control of a separate administration controlled by conservative clerics as "a compromise to calm public opposition to allowing (not requiring) girls to attend school".

60% of university students in Saudi Arabia are Saudi females. In Saudi Arabia, women in the labor force are mainly in the education sector. The first group of women graduated from a law program in 2008. On 6 October 2013, the first four women received their legal licences to practice law, not only as legal consultants but as lawyers in courtrooms and before the Saudi judiciary.

According to the World Bank report, female students in higher education in Saudi Arabia outnumber those in Jordan, Tunisia and West Bank and Gaza.

According to the World Bank, gross enrollment rate for female is 36.1 percent, gross enrollment rate for male is 24.7 percent, and gross enrollment rate for total was 30.2 percent in 2006. There are thousands of female professors throughout Saudi Arabia.

Around 2009, an expert on girls' education became the first female minister in Saudi Arabia. Nora bint Abdullah al-Fayez, a US-educated former teacher, was made deputy education minister in charge of a new department for female students. In addition, Saudi Arabia provides female students with one of the world's largest scholarship programs. By this program, thousands of women have earned doctorates from Western universities.

The building of colleges and universities for women, which was recently announced by the government, is critically important. Women constitute 60% of Saudi Arabia's college students but only 21% of its labor force, much lower than in neighboring countries. 85% of employed Saudi women work in education, 6% in public health, and 95% in the public sector. Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University (PNU) is the first women's university in Saudi Arabia and largest women-only university in the world, composed of 32 campuses across the Riyadh region.

According to the Saudi Ministry of Education, Saudi women's undergraduate enrollment rates surpassed those of men in 2015, with women comprising 52 percent of all university students in the kingdom.

Gifted education

The early interest in gifted education in Saudi Arabia began in 1969 when the official educational policy was approved by the Council of Ministers, highlighting the need for special care and opportunities for gifted individuals.
Subsequent developments in the field of gifted education in Saudi Arabia can be summarized in seven major historical movements, including the establishment of a national program for identifying and nurturing gifted students, the establishment of a foundation for giftedness and creativity, the implementation of school-based enrichment programs, and the establishment of the first special school for gifted students. More recent developments include the adoption of academic acceleration methods and the establishment of gifted education classes in public schools.
Despite early policies and regulations, formal gifted education programs in public schools were established only in 2002. The vision for Saudi Arabia in 2030 emphasizes the importance of supporting gifted youth, creativity, and innovation, with strategic objectives aimed at improving the learning environment to stimulate creativity and innovation. This vision plays a leading role in reforming the policy and practices of gifted education in Saudi schools, paving the way for further advancements and opportunities for gifted students.

The concept of giftedness in Saudi Arabia

The Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia defines gifted students as those who demonstrate exceptional abilities requiring special educational care not provided in regular academic programs. The definition of giftedness was developed based on Marland's definition of gifted children in 1972.

Challenges faced by gifted students in Saudi Arabia

Lack of Suitable Curriculum: The general education system in Saudi Arabia does not cater to the needs of gifted students. The domination of religious studies and a standardized curriculum restricts the ability of gifted students, particularly those with talents in mathematics and science, to expand and develop their exceptional abilities.

Insufficient Differentiation: Gifted students require differentiated and challenging curricula that match their intellectual abilities and talents. However, in regular classrooms, where many gifted students are taught, the curriculum often fails to meet their needs, leading to unfulfilled potential.

Untrained Educators: Teachers in public schools, where many gifted students are educated, often lack professional training in dealing with gifted students. The absence of specialized training programs in universities and limited workshops on gifted education hinders teachers' ability to understand and support the unique needs of gifted students.

Gap Between Theory and Practice: Although the goal of identifying and supporting gifted students is stated in policies and regulations, the implementation of effective gifted education practices lags behind in reality. Gifted students are often left without appropriate curricular adjustments or specialized instruction.

Negative Teacher Attitudes: Some teachers may lack adequate knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and needs of gifted students, leading to negative attitudes toward gifted education. This may result in a less supportive and conducive learning environment for gifted students.

Special educational needs for gifted students
1) Need for Challenging Education: Gifted students require education tailored to their intellectual level and areas of talent. A common and enriched curriculum may not be sufficient to meet their needs. Research shows that the speed and complexity of learning increase with a child's educational level. However, current educational practices often do not adequately challenge gifted students. They may have already mastered a significant portion of the curriculum before the school year begins, and regular classroom teachers may struggle to simultaneously provide individualized curriculum at multiple levels.

2) Need for True Peers: Gifted students benefit from interacting with other children of similar ability and age, often referred to as "true peers." Finding peers who share their intellectual interests and abilities can provide a supportive social environment.

3) The Need for Responsive Parenting:
The myth surrounding gifted children having pushy parents can have detrimental consequences, as it may lead professionals to dismiss or downplay parental concerns about their child's giftedness. However, research has shown that parents are often adept at identifying exceptional development in their children at various stages of their growth. Their keen observations and insights into their child's abilities play a crucial role in recognizing giftedness and understanding their unique needs. As gifted children tend to make more requests and demands for enrichment opportunities, parental involvement naturally comes into play. Instead of dismissing parental input, professionals should recognize the valuable role parents play in identifying and supporting the development of gifted children. Embracing parents as key partners in the educational journey of gifted learners can lead to more comprehensive and effective support systems, ultimately fostering the growth and success of these exceptional young minds.

4) The Need for Adult Empathy: Highly and exceptionally gifted children possess extraordinary cognitive abilities that enable them to think in qualitatively different ways. While these abilities offer immense potential, they also present distinct challenges, such as early exposure to abstract concepts and heightened emotional sensitivity. Exceptionally gifted children often grapple with abstract concepts like the meaning of life and death, moral dilemmas, and ethical issues at a much younger age compared to their peers. Their heightened sensitivity can lead to strong emotional reactions, necessitating empathetic and understanding responses from adults. Due to their quick analytical abilities and social perceptiveness, they may develop interpretations of events that are remarkably sophisticated, but at times, these interpretations can also be incorrect. As educators, understanding and embracing the unique characteristics of highly gifted children is paramount to providing them with the support and guidance they need to thrive intellectually and emotionally. By responding with sensitivity, empathy, and an open mind, adults can truly connect with these exceptional young minds and foster their development to new heights.

Significance of Talented Program Mawhiba
Children present a spectrum of educational abilities which are applied when determining the learning approaches that teachers will use in school to maximize their learning. However, there are children who portray the extremely positive end, which is associated with intelligence beyond the normal. They are referred to as gifted or talented children because their high capacity for and of knowledge is considered a talent. Educating such children requires learning methods that are out of the normal as observed by most countries, including Saudi Arabia. Developing and implementing educational programs that will cater for such children requires extensive research and trials to ensure their abilities are maximized. Programs for gifted education are helpful to both the student and the society. It allows educators to identify gifted learners early enough so they can be integrated in areas with maximum opportunities leading to the realization of maximum potential. It also assists the society to increase the space for individuals that would be essential in solving problems.

Saudi Arabia efforts
Efforts to differentiate education for gifted children in Saudi Arabia began as early as 1969 when the Council of Ministers approved an official educational policy which had three main regulations. They included a directive to the state to offer specialized care that developed and opened opportunities for talents, a framework for determining talented children be developed by authorities and talented individuals to be exposed to scientific research. Further policies were enacted from the Companions Foundations for Giftedness and Creativity in 2002 also commonly known as Mawhiba, to establishment of special education classes in schools by 2018. The definition of a gifted student in the country has also been subject to change. the current definition as prescribed by the country's Ministry of Education is "student who has extraordinary aptitudes and abilities or outstanding performance ... in the areas of mental excellence, educational achievement, creativity and innovation, and special skills and abilities..".

Enrichment programs
The government has specialized on enrichment programs which talented students are enrolled in after identification based on set scientific standards and bases. The enrichment programs provide a variety of education with more depth and breadth than in normal schools. The programs are in different types and students' access is not limited meaning students can experience more than one. An example is the summer enrichment program (SEP) which mainly focuses on STEM subjects. SEP is mainly implemented as research in schools and impacts both students and teachers. The program is driven by Mawhiba and yields significant results e.g., in 2019, over 6000 students benefitted from the program. The Ministry of Education has not focused much on the SEPs compared to Mawhiba, but its significant improvement spearheaded by Mawhiba shows the success it has had.

Self-contained classroom program
The program is slowly growing and has not yet covered all gifted students. However, its impact on gifted students is evident as it helped 32% of the gifted students in the 2019–2020 school year. Enrollment into the program involves selection where the gifted kids are passed through other criteria. The reason for extra criteria is the limited classrooms and facilities available. While in the classrooms, the gifted students receive the normal curricular followed by an extra curricular that is based on their abilities. The extra curricular mainly focuses on STEM subjects and are taught after the normal curricular. Mawhiba works in conjunction with the Ministry of Education to improve the self-contained classroom programs. Mawhiba focuses on developing textbooks for the extra curricular education while the ministry focuses on adopting standards that are used in deciding on enriching the talented children.

Gifted Educational Centers
The Ministry of Education has worked on improving educational standards for gifted children by offering gifted educational centers. The ministry currently has 91 educational centers, and the country has 94 school districts around the kingdom. The educational centers focus on research and problem-solving skills. The program aimed to serve at least 1% of students in each educational district.
Recommendations:
Researchers have proposed the need for improving the educational programs from the limited educational context to a more social context. The suggestion has been termed as the differentiated paradigm where gifted children will be more involved in social programs. A differentiated program also aims at using the children's skills in social context so they can be well integrated with the society. Another important finding regarding the talented programs included a prevalence for teachers in the programs to be appreciated by the students compared to teachers in normal curricular. Teachers are also motivated when enrolled into such programs but improvements would be essential in the teaching methods. The country has been keen on gifted education and further changes are on the way with the help of Mawhiba and the Ministry of Education.

Special education
Students with severe disabilities and autism are educated in special institutions. Students with less serious disabilities receive educational services at regular schools. Students with disabilities who attend regular schools might be partially mainstreamed, in which case they attend self-contained classrooms, or fully mainstreamed, in which case they learn in mainstream classrooms but may use special education services outside the classroom at times. However, not all schools offer mainstreaming. In the capital city of Riyadh, there are thirty inclusive elementary schools, eighteen inclusive middle schools, and eleven inclusive high schools.

Despite the prevalence of students with disabilities attending regular schools, general education teachers do not have much knowledge of working with students with autism, as they have received minimal training on this topic. A small study by Gibbs & Bozaid found that special education teachers in Saudi Arabia need more educational resources and professional development in order to successfully implement inclusive education practices.

A 2019 study by Alnahdi, et. al found that teachers in Saudi Arabia may agree with the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, but they feel that the burden of ensuring inclusion happens should be the responsibility of someone else. 62% of participant teachers felt that inclusive education would increase their workload.

Students with disabilities in Saudi Arabia may use assistive technology (AT) such as smartboards, tablets, software, and computers to help them meet educational goals. Of eight teachers from the Makkah province surveyed, all believed that AT helps students with disabilities learn. Results found that AT also helps students with disabilities feel empowered, be motivated to complete assignments, and feel engaged.

Special education teachers work with students in planning for life post-school. Part of these transition services require schools to partner with local businesses, which help students' career development. In a 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh, researchers found that special education teachers view these partnerships between schools and businesses positively, as the partnerships provide students with opportunities to volunteer, intern, and get general employment exposure. Most teachers surveyed believe that school-business partnerships help students improve social, communication, personal, and work skills. Another 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh found that parents are not as involved in transition plans as they ought to be because schools do not provide them with enough guidance. Teachers also said that parents' busy lives and lack of knowledge on the importance of transition services are another barrier to parental participation. Additionally, schools do not have transition coordinators whose job it would be to help advise students on their transition plans. Instead, special education teachers are often required to take on this additional role.

In a 2020 survey of special education teachers and mainstream teachers in Riyadh, special education teachers viewed school culture and climate negatively when it came to collaborative leadership, respect for diversity, relationships, and collegial support and safe environment. 97.6% of special education teachers responded that their physical school buildings do not easily accommodate students with disabilities. Special education teachers additionally do not see principals and administrators as being knowledgeable and skillful in developing a positive school culture and climate. 74% of special education teachers perceive mainstream teachers in their schools as having negative views towards students with disabilities. However, smaller schools involved in the study were seen as having more positive culture and climate, while schools with more than 600 students were seen as having the most negative culture and climate.

Private education

In Saudi Arabia, private education is one of the elements supporting governmental education at all education levels. The General Department for Private Education at the Ministry of Education supervises private schools for boys and private schools for girls and government provides private schools with free textbooks and an annual financial aid. Government also appoints and pays for a qualified director in every private school.
According to UNESCO, in 2007, 48.9 percent of children enrolled in pre-primary schools, and 8.2 percent of children enrolled in primary school. As for the intermediate education, 6.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 70.3 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. As for the secondary education, 13.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 61.6 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. According to the World Bank, in 2004, 7.4 percent of students in tertiary education enrolled in private schools.

Before 2018, a large number of private schools (including international and foreign ones) were run in rented villas or buildings in several cities of the country. In April 2004, Asharq Al-Awsat reported that the education ministry crafted a plan to get rid of schools functioning in rented buildings by 2011. Several columnists and parents frequently expressed their displeasure and grievances regarding schools being run in villas and often asked the Saudi education authorities implement stringent rules for the same. In May 2013, the education ministry updated rules and regulations for schools operating in leased villas, instructing institution's authorities to ensure the premises strictly adhere to the building code and added that building owners and real estate companies were required to obtain approval prior to renting the premises to schools. In September 2013, Arab News reported that around 35% of the schools in Saudi Arabia were being operated in villa-turned campus buildings.

In June 2016, the education ministry led by Dr. Ahmed al-Issa stopped issuing licenses to private schools that did not have infrastructure designed for educational purposes and asked investors and stakeholders to shift their schools to educational buildings by 2018. In 2017, the education ministry announced that it would be closing down all the schools operating in rented buildings in Saudi Arabia despite the two year deadline, prompting severe reactions from owners and investors which forced the ministry to review and subsequently rescind its decision. In May 2018, after reaching the deadline, the Saudi authorities closed down 113 schools across the country after they failed to shift their premises to buildings designed for educational purposes.

International education

Saudi Arabia hosts almost 9 million foreign workers of various nationalities as of 2013, mostly from underdeveloped Asian and African countries. The Saudi government has granted permission to the diplomatic missions of the respective countries to operate community-based schools in the country to cater the educational needs of their children. According to the International Schools Statute issued by the Saudi Ministry of Education, schools implementing curricula other than Saudi ones are regarded as foreign schools. Foreign schools are further categorized as international schools who offer American or British curricula and community-based schools that teach national curricula of their home country and are run or sponsored by their respective diplomatic missions whereas being mostly owned by Saudi investors.

As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Saudi Arabia as having 203 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist.

In Saudi Arabia some international schools are owned by communities of foreign nationals, while others are private schools owned by individuals with Saudi citizenship.

The Saudi government limits community schools to one per locality or city per nationality; diplomatic missions either supervise or directly operate the community schools. These community schools are not required to separate male and female students into separate campuses and are allowed to host social activities with men and women mixed. They are not required to have Saudi citizens as sponsors since the Saudi authorities consider the schools to be under the sponsorship of the diplomatic missions. Czarina Valerie A. Regis and Allan B. de Guzman, authors of "A system within a system: the Philippine schools overseas," wrote that the Saudi Ministry of Education "still exercises restraint in implementing its regulatory functions" on community schools.

There may be more than one private school per nationality per city: the number of private schools that may be established is dependent upon the number of Saudi nationals willing to open a school in that city. Unlike community international schools, private international schools are required to follow Saudi regulations, including those related to gender segregation.

The British International School, Riyadh teaches from foundation one to high school. Over 80% of its students are British nationals, and the school follows the British curriculum.

International Schools Statute

The International Schools Regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, are:

Article 1

The following terms shall have the meanings assigned thereto:

International Schools: Schools using curricula other than the Saudi curricula.

Minister: Minister of Education

Ministry: Ministry of Education

Article 2

These Regulations shall regulate international schools of communities residing in the Kingdom so as to provide adequate education to children according to specific guidelines in a manner which enables them to pursue their education upon their return to their countries.

Article 3

The Ministry shall, through the relevant department, license and supervise international schools and their branches.

Article 4

International schools are private educational institutions which are financed by tuition fees, donations, and gifts.

Article 5

Saudi students may not be admitted to international schools. As an exception, the Minister may approve the admission of Saudi students arriving from abroad who have difficulties joining Saudi schools for a period to be assessed for each student on a yearly basis.

Article 6

A license for an international school shall be granted pursuant to the Minister's approval upon the recommendation of the Supervisory Council provided for in Article 8 of these Regulations.

Article 7

Education at international schools shall be limited to pre-school, elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages, or their equivalent.

Article 8

A supervisory council shall be formed to oversee international schools. Said Council shall be chaired by the Minister and shall comprise the following members:

 The Deputy Minister of Interior
 The Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
 The Deputy Minister of Education
 The Deputy President of Girls' Education

The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry shall be the secretary of the Council.

Article 9

The Supervisory Council shall set the instructions and rules required for the implementation of these Regulations, and shall in particular have the power to approve the following:

 Licensing rules and procedures.
 Applications for establishing international schools.
 Educational programs and curricula.
 Tuition fees.
 Donations and gifts granted to international schools.

The Council may consider an embassy's request –referred thereto by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs– to purchase a school building or land for establishing a school thereon, based on the principle of reciprocity, subject to the following:

 The provisions of the Regulations.
 The land shall not be State-owned or allocated to an educational institution.
 The title of the land shall be registered, upon approval, under the name of the embassy, and shall only be used for the licensed purpose.

The Council shall decide on the embassy's request within 30 days from the date of completion of all requirements and the request shall be referred to the Council of Ministers by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. If the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or its license is revoked, the school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Council in coordination with the relevant agencies.

Article 10

The Supervisory Council shall convene at least twice a year, and it may convene upon the call of its chairman or at the request of one of its members and the approval of the chairman.

Article 11

Each international school shall assume all aspects of school management, in addition to matters related to its level within the various educational and academic communities.

Article 12

Each international school shall have a board of directors to oversee its interests. Student parents shall be represented in the board, and the Ministry may attend its meetings.

Article 13

Each international school shall assign at least one hour a week for teaching basic Arabic, Islamic culture, and history and geography of the Kingdom.

Article 14

Each international school shall, prior to the beginning of each academic year, submit to the Supervisory Council an estimated annual budget in the Arabic language. Said budget shall include information on the school's administrative, technical, and financial needs, as well as sources of funding.

Article 15

Each international school shall submit to the Supervisory Council an annual report on the workflow, budget implementation, and causes of violations and breaches, if any.

Article 16

A person violating the provisions of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof shall be subject to one or more of the following penalties:

 A warning.
 A fine not exceeding 50,000 riyals.
 Revocation of license.

In all cases, the Minister may order the removal of the violation within a maximum period of two weeks from the date of notification.

Article 17

A committee shall be formed at the Ministry pursuant to a decision of the Minister, chaired by the Deputy Ministry and comprising the following members:

 A representative from the Ministry of Interior.
 A representative from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
 The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry.
 A specialist in Sharia.

Said Committee shall investigate violations of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof, and shall recommend appropriate penalties therefor.

Article 18

A penalty shall be imposed pursuant to a decision by the Minister upon recommendation of the Committee referred to in Article 17 of these Regulations. Penalty decisions imposing fines or providing for revocation of the license may be appealed before the Board of Grievances.

Article 19

An international school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Ministry, and in coordination with the relevant agencies if the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or the license is revoked.

Article 20

International schools existing at the effective date of these Regulations shall adjust to conform with the provisions of these Regulations within 12 months from the date of entry into force.

Article 21

These Regulations shall be published in the Official Gazette, and shall enter into force 90 days from the date of publication thereof and shall repeal any conflicting provisions.

SEK International School Riyadh (under RCRC patronage)
The Ministry of Investment and the Royal Commission for Riyadh City (RCRC) announced on July 13, 2021 that they have partnered with SEK Education Group to open SEK International School Riyadh, its first campus in Saudi Arabia. The new international school will welcome students from Pre-K (age 3 years) to Grade 12 (age 17/18 years), and will become one of the few schools in Riyadh accredited to offer the International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Programme (PYP), Middle Years Programme (MYP), and Diploma Programme (DP).
SEK International School Riyadh will showcase the best of SEK International Schools: education innovation, a unique learning model, top ranked academic results, and a clear focus on the many challenges and opportunities the 21st century presents to all its students.

As a Spanish education group, SEK will provide all the students the opportunity of learning the Spanish language, as well as Arabic, in a multilingual, English-based environment.

This is the second international school for the SEK Education Group in the Middle East. SEK International Schools offer education to more than 6,000 students, of more than 70 nationalities, from four months to 18 years of age, in their campuses in Spain, France, Qatar and Ireland.

Philippine schools
As of February 2006 about 75% of the Philippine international schools represented by the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) were located in Saudi Arabia. Community-owned Philippine schools, including the International Philippine School in Al Khobar (IPSA), the International Philippine School in Jeddah (IPSJ), and International Philippine School in Riyadh (IPSR), were by 2006 managed by independent school boards but were initially managed by the diplomatic missions themselves. As of 2006 Riyadh has 13 Philippine private schools and Jeddah has five Philippine private schools.

Large numbers of Philippine children came to Saudi after many Filipino workers arrived in Saudi Arabia in the 1980s. The first Philippine school in Saudi Arabia, Philippine School in Jeddah was established after the Philippine Consulate in Jeddah began making efforts to start a school in 1983, and Philippine schools were later established in Riyadh and other Saudi cities. In 2000 Saudi Arabia had nine accredited Philippine schools. By 2005 Jeddah alone had four Philippine international schools, with two more scheduled to open shortly. By 2006 there were 21 Philippine schools recognized by the CFO, reflecting a 133% growth rate from 2000. Regis and Guzman stated that in private Philippine schools many Saudi rules that are not consistent with the culture of the Philippines are enforced.

Literacy

According to the results of the demographic survey conducted by the Department of Statistics and Information, Ministry of Economy and Planning in 2007 the incidence of illiteracy among the Saudi population was 13.7%. The illiteracy rate stood at 1.4% for the age group 10 to 14 years, while the highest level in the age group between the ages of 65 and more than 509,573 people to the rate of 73.9%. With regard to the spread of illiteracy among Saudi Administrative Regions, as the study showed a large disparity between the regions of the Kingdom, while the figure for both sexes was at its lowest level in the Riyadh region, at 9.9%, the highest level was found in the Jizan area at 23.5%, and the lowest rate of illiteracy among males was in Riyadh region, as the minimum rate of 5.1% and in Jizan higher rate of 14.8%, while the lowest rate of illiteracy of Saudi women was in the eastern region at 14.7% and the highest rate was in the region of Jizan at 31.6%.

According to the World Bank, there is gender disparity in the literacy rate. In 2007, 85.0 percent of adult (people ages 15 and above) were literate and 98.1 percent of youth (people ages 15–24) were literate, 89.1 percent of male adults were literate and 79.4 percent of female adults were literate. As for youth literacy rate (people ages 15–24), 97.0 percent were literate, 98.1 percent of male youths were literate, and 95.9 percent of female youths were literate.

One of the World Bank reports suggested the relatively high adult literacy rate of Saudi Arabia, considering the continued low level of primary enrollment, derived from the successful use of religious organizations, particularly local mosques and local religious institutions such as Koranic schools for the provision of ancillary educational services, which is a trend of particular note in the MENA region.

King Abdullah Project for General Education Development
The King Abdullah Project for General Education Development is a SR9 billion (US$2.4bn) project to be implemented over the next six years to create a skilled and work force for the future. A number of schools in Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam have been selected for the implementation of this project. More than 400,000 teachers will be trained for the new program. In addition, this project will emphasize extracurricular activities for the purpose of developing intellectual, creative and communicative skills.

Criticism of the Saudi education system and reform proposals
The Saudi education system has been criticised. One observation was, "The country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction."

The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all university students. Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector needs". Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction." Indeed, such control has stifled critical thought, and as a result, the education system does not necessarily foster innovation and creativity, both of which are essential to development. Saudi education has also been strongly criticized for promoting intolerance, including antisemitic views, anti-Christian rhetoric, and referring to non-Muslims as "infidels", enemies of God, and enemies of all Muslims.

The religious sector of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the 'unbeliever', that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others". The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the kingdom via Saudi-linked madrasah, schools, and clubs throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as "medieval" and that its primary goal "is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures".

The consequence of this approach is considered by many, including perhaps the Saudi government itself, to have encouraged Islamist terrorism. To tackle the twin problems of extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education, the government is aiming to modernise the education system through the Tatweer reform program. The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve as well as creating a more secular and vocationally based education system.

A comprehensive Human Rights Watch review of the Education Ministry-produced school religion books for the 2016-17 school year found that some of the content that first provoked widespread controversy for violent and intolerant teachings in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks remains in the texts today, despite Saudi officials' promises to eliminate the intolerant language. The texts disparage Sufi and Shia religious practices and label Jews and Christians "unbelievers" with whom Muslims should not associate.

In 2021, The Washington Post newspaper published a report on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered anti-Semitic and anti-women. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, and expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Anti-Semitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League in Washington, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down, noting the deletion of paragraphs that talk about killing gays, infidels and witches. The US State Department expressed in an email that it welcomed the changes to the materials affecting Saudi educational curricula. The Foreign Ministry supports a training program for Saudi teachers.

See also

 List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia
 Educational technology in Saudi Arabia
 Libraries in Saudi Arabia
 Najd National Schools
 Youth in Saudi Arabia

References
 Mackey, Sandra. The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom. Updated Edition. Norton Paperback. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2002 (first edition: 1987).  pbk.

Notes

External links

Education in Saudi Arabia


British Vogue is a British fashion magazine based in London and first published in 1916. It is the British edition of the American magazine Vogue and is owned and distributed by Condé Nast. Currently edited by Edward Enninful, British Vogue is said to link fashion to high society and class, teaching its readers how to 'assume a distinctively chic and modern appearance'.

British Vogue is a magazine whose success is based upon its advertising rather than its sales revenue. In 2007, it ran 2,020 pages of advertising at an average of £16,000 a page. It is deemed to be more commercial than other editions of Vogue. British Vogue is the most profitable British magazine as well as the most profitable edition of Vogue besides the US and China editions.

History
During the First World War, Condé Nast, Vogues publisher, had to deal with restrictions on overseas shipping as well as paper shortages in America. The British edition of Vogue was the answer to this problem, providing Vogue fashion coverage in the British Isles when it was not practicable to receive it in the usual way. Under the London edition's second editor, Elspeth Champcommunal (1888–1976), the magazine was essentially the same as the American edition, except for its British English spellings. However, Champcommunal thought it important that Vogue be more than a fashion magazine.  It featured articles on 'society and sporting news... Health and beauty advice... travelogues... and editorials', making it a 'skillfully mixed cocktail'. Champcommunal held her editorial position until 1922.

Under its next editor, Dorothy Todd, a renowned Vogue editor due to her boldness, especially in her movement to blend the arts and fashion, the magazine shifted its focus from fashion to literature, featuring articles from Clive Bell about art exhibitions in Paris.  There were also notable features from noted English writers such as Virginia Woolf and Aldous Huxley. Due to Todd's changes, the magazine lost much of its audience, and she spent only four years as editor. British Vogue is not believed to have really taken off until after its third editor, Alison Settle, was appointed in 1926.

Under Audrey Withers (editor from 1940 to 1960), the magazine again took a literary direction, and during the Second World War it even took part in reporting the war. In 1944, the American photographer Lee Miller persuaded Withers to send her to Normandy to produce an article on wartime nursing; Miller then followed the Allied advance through Europe, reporting the liberation of Paris and sending a story from Buchenwald. Dame Anna Wintour edited the British edition from 1985 to 1987, before taking over House & Garden (which she renamed 'HG'), and subsequently Vogue in New York City. Liz Tilberis served as Editor-in-Chief of the magazine until 1992, when she became Editor-in-Chief of Harper's Bazaar in New York City.

Alexandra Shulman was Editor-in-Chief of the magazine from 1992 to 2017. When Shulman was editor, the magazine drew more than a million readers. Shulman was known for developing collector's issues of British Vogue, such as the 'Gold Millennium Issue' where celebrities and supermodels such as Kate Moss featured on the cover. Shulman was also praised for her use of up and coming photographers like Mario Testino.  Shulman became known for her attempt to change the face of fashion.  She pushed designers to stop using 'size-zero' models. In 2016, Shulman collaborated with photographer Josh Olins to shoot Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge on the cover of Vogue'''s centenary issue. The photographs were subsequently featured in the National Portrait Gallery, London The magazine under Shulman was the subject of Richard Macer's behind-the-scenes BBC documentary, Absolutely Fashion: Inside British Vogue (2016).

Edward Enninful was confirmed as the new editor-in-chief of British Vogue on 10 April 2017. Condé Nast International Chairman and CEO Jonathan Newhouse announced him as the successor to Alexandra Shulman, calling Enninful "an influential figure in the communities of fashion, Hollywood and music which shape the cultural zeitgeist", adding that "by virtue of his talent and experience, Edward is supremely prepared to assume the responsibility of British Vogue". Enninful's first issue as editor-in-chief was 2017's December issue, featuring British model and activist Adwoa Aboah on the cover. The magazine's September 2020 triple gatefold cover featured pictures of 20 activists often associated with the Black Lives Matter movement, including Marcus Rashford and Adwoa Aboah. The Activism Now edition was photographed by Misan Harriman and was the first British Vogue'' cover taken by a black man in the magazine's 104-year history (Nadine Ijewere was the first black female to take a cover photograph). Actress Dame Judi Dench became the oldest person at age 85 to be featured on the June 2020 cover. In 2022, actor Timothée Chalamet became the first, solo male print cover star, in the magazine's history.

In June 2023, Enninful announced his departure from the magazine and his last cover is said to be the March 2024 issue.. Chioma Nnadi is set to succeed Enninful as editor.

See also
 List of British Vogue cover models
 List of Vogue cover models
 List of women's magazines
 List of men's magazines

References

External links
 Official Site

Women's magazines published in the United Kingdom
Fashion magazines published in the United Kingdom
Condé Nast magazines
Magazines established in 1916
English-language magazines
1916 establishments in the United Kingdom
Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom

British Vogue


SeedUps is an equity crowdfunding platform for seed investment to launch and focuses on startup companies.  It was founded by Michael Faulkner and Gavin Gallagher in 2010 and is aimed at tech startups in the USA, Ireland and the UK.  Since launch over 2200 tech businesses have registered. It is only available to accredited or sophisticated investors. The platform is headquartered in Republic of Ireland with offices in the UK, US and Canada. Each funding project on SeedUps lasts for the same duration, namely 180 days.

A 2011 report by the European Expert Network on Culture (EENC) suggested that SeedUps seemed to be "the most successful European crowdfunding platform for investments", while a 2012 piece in the Irish Independent reported that SeedUps had been "featured in the Forbes top 10 crowdfunding platform list".

Equity crowdfunding in the US has been awaiting SEC rules under the JOBS Act.

See also
Seedrs

References

External links

Equity crowdfunding platforms
Online financial services companies of Ireland

Seedups


George Stephănescu (13 December 1843 – 25 April 1925) was a Romanian composer, one of the main figures in Romanian national opera.

Stephănescu was born and died in Bucharest. He graduated from the Bucharest Academy of Music. In 1877, Stephănescu was appointed conductor of the National Theater orchestra and Singing teacher at the Academy.

While teaching the opera singers at the Academy, he aimed to gradually develop the National Theater's musical repertoire from vaudevilles to musical comedies and finally to opera. In 1885, he founded the first opera company in the Kingdom of Romania. It disbanded in 1902 when the government cut its financial support.

Stephănescu is noted for having used works by many poets as librettos or texts for his compositions — among them, the locals Vasile Alecsandri, Mihai Eminescu, Traian Demetrescu, Alexandru Vlahuţă and the foreigners Victor Hugo and Alfred de Musset.

His son was the writer Eugeniu Ștefănescu-Est.

Works
Symphony in A Major (1869)
Peste Dunăre (opera, 1880)
Sânziana şi Pepelea (opera, 1880)
National Overture (1882)
Scaiul bărbaţilor (opera, 1885)
Cometa (opera, 1900)
Petra (opera, 1902)

External links
 Profile at Cimec.ro

Romanian opera composers
Romanian classical composers
1843 births
1925 deaths
Male classical composers
19th-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
National University of Music Bucharest alumni
Academic staff of the National University of Music Bucharest
20th-century male musicians
19th-century male musicians

George Stephănescu


Christopher Key Chapple is an Indologist and scholar of the renouncing religions of India, namely yoga, Jainism and Buddhism. He is Doshi Professor of Indic and Comparative Theology at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles. He has written several books on the history and philosophy of yoga, and on the intersection of religion and ecology.

Life

Chapple received his bachelor's degree in comparative literature and religious studies at the State University of New York at Stony Brook in 1976. He went on to complete his master's degree in Buddhism (1978) and PhD in history of religions (1980) at Fordham University. He noted in an interview that he initially struggled to reconcile Buddhism's "emptiness" with Yoga's self-realisation, and commented that the Yogavasistha answered the debate on "the tension between emptiness and consciousness in superbly poetic verse."

He has published numerous books and papers on the history and philosophy of Indian religions, and on the intersection of religion and ecology.

Chapple advises the International Summer School of Jain Studies, the Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology, the Ahimsa Center (Pomona), the Dharma Academy of North America (Berkeley), the Jain Studies Centre (SOAS), the South Asian Studies Association, and International School for Jain Studies (New Delhi). He founded the Masters Program in Yoga at Loyola Marymount University, where he is Doshi Professor of Indic and Comparative Theology.

Works

Yoga

 Karma and Creativity (1986, SUNY)
 Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions (1993, SUNY)
 Reconciling Yogas (2003, SUNY)
 Yoga and the Luminous: Patanjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom (2008, SUNY)
 Living Landscapes: Meditations on the Elements in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain Yogas (2020, SUNY)

Edited

  Yoga in Jainism (2015, Routledge)
 Engaged Emancipation: Mind, Morals and Make-Believe in the Moksopaya/Yogavasistha (2016, with Aridam Chakrabarti, SUNY)

Religion and ecology

 Ecological Prospects: Religious, Scientific, and Aesthetic Perspectives (1994, SUNY)
 Hinduism and Ecology (2000, with Mary Evelyn Tucker, Harvard)
 Jainism and Ecology (2002, Harvard)
 Yoga and Ecology (2009, Deepak Heritage)
 In Praise of Mother Earth: The Prthivi Sukta of the Atharva Veda (2011, with O. P. Dwivedi)

References

External links

 Interview on Religion and Ecology

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Indologists
Yoga scholars
Loyola Marymount University faculty
Stony Brook University alumni
Fordham University alumni

Christopher Chapple


There have been two baronetcies created for members of the Hanmer family of Flintshire, Wales, one in the Baronetage of England and one in the Baronetage of Great Britain. Only one creation is extant as of 2008. The third Baronet of the second creation was elevated to the peerage as Baron Hanmer in 1872, a title which became extinct in 1881. The family name derived from the manor of Hanmer in the Diocese of St. Asaph.

The Hanmer Baronetcy, of Hanmer in the County of Flint, was created in the Baronetage of England on 8 July 1620 for John Hanmer, subsequently Member of Parliament for Flintshire. The second Baronet represented Flint and Flintshire in the House of Commons. The third Baronet was Member of Parliament for Flint and Evesham and was killed in a duel. His nephew the fourth Baronet sat for Thetford, Flintshire and Suffolk and served as Speaker of the House of Commons. The title became extinct on the latter's death in 1746.

The Hanmer Baronetcy, of Hanmer in the County of Flint, was created in the Baronetage of Great Britain on 21 May 1774 for Walden Hanmer, Member of Parliament for Sudbury. The third Baronet represented Shrewsbury, Kingston upon Hull and Flint in Parliament. On 1 October 1872 he was raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Hanmer, of Hanmer, and of Flint, both in the County of Flint. The barony became extinct when he died childless on 8 March 1881 while he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his younger brother, the fourth Baronet. The sixth Baronet was high sheriff of Flintshire in 1902. The eighth Baronet was high sheriff of Clwyd in 1977 and deputy lieutenant of the region in 1978.

Five other members of the family may also be mentioned. Job Hanmer, second son of the first Baronet, was a captain in the Royal Navy. His son Job Thomas Syer Hanmer was also a captain in the Royal Navy. His son John Graham Job Hanmer was a rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. Patrick William Talgai Hanmer, great-grandson of William Hanmer, sixth son of second Baronet, was a captain in the Royal Navy. Harry Ivan Hanmer (1893–1984), grandson of Reverend Henry Hanmer, brother of the third and fourth Baronets, was a group captain in the Royal Air Force. John Michael Hanmer (1907–1977), another grandson of Reverend Henry Hanmer, was a brigadier in the British Army.

The most ancient of the several versions of the coat of arms of the English family of Hanmer or Hanmore is described in heraldic terms as follows in Burke's 1844 Encyclopedia of Heraldry:

 Arms.-- Argent, two lions passant guardant azure, armed and langued gules.
 Crest.-- On a chapeau azure, turned up ermine, a lion sejant, guardant, argent.
 Motto.-- Guardez l'honneur.

Hanmer baronets, of Hanmer (1620)
 Sir John Hanmer, 1st Baronet (–1624)
 Sir Thomas Hanmer, 2nd Baronet (1612–1678)
 Sir John Hanmer, 3rd Baronet (died 1701)
 Sir Thomas Hanmer, 4th Baronet (1677–1746) (eldest son of William, 2nd son of 2nd Bt.)

Hanmer baronets, of Hanmer (1774)
 Sir Walden Hanmer, 1st Baronet (1717–1783)
 Sir Thomas Hanmer, 2nd Baronet (1747–1828)
 Sir John Hanmer, 3rd Baronet (1809–1881) (created Baron Hanmer in 1872)

Barons Hanmer (1872)
 John Hanmer, 1st Baron Hanmer (1809–1881)

Hanmer baronets, of Hanmer (1774; reverted)
 Sir Wyndham Edward Hanmer, 4th Baronet (1810–1887)
 Sir Edward John Henry Hanmer, 5th Baronet (1843–1893)
 Sir Wyndham Charles Henry Hanmer, 6th Baronet (1867–1922)
 Sir (Griffin Wyndham) Edward Hanmer, 7th Baronet (1893–1977)
 Sir John Wyndham Edward Hanmer, 8th Baronet (1928–2008)
 Sir Wyndham Richard Guy Hanmer, 9th Baronet (born 1955)

Notes

References
 Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

Baronetcies in the Baronetage of Great Britain
Extinct baronetcies in the Baronetage of England
1620 establishments in England
1774 establishments in Great Britain

Hanmer baronets


The flag of Plymouth is the flag of the port city and unitary authority of Plymouth in Devon, United Kingdom. It consists of a white shield, containing a green diagonal cross separating four black towers, on a field of red.

Symbolism

Towers
The four towers of the flag represent the four forts surrounding and defending the city dating back to the English Civil War era, and are visible on the city council's coat of arms.

The city's motto,  translates as the 'strongest tower is the name of Jehovah', and this refers to the city's successful resistance to the Royalist siege during that conflict.

Colours
The green, black and white colours of the shield appear to be traditional in the city, and the wider county of Devon, as they are used as part of several school uniforms in the city, the colours of Plymouth Argyle Football Club and Plymouth Albion RFC, and as the colours of the Flag of Devon.

Plymouth, Devon
Plymouth

Flag of Plymouth


Rubble is broken stone, of irregular size, shape and texture. Unfinished stone from a quarry is called rubble. Rubble naturally found in the soil is known also as 'brash'. Where present, it becomes more noticeable when the land is ploughed or worked.

Building
"Rubble-work" is a name applied to several types of masonry. One kind, where the stones are loosely thrown together in a wall between boards and grouted with mortar almost like concrete, is called in Italian "muraglia di getto" and in French "bocage". In Pakistan, walls made of rubble and concrete, cast in a formwork, are called 'situ', which probably derives from Sanskrit (similar to the Latin 'in situ' meaning 'made on the spot').

Walls that use large stones put together without any attempt at courses is called rubble walling. They are laid at random and are held together with mortar. Where similar work is laid in courses, it is known as coursed rubble. Dry-stone walling is somewhat similar work done without the use of mortar. It is bound together by the fit of the stones and the regular placement of stones which extend through the thickness of the wall. A rubble wall built with mortar will be stronger if assembled in this way. Building foundations made of rubble almost always leak water and are damp.

Rubble walls in Malta

Rubble walls () are found all over the island of Malta. Similar walls are also frequently found in Sicily and the Arab countries. The various shapes and sizes of the stones used to build these walls look like stones that were found in the area lying on the ground or in the soil.  It is most probable that the practice of building these walls around the field was inspired by the Arabs during their rule in Malta, as in Sicily who were also ruled by the Arabs around the same period. The Maltese farmer found that the technique of these walls was very useful especially during an era where resources were limited. Rubble walls are used to serve as borders between the property of one farm from the other. A great advantage that  rubble walls offered is that when heavy rain falls, their structure would allow excessive water to pass through and therefore, excess water will not ruin the products. Soil erosion is minimised as the wall structure allows the water to pass through but it traps the soil and prevents it from being carried away from the field. One can see many rubble walls on the side of the hills and in valleys where the land slopes down and consequently the soil is in greater danger of being carried away.

References

Other websites
 Example of a coursed rubble wall in Malta
 Reusing construction rubble - Low cost alternative building materials; YouTube
 Few Things to Think About Before Building a Rock Wall; YouTube

Building materials

Rubble


Mauro Bonaiuti, PhD, teaches Ecological economics on the Master's on Socio-Environmental Sustainability and Solidarity Economy and Sustainability programme at the University of Turin. He is co-founder of the Italian Degrowth Association and among the promoters of the Italian Solidarity Economy Network.

Appreciated as one of the most notable experts on the bioeconomics theory of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Bonaiuti is the editor of 'From Bioeconomics to Degrowth' (2011), a collection of papers by Georgescu-Roegen published by Routledge.

Following on from his books on bioeconomics, Bonaiuti's latest monograph is entitled 'The Great Transition' (Routledge 2014). Tapping into the intuitions of several early twentieth-century biologists, and in particular Joseph Tainter's analysis of the collapse of complex societies, Bonaiuti puts forward the theory that advanced capitalist societies have been entering, and ever more so since the 1970s, a phase of "diminishing marginal returns."

Bonaiuti's research began in 2006 with the gathering of a large quantity of empirical evidence from various disciplines. It offers an original interpretation of the phenomenon of so-called 'secular stagnation', or, as someone has also termed it, 'the end of growth'. Nearly ten years on from the Great Recession, notwithstanding that the panic has dispelled and the financial markets have started to recover, there is still no clear evidence of a return to growth in the West.

As illustrated in his book, this is not linked to normal oscillations in the economic cycle, but rather is systemic in nature, and in particular is connected to the growing complexity of social organizations (military forces, bureaucracies, health services, education, research). Bonaiuti says the West's failure to return to growth is also linked to the fall in yields of its new tertiary economy as well as to increasing costs of energy and raw materials. In other words, it is a process that is, by nature, progressive and one that takes place over a longer period of time. This would go to explain the impotence and ineffectiveness of remedial measures that have been adopted until today, all born of traditional forms of economic policy.

Works

See also
 Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen
 Thermoeconomics
 Degrowth

References

Academic staff of the University of Turin
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Degrowth advocates
Ecological economists
People associated with criticism of economic growth
Italian economists

Mauro Bonaiuti


Gretchena bolliana, the pecan bud moth or gray-flanked gretchena moth, is a moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in the United States from South Carolina to Florida and west to Texas, Arizona and New Mexico.

The wingspan is about 17 mm. Adults are gray with blackish-brown patches on the forewings. There are probably five or six generations per year.

The larvae feed on the foliage of Carya illinoinensis. They also feed on young nuts in the spring and infest the shucks in the fall. The most serious damage occurs on pecan nursery stock, where the larvae feed on the terminal buds and unfolding foliage. The species overwinters as an adult. Pupation takes place in rolled-up leaves or infested buds and sometimes under bark scales. The larvae are about 12 mm long, creamy to dirty white when young and yellowish green with dark brown heads and necks when mature.

References

Moths described in 1896
Eucosmini

Gretchena bolliana


The Cardington Fire Tests were a series of large-scale fire tests conducted in real structures (wood, steel-concrete composite, and concrete) at the BRE Cardington facility near Cardington, Bedfordshire, England, during the mid-1990s.  After the tests, extensive computational and analytical studies of the behaviour of steel-framed composite structures in fire conditions were carried out by, among others, the University of Edinburgh, Sheffield University, and Imperial College London.

The results were presented in the form of a main report, which identified the main findings, together with numerous supplementary reports exploring various phenomena in detail.

References

Fire protection
Building engineering
Firefighting
Fire prevention

Cardington test


Cesare Maccari (; 9 May 1840 – 7 August 1919) was an Italian painter and sculptor, most famous for his 1888 painting Cicerone denuncia Catilina (usually translated as Cicero Accuses Catiline or Cicero Denounces Catiline).

Early life
Maccari was born in Siena, in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. He was a student of the Institute of the Fine Arts in Siena together with Tito Sarrocchi, working in sculpture and helping complete the Monumento Pianigiani in Siena. He later worked in the atelier of Luigi Mussini in Florence. There in 1864 he was commissioned by an English society to copy works of Bernardino Pinturicchio found in the Cathedral of Siena.

Some of his first patronage came from works the Marquis Pieri-Nerli, who also commissioned him to paint frescoes of the four evangelists for a private chapel in his home in Quinciano, a hamlet in the comune of Monteroni d'Arbia. Maccari soon won a stipend to study in Rome, that also allowed him to travel through Italy.

Mature work in Rome

Among his first major oil canvases in Rome, Maccari painted Vittoria Colonna meditates on the Poetry of Michelangelo. Another canvas, Sira che sacrifica la propia vita for the padrona Fabiola won a medal at the Exhibition of Termini (Rome). Next, his canvas Un palpito del passato was awarded a gold medal at the Exposition of Parma. He painted two figures in the church of Santa Francesca Romana. He was commissioned a Deposition by the marchesa di Cassibile.

From 1870 to 1873, he was active as a fresco artist decorating the interior of the church of the Sudario in Rome. He also painted the lunette above the tomb of the Lombardi in Campo Verano. He painted in tempera: Love crowning the three Graces At the 1878 Turin Exposition, he sent an oil canvas depicting The Deposition of Pope Silverius by Antonina, wife of Belisarius. The prize winning painting was purchased for the Civic Museum of Turin.

In 1863, Maccari painted Leonardo che ritrae la Gioconda (commonly translated Leonardo [da Vinci] painting the Mona Lisa) which won an award in 1865. In his home town Siena he decorated the Sala del Risorgimento in the public palace with frescoes that were well received by critics.

Between 1882 and 1888 Maccari painted a series of frescoes depicting famous events in the history of the Senate of Ancient Roman at the "Sala Maccari" in the Salone d'Onore (Reception Hall) of Rome's Palazzo Madama, seat of the Italian Senate, amongst them his most famous work, Cicero Denounces Catiline (more on this canvas below). Other walls include these depictions:
Appius Claudius Caecus led into the Senate where he will give a speech to convince the Romans to urge them to reject the humiliating peace conditions imposed by Pyrrhus of Epirus's ambassador, Cineas.

The elder senator, Marcus Papirius, bravely seated motionless confronts the Gauls occupying Rome after the Battle of the Allia.
Samnites trying to bribe Curius Dentatus to convince the Senate to make peace.
Marcus Atilius Regulus, who had been sent back to Rome after being captured by Carthage during the First Punic War, urges the Senate to reject the Carthaginian peace offer he was sent to deliver and even vows to return to Carthage as a prisoner, where he knows that he will be executed.

Maccari designed and completed the frescoes for the cupola of the Basilica di Loreto, completed in 1890 to 1907, and which replaced the frescoes of Cristoforo Roncalli, from the second decade of the 17th century, which had badly deteriorated. The museum adjacent to the Basilica has the preparatory studies and paintings by Maccari. They depict events that led to the proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854.

In later life, Maccari became a lecturer at the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. He became paralyzed while he was working on the Palace of Justice in Rome in 1909 and as a result stopped working as an artist. Among his pupils were Cesare Bertolotti and Giuseppe Aureli. He died in Rome in 1919.

Cicerone denuncia Catilina

Maccari's most famous work of art depicts Cicero's Oratio in Catilinam Prima in Senatu Habita, his first speech denouncing Catiline in the Roman Senate which drove him from the city (63 BC). Maccari has been praised for the way his paintings captured the description of events and how Catiline has been avoided by his fellow senators and sat alone while Cicero attacked him. On the other hand, his work has been criticized for some historical inaccuracy since he depicted the Senate meeting in the wrong place: the Senate actually met in the Temple of Jupiter Stator, not in the Senate House (Curia Cornelia). Cicero was 43 years old at the time but looks much older, and Catiline, who was two years older than Cicero, looks much younger than Cicero. The painting has been reproduced in many textbooks and histories of Rome, and its depiction of the Roman Senate has even influenced the presentation of the Senate of the Roman Republic in nonfiction books.

See also

 List of Orientalist artists
 Orientalism

References

Sources
 Guglielmo De Sanctis. Gli affreschi di C. Maccari nel Senato. Rome, 1889.
 G. Cantalamessa. Gli affreschi di C. Maccari nella cupola di Loreto. Rome, 1895.

1840 births
1919 deaths
19th-century Italian painters
20th-century Italian painters
20th-century Italian sculptors
20th-century Italian male artists
19th-century Italian sculptors
Fresco painters
Italian male sculptors
Italian male painters
Neo-Pompeian painters
Orientalist painters
Artists from Siena
19th-century Italian male artists

Cesare Maccari


Leon David Abrams FRCS (1923–2012) was a British cardiothoracic surgeon who developed and implanted the first variable rate heart pacemaker, together with Ray Lightwood, at the University of Birmingham.

Leon Abrams was born in Leeds. He graduated from Birmingham University with an MBChB degree in Medicine in 1945.

Abrams was a cardiothoracic surgeon at Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham. With medical engineer Ray Lightwood, he developed and implanted the first variable rate pacemaker in 1960. The first variable rate pacemaker implant took place in March 1960. Two further implants took place in April 1960. Fifty-six patients had received implants by 1966. He set up a leading centre for lung and heart surgery at Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham.

Leon Abrams was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1951.

References

1923 births
2012 deaths
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
British surgeons

Leon Abrams


Mahmoud Dowlatabadi (, Mahmud Dowlatâbâdi) (born 1 August 1940 in Dowlatabad, Sabzevar) is an Iranian writer and actor, known for his promotion of social and artistic freedom in contemporary Iran and his realist depictions of rural life, drawn from personal experience.
In 2020, he wrote and recited a work called Soldier (Half-Burned boots) for the Art of Peace global project, composed and arranged by Mehran Alirezaei. He has collaborated with this project.

Biography
Mahmoud Dowlatabadi was born into a family of shoemakers in Dowlatabad, a remote village in Sabzevar, the northwestern part of Khorasan Province, Iran. He worked as a farmhand and attended Mas'ud Salman Elementary School. Books were a revelation to the young boy. He "read all the romances [available]... around the village". He "read on the roof of the house with a lamp…read War and Peace that way" while living in Tehran. Though his father had little formal education, he introduced Dowlatabadi to the Persian classical poets, Saadi Shirazi, Hafez, and Ferdowsi. His father generally spoke in the language of the great poets.

Nahid Mozaffari, who edited a PEN anthology of Iranian literature, said that Dowlatabadi "has an incredible memory of folklore, which probably came from his days as an actor or from his origins, as somebody who didn't have a formal education, who learned things by memorizing the local poetry and hearing the local stories."

As a teenager, Dowlatabadi took up a trade like his father and opened a barbershop. One afternoon, he found himself hopelessly bored. He closed the shop, gave the keys to a boy, and told him to tell his father, "Mahmoud's left." He caught a ride to Mashhad, where he worked for a year before leaving for Tehran to pursue theatre. Dowlatabadi worked there for a year before he could attend theatre classes. When he did, he rose to the top of his class, still doing numerous other jobs. He was an actor---and a shoemaker, barber, bicycle repairman, street barker,  worker in cotton factory, and cinema ticket taker. Around this time he also ventured into journalism, fiction writing, and screenplays. He said in an interview "whenever I was done with work and wasn't preoccupied with finding food and so on, I would sit down and just write".

He performed Brecht (e.g. The Visions of Simone Machard), Arthur Miller (e.g. A View from the Bridge) and Bahram Beyzai (e.g. The Marionettes). He was arrested by the Savak, the Shah's secret police force in 1974. Dowlatabad's novels also attracted the attention of local police. When he asked what was his crime, they told him, "Nothing, but everyone we arrest seems to have copies of your novels so that makes you provocative to revolutionaries." He was in prison for two years.

Towards the end of his incarceration, Dowlatabadi said "The story of Missing Soluch came to me all at once, and I wrote the entire work in my head." Dowlatabadi couldn't write anything down while in prison. He "become restless". One of the prisoners...said to him, 'You used to be so good at putting up with prison, now why're you so impatient?' He replied that "my anxiety isn't related to prison and all that came with it, but about something else entirely. I had to write this book." When he was finally released, he wrote Missing Soluch in 70 nights. It later became his first novel published in English, preceding The Colonel.

Major works

Kelidar
Kelidar is a saga about a Kurdish nomadic family that spans 10 books and 3,000 pages. Encyclopædia Iranica praises its "heroic, lyrical, and sensual" language. The story is tremendously popular among Iranians due to "its detailed portrayal of political and social upheaval." Dowlatabadi spent over a decade crafting the tale. "I spent fifteen years preparing, writing short stories, sometimes writing works that were a little longer, the grounds towards what would become Kelidar," he said.

Missing Soluch
In Missing Soluch, an impoverished woman raises her children in an isolated village after the unexplained disappearance of her husband, Soluch. Though the idea for the novel first came to Dowlatabadi in prison, its origins trace back to his childhood. "My mother used to talk about a woman in the village whose husband had disappeared and had left her alone. She was left to raise several children on her own. Since she didn't want the village to pity her, she would take a bit of lamb's fat and melt it and then toss a handful of dry grass or something into the pan and put this in the oven, so that with the smoke that would come out of the oven the neighbors might think that she was cooking a meat stew for her children that night," he told an interviewer. Missing Soluch was his first work translated into English.

The Colonel
The Colonel is a novel about nation, history, and family, beginning on a rainy night when two policemen summon the Colonel to collect the tortured body of his daughter, a victim of the Islamic Revolution. Dowlatabadi wrote the novel in the 1980s, when intellectuals were in danger of execution. "I hid it in a drawer when I finished it," he said. Though it is published abroad in English, the novel is not available in Iran, in Persian. "I did not even want to have this on their radar," he said. "Either they would take me to prison or prevent me from working. They would have their ways." The novel was first published  in Germany, later in the UK and United States.

Shargh newspaper published the news of the Colonel Opera in 2022:

Der Colonel Oper (version 2018) composed by Siamak Fallahi and the libretto is written by  Angelika Messner based on the novel Colonel by Mahmoud Dowlatabadi. The opera have Five acts and 12 Characters which are all accompanied by singers, actors, choirs, large orchestras, and video art on stage. The composer used a new technique which led to a new event in opera and referred to it as the Reformation.

Thirst
Thirst (Persian: Besmel) is a novel of the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988). It is written from the perspectives of  two Iraqi and Iranian writers. The original Persian title refers to the concept of 'besmel' explained in a footnote as: "the supplication required in Islam before the sacrifice of any animal". It is used repeatedly in the text, as the characters find it applies to them.

Influence
Dowlatabadi is celebrated as one of the most important writers in contemporary Iran, particularly for his use of language. He elevates rural speech, drawing on the rich, lyrical tradition of Persian poetry. He "examines the complexities and moral ambiguities of the experience of the poor and forgotten, mixing the brutality of that world with the lyricism of the Persian language," said Kamran Rastegar, a translator of Dowlatabadi's work. When Tom Patterdale translated Dowlatabadi's The Colonel, he avoided Latinate English words in favor of Anglo-Saxon ones, hoping to reproduce the effect Dowlatabadi's "rough and ready" prose. Most other Iranian writers come from solidly middle-class backgrounds, with urban educations. Because of his rural background, Dowlatabadi stands out as a unique voice. He has also garnered praise internationally, with Kirkus Reviews calling The Colonel, "A demanding and richly composed book by a novelist who stands apart." The Independent described the novel as "passionate," and emphasized, "It's about time that everyone even remotely interested in Iran read this novel."

Safarnameh Sistan, a documentary which was made by Ali Zare Ghanat Nowi in 2011, about a trip to Sistan and meeting Balochi ethnics, illustrating the very hard life of people living there, giving information about their life style in such a dry area, is a free adaptation from Meet the Baloch People by Mahmoud Dowlatabadi.

Awards and honors
2009 Haus der Kulturen Berlin International Literary Award, shortlist, The Colonel
2011 Man Asian Literary Prize, longlist, The Colonel
2012 Hooshang Golshiri Literary Award, Lifetime Achievement
2013 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature, winner, The Colonel
2014 Legion of Honour

In August 2014, Iran issued a commemorative postage stamp for writer Mahmoud Dowlatabadi.

Translations
 In Sweden "Missing Soluch" was translated into Swedish by Stefan Lindgren as "Den tomma platsen". Stockholm, Ordfront, 1999.
 "In Norway, Missing Soluch was translated into Norwegian by N. Zandjani as Den tomme plassen etter Soluch. Oslo, Solum forlag 2008.
 In Switzerland, Kelidar was translated into German by Sigrid Lotfi, Unionsverlag 1999.
 In Switzerland, The Colonel was translated into German by Bahman Nirumand, Unionsverlag, 2009. Later, it was translated to English and Italian.
 In Israel, The Colonel was translated into Hebrew by Orly Noy as "שקיעת הקולונל" (The Decline of the Colonel) translated. Am Oved Publishing, 2012.
 In the United States, Missing Soluch was translated into English by Kamran Rastegar, 2007.
 In the United Kingdom, The Colonel was translated into English by Tom Patterdale, 2012.
 In the United Kingdom, Thirst was translated into English by Martin E. Weir, 2014.

References

External links

Interview with Mahmoud Dowlatabadi, Tehran 2006.
An Iranian Storyteller's Personal Revolution, New York Times profile by Larry Rohter, July 1, 2012

Iranian male novelists
Iranian novelists
Iranian male short story writers
1940 births
Living people
People from Sabzevar
Iranian fiction writers

Mahmoud Dowlatabadi


In geometry, the great ditrigonal icosidodecahedron (or great ditrigonary icosidodecahedron) is a nonconvex uniform polyhedron, indexed as U47. It has 32 faces (20 triangles and 12 pentagons), 60 edges, and 20 vertices. It has 4 Schwarz triangle equivalent constructions, for example Wythoff symbol 3 | 3  gives Coxeter diagram  = . It has extended Schläfli symbol a{,3} or c{3,}, as an altered great stellated dodecahedron or converted great icosahedron.

Its circumradius is  times the length of its edge, a value it shares with the cube.

Related polyhedra

Its convex hull is a regular dodecahedron. It additionally shares its edge arrangement with the small ditrigonal icosidodecahedron (having the triangular faces in common), the ditrigonal dodecadodecahedron (having the pentagonal faces in common), and the regular compound of five cubes.

References

External links
 VRML model:
 MathWorld

Uniform polyhedra

Great ditrigonal icosidodecahedron


The FACTA agreement is an agreement between Canada and the United States that allows the United States to exercise financial control over American citizens and other US persons who are resident in Canada. According to this agreement the Canadian tax authorities provide very detailed financial information regarding such people to the American tax authorities.

FATCA was intended to catch tax-cheats, but ended up affecting all Americans living outside  of the United States. There are about one million Americans living in Canada. FATCA (Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act) was enacted in 2010, under the Obama administration. The agreement with Canada was concluded in February 2014 when Stephen Harper was Prime Minister of Canada. Americans include, for the purpose of this agreement, "accidental Americans", their non-American families and business partners, and former non-American residents of the United States.

Many other countries have signed similar FATCA agreements with the United States. These agreements affect all US persons residing in those countries.

FATCA requires US persons to report to the IRS (Internal Revenue Service) the balances of all bank  accounts they hold outside of the United States every year. This is done through special forms which all US persons must file in addition to the other tax forms which such people must file every year even if they do not reside in the United States.The CRA (Canada Revenue Agency) collects this information from all Canadian banks and transfers this information to the United States.

Will Canada help the IRS collect money from Canadians?
According to an information notice posted on the Department of Finance Canada website
"the CRA will not collect the U.S. tax liability of a Canadian citizen if the individual was a Canadian citizen at the time the liability arose " , even though the, "Canada-U.S. tax treaty contains a provision that allows a country to collect the taxes imposed by the other country".

References

Other websites
 Front page | U.S. Department of the Treasury
United States federal legislation
International law
Banks
Taxation in Canada
Taxation in the United States

FATCA agreement between Canada and the United States


The National Historical Geographic Information System (NHGIS) is a historical GIS project to create and freely disseminate a database incorporating all available aggregate census information for the United States between 1790 and 2010. The project has created one of the largest collections in the world of statistical census information, much of which was not previously available to the research community because of legacy data formats and differences between metadata formats.  The statistical and  geographic data are disseminated free of charge through a sophisticated online data access system.

In addition, NHGIS has created historical and contemporary cartographic boundary shapefiles compatible with every census, and over 50 million lines of metadata describing the collection.  Historical U.S. state and county boundaries are available 1790–present, with smaller geographies available as the U.S. Census Bureau created them.  Census Tract boundaries are available 1910–present and Block Group and Block boundaries available 1990–present.  The cartographic boundary files and the tabular data are formatted so as to be easily linked for use in Geographic Information System software.

NHGIS was launched in 2007 and is maintained by the Minnesota Population Center at the University of Minnesota and is funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.

Much of the historical data are viewable as tables or interactive maps in Social Explorer, a small company which offers both free and professional licenses.

References

External links

 National Historical Geographic Information Systems citations at Google Scholar
 National Historical Geographic Information Systems online Forum at Google Groups
 Social Explorer

Historical geographic information systems
Demographics of the United States
Demographic history of the United States
Geographic data and information in the United States


Geranium is a genus of 422 hardy flowering plant species.

Geranium may also refer to:

Plants
 Geraniales, a small order of flowering plants
 Geraniaceae, a family of flowering plants placed in the order
 Pelargonium, a genus of flowering plants formerly included in Geranium, and still commonly called geraniums
 Chenopodium botrys, feathered geranium or Jerusalem oak goosefoot
 Ixora spp, jungle geranium or West Indian jasmine
 Saxifraga stolonifera, strawberry geranium or creeping saxifrage
 Rosa moyesii 'Geranium', a shrub rose cultivar

Places
 Geranium, South Australia, a town in the Murraylands
 Geranium Plains, South Australia, a small town in the Mid North
 Geranium, Nebraska, a ghost town
 Geranium Township, Valley County, Nebraska
 "Geranium City", nickname of McDonough, Georgia
 Geraniums House, a landmark in Santa Felicidade, Brazil

Ships
 Géranium, a French
 , an Arabis-class sloop launched in 1915, originally HMS Geranium
 , a  launched in 1940
 , a steamship used as a tugboat

Arts and media
 A Geranium, 1911 movie starring Adele De Garde
 Geranium, the character of Ruby Dandridge in the Judy Canova Show
 "Geranium", a poem by Mary Ellen Solt
 "Geranium" (Geranio), a waltz by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez
 "Geranium Plant", an episode of Pat Novak for Hire
 "Geraniums", a poem by Roger Nash
 "The Geranium", a short story by Flannery O'Connor

Other uses
 Geranium the First (Géranium Ier), the nickname of Pierre Bourque (politician), a Québec politician
 1227 Geranium, an outer main-belt asteroid
 "Geranium", a codeword for telescopes used in the letters of John Dobson (astronomer)
 Geranium red, a shade of red
 Geranium (restaurant), a restaurant in Denmark

See also
 Geranium oil, oil produced from Pelargonium graveolens
 List of Geranium species

Geranium (disambiguation)


Thanksgiving is a holiday celebrated once a year on the fourth Thursday of November.

History

In 1620 the Mayflower brought the Pilgrims to Massachusetts.  They made their new home in what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts, 380 km northeast of what is now New York.

Half of the Pilgrims died during their first winter in North America. They were cold and did not have enough food. The following year, though, the Native Americans, who were from the Wampanoag tribe, helped them grow crops. At harvest time in the autumn of 1621 they were very thankful that they had a good crop of food to eat during the coming winter. They thanked God and the Native Americans for teaching them how to grow the local foods.

They invited three of the Wampanoags who had helped them to their feast. They were Squanto, Samoset, and Chief Massasoit. The Wampanoags brought their families. This was over 90 people. There were so many people that the Pilgrims did not have enough food to make the meal, so the Wampanoags brought along their own food for the feast.

The Wampanoags brought turkey, duck, fish, deer, berries, squash, and cornbread. They also brought vegetables that they had farmed and shown the Pilgrims how to care for.

However, there is some disagreement over which event was the first Thanksgiving with claims that Virginia had the first celebrations.

Thanksgiving today

In the United States, the Thanksgiving holiday is a four-day holiday over a weekend, starting on Thanksgiving Thursday and ending on Sunday. Families and friends usually eat a special meal together (usually with a turkey as the main dish). This meal also usually includes mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, several casseroles, and stuffing. The food eaten today for Thanksgiving is very different from the food that was eaten at the First Thanksgiving in 1621. A traditional food is turkey.

Controversy
Thanksgiving is not looked upon positively by some who use the day for mourning to take into account the genocide and conquest of Native Americans by colonists although not all indigenous people are entirely negative on Thanksgiving. The holiday is also looked upon negatively by some vegetarians for promoting the eating of turkeys although many vegetarians and vegans eat plant-based alternatives for Thanksgiving.

Related pages
 Thanksgiving
 Black Friday

References

Thanksgiving

Thanksgiving (United States)