Podosphaera macularis (formerly Sphaerotheca macularis) is a plant pathogen infecting several hosts including chamomile, caneberrie, strawberries, hop, hemp and Cineraria. It causes powdery mildew of hops.

Host range and symptoms of Podosphaera macularis
The pathogen that causes powdery mildew of hops was once considered to be Sphaerotheca macularis, which is capable of infecting many plants; however, in recent years, the pathogen that causes powdery mildew of hops has been taxonomically classified as Podosphaera macularis. This ascomycete is only known to be pathogenic on hop plants, including both ornamental and wild hops, and Cannabis sativa. The host range of many Podosphaera macularis strains is restricted by the existence of resistant hop varieties, such as the "Nugget" variety of Washington state and Oregon, although in recent years, resistance within this hop variety has been overcome in the laboratory. When disease does occur, early symptoms include chlorotic spots on the leaves of hop plants. Spots may fade to gray or white as the season progresses. Signs include white clusters of hyphae, which are often present on the leaves, and in some cases can infect the cone itself. If this infection occurs, a brown, necrotic lesion may develop. When both mating types exist within a population, chleistothecia can form and are visible as small, black dots on the undersides of leaves.

Disease cycle
Podosphaera macularis overwinters on the soil surface in debris as fungal survival structures (chasmothecia) or as mycelia in plant buds. These chasmothecia are formed closer to the end of the growing season. The characteristic morphology of chasmothecia of Hop Powdery Mildew are spherical black structures with spiked appendages. When favorable conditions are encountered during early spring, the asci (sac-like structures) within chasmothecia will rupture and  ascospores will be discharged. Specifically, the favorable conditions for ascospore release include low light, excess fertility, and high soil moisture. Additionally, optimal infection is observed when the temperature is between 18 and 25 °C. Furthermore, the ascospores act as the primary inoculum and are dispersed passively by wind. Upon encountering a susceptible host plant, the ascospores will germinate and cause infection. Following infection, masses of asexual spores (conidia) will be produced during the season. It is these masses of conidia that contribute to the characteristic white, powdery appearance of infected plants. The lower leaves are the most affected, but the disease can appear on any part of the plant that is above the ground. These conidia are dispersed through wind. Thus, Podosphaera macularis is a polycyclic pathogen as conidia are produced/dispersed during the growing season and can further infect additional host plants. Particularly, the disease will be noticeable on infected plants as soon as the hop shoots start to emerge with the latent period being approximately 10 days at 12 and 15 °C compared to 5 days at 18-27 °C. These spore-covered shoots that emerge from infected buds are called "flag shoots" and will be stunted with distorted leaves. Periods of rapid plant growth are the most favorable for infection. In addition, the period in which lateral branch development takes place within the plants is also very vulnerable to the development of the disease. Due to Podosphaera macularis causing local infection, only the location of the host plant tissue where spores have landed will develop the disease.

Optimal environment
Under optimal conditions, this polycyclic disease can potentially grow 20 generations in a growing season. Favorable environmental conditions for Podosphaera macularis fecundity  include low sun exposure, soil moisture, and excessive fertilization. The optimal temperature range for spore and mycelium growth is 18 to 25 °C. In addition, periods with small temperature differences between night and day, with a minimum of 10 °C at night and a daily high of 20 °C increase the risk of infection. High humidity and optimal temperature conditions are necessary for primary infection between the middle and end of May. The cleistothecia swell up and burst due to increased turgor pressure leading to the release of ascospores. During the secondary infection period from mid-July to August, conidia infectivity and germination is highest around 18 °C. However, leaf wetness is not essential for the formation and germination of conidia, but rather slight rain has an indirect effect related to high humidity and low sun light. Since the life cycle mainly exists externally, with only haustoria inside the host, supra-optimal temperatures and low relative humidity are unfavorable parameters for germination, infection or sporulation of powdery mildew. Temperatures exceeding 30 °C for more than three hours reduce the chance of infection by up to 50%. Intense rain and wind periods that cause spores blown throughout the hop yard also prevent powdery mildew fecundity. In addition, solar irradiation can kill released spores, but as hops grow, the sun can't penetrate the dense canopy.

Management

The two primary ways to control Podosphaera macularis are cultural and chemical control. The most effective way to manage hop powdery mildew is through preventative measures. Cultural control of the disease include growing powdery-mildew tolerant/resistant varieties of the host plant. Cultural practices that can help prevent the disease include carefully monitoring water and nutrient, reducing initial inoculum, and removing basal growth. Furthermore, pruning, crowning, and/or scratching will aid in further reduction of the disease. Pruning consists of removing shoots before training. Crowning refers to the process of removing the top 1–2 inches of the crown before budbreak. Scratching is done through disturbing the soil surface to remove the top 1–2 inches of buds. All of these methods disturb the overwintering stage of the life cycle of Podosphaera macularis. Likewise, chemical control primarily consists of spraying fungicides in hopes of preventing the disease through the use of early, continuous spraying during the growing season. Thus, prophylactic fungicide programs can be a very effective way in preventing the disease. Since the fungicides are a preventative measure, they are not very useful to use during a full-blown infection. Therefore, the use of fungicides disturbs release of spores and further infection within the disease cycle of Podosphaera macularis. As there are several fungicides that are effective against powdery mildew, it is important to apply the fungicides at specific times. If it is known that powdery mildew is present, spray programs should be started as soon as the shoots emerge. Due to powdery mildew's ability to quickly develop resistance to fungicides, it is important to rotate the fungicides that are used. However, few or no fungicide applications should be used during burr development as these burrs have increased vulnerability to damage. In this case, removing basal growth before flowering and applying a protectant fungicide with long-term residual action should be employed.

Disease importance
In 1997, hop powdery mildew was reported for the first time in hop yards in the United States Pacific Northwest. In Washington, severe infections lead to a yield loss of 800 hectares (US $10 million) of crops. At the time, sulfur was the only registered pesticide used on hop that was effective against powdery mildew. In 1998, the disease was confirmed in Idaho and Oregon. As a result, Yakima Valley growers managed the disease using approaches developed in Europe, such as, labor-intensive cultural practices, mechanical or chemical removal of spring growth, and intensive fungicide programs despite the small number of fungicides available for hop at the time. Although the methods successfully limited disease development, the depressed market for hops couldn't sustain the expensive production costs ($1400/ha annually in 1998). In 2001, a contracting brewery rejected 50% of an aroma hop grown in Oregon because of cone browning after drying, resulting in an additional US $5 million in losses that year. These losses have contributed to economic depression in the hop market and have forced several growers to declare bankruptcy. Currently, hop powdery mildew exists annually in all production regions in the United States. While more research is necessary to understand Podosphaera macularis and control, the current management system has returned economics to hop industry. Disease levels have decreased and control costs have been reduced to $740/ha on average. Unlike New York and California, hop production in the Pacific Northwest is likely to continue.

Pathogenesis of Podosphaera macularis

In order for pathogenesis to occur, a viable pathogen, susceptible host, and conducive environment must simultaneously be present. The germ tube of P. macularis plays an important role in determining the pathogen's viability, because it can penetrate its host in approximately 15 hours. The germ tube begins branching, leading to as many as three potentially conidia-forming germ tubes. As the pathogen invades host tissue, it establishes a haustorium to facilitate the collection of nutrients from the host cells. Despite this invasion, only certain hosts are susceptible, because there are seven R genes in hop varieties that can be activated in response to infection. Many of them operate by either causing the initial haustorium to lyse, or by preventing the pathogen from spreading.  The spread is stopped by a hypersensitive response, which is often associated with the establishment of large callose and lignin deposits surrounding infected cells.  Although susceptible plants can increase callose and lignin deposits in response to infection, the hypersensitive response is only found in resistant varieties. Finally, although powdery mildew can grow in a relatively hot and dry environment compared to downy mildew, conidia production peaks at temperatures of approximately 20 °C. Conidia can be produced at temperatures above 25 °C, but their infectivity is often reduced.

References

External links

Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Food plant pathogens and diseases
Small fruit diseases
Fungal strawberry diseases
Hemp diseases
Ornamental plant pathogens and diseases
macularis
Fungi described in 2000

Podosphaera macularis


Revelstoke Mountain Resort (RMR) is a ski resort near the town of Revelstoke, British Columbia, Canada.  The resort is located on Mount Mackenzie, south of the town of Revelstoke.  The resort has 1263 hectares (3121 acres) of terrain to ski on, accessible by chairlifts. It has a 1713 vertical meter descent.  The resort has two high-speed quad chairs and an eight-person gondola.  Besides the lift-access terrain, the resort also has a large cat skiing operation in the three alpine bowls immediately east of the lift terrain. In addition to the lift and cat skiing operations, there is also a heli-skiing operation with access to 200,000 hectares (500,000 acres) of skiable terrain.

The resort first opened on December 22, 2007. It was thought to be the biggest North American ski resort debut in twenty years. The event was overshadowed by the death of an Edmonton ski instructor who disappeared on the "Jalapeno" run and whose body was found in a tree well three days later.

References

Other websites
Official website

Ski areas and resorts in Canada
British Columbia

Revelstoke Mountain Resort


The Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn) or Nirvana Sutra for short, is an influential Mahāyāna Buddhist scripture of the Buddha-nature class. The original title of the sutra was Mahāparinirvāṇamahāsūtra (Great Scripture of the Great Perfect Nirvāṇa) and the earliest version of the text was associated with the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda school. The sutra was particularly important for the development of East Asian Buddhism.

The Nirvana sutra uses the backdrop of the Buddha's final nirvana to discuss the nature of the Buddha, who is described in this sutra as undying and eternal, without beginning or end. The text also discusses the associated doctrine of buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha) which is said to be a "hidden treasury" within all living beings that is eternal (nitya), blissful, Self (atman), and pure (shudda). Due to this buddha nature, all beings have the capacity to reach Buddhahood. Some scholars like Michael Radich and Shimoda Masahiro think that the Nirvana sutra might be the earliest source for the idea of buddha-nature.

The Nirvana sutra also discusses the teachings of not-self and emptiness, and how they are incomplete unless they are complemented by the teaching of "non-emptiness" and the true self, which is buddha-nature. Furthermore, the Nirvana sutra discusses the idea of the icchantikas, a class of sentient beings who "have little or no chance of liberation." The icchantika idea is discussed in various ways throughout the different versions of the sutra, and the issue is complex, though as Blum writes the Nirvana sutra seems "ambivalent on whether or not icchantikas can attain buddhahood".

The Nirvana sutra's precise date of origin is uncertain, but its early form may have developed in or by the second century CE. The original Sanskrit text is not extant except for a small number of fragments, but it survives in Chinese and Tibetan translation. The Nirvana sutra was translated into Chinese various times. The most important editions are the 416 CE "six fascicle text" and the 421 CE translation of Dharmakṣema, which is about four times longer than the earlier one. This sutra should not be confused with the early Buddhist Mahāparinibbāna Sutta which is not a Mahayana sutra.

History

Origins

The history of the text is extremely complex, but the consensus view is that the core portion of this sutra was compiled in South India (dakṣiṇāpatha), possibly in Andhra or some part of the Deccan.

The language used in the sūtra and related texts seems to indicate a region in southern India during the time of the Śātavāhana dynasty, likely the 2nd century CE. The Śātavāhana rulers gave rich patronage to Buddhism, and were involved with the development of the cave temples at Karla and Ajaṇṭā, and also with the Great Amarāvati Stupa. During this time, the Śātavāhana dynasty also maintained extensive links with the Kuṣāṇa Empire. Hodge argues that it is likely that the text was composed "in a Mahāsāṃghika environment" like Karli or Amaravatī-Dhanyakaṭaka. Hiromi Habata likewise associated the sutra with the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda school.

According to Stephen Hodge, internal textual evidence in the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, Mahābheri Sūtra, and the Nirvāṇa indicates that these texts initially circulated in South India, but then gradually began to be propagated in the northwest (especially in Kashmir). Hodge notes that the Nirvana sutra contains prophesies of its own emergence during a period of Dharma decline (which can be calculated to be in around 220 CE) along with prophesies that the text will be taken to Kashmir (罽賓). Hodge also discusses an important person named Sarvasattvapriyadarśana who appears in a group of texts related to the Nirvana sutra like the Aṅgulimāla and the Lotus sutra (he is also called Sarvalokapriyadarśana in the Mahāmegha and Mahābherīhāraka). This figure is connected with the teaching of the eternity of the Buddha and is said to have been born during the a Śātavāhana king (a prophesy placed in the mouth of the Buddha himself in some sources). According to Hodge, Sarvasattvapriyadarśana may have been a historical figure connected to the Nirvana sutra lineage (even its founder) in south India. After the situation in the south became unfavorable for this tradition, it was taken to Kashmir, where later parts of the text were written, reflecting the decline narrative of some parts of the text.

Shimoda Masahiro proposes that the earliest part of the Nirvana sutra is related to the views and practices of itinerant dharma preachers called dharmakathikas or dharmabhānakas (說法者 or 法師). These figures frequently went on pilgrimage to stūpa sites in the company of laypeople who were allowed to protect them with swords and staves. They may have also believed in the eternal nature of the Buddha and his vajra body. According to Shimoda, the authors of the Nirvana sutra, as advocates of stupa worship, would have known how the term buddhadhātu originally referred to śarīra or physical relics of the Buddha. According to Shimoda's theory, these figures used the teachings of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra to reshape the worship of the śarīra into worship of the inner Buddha as a principle of salvation: the Buddha-nature. Sasaki states that a key premise of Shimoda's work is that the origins of Mahayana and the Mahāparinirvāṇa are entwined.

Scholars like Shimoda as well as Michael Radich argue that the Nirvana sutra might be the earliest source for the tathāgatagarbha doctrine.

Dating
Scholars believe that the compilation of the core portion (corresponding to the six fascicle Chinese translation and the shorter Tibetan translation) must have occurred at an early date, during or prior to the 2nd century CE, based internal evidence and on Chinese canonical catalogs.

Using textual evidence in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and related texts, Stephen Hodge estimates a compilation period between 100 CE and 220 CE for the core sutra.

The Indian version of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra underwent a number of stages in its composition. Masahiro Shimoda discerns several main stages:
 a short proto-Nirvāṇa Sūtra, which was, he argues, probably not distinctively Mahāyāna, but quasi-Mahāsāṃghika in origin and would date to 100 CE, if not even earlier;
 an expanded version of this core text was then developed and would have comprised chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 of the six fascicle text and shorter Tibetan versions, though it is believed that in their present state there is a degree of editorial addition in them from the later phases of development.
 Chapter 8 of the six fascicle text.
 Ch. 5, and Ch. 9 onwards of the six fascicle text.

In East Asia

The Nirvana sutra is an extremely influential work for East-Asian Buddhism. It was translated various times and two major Chinese translations are extant. The translation by Dharmakṣema (c. 385–433) is significantly longer and this has led some scholars to argue that the latter portions of this edition were composed in China. This longer edition was also the most important and popular one in China, Japan and Korea, since it promoted the universality of Buddha nature and Buddhahood. The six fascicle version on the other hand was mostly ignored according to Blum.

Dharmakṣema's Nirvana sutra inspired numerous sutra commentaries and is cited widely by numerous East Asian Buddhist authors. The sutra was a key scriptural source for the idea that all sentient beings have buddha-nature, which was seen as an active force in the world. It was also influential due to its teachings promoting vegetarianism and its teachings on the eternal nature of the Buddha. All these doctrines became central teachings of Chinese Buddhism.

In the Southern Dynasties (420-589) period, there was a Chinese Buddhist school devoted to the  Dharmakṣema Nirvana sutra, which was simply called the "Nirvana School" (nièpán-zong) and was also influenced by the works of Daosheng. This school taught the universality of Buddha nature and the capacity for even icchantikas to attain Buddhahood. The school thrived in the Liang dynasty (502-557) and many of its teachings were incorporated into the Tiantai school. During the Liang, the school's teachings were supplemented by the teachings of the Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra by scholars like Pao-liang (d. 509).

The Nirvana sutra was also seen as a key sutra for both the Tiantai and the Huayan schools, the main doctrinal schools of Chinese Buddhism. The key Tiantai exegete Zhiyi even saw the sutra as a final teaching of the Buddha and as being of equal status to the Lotus Sutra.

Due to its status in these doctrinal traditions, it also became important for numerous Japanese Buddhist schools like Zen, Nichiren and Shin Buddhism. The work is cited by key Japanese Buddhist figures like Dōgen, Nichiren and Shinran. The Nirvana Sutra is among the most important sources and influences on Shinran's magnum opus, Kyogyoshinsho. Shinran relies on crucial passages from the Nirvana Sutra for the more theoretical elaboration of the meaning of shinjin. Similarly, the Nirvana is a key source for Dōgen's view of buddha-nature.

Teachings

The Nirvana sutra's setting is the final hours of the Buddha's life. Unlike the early Buddhist Mahaparanibbana sutta, Ananda, the Buddha's attendant, is mostly absent from the Nirvana sutra (instead, the main interlocutor is Mañjuśrī). The Nirvana sutra also ends with the Buddha lying down, but it does not depict his actual parinirvāṇa, nor does it depict the cremation, and other episodes after his death, like the division of relics and Mahakasyapa paying respect to his body etc.

According to Sallie B. King, the Nirvana sutra is somewhat unsystematic and this made it a fruitful sutra for later commentators who drew on it for various doctrinal and exegetical purposes. King notes that the most important innovation of the Nirvana is the linking of the term buddhadhātu (buddha-nature) with tathagatagarbha (tathagata womb/chamber). The buddha-dhātu (buddha-nature, buddha-element) is presented as a timeless, eternal (nitya) and pure "Self" (ātman). This notion of a buddhist theory of a true self (i.e. a Buddhist ātma-vada) is a radical one which caused much controversy and was interpreted in many different ways.

Other important doctrinal themes in the Nirvana sutra include re-interpretations of not-self (anātman) and emptiness (Śūnyatā) as a skillful means that paves the way for the ultimate buddha-nature teachings, the doctrine of the icchantika, the eternal and docetic (lokottara) nature of Shakyamuni Buddha and his adamantine body (vajra-kaya), the promotion of vegetarianism, and a teaching on the decline of the Buddha's Dharma.

The Eternal Buddha

A key teaching found in the Nirvana sutra is the eternal nature of the Buddha. Blum notes that the sutra makes it clear that the Buddha is not subject to the processes of birth and death, but abides forever in an undying state. While the Buddha will appear to die (and manifest parinirvāṇa, his final nirvana, the apparent death of his body), he is in fact eternal and immortal, since he was never born, and had no beginning or end. The sutra states:

The body of the Tathāgata is an eternal body (*nityakāya), an indestructible body (*abhedakāya), an adamant body (*vajrakāya); it is not a body sustained by various kinds of food. That is to say, it is the Dharma Body (*dharmakāya). Do not say now that the body of the Tathāgata is soft, can easily be broken, and is the same as that of common mortals. O good man! Know now that for countless billions of kalpas, the body of the Tathāgata has been strong, firm, and indestructible.

The Nirvana sutra thus presents the Buddha as an eternal and transcendent being (lokottara) who is beyond being and non-being and is Thusness (tathata), the ultimate reality, the eternal Dharmakāya or "dharma body" (which is equivalent to the buddha-body). The sutra also states that the Buddha's body (buddhakaya) is an eternal, unchanging, unimpeded, and indivisible adamantine body (abhedavajrakāya). As such, while he appears to die, his "transcendent, indestructible mode of being" is something that never truly dies, being uncompounded (asaṃskṛta). The Nirvana sutra further equates the Dharmakāya with the buddha-nature and states that it has four perfections (pāramitās): permanence, bliss, purity, and selfhood.

According to Shimoda and Radich, this theme is the central theme of what is perhaps the earliest textual layer of the Nirvana sutra. Radich also notes that the Nirvana sutra refers to itself by alternative titles, including Tathāgataśāśvata-sūtra/Tathāgatanityatva-sūtra, which indicate the eternity of the Tathāgata.

A key element of the doctrine of the eternal buddha-body is a kind of Mahayana docetism, the idea that the Buddha's physical birth and death on earth was a mere appearance, a conventional show for the sake of helping sentient beings (a doctrine which was already found in the Mahāsāṃghika school). According to the Nirvana sutra, the Buddha entered nirvāṇa aeons ago (and yet remains actively benefiting beings). As such, the Buddha merely appears to be born, practice the path, achieve nirvana and die in order to be "in accordance with the world" (lokānuvartanā, Ch. suishun shijian, 隨順世間) so that people would trust him as a human sage. However, in reality, his nature is eternal and unchanging. As the Buddha says in the Nirvana sutra, "at times, I show [myself entering into] parinirvāṇa in the Jambudvīpas of a billion worlds, and yet, ultimately, I do not take parinirvāṇa."

According to Radich, the tathāgatagarbha idea in the Nirvana sutra is closely related to the positive elements of this docetic Buddhology, which refers to the idea that since the Buddha did not have a normal human body (nor did he gestate in a normal womb), he must have had some other transcendent type of body (which requires a transcendent womb, the tathāgata-garbha, "buddha womb").

Buddha-nature
The doctrine of the "buddha-dhātu" (buddha-nature, buddha-element, Chinese: 佛性 foxing, Tibetan: sangs rgyas gyi khams), which refers to the fundamental nature of the Buddha, is a central teaching of the Nirvana sutra. According to the Nirvana sutra, "all sentient beings possess buddha-nature without distinction" (Chinese:一切眾生皆有佛性而無差別). According to Sally King, the sutra speaks about Buddha-nature in many different ways. This led Chinese scholars to create a list of types of buddha-nature that could be found in the text.

The Nirvana sutra also equates buddha-nature with the term tathāgatagarbha (which is also done by other texts like the Aṅgulimālīya, Mahābherī, and Uttaratantra). According to King, this can be understood as an "embryonic tathāgata" or as the "womb of the tathāgata". The Chinese typically translated the term as 如來藏 rúlái zàng ("tathāgata storehouse," "tathāgata matrix", or "tathāgata chamber"). However, according to Mark Blum, Dharmaksema translates tathāgatagārbha as  or simply mìzàng, "tathagata's hidden treasury". This treasury is seen as a wondrous liberating truth that is mysteriously hidden from the view of ordinary people. Blum notes that the two major Chinese versions of the sutra don't use the literal Chinese term for embryo or womb, but speak of the "wondrous interior treasure-house of the Buddha" which is always present within all beings. This inner treasure, a pure "buddha-relic" within, is obscured by the negative mental afflictions of each sentient being. Once these negative mental states have been eliminated, however, buddha-nature is said to shine forth unimpededly.

The Nirvana sutra's explanation of buddha-nature is multifaceted and complex. Karl Brunnholzl argues that there three main meanings of buddha-nature in the Nirvana sutra: (1) an intrinsic pure nature that merely has to be revealed, (2) a seed or potential that can grow into Buddhahood with the right conditions, (3) the idea that the Mahayana path is open to all. The Nirvana sutra states that buddha-nature as buddhahood is endowed with the powers and qualities of a buddha is free of any karma or affliction (klesha), transcending the five skandhas and the twelve links of dependent arising. However, in order to become true Buddhas, sentient beings need to practice the six pāramitās which actualize their buddha potential into full Buddhahood. This is compared to how milk is made into cream or butter through additional conditions. As such, the Nirvana sutra criticizes those who think that buddha-nature means that all beings are already full Buddhas and do not need to practice the bodhisattva path.

However, other similes in the Nirvana sutra contain slightly different characterizations of buddha-nature. For example, one simile compares the buddha nature to a treasure buried under the earth, or a to a gold mine (both which are found in the Tathāgatagarbhasūtra, which is cited by name in the Nirvana sutra). These similes suggest a more immanent understanding of buddha-nature in which the buddha element is merely something to be revealed. Furthermore, other similes reject the idea that buddha-nature abides in sentient beings at all, stating that buddha-nature abides nowhere, like how the sound made by a lute is not located in any part of the lute.

The Indic term dhātu was used in early Buddhism to refer to the relics of a Buddha as well as to basic constituents of reality or "raw material" (like the eighteen "dhātus" that make up any personality). The Nirvana sutra draws on this term and applies it to the true nature of a Buddha, which is permanent (nitya), pure, blissful and resides within all sentient beings (analogous to how the pure buddha relics were housed inside a stupa). Some scholars like Shimoda and Radich have seen the buddha-nature idea as arising from an internalization of stupa and relic worship. Instead of worshiping relics externally, the buddha-nature teaching turns inward, to the inner buddha relic in all of us. According to Jones, the term tathāgatagarbha could also have referred to "the chamber (garbha) for a Buddha (tathāgata): the space at the center of a stūpa, where lies hidden that which is essential to a Buddha and most precious to the world after his (apparent) departure from it." The term "chamber for a relic" (dhātugarbha) is attested in many Buddhist texts. Due to this, Radich argues that the term tathāgatagarbha also developed as an internalized buddha relic which came to refer to the presence of a buddha's qualities, mode of being or body which was not located in a stupa but in sentient beings.

Another key aspect of the buddha-nature as taught in the Nirvana sutra is that it can only be directly perceived by a fully awakened Buddha, though the sutra says that a bodhisattva at the tenth stage (bhūmi) can also perceive buddha-nature in an imperfect and indistinct manner. Since according to the Nirvana sutra, "the nature of the Tathāgata is difficult to see", the sutra emphasizes the importance of faith (śraddhā) in both the Nirvana sutra itself and in the buddha-nature, saying that "only one who follows the teachings of the Tathāgata, faithfully committing oneself to them, after that sees their equality [to the Buddha]."

Buddhadhātu as ātman and the four perfections
The Nirvana sutra describes Buddhahood and buddha-nature as a true self (ātman), a "supreme essence" (Tibetan: snying po'i mchog) and as a "great self" (mahātman, 大我) that is eternal, pure and blissful, and is also separate from the five aggregates and beyond samsaric phenomena. For example, the sutra states:

The real self is the nature of the Tathāgata ( 如來性). Know that all sentient beings have this, but as those sentient beings are enshrouded by immeasurable afflictions, it is not manifested.

The Indic term "ātman" generally referred to "the permanent and indestructible essence, or an unchanging central element, of any human or other sentient being", and the idea that such a thing existed was widely rejected by mainstream Indian Buddhism. In teaching the existence of a permanent element (Tibetan: yang dag khams) in sentient beings that allows them to become Buddhas, the sutra is self consciously adopting a Buddhist version of ātmavāda ("discourse about the self") which was popular in Indian thought, while also modifying the Buddhist doctrine of not-self (anātman) that completely rejected any notion of a self.

The teaching that the buddha-nature is a self is one of the "four inversions" (viparyāsas), a key theme in the Nirvana sutra. Early Buddhism held that living beings have four distortions in how they perceive reality: they see what is impermanent as permanent (nitya), they see what is not-self as a self (ātman), they see what is impure as pure (śubha/śuci) and they see what is suffering as being pleasant or blissful (sukha). The Nirvana sutra claims that while these four do apply to samsaric phenomena, when it comes to the "supreme dharma(s)" (zhenshifa 真實法, *paramadharma, like Buddha and buddha-nature), the opposite is the case. As the sutra states:
Monks, whatever you mentally cultivate, repeatedly and increasingly and with full acceptance, to be in all instances impermanent, unsatisfactory, without self, and impure, amid these there is that which exhibits permanence, bliss, purity and selfhood...
As such, the Nirvana sutra claims that buddha-nature (and the Buddha's body, his Dharmakaya) is characterized by four perfections (pāramitās) or qualities (which are denied in classic Buddhist doctrine): permanence (nitya), bliss (sukha), self (ātman), and purity (śuddha). The four perfections as a feature of buddha-nature is also found in the Śrīmālādevī sūtra.

"Self" and "not-self" as skillful means
Paul Williams also notes that while we can speak of the tathāgatagarbha as a Self, this is a much more complex issue since the sutra also speaks of the importance of the not-self teaching, saying that those who have notions of a self cannot perceive buddha-nature.

The Nirvana sutra is aware that there are numerous non-buddhist accounts of a self which might sound similar to its own self theory and it argues that if they seem similar, this is due to two reasons. The first is that non-buddhist ātmavāda theories are often misinterpretations or misrememberings of what was taught by a bodhisattva and the second is that they may be skillful means taught to non-buddhists by Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Furthermore, numerous non-buddhist doctrines of a self are rejected in the Nirvana sutra (including some of the theories taught in the Upanishads), in which the self is "some kernel of identity hidden within the body" which is a "person" (pudgala), a jīva, a "doer" (kartṛ) or a "master" (zhu 主). According to Williams, the "Self" taught in the Nirvana sutra "is not a Self in the worldly sense taught by non-Buddhist thinkers, or maintained to exist by the much-maligned 'man in the street'", since these are considered to lead to egoistic grasping.

Thus, the Nirvana sutra often portrays the teaching of the tathāgatagarbha as a Self as being a skillful means, a useful strategy to convert non-buddhists and to combat annihilationist interpretations of the Dharma. For example, in Nirvana sutra, the Buddha proclaims "I do not teach that all sentient beings are without a self! I constantly teach that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature; is Buddha-nature not the self? Hence, I have not taught an annihilationist view."  The Buddha then states states the reason he teaches not-self (and impermanence, suffering, and impurity) is because sentient beings do not see the buddha-nature. Later on in the sutra, the Buddha also states:

Good son, this Buddha-nature is in truth not the self; for the benefit of sentient beings is it called the self.… Buddha-nature is absence of self, [but] the Tathāgata teaches the self [for the sake of some audiences]: because of his permanence, the Tathāgata is the self, but he teaches absence of self, because he has achieved sovereignty [zizai 自在, possibly Skt. aiśvarya].

Thus, according to the Nirvana sutra, the Buddha uses the term self when needed (to overcome nihilistic interpretations of not-self) and teaching not-self when needed (to overcome grasping at what is not the self). This is part of his skillful means (upaya) to guide beings to liberation.

The Nirvana sutra states that those who see everything as empty and fail to see what is not empty do not know the true middle way. Likewise, those who see everything as not-self but fail to see what is Self also fail to see the true middle way, which is the buddha nature. According to Mark Blum, the Nirvana sutra sees the Buddhist doctrine of not-self as "a very important doctrine to be expounded when the listener is attached to his or her notion of selfhood or personality, because it deconstructs that object of attachment, revealing its nature as a fantasy." However, the sutra understands both the not-self and emptiness teachings as being skillful means, not ultimate truths. The Nirvana sutra also affirms the truth of "non-emptiness", which is a real genuine self, the buddha-nature.

The Nirvana sutra compares the not-self teaching to a milk-based medicine which is useful for certain ailments, but not for all. Because of this, a physician who only prescribed this single medicine would be an unskillful one. The Buddha in the Nirvana sutra says he taught not-self in order to get rid of certain mistaken views of self in order that the correct teaching about the self (i.e. the buddha-nature) could be given. This is why according to the Nirvana sutra, "the Buddha teaches that the nature of the Tathāgata (如來性) is the real self (真實我), but if with respect to this tenet one mentally cultivates [the thought] that it is not the self, this is called the third distortion."

Using another medicinal simile, the Nirvana sutra compares the teaching of not-self to a medicine which requires a mother to stop breast feeding her infant. The mother thus smears her breast with a pungent ointment and tells her child that it is poison. When the medicine is fully ingested, the mother removes the ointment and invites the child to nurse at her breast again. In this simile, the medicine is the skillful notion of not-self, and the mother's milk is the teaching of "the nature of the Tathāgata, which is the supermundane, supreme self"  (離世真實之我, possibly *lokottaraparamātman).

Another important element of the relationship between not-self and true self in the Nirvana sutra is that they are seen as non-dual (advaya), as two sides of the same coin so to speak. Thus, according to the Nirvana: "the wise know that the existence of the self and absence of self are non-dual." In making this claim, the sutra also cites two sutras, the Sarvapuṇyasamuccayasūtra (possibly Taisho no. 381–382) and a Prajñāpāramitā sutra (the most likely candidate being the Suvikrāntavikrāmiparipṛcchā).

Icchantikas
Despite the fact that the Buddha-nature is innate in all sentient beings, there is a class of people who called icchantikas ("extremists" or "dogmatists") which are either excluded from Buddhahood or will find it very difficult to ever reach it. The Nirvana sutra discusses this class of people often. According to scholars like Blum and Brunnholzl, the exact status and nature of the icchantika in the Nirvana sutra is difficult to ascertain, as the topic is discussed in different ways throughout the sutra.  In some parts, icchantikas are said to be like scorched seeds who can never sprout and thus of being incurable and incapable of Buddhahood. In other passages, they are said to also posses buddha-nature and to be able to attain buddhahood (their potential for buddhahood is also depicted much more positively in the longer versions of the sutra).  As such, the icchantika doctrine has caused much controversy and debate in East Asian Buddhism.

According to Karashima, the word icchantika derives from the verb icchati (to claim, to hold, to maintain) and the term is thus best understood as "someone who [makes] claims; an opinionated [person]." Specifically, the icchantika is someone who rejects and is hostile to the buddha nature teaching of the Nirvana sutra.

The Nirvana sutra describes them as follows:

In spite of their hostile dogmatism, the longer version of the Nirvana Sutra explains that because all beings have the buddha-nature, all beings without exception, even icchantikas (the most incorrigible and spiritually base of beings), can eventually attain liberation and become Buddhas. This is possible if they gain faith in buddha-nature, as the Dharmakṣema translation of the Nirvana states: "If an icchantika were to have faith in the existence of Buddha-nature, know that he will not descend into the three bad [destinies], and also is then not called an icchantika."

Decline of the Dharma
Parts of the Nirvana Sutra are very concerned with the decline of the Dharma and with eschatology, describing how in the times of Dharma decline, there will be false monks, false teachings and all sorts of calamities. Hodge argues that the earliest portion of the sutra was written in India by people who believed they were living in an age of decline in which the Buddha-dharma would perish. The sutra states that during the age of Dharma decline, the Mahayana sutras will be lost (including the Nirvana sutra itself), false teachings will spread, and monks will act unethically, owning servants, cattle and horses, and engaging in lay jobs like farming, smithing, painting, sculpture and divination (instead of focusing on the Dharma).

The sutra responds to this situation of decline with the proclamation of the innate Buddhahood that is present in all (though it remains concealed by the defilements). The Nirvana sutra sees itself as the final teaching of the Buddha that has the power to lead people to discover their own innate buddha-nature (as long as they listen to it with faith). As such, it seens itself as the ideal solution to the era of Dharma decline.

Texts

The Indic text of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (in Sanskrit) has survived only in a number of fragments, which were discovered in Central Asia, Afghanistan and Japan. Four full editions of the Nirvana sutra of varying lengths survive in Chinese and Tibetan. The fragments are written in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and indicate that they were written by speakers of a Prakrit language.

Chinese
According to early Chinese sutra catalogues such as the Lidai Sanbao ji (歷代三寶紀), a part of the core portion of the sutra was translated previously into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa (fl. c. 260-280), though this version is now lost. Chinese canonical records also mention that another lost translation was made by the Chinese monk Zhimeng who studied in India from 404-424 CE. According to Zhimeng's own account, he also obtained his manuscript from the same layman in Pataliputra as Faxian did some years earlier.

The "six fascicle text"
This translation, often called the "Six fascicle text", and titled Dabannihuan jing (大般泥洹經, Taisho no. 376.12.853-899), is the shortest and earliest translation into Chiense. It is attributed to Faxian and Buddhabhadra during the Jin dynasty (266–420) between 416 and 418. Though the translation of this version in six fascicles (juàn 卷) is conventionally ascribed to Faxian (法顯), this attribution is probably inaccurate. According to Faxian's own account, the manuscript copy forming the basis of the six juan Chinese version was obtained by him in Pāṭaliputra from the house of a layman known as Kālasena, during his travels in India. The earliest surviving Chinese sutra catalogue, Sengyou's Chu Sanzang Jiji (出三藏記集), which was written less than 100 years after the date of this translation, makes no mention of Faxian. Instead it states that the translation was done by Buddhabhadra and his assistant Baoyun (寶雲), quoting earlier catalogues to corroborate this attribution. The idea that Faxian was involved in the translation only emerges in later catalogues, compiled several hundred years after the event.

Dharmakṣema's "northern" edition
The "Northern text", titled Dabanniepan jing (大般涅槃經), is a translation in 40 fascicles (Taisho no. 374.12.365c-603c), completed by the Magadhan Indian monk translator Dharmakṣema (c. 385–433 CE) between 421 and 430 in the Northern Liang kingdom. This "northern" version of the text is "around four times the length" of the "six fascicle" version and the later Tibetan translation, extending for a further thirty fascicles, beyond the first ten fascicles of the "core" sutra material. This version was also later translated into Classical Tibetan from the Chinese.

The first ten fascicles of the northern edition may be based on a birch-bark manuscript from North-Western India that Dharmakṣema brought with him, which he used for the initial translation work of his version. This version corresponds overall in content to the "six fascicle" version and the Tibetan version.

Many scholars doubt the Indian provenance of the extra material found in the northern edition (the content beyond the first ten fascicles). The chief reasons for this skepticism are the following:
 No traces of an extended Sanskrit text has ever been found. Sanskrit manuscript fragments of twenty four separate pages distributed right across the core portion of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra have been found over the past hundred years in various parts of Asia; Likewise, there are no quotations from this latter portion in any Indian commentaries or sutra anthologies.
 No other translator in China or Tibet ever found Sanskrit copies of this portion. The Chinese monk-translator Yijing traveled to India and searched for this material but only found manuscripts corresponding to the core text.

Some textual scholars argue the latter portion of the northern edition may have been a Central Asian composition, and some, even argue it may have been written by Dharmakṣema himself. However, other scholars like Jones and Granoff note that the latter portion knows of Indic texts which were unknown in China. Thus, Jones writes that there is "convincing evidence that this material is familiar with Indian literature unknown to any other Chinese materials that we know from Dharmakṣema's time." Granoff notes for example, that the story of Ajatasatru in the latter portion of the Nirvana sutra draws on the Mahābhārata, suggesting an Indic origin. Furthermore, as Jones notes, both Chinese and Tibetan tradition understood the additional content as being of Indic origin.

One significant difference between the Dharmakṣema edition and the earlier six fascicle Nirvana sutra is that the six fascicle's view of icchantikas (heretics who cling to wrong views and reject the teachings of the Nirvana sutra) is much more negative and harsh. The Dharmakṣema translation of the Nirvana sutra seems to indicate that icchantikas can redeem themselves and eventually attain Buddhahood (since all beings have buddha-nature), while the six fascicle version seems to indicate that icchantikas are hopeless. This was famously a point of contention for the leading Chinese monk Daosheng (c. 360–434), who rejected the Faxian translation and was exiled, until he was vindicated when the new translation of Dharmakṣema was released.

There is also a secondary Chinese version the Dharmakṣema's translation, which was completed in 453 CE. This was produced "by polishing the style and adding new section headings" according to Stephen Hodge.

The "southern" edition
The "Southern text" (Taisho no. 375.12.605-852), in 36 fascicles, was edited c. 453 by Huiguan and Huiyan during the Liu Song dynasty. This edition integrates and amends the translations of the six fascicle text and Dharmakṣema's into a single edition of thirty-six fascicles. This edition changes the chapter divisions of the first part of the Dharmakṣema to match the six fascicle version and it also changes the language, Chinese characters and syntax to a more accessible and readable.

Tibetan editions
In the 6th section of the Tibetan Kangyur collection (vols. 77-78) there are three translations of the Nirvana sutra:

 Toh 120, the first "short" translation of the sūtra, in 3. 900 ślokas (13 scrolls). It was made in the early 9th century by Jinamitra, Dhyānagarbha and Ban de btsan dra. It is titled: ཡོངས་སུ་མྱ་ངན་ལས་འདས་པ་ཆེན་པོ་ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོའི་མདོ།, Phags pa yong su Mya ngan las 'Das pa chen po theg pa chen po'i mdo.
 Toh 119 - a translation from Chinese into Tibetan of the version of Dharmakṣema by Wang-phab-zhun, Dge-ba'i blos-gros and Rgya-mtsho'i sde in 56 scrolls, with the title ཡོངས་སུ་མྱ་ངན་ལས་འདས་པ་ཆེན་པོའི་མདོ།, Phags pa yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa chen po'i mdo.
 Toh 121 which preserves 16 verses translated by Kamalagupta and Rin Chen Bzang Po titled ཡོངས་སུ་མྱ་ངན་ལས་འདས་པའི་མདོ།, Phags pa yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa'i mdo.

English translations
 Yamamoto, Kosho, trans. (1973-1975). The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, 3 Volumes, Karinbunko, Ube City, Japan. A limited run of 500 copies, currently out of print. This is actually a translation from Shimaji's Kokuyaku issai kyō, a classic Japanese translation of the Southern version, rather than a direct translation from Dharmakṣema's Chinese.
 Blum, Mark, trans. (2013). The Nirvana Sutra: Volume 1 (of a projected 4), Berkeley, Calif.: BDK America (distr.: Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press). .
 Yamamoto, Kosho; Page, Tony. (2015). Nirvana Sutra: A Translation of Dharmakshema's Northern version, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. . This is Dr. Tony Page's re-editing of Yamamoto's original.

Related sutras
There are several associated texts which are considered to be part of the Nirvana sutra "family". These are found in the "Nirvana" section (涅槃部) in the Chinese Buddhist canon. It includes:

 Dabanniepan jing houfen (The Latter Portion of the Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra, 大般涅槃經後分, Taisho no. 377) translated by Tang dynasty monk Huining and the Indian monk *Jñānabhadra (若那跋陀羅) in Heling. This is purported to be an even further missing part of the Nirvana sutra. Dharmakṣema's biography records a comment by Tanwufa mentioning a missing portion, and some biographies mention that Dharmakṣema died while on his way back to India (or Central Asia) to search for the missing parts of the sutra.
 Si tongzi sanmei jing (四童子三昧經 Taisho no. 379, Sanskrit: Caturdhārakasamādhi sūtra), translated by Jñānagupta in the Sui dynasty. Its setting is also the Buddha's final nirvana, though it has Ananda as the main interlocutor. It also teaches that the Buddha is eternally embodied in the dharmakaya and is always preaching the Dharma.
 Fangdeng bannihuan jing (方等般泥洹經 Taisho no. 378, Sanskrit: Caturdhārakasamādhi sūtra), translated by Dharmarakṣa. The first six chapters are similar to Taisho no. 379, while the rest of the text focuses on Śākyamuni's buddhafield and the Buddha's parinirvāṇa.
 Fo chui banniepan lüe shuo jiao jie jing (佛垂般涅槃略說教誡經 Taisho no. 389), also known as Yi jiao jing (遺教經), translated by Kumārajīva. It also describes the final nirvana and teaches that the Buddha is eternal.

Commentaries
Numerous commentaries on the Nirvana sutra were written in China. The most important Chinese commentary on the Nirvana sutra is the Compendium of Commentaries on the *Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (Dabanniepanjing ji jie, 大般涅槃經集解 T 1763), compiled in 509 by Baoliang (寶亮) in the Liang dynasty. This is a compilation of comments by numerous masters on the Nirvana sutra. It includes comments by Emperor Wu of the Liang, Daosheng, Sengliang, Falue, Tanji, Sengzong, Baoliang, Zhixiu, Fazhi, Faan, Tanzhun, Falang, Tan'ai, Tanqian, Mingjun, Daohui, Falian and Jiaoyi.

Another important commentary was the Nirvana school scholar Pao-liang's (d. 509) On the Middle Path Buddha-nature. Pao-liang interprets the buddha-nature as the innately pure mind which is "the mysterious essence of divine illumination". According to Pao-liang, "there is not one split second in which this liberating essence is not functioning (to deliver the person from ignorance)" and he also says that this "liberating function" is the same as the natural tendency to avoid pain and seek bliss. Pao-liang also says that buddha nature is both in the skandhas and transcends them, being the unity of the two truths and the unity of samsara and nirvana.

Other Chinese commentaries in the Taisho Tripitaka include:

 Taisho no. 1764, Da Ban Niepan Jing Yi Ji 《大般涅槃經義記》by the Dilun scholar Hui Yuan (慧遠 523–592) in the Sui in 10 fascicles
 Taisho no. 1765, Da Ban Niepan Jing Xuan Yi《大般涅槃經玄義》by Tiantai monk Guanding in the Sui in 2 fascicles
 Taisho no. 1767, Da Ban Niepan Jing Shu《大般涅槃經疏》by Guanding in the Sui in 33 fascicles
 Taisho no. 1768, Da Ban Niepan Jing You Yi《涅槃經遊意》by Ji Zang in the Sui in 1 fascicle
 Taisho no. 1769, Niepan Zong Yao《涅槃宗要》by Wŏnhyo in the Silla in 1 fascicle
 Taisho no. 1766, Niepan Xuan Yi Fa Yuan Ji Yao《涅槃玄義發源機要》by the Tiantai master Zhi Yuan (976-1022 C.E.) in the Song in 4 fascicles.

See also

 Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa
 Ātman (Buddhism)
 Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen
 Faith in Buddhism
 God in Buddhism
 Kulayarāja Tantra
 Parinirvana
 Mahāyāna sūtras
 Nirvana (Buddhism)
 Shinjō Itō, founder of the Shinnyo-en school of Buddhism
 Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra
 Buddha-nature
 Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra

Notes

References

Sources

  (in Japanese)

Further reading
 Blum, Mark (2003). Nirvana Sutra, in: Buswell, Robert E. ed., Encyclopedia of Buddhism, New York: Macmillan Reference Lib., pp. 605–606.
 Bongard-Levin, G.M (1986). New Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinivāṇa-sūtra: Central Asian manuscript collection, The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.
 Ito, Shinjo (2009). Shinjo: Reflections, Somerset Hall Press.
 Lai, Whalen (1982). Sinitic speculations on buddha-nature: The Nirvaana school (420-589), Philosophy East and West 32 (2),  135-149
 Radich, Michael (2015). The Mahāparinivāṇa-mahasūtra and the Emergence of Tathagatagarba Doctrine, Hamburg Buddhist Studies Vol. 5, Hamburg University Press.
 Yuyama, Akira (1981). Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinivāṇa-sūtra: Koyasan manuscript, The Reiyukai Library.

External links
 Tony Page's Nirvana Sutra website

 Revised translation of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra
 Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")

Mahayana sutras
Nichiren Buddhism
Shentong
Buddha-nature

Vaipulya sutras

Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra


In the United States courts, renewed judgment as a matter of law is a party's second chance at a judgment as a matter of law (JMOL) motion.  Renewed JMOL is decided after a jury has returned its verdict, and is a motion to have that verdict altered.  In US federal courts this procedure has replaced judgment notwithstanding the verdict (JNOV) through Rule 50 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.

The same standards as JMOL apply.  The difference is that renewed JMOL can only be raised if JMOL had been raised before the jury began deliberations.  Seventh Amendment due process concerns demand this formality, as decided by the United States Supreme Court in Baltimore & Carolina Line, Inc. v. Redman, 295 U.S. 654 (1935).

Judgment (law)
Civil procedure

Renewed judgment as a matter of law


Nadine Müller (born 21 November 1985) is a German discus thrower.

She was born in Leipzig. As a teenager, she won the silver medal at the 2003 European Junior Championships and the bronze medal at the 2004 World Junior Championships. Her personal best throw as a junior was 57.85 metres, achieved in May 2004 in Wiesbaden.

She improved gradually to 59.35 metres in May 2005 and 62.93 metres in May 2007, both in Halle. She competed at the 2007 World Championships, but without reaching the final. In May 2009 she improved to 63.46 metres in a meet in Wiesbaden. She finished fourth at the 2009 European Team Championships, Super League, and sixth at the 2009 World Championships.

She started the 2010 season well by setting a new personal best – having already won gold at the 2010 European Cup Winter Throwing competition, she used her last throw of the contest to push her limits and threw a best of 64.30 m. She threw even further a few months later, winning the 15th Throwers Cup in Wiesbaden with a world leading mark of 67.78 m.

Personal life
Nadine Müller married her partner Sabine in a civil union on New Year's Eve 2013.

Achievements

References

External links

1985 births
Living people
German female discus throwers
German national athletics champions
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Germany
World Athletics Championships medalists
European Athletics Championships medalists
German LGBT sportspeople
German lesbians
Lesbian sportswomen
World Athletics Championships athletes for Germany
Athletes from Leipzig
SC DHfK Leipzig athletes
LGBT track and field athletes

Nadine Müller (athlete)


East Hills is a neighborhood in the east side of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Its ZIP Code is 15221. It has representation on Pittsburgh City Council by the council member for District 9 (north north-east neighborhoods).

About
East Hills has four borders, including Penn Hills to the north and northeast, Wilkinsburg to the east, south and southwest, and the Pittsburgh neighborhoods of Homewood South to the west and Homewood North to the northwest.

East Hills is home to the Imani Christian Academy which is based in the former East Hills Elementary school building.

In 1960, East Hills Shopping Center was built on Robinson Boulevard. Anchored by a Joseph Horne Company store, the mall became largely vacant in the 1980s and was ultimately demolished.

City Steps
The East Hills neighborhood has 5 distinct flights of city steps - all of which are open. Constructed in the late 1940s, the Steps of Pittsburgh were designed to connect pedestrians to public transportation and the business corridors in Homewood and Wilkinsburg. While the East Hills neighborhood has suffered from depopulation in more recent decades, the city steps along Dornbush Street are popular with runners and cyclists. With a 32% grade, Dornbush is the second steepest street in Pittsburgh and ideal for endurance training.

See also
 List of Pittsburgh neighborhoods

References

Neighborhoods in Pittsburgh

East Hills (Pittsburgh)


Boneland is a 2012 novel by Alan Garner, a sequel to The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath. The boy Colin from the earlier novels is now an adult, still living near the top of Alderley Edge but now a professor working at the nearby Jodrell Bank Observatory. His solitary home is a kit-built hut ("A Bergli") in a quarry. He has a form of amnesia which means he remembers nothing from before the age of 13, including his twin sister and his childhood adventures. He visits a psychotherapist and the gradual uncovering of his past forms the main story.

Interleaved with Colin's tale is another story set in the same part of England but at a distant time. A lone Stone-Age cave dweller leaves "Ludcruck" (the chasm of Ludchurch) in search of companionship.

Garner says that the focus of his research for the book was "the universal myth of the sleeping hero". He has written his own experience of psychotherapy into the novel. "Go to the pain", he was told by his therapist, "go to where it hurts the most, and say whatever it tells you." An important item towards the end of the book is a Lower Palaeolithic hand axe. Garner keeps such an axe in his study, although his is from the Acheulean culture while the one in the book is from the even older Abbevillian culture.

References

2012 British novels
2012 fantasy novels
Novels by Alan Garner
Novels set in prehistory
Novels set in Cheshire
Sequel novels
British fantasy novels
Fourth Estate books

Boneland


The Victoria Palace Theatre is a West End theatre in Victoria Street, in the City of Westminster, opposite Victoria Station. The structure is categorised as a Grade II* listed building.

History

Origins
The theatre began life as a small concert room above the stables of the Royal Standard Hotel, a small hotel and tavern built in 1832 at what was then 522 Stockbridge Terrace, on the site of the present theatre – not, as sometimes stated, on land where the train station now stands. The proprietor, John Moy, enlarged the building, and by 1850 it became known as Moy's Music Hall. Alfred Brown took it over in 1863, refurbished it, and renamed it the Royal Standard Music Hall.

The hotel was demolished in 1886, by which time the main line terminus, Victoria Station and its new Grosvenor Hotel, had transformed the area into a major transport hub. The railways were at this time building grand hotel structures at their termini, and Victoria was one of the first. Added to this was the integration of the electric underground system and the building of Victoria Street. The owner of the music hall, Thomas Dickey, had it rebuilt along more ambitious lines in 1886 by Richard Wake, retaining the name Royal Standard Music Hall.

Matcham's theatre
The Royal Standard was demolished in 1910, and in its place was built, at a cost of £12,000, the current theatre, The Victoria Palace. It was designed by prolific theatre architect Frank Matcham, and opened 6 November 1911. The original design featured a sliding roof that helped cool the auditorium during intervals in the summer months.

Under impresario Alfred Butt, the Victoria Palace Theatre continued the musical theatre tradition by presenting mainly varieties, and under later managements, repertory and revues. Perhaps because of its music hall linkage, the plays were not always taken seriously. In 1934, the theatre presented Young England, a patriotic play written by the Rev. Walter Reynolds, then 83. It received such amusingly bad reviews that it became a cult hit and played to full houses for 278 performances before transferring to two other West End theatres.
Intended by its author as a serious work celebrating the triumph of good over evil and the virtues of the Boy Scout Movement, it was received as an uproarious comedy. Before long, audiences had learned the key lines and were joining in at all the choicest moments. The scoutmistress rarely said the line 'I must go and attend to my girls' water' without at least fifty voices in good-humoured support.

A return to revue brought new success. Me and My Girl was a hit in its original production at the theatre, opening in 1937 starring Lupino Lane. In 1939, songs from this show formed the first live broadcast of a performance by the BBC, and listeners could sing along to The Lambeth Walk. In early 1945, towards the end of the war in Europe, variety was presented under the stewardship of Lupino Lane. Headlining the bill from his radio series was Will Hay, with his schoolboy retinue of Charles Hawtrey and John Clark, and among the "turns" was Stainless Stephen, a comic acrobat comedian duo, and Victor Barna (then world champion table tennis player) giving an exhibition, who would invite audience members up on to the stage to see if they could beat him in ten points. From 1947 through 1962, Jack Hylton produced The Crazy Gang series of comedy revues, with a glittering company of variety performers including Flanagan and Allen, Nervo and Knox, and Naughton and Gold.

The long-running Black and White Minstrel Show played through the 1960s until 1972. In 1982, a production of The Little Foxes, saw Elizabeth Taylor making her London stage debut. Another unusually long-running show at the theatre was Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story, that played for 13 years in London, beginning in 1989 (transferring to the Strand Theatre in 1995). After this, the theatre presented mostly revivals of well-known musicals. In 2005, Billy Elliot the Musical opened, garnering rave reviews and Olivier Awards.

The theatre was purchased by Stephen Waley-Cohen in 1991. At the opening in 1911, a gilded statue of ballerina Anna Pavlova was positioned above the cupola of the theatre. This was taken down for its safety during World War II, and was lost. In 2006, a replica of the original statue was restored in its place.

In 2014, the theatre was sold to Delfont Mackintosh Theatres.
After Billy Elliot ended its run in April 2016, the theatre closed for a multi-million pound refurbishment. In December 2017, the Broadway musical Hamilton re-opened the refurbished Victoria Palace.

Notable productions

1930: The Chelsea Follies
1934: Young England
1937: Me and My Girl
1945: Variety
1947: The Crazy Gang
1962: The Black and White Minstrel Show
1973: Carry On London!
1976: Cilla at the Palace
1978: Annie
1982: Windy City
1982: The Little Foxes
1986: Barnum
1986: Charlie Girl
1987: High Society
1989: Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story
1995: Jolson
2000: Fame
2001: Kiss Me, Kate
2002: Grease
2003: Tonight's the Night
2005: Billy Elliot the Musical
2017: Hamilton: An American Musical

Recent productions

Fame (3 October 2000 – 8 September 2001) by Jacques Levy and Steve Margoshes
Kiss Me, Kate (30 August 2001 – 24 August 2002)
Grease (2 October 2002 – 6 September 2003) starring Ben Richards and Lee Latchford-Evans
Tonight's the Night (7 November 2003 – 9 October 2004)
Billy Elliot the Musical (11 May 2005 – 9 April 2016) by Lee Hall, starring Tim Healy and Haydn Gwynne.
Hamilton (21 December 2017 – present) by Lin-Manuel Miranda

Nearby Tube stations
Victoria

Notes

References
Earl, John and Sell, Michael Theatres Trust Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, pp. 145 (Theatres Trust, 2000)
Ronald Bergan: The Great Theatres of London. An Illustrated Companion (Prion: London, 1990) ().
Patricia Dee Berry: Theatrical London (Britain in Old Photographs series) (Alan Sutton: Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1995) ().
Ray Mander and Joe Mitchenson: 'Theatres of London', (Rupert Hart-Davis 1961, New English Library 1975)

External links

Theatre Website
Theatre history
Information about Young England

West End theatres
Theatres completed in 1911
1911 architecture
Theatres in the City of Westminster
Edwardian architecture in London
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Victoria, London
1911 establishments in England
Grade II* listed theatres

Victoria Palace Theatre


The Substitute Bride is the sixth installment of the Precious Hearts Romances Presents series. It stars Paw Diaz, Rafael Rosell and Carla Humphries.

Plot

This episode begins after Wilda's auntie died, when an unexpected driver leaves her auntie dead on the road. Wilda Abrantes now 23, and living presently in 2010, is an unemployed graduate. She seeks help in the classified ads, so she can find a job. She leads herself into the Guttierez engineering firm, but her cousin, who was a recent secretary, tells her the needs and wants of Mr. Guttierez. Also, no one can fall in love with him, and they never last one day, one week, or one month or even a year, after he tricks them into falling in love with him. So Wilda plans on becoming a secretary to show him what he has got. She immediately gets accepted, as she becomes the 24-year-old Wilda Abrantes, and does not even fall for his charms. However, secretly then as months go by, and now 9 months later, Wilda and Brent start falling in love, after a recent conversation on top of the roof's terrace. They have a lovely coffee date before leaving work. This leads to their romance, but both hide their feelings. A few days later, Candra (Carla Humphries) comes home and is in an arranged marriage with Brent, but Wilda finds out Candra is the daughter of the man who left her auntie 7 years ago on the road dead, after running her over. So, she decides to hide her identity as a secretary, but as Brent fights his feelings back, he then unexpectedly gets left by Candra, and unexpectedly Wilda is called in to be his substitute bride. Brent's mother, who already loves Wilda, agrees, even though Candra left. However, as they live a happily ever after, Candra returns, and her father as she does not like what she sees. One night Brent rescues her, and after everything is at peace, they fall in love and live happily ever after, and now both believe that love does end with one.

Cast and characters

Main cast
 Paw Diaz as Wilda Albantes
 Rafael Rosell as Brent Guttierez
Carla Humphries as Candra Dela Rosa

Supporting cast
Ricardo Cepeda as Armando Guttierez
Melissa Mendez as Josie Lopez-Guttierez
Soliman Cruz as Peping Albantes
Frances Ignacio as Elena Albantes
Lorenzo Mara as Hector Dela Rosa
Cara Eriguel as Rory
Manuel Chua as Carlo
JM De Guzman as Jimmy

Guest cast
Julia Montes as Young Wilda
Cheska Ortega as Young Candra
Nikko Buenviaje as Teen Brent
Justin Cuyugan as Sam
Dionne Monsanto as Agnes

See also
Precious Hearts Romances Presents

References

ABS-CBN drama series
2010 Philippine television series debuts
2010 Philippine television series endings
Philippine romantic comedy television series
Television shows based on books
Filipino-language television shows
Television shows filmed in the Philippines

The Substitute Bride


Floyd Andrew Robinson (born May 9, 1936) is a former outfielder in Major League Baseball for the Chicago White Sox (1960–1966), Cincinnati Reds (1967), and the Oakland Athletics and Boston Red Sox (1968). He batted left-handed and threw right-handed.

Early career
He attended San Diego High School in San Diego, California, where he starred in both baseball and football. He was offered a football scholarship to the University of Arizona as a quarterback, but chose to sign a professional baseball contract. He signed directly with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League in 1954, and was acquired by the White Sox when they signed a working agreement with the Padres in 1960.

MLB outfielder
Robinson made his major league debut at age 24 on August 10, 1960 in a 6-0 White Sox home loss to the New York Yankees, starting in right field and going 0-for-3 against Art Ditmar. After batting in double-digit games over a five-week span without a hit, he notched his first career hit on September 18, 1960 in an 8-4 road win over the Detroit Tigers with a sixth-inning single off Jim Bunning. In his next at-bat, he got his first career run-batted-in with a single off Dave Sisler that plated Ted Kluszewski.

Robinson was managed by Hall of Famer Al López, a man he respected a great deal, for most of his seven-year White Sox career. Eddie Stanky managed the 1966 White Sox, which was Robinson's final year with the team. Stanky was known for prickly relationships with his ballplayers.

His first full year in the majors, 1961, was an outstanding one as he finished tied for third in the American League Rookie of the Year voting. He posted a .310 batting average with 11 home runs, 59 runs batted in, 134 hits and 52 bases on balls.

In 1962, he finished 10th in the American League MVP voting (Mickey Mantle won) and had 187 hits in 600 at bats for a .312 batting average, third in the league. He led the league in doubles that year with 45, and was fourth in RBIs with 109. On July 22, 1962, Robinson became part of baseball history with six hits (all singles) in six at-bats in a nine-inning game. He is one of only 35 American Leaguers to accomplish the feat.

In 1964, Robinson came closer to reaching the World Series than he ever would when the White Sox went 98–64, one game behind the 99-63 New York Yankees. It was the second of three straight years that his team finished second in the American League. The White Sox had reached the World Series in 1959, one year before Robinson reached the majors. However, Robinson never played on a team with a losing record.

Robinson's career high in home runs came in 1965 when he hit 14 with 66 RBIs. That was his last major offensive year.

In December 1966 he was traded to the Reds, for whom he played one season, batting .238 with one home run and 10 RBIs in 55 games. In November 1967 he was traded to the Athletics, for whom he batted .247 with one home run and 14 RBIs in 53 games. On July 31 his contract was purchased by the Red Sox, for whom Robinson played 23 games, including his final career game on September 29, 1968. A knee injury in 1967 had cut short his career.

In nine major league seasons, Robinson hit .283 with 67 home runs and 426 RBIs. He accumulated 140 doubles, 36 triples, and 42 stolen bases with 458 runs scored. Defensively, in 886 games Robinson committed 30 errors for a .981 fielding percentage.

Off the field
Robinson is a cousin of former major league outfielder Tommie Reynolds, who played eight years in the majors for five teams from 1963 to 1972.

After baseball, Robinson and his wife Sandra, whom he married in 1965, were also business partners, investing in real estate and apartment buildings and a small grocery store. They especially take pride in their building of the Golden Age Garden, a low-income senior citizen apartment complex in San Diego. In 2007, they established the nonprofit Floyd Robinson Foundation.

In 2009, Robinson was inducted by the San Diego Hall of Champions into the Breitbard Hall of Fame honoring San Diego's finest athletes both on and off the field.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
 List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders

References

External links
, or Retrosheet, or SABR Biography Project

1936 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
Baseball players from Arkansas
Boise Pilots players
Boston Red Sox players
Chicago White Sox players
Cincinnati Reds players
Hawaii Islanders players
Major League Baseball outfielders
Oakland Athletics players
People from Prescott, Arkansas
Rapiños de Occidente players
San Diego Padres (minor league) players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
American expatriate baseball players in Panama
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
San Diego High School alumni
Salem Senators players

Floyd Robinson


The Georgian Governorate (; ) was one of the guberniyas of the Caucasus Viceroyalty of the Russian Empire. Its capital was Tiflis (Tbilisi). It was divided into uyezds of Gori, Dusheti (Its center was Tbilisi), Lori, Signagi and Telavi.

The Georgia governorate was established in 1801 following the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti.  In 1840 it was expanded to form the Georgia-Imeretia Governorate, incorporating the territory of the Imeretia Oblast (Its center was Kutaisi and was constituted from uzeyds of Kutaisi, Vakha, Rakvta (Raczyn during Russian rule), Sachkhere, Cheri and Bagdati) and Armenian Oblast (Its center was Erivan).

Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)
Governorates of the Caucasus
1800s in Georgia (country)
1820s in Georgia (country)
1840s in Georgia (country)
19th century in Georgia (country)
States and territories established in 1801
States and territories disestablished in 1840
1800s establishments in Georgia (country)
1840s disestablishments in Georgia (country)
1801 establishments in the Russian Empire
1840 disestablishments in the Russian Empire

Georgia Governorate


Dwayne Morgan is a Canadian spoken word artist, motivational speaker and event organizer based in Toronto, Ontario.

Morgan began his career as a spoken word artist in 1993
. He is the founder of Up From The Roots Entertainment, which was established in 1994 to promote the positive artistic contributions of African Canadian and urban influenced artists. He received both the African Canadian Achievement Award for Youth Achievement, and the Harry Jerome Award for Excellence in the Arts in 1998. Morgan has self-published two chapbooks and three full volumes of his poetry.

As a producer, Morgan has now produced over 100 events, the largest of which are the annual spoken word concerts When Brothers Speak and When Sisters Speak, and the Toronto International Poetry Slam on Labour Day weekend each year.

Morgan collaborated with Driftwood Studios to film Three Knocks, a ten-minute film based on his domestic violence poem of the same name, which premiered at the 2006 Reel World Film Festival in Toronto.

He was a member of the 2007 Toronto Slam Team formed by Up From The Roots. The team finished second at the 2007 Canadian Festival of Spoken Word in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Morgan was the host of Diasporic Music, a monthly spoken word show on CKLN-FM, and is an advice columnist in the free daily paper, 24 Hours, in Toronto. He is also a Toronto regional representative on the board of directors for Spoken Word Canada, and is an active member of the Spoken Word Arts Network (SWAN).

Morgan was nominated as the candidate of the New Democratic Party in Scarborough North for the 2018 Ontario general election. He placed second, to the incumbent Progressive Conservative candidate, Raymond Cho.

Electoral history

Bibliography

Poetry books
Long Overdue - one of the most popular that includes must read poems.
The Man Behind the Mic
The Making of A Man

Chapbooks
Straight From The Roots
The Revolution Starts Within

Awards
African Canadian Achievement Award for Youth Achievement, 1998
Harry Jerome Award for Excellence in the Arts, 1998
The Evolution, Canadian Urban Music Award for Best Spoken Word Recording, 2001
Soul Searching, Canadian Urban Music Award for Best Spoken Word Recording, 2003
"Mother I Understand" from A Decade in the Making, Canadian Urban Music Award for Best Spoken Word Recording, 2005

See also

Slam poetry

References

External links

Black Canadian musicians
20th-century Canadian poets
Canadian male poets
Canadian spoken word poets
Living people
Musicians from Toronto
Writers from Toronto
Slam poets
21st-century Canadian poets
Black Canadian writers
20th-century Canadian male writers
1974 births
21st-century Canadian male writers
Ontario New Democratic Party candidates in Ontario provincial elections
Harry Jerome Award winners

Dwayne Morgan


"Living Type" is the third single released from Powderfinger's second album Double Allergic. The single was released on 11 November 1996.  The song, written by Bernard Fanning, the band's lead singer, concerned the victims of Charles Manson.  The song was well received by the public, who voted it onto the Triple J Hottest 100, 1996.  This was the first time Powderfinger had appeared on the chart.

History
"Living Type" was released with one b-side track, dubbed "Other Delicacies".  The track consisted of six 90 second blocks of music, with instrumental backgrounds. Guitarist Darren Middleton explained that the single would only have two tracks listed, and when referring to "Other Delicacies", said that "all the songs are recorded in a block so you can't skip them, you have to listen to the whole [single]".

"Living Type" was first performed live by Powderfinger whilst opening for You Am I on their "Uptight Express Tour". The shows were considered highly successful; much more so than Powderfinger's live performances with American heavy metal band Pantera, which the band found to be problematic.

Song meanings
Whilst there was some speculation that "Living Type" was "a cheesy, angsty love song", Powderfinger's lead singer, Bernard Fanning (who wrote the song), said it was actually about Charles Manson, and the people affected by his cult. Fanning said that he was unable to control what people thought about the song, and so didn't try, but that "cheesy love song" that it had been dubbed was "not the intention" of the song. In a subsequent interview, Fanning told Juice that people had been asking him if "Living Type" was about menstruation, which he dismissed as being "so stupid". However, he also re-iterated his statement that he was unable to control interpretations of the song, saying that "people have a freedom to think what they like".

Music video

The music video for "Living Type" was directed by David Barker, and filmed in Harrisville, near Powderfinger's home town; Brisbane. It was proclaimed as "most lavish visual work to date" by numerous commentators.  The video tells the story of Squinty B Jones (played by Fanning), a man on the run from forces unknown (it is likely he is running from a psychiatric ward, which would tie in with the song's background).  The video was praised as "dripping with Australiana." When asked which Powderfinger videos "had been crap", drummer Jon Coghill jokingly said that they all had, before stating that he liked the videos for "Living Type" and "Good-Day Ray", and stating that he hadn't always understood the "vibe" of the band's other videos.

Response
"Living Type" was received favourably by the public, who voted it onto the Triple J Hottest 100, 1996. This was the first time Powderfinger had appeared on the chart, and "Pick You Up", another single from Double Allergic, came in at #6 on the chart.

Track listing
 "Living Type"
 "Other delicacies" ("Entrees", "Mains" "Dessert")

Charts

References

Powderfinger songs
1996 singles
Cultural depictions of Charles Manson
1996 songs
Polydor Records singles
Songs written by Jon Coghill
Songs written by John Collins (Australian musician)
Songs written by Bernard Fanning
Songs written by Ian Haug
Songs written by Darren Middleton

Living Type


James Daniel (born January 17, 1953)  is a former American football coach. He most recently served as the tight ends coach for the National Football League (NFL)'s Pittsburgh Steelers.

Biography

College career

Daniel was a 4-year letter winner playing offensive guard at Alabama State University.

Coaching career

Daniel began his coaching career as an offensive line coach at Enterprise High School from 1974–1980 after graduating from Alabama State. He enjoyed a high level of success at the high school level, as during this five year time span eleven of his offensive linemen earned college scholarships.

He moved to Auburn in 1981 to serve as the offensive line coach on head coach Pat Dye's staff from 1981 to 1992. During his 12-year tenure, the Tigers appeared in nine consecutive bowl games, four linemen were selected for All-American honours and several selected All-SEC.

Daniel's first professional level coaching experience came as a part of the NFL's Minority Fellowship program, with the New Orleans Saints in 1988 and with the Denver Broncos in 1992 under head coach Dan Reeves. He made his professional-level debut with the New York Giants, serving as tight end coach from 1993 to 1996. He moved to the Atlanta Falcons in 1997, serving in the same capacity from 1997 to 2003.  Daniel was instrumental in the development of tight end Alge Crumpler, who led the Falcons in receptions in 2002 and 2003 and has earned four Pro Bowl selections as well as two All-Pro honours.  Daniel also served as the offensive line coach in 2000.

Daniel joined the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2004, replacing Ken Whisenhunt as tight ends coach after Whisenhunt was promoted to offensive coordinator. He has been instrumental in the development of tight end Heath Miller, guiding Miller to become an all-around player and a solid postseason contributor. Under Daniel's tutelage, Miller has earned a Pro Bowl selection while also setting team records for single-season receptions, postseason receptions, touchdowns, and yards for the tight end position.

Personal life

Daniel and his wife, Myrtis, have no children.

References

External links

1953 births
Living people
Alabama State Hornets football players
Atlanta Falcons coaches
Auburn Tigers football coaches
High school football coaches in Alabama
New York Giants coaches
People from Wetumpka, Alabama
Pittsburgh Steelers coaches
Players of American football from Alabama
African-American coaches of American football
African-American players of American football
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople

James Daniel


Giorgio Pini (1 February 1899, in Bologna – 30 March 1987, in Rome) was an Italian politician and journalist.

Biography
Pini studied law at the University of Bologna and served in World War I before joining the Bologna fascio in 1920. Following the establishment of the fascist state, he became an important figure in the journalists syndicate along with the likes of Lando Ferretti and Telesio Interlandi. As a journalist he made his name as an editor for il Resto del Carlino (1928-1930) and Il Gazzettino (1936) before graduating to the editorship of Il Popolo d'Italia in December 1936. He retained this post until 1943, although in the Italian Social Republic Pini, who was a noted moderate, returned to the local Resto. He did however serve as an undersecretary in the Ministry of the Interior in 1944.

Pini was most noted in Fascist Italy for his biography of Benito Mussolini, a hagiography from which Il Duce profited financially. It was translated by Luigi Villari into English as The Official Life on Benito Mussolini in 1939. After the Second World War he released an updated version of this book with Duilio Susmel whilst in 1950 he published Itinerario Tragica 1943/44 which was also pro-fascist in nature. His continuing justifications for fascism led him to far right politics in the post-war era and he was a founding member of the Italian Social Movement (MSI). Within the MSI he was part of the 'left-wing' tendency that sought to add socialist economics to their rhetoric and when his position was not adopted he left in January 1952 to help launch the Raggruppamento Sociale Repubblicano with Concetto Pettinato. Pini continued his career on the socialist fringes of the far right and frequently attacked the MSI in later years for forging links to regimes in Greece, South Africa and Portugal that he dismissed as reactionary.

References

1899 births
1987 deaths
Politicians from Bologna
Italian fascists
Italian newspaper editors
Italian male journalists
Italian military personnel of World War I
Italian Social Movement politicians
University of Bologna alumni
20th-century Italian politicians

Giorgio Pini