Galvanized Yankees was a term from the American Civil War denoting former Confederate prisoners of war who swore allegiance to the United States and joined the Union Army.  Approximately 5,600 former Confederate soldiers enlisted in the United States Volunteers, organized into six regiments of infantry between January 1864 and November 1866. Of those, more than 250 had begun their service as Union soldiers, were captured in battle, then enlisted in prison to join a regiment of the Confederate States Army. They surrendered to Union forces in December 1864 and were held by the United States as deserters, but were saved from prosecution by being enlisted in the 5th and 6th U.S. Volunteers.  An additional 800 former Confederates served in volunteer regiments raised by the states, forming ten companies.  Four of those companies saw combat in the Western Theater against the Confederate Army, two served on the western frontier, and one became an independent company of U.S. Volunteers, serving in Minnesota.

The term "galvanized" has also been applied to former Union soldiers enlisting in the Confederate Army, including the use of "galvanized Yankees" to designate them. At least 1,600 former Union prisoners of war enlisted in Confederate service in late 1864 and early 1865, most of them recent German or Irish immigrants who had been drafted into Union regiments.

The practice of recruiting from prisoners of war began in 1862 at Camp Douglas at Chicago, Illinois, with attempts to enlist Confederate prisoners who expressed reluctance to exchange following their capture at Fort Donelson. Some 228 prisoners of mostly Irish extraction were enlisted by Col. James A. Mulligan before the War Department banned further recruitment March 15.  The ban continued until 1863, except for a few enlistments of foreign-born Confederates into largely ethnic regiments.

Three factors led to a resurrection of the concept: an outbreak of the American Indian Wars by  tribes in Minnesota and on the Great Plains; the disinclination of paroled but not exchanged Federal troops to be used to fight them; and protests of the Confederate government that any use of paroled troops in Indian warfare was a violation of the Dix–Hill prisoner of war cartel. In January 1863, following issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation, the United States began to actively recruit black soldiers. The following May, the Confederate Congress passed a joint resolution suspending exchange of black Union soldiers and their white officers, and ordering that they instead be put on trial and punished.  On July 30, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln ordered suspension of exchanges of Confederate prisoners until the Confederacy agreed to treat black prisoners the same as white prisoners.

Gen. Gilman Marston, commandant of the huge prisoner of war camp at Point Lookout, Maryland, recommended that Confederate prisoners be enlisted in the U.S. Navy, which Secretary of War Edwin Stanton approved December 21.  General Benjamin Butler's jurisdiction included Point Lookout, and he advised Stanton that more prisoners could be recruited for the Army than the Navy. The matter was then referred to President Lincoln, who gave verbal authorization on January 2, 1864, and formal authorization on March 5 to raise the 1st United States Volunteer Infantry for three years' service without restrictions as to use. On September 1, Lincoln approved 1,750 more Confederate recruits in order to bolster his election chances in Pennsylvania, enough to form two more regiments, to be sent to the frontier to fight American Indians. The final two regiments of U.S. Volunteers were recruited in the spring of 1865 to replace the 2nd and 3rd U.S.V.I., which had been enlisted as one-year regiments.

Due to doubts about their ultimate loyalty, galvanized Yankees in federal service were generally assigned to garrison forts far from the Civil War battlefields or in action against Indians in the west.  However, desertion rates among the units of galvanized Yankees were little different from those of state volunteer units in Federal service. Galvanized troops of the U.S. Volunteers on the frontier served as far west as Camp Douglas, Utah; as far south as Fort Union, New Mexico; and as far north as Fort Benton, Montana.

Origin of term
The National Park Service describes the origin of the expression "Galvanized Yankee" in a bulletin published in 1992 for visitors to the Gateway Arch National Park (then known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial):
The term "galvanized" is most commonly associated with metal when it is coated with zinc to protect it from corrosion. In the process the surface color of the metal is altered, but underneath the coating the steel is unchanged. During the Civil War, in both Northern and Southern prison camps, soldiers sometimes decided to "galvanize," or change sides, to save themselves from the horrors of prison life. Like the metal, these galvanized soldiers in many cases were still "Good old Rebels," or "Billy Yanks," underneath their adopted uniforms.

The expression "galvanized Yankees" sprang up as a term of deprecation among Confederate prisoners for those who chose to enlist. At the same time, the use of "white-washed Rebels" as a reference came into being among Federal state regiments stationed on the frontier at the time when the 1st U.S.V.I. arrived. Dee Brown cites documentation from March and April 1865 indicating that the term was first used to characterize captured Federals who turned Confederate. The general use of "galvanized Yankees" originated in a story in the Springfield Republican (Springfield, Massachusetts) on May 25, 1865, by Samuel Bowles, who wrote:
Among the present limited number of troops on the Plain are two regiments of infantry, all from the rebel army.  They have cheerfully re-enlisted into the federal service. They are known in the army as "white-washed rebs," or as they call themselves, "galvanized Yankees."

Federal regiments composed of "galvanized Yankees"

United States Volunteers
Concise histories of all units of U.S. Volunteer Infantry are at Frederick H. Dyer's Compendium, p. 1717

1st U.S. Volunteer Infantry

The 1st U.S.V.I. was recruited at Point Lookout prison camp between January 21 and April 22, 1864, as a three-year regiment. Assigned to the District of Eastern Virginia, Department of Virginia and North Carolina, it moved to Norfolk, Virginia, where on orders of General Grant it was relegated to provost duty there, Portsmouth, Virginia, and Elizabeth City, North Carolina.  In August 1864, Grant ordered it to the Department of the Northwest in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The 1st U.S.V.I. traveled by ship to New York City, and by train to Chicago, where it received further orders splitting the regiment. Four companies continued to Milwaukee, while six companies (B, C, D, E, H, and K) were sent to St. Louis, Missouri, arriving there August 22. They moved by the steamboat Effie Deans and by forced march to Fort Rice, Dakota Territory, arriving there October 17 for garrison duty. Conditions were hard over the winter, and fully 11% of the command died of illness, primarily scurvy. Between May 10 and August 31, 1865, Company K garrisoned Fort Berthold and Company B the trading post known as Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone, obliged to travel by steamboat through hostile territory.  Four companies were present at Fort Rice, along with two companies of the 4th U.S.V.I., when a large force of Lakota and Cheyenne led by Sitting Bull attacked for three hours on July 28, 1865, making away with the entire horse herd and killing two soldiers. In October 1865, the battalion returned to St. Louis to muster out November 27.

The four companies continuing on to Wisconsin in August 1864 were ordered to the District of Minnesota. Their muster out in July 1865 was canceled and in October, they were ordered to build and garrison Fort Fletcher, Kansas, and man two outposts at Monument Station and Ponds Creek Station, also in Kansas, to protect the new Butterfield Overland Despatch stagecoach route. Companies A, F, G, and I of the 1st U.S.V.I. mustered out at Fort Leavenworth on May 22, 1866, after 25 months of active service, the longest service of any of the "galvanized Yankees."

2nd U.S. Volunteer Infantry

Authorized in October 1864 at the Rock Island prisoner camp in Illinois as a one-year regiment, the 2nd U.S.V.I. was not organized until February 1865. It was ordered to the Department of the Missouri and sent by rail to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where it was assigned to duty in the District of Upper Arkansas along the Santa Fe Trail from the Little Arkansas River to Fort Dodge, Kansas, and along the Cimarron Crossing to Fort Lyon, Colorado. From Fort Leavenworth the unit marched to Fort Riley, and stationed companies there and at Salem, Fort Ellsworth, Fort Larned, Fort Zarah and Fort Scott, Kansas. Companies F and G were involved in the establishment of Fort Dodge in the summer of 1865. Their duties involved scouting, wagon train escort and operating against Indians. Members of the regiment were present as guards at the signing of the Little Arkansas Treaty. The regiment mustered out at Fort Leavenworth November 7, 1865.

3rd U.S. Volunteer Infantry

The 3rd U.S.V.I. was authorized at the Rock Island prisoner camp in October 1864 as a one-year regiment but not organized until February 1865. It was ordered to the Department of the Missouri, arriving at Fort Kearny, Nebraska, April 9, 1865, where it was assigned to duty in the Districts of Nebraska and Colorado. Companies A and B were stationed at Fort Kearney; C and D at Cottonwood, Colorado; E and F at Fort Rankin; and G and H at Julesburg, Colorado, protecting overland mail routes from Indian attacks. Companies I and K were sent to Fort Laramie, and on May 15, 1865, were parceled out in small detachments along 300 miles of the Pacific Telegraph Company line from Laramie to South Pass, Territory of Idaho (now Wyoming). Company I was involved in numerous skirmishes, including combat at the Battle of the Platte Bridge Station, and suffered higher casualties than any other company of the 3rd U.S.V.I. The regiment mustered out November 29, 1865, having served with distinction, including a low desertion rate.

4th U.S. Volunteer Infantry

The 4th U.S.V.I. was organized as a three-year regiment at Point Lookout on October 31, 1864, although only six companies could be induced to enlist. The quality of recruit was not as high as that of the earlier 1st U.S.V.I. The regiment waited at Portsmouth, Virginia, in hopes that more troops could be raised, but calls for men from the west led to its transfer to the frontier at the end of April 1865. 10% deserted before the regiment reached Sioux City, Iowa, in Department of the Northwest, on May 28.  Many were arrested and held in confinement before returning to the ranks. Two companies were stationed at Fort Rice, then at Fort Sully; one at Fort Berthold; and three at Fort Randall until June 1866, when the six companies were recalled to Leavenworth, mustering out as they arrived between June 18 and July 2.

5th U.S. Volunteer Infantry

The 5th U.S.V.I. was enlisted at the Alton and Camp Douglas prisoner camps in Illinois in March and April 1865 as a three-year regiment, then ordered to Fort Leavenworth on April 28, 1865, at the urging of Maj. Gen. Grenville Dodge, commanding general of the Department of the Missouri. From there it moved to Fort Riley between May 18 and May 28 to relieve units of the 2nd U.S.V.I. in guarding the Santa Fe Trail. In August three companies were sent to Fort Halleck, Idaho Territory (now Wyoming); two companies to Camp Wardwell, Colorado; two companies to Fort Lyon, and Company B to Denver for quartermaster duty.  Companies saw periodic duty at Fort McPherson, Nebraska; Fort Collins, Colorado; and Fort John Buford, Wyoming.  Companies C and D, consisting mostly of former Union soldiers who had been captured after enlisting in the Confederate 10th Tennessee, escorted the Sawyers expedition to build a road to Montana and garrisoned Fort Reno for nearly a year. Companies A through G reassembled at Fort Kearny in August 1866 and mustered out on October 11.  Companies H, I, and K garrisoned Fort Lyon until October 1866, when Gen. William T. Sherman closed the post for deplorable living conditions. They marched to Fort Leavenworth, where they mustered out on November 13, the last of the "galvanized Yankees".

6th U.S. Volunteer Infantry
The 6th U.S.V.I. was recruited from prisoner camps at Camp Chase, Ohio (two companies); Camp Morton, Indiana (two companies); and Camp Douglas, Illinois (six companies), as a three-year regiment, and assembled on April 2, 1865, at Camp Fry near Chicago for outfitting and drill. It traveled by rail to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on May 10–11, 1865, the only regiment of "galvanized Yankees" to arrive on the frontier intact and at full strength, 976 officers and men. Between May 14 and May 31, they marched to Fort Kearny, Nebraska, where it dispersed to replace the various companies of the 3rd U.S.V.I. guarding the telegraph line and the Oregon Trail. In August Gen. Patrick E. Connor ordered regimental headquarters and three companies to garrison Camp Douglas, Utah; and two companies west from Fort Rankin, Colorado, to replace the cavalry along the telegraph line west of Fort Laramie.  35 of the 275 men ordered to Utah deserted before their arrival October 9. The companies in Utah were relieved by regulars in April 1866 and marched to Fort Bridger.  The other seven companies frequently changed stations, posted at some point to Camp Wardwell, Julesburg, and Fort Sedgwick, Colorado; Post Alkali, Fort Cottonwood, Mud Springs, Plum Creek, and Columbus, Nebraska; Fort Wallace, Kansas; and Fort Laramie, Fort Halleck, Fort Caspar, and Sweetwater Station, Territory of Idaho.  In October 1866 all companies except Company B at Fort Wallace were relieved by regulars and assembled at Fort Kearny, where they mustered out between October 10 and 15.  Company B marched across Kansas to Fort Leavenworth and mustered out on November 3.

1st Independent Company, U.S. Volunteers
See "1st Connecticut Cavalry" below

State volunteer units in Federal service
1st Connecticut Cavalry
The 1st Regiment Cavalry, Connecticut Volunteers was originally raised in November 1861 as the 1st Battalion Connecticut Cavalry, and campaigned in West Virginia, the Shenandoah Valley, and the Second Battle of Bull Run.  In September 1863, authorized to expand to a regiment, the 1st Connecticut Cavalry while on Provost Guard at Camp Chesebrough in Baltimore, recruited 82 replacements from among Confederate prisoners kept at Fort Delaware, placing most in Company G (organized October 5, 1863) and spreading the rest throughout the regiment. In the spring of 1864 Gen. Grant directed that all units containing former Confederates would be employed on the western frontier.  All of the former Confederates in the 1st Connecticut Cavalry were placed into Company G and on April 26, 1864, sent to Fort Snelling, Minnesota, also serving at Forts Ridgely and Ripley. On April 6, 1865, the remaining 40 former Confederates of the company transferred to the U.S. Volunteers and were designated the 1st Independent Company, U.S.V.. The 1st Independent Company remained on duty in the District of Minnesota until mustered out on November 16, 1865.

3rd Maryland Cavalry
The service of the 3rd Regiment Cavalry, Maryland Volunteers began on August 8, 1864, with the raising of three companies at Baltimore.  In September and October, Companies D, E, F, and G  were recruited from Confederate prisoners at Fort Delaware, most of whom had been captured at the Battle of Gettysburg, numbering approximately 450 in all. The regiment remained in garrison at Camp Schenck in Baltimore, seeking to raise more troops, assigned to the Cavalry Reserve of the Eighth Corps until officially organized on January 9, 1864. Sent by steamship to New Orleans and Madisonville, Louisiana, the 3rd Maryland Cavalry took part in the Red River Campaign, in the Atchafalaya Expedition in the first week of June 1864, and in August was dismounted to participate in the siege of Fort Morgan. Disease seriously depleted the ranks of the regiment, and in December 1864, the 3rd Maryland Cavalry consolidated into a six-company battalion.  Company D became part of Company E, and Company G part of Company F, participating in the campaign to capture Mobile, Alabama in March and April 1865.  The 3rd Maryland Cavalry was the only unit of "galvanized Yankees" in Federal service to actively campaign against Confederate forces. At the end of hostilities it was assigned to the Department of Mississippi and garrisoned Natchez, Mississippi, through the summer of 1865. The battalion mustered out at Vicksburg on September 7, 1865.

3rd Pennsylvania Heavy Artillery
Battery M, 3rd Regiment Heavy Artillery, Pennsylvania Volunteers was raised in Philadelphia, then recruited prisoners at Fort Delaware in July and August 1863 to fill out its ranks.  It was apparently over-recruited in numbers. The battery moved to Fortress Monroe to train, where some members were induced to join the newly created 188th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry.

4th Delaware Infantry
Company C of the 4th Regiment Infantry, Delaware Volunteers is claimed to have been recruited in 1862 or 1863 from prisoners at Fort Delaware, but claims have not been substantiated through checks of muster rolls.

11th Ohio Cavalry
The 11th Regiment Cavalry, Ohio Volunteers was originally raised as four companies of the 7th Ohio Cavalry in October 1861. It was sent west for duty on the Indian frontier in February 1862 to resolve a political dispute after its commander refused to consolidate with the 6th Ohio Cavalry. Permanently detached and given the designation 1st Independent Battalion Ohio Cavalry, it arrived at Fort Laramie on May 30, 1862.  Four additional companies were recruited between June 26 and July 31, 1863, including approximately 40 Confederate prisoners from Camp Chase who became members of Company E. Originally called to service to repel John Hunt Morgan's raid through Ohio, the companies were also sent west to combine with the 1st Independent Battalion into the new 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry.  They left Camp Dennison August 1 for Fort Leavenworth, reporting for duty August 13. While awaiting supplies, the battalion joined in pursuit of Quantrill's Raiders following the Lawrence Massacre. After marching 150 miles, they were recalled and marched to Fort Laramie between September 2 and October 10.  En route, four of Company E's recruits plotted to involve all Confederates in the company in a mutiny when it reached Julesburg, but were disarmed and arrested before the attempt could be made.  In July and August 1864, Capt. Henry E. Palmer was assigned to deliver a detachment of 60 recruits, all former members of Morgan's cavalry force, from Camp Chase to Fort Kearny, where they became Company K of the 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry.  In August and September 1865 "galvanized" Companies E and K accompanied Connor's Powder River Expedition.  Both companies returned to Fort Laramie, where they continued guard duties along the stage and telegraph lines until mustering out on July 14, 1866.

Ahl's Battery
see Ahl's Heavy Artillery Company

Confederate forces composed of "galvanized Yankees"
Confederate recruitment of Union prisoners of war was authorized by Confederate Secretary of War James A. Seddon on September 30, 1864, after inquires from Gen. Braxton Bragg to recruit foreign-born prisoners.  Seddon had as early as March 1863 granted discretionary permission to commanders including Gen. John Pemberton to recruit prisoners, but few if any, were actually enlisted.  A concerted recruiting effort began on October 12 and continued to the end of the war. At least four Confederate units were recruited, including three units of Regulars in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States.

Confederate regulars
Brooks' Battalion, Confederate Regular Infantry
Recruited from prisoners held at the stockade in Florence, South Carolina, the unit was organized October 10, 1864, as "Brooks' Battalion of Foreigners," saw brief front-line service in McLaws Division until December 18, 1864, then was returned to Florence because of desertions and mutiny.
Tucker's Confederate Regiment
Recruited from prisons at Florence, South Carolina; Salisbury, North Carolina; and Richmond, Virginia, the unit organized October 16, 1864, as the "1st Foreign Battalion," was later increased to regimental size and renamed "1st Foreign Legion," then was re-designated February 28, 1865, as Tucker's Confederate Regiment. It had 72 men serving as pioneer troops at the surrender April 26, 1865.
8th Confederate Battalion
Recruited at Florence, South Carolina, the unit organized December 26, 1864, as the "2nd Foreign Battalion," later known as "2nd Foreign Legion", and was re-designated February 13, 1865, as 8th Confederate Battalion.

State volunteer regiments in Confederate service
10th Tennessee

In October 1864, John G. O'Neill, colonel of the 10th Tennessee Regiment (Irish Volunteers), was authorized to recruit Union prisoners at Andersonville and Millen, Georgia, to replenish the depleted ranks of the regiment. O'Neill, recovering from wounds received at the Battle of Resaca, appears to have delegated part of the task to a newly appointed lieutenant colonel, Michael Burke. In October and November 1864 O'Neill and Burke enlisted more than 250 soldiers of a number of Union regiments. Efforts were made at first to recruit Irish immigrants in compliance with Seddon's original instructions, but when few complied, native-born Union soldiers were enlisted. The recruits were required to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, and were not issued arms or ammunition until the night before their first engagement.

Held under strict camp guard, they were sent to Mobile, Alabama while the 10th Tennessee itself advanced to the Battle of Franklin. Organized as Burke's Battalion, 10th Tennessee, they were made part of an ad hoc defense force assembled by Lt. Col. William W. Wier and sent by train towards Tupelo, Mississippi, to repel a raid along the Mobile and Ohio Railroad by two brigades of Union cavalry under the command of Brig. Gen. Benjamin Grierson.  The Union cavalry force had already captured a substantial number of Brig. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest's dismounted cavalry encamped at Verona on Christmas Day. Burke's Battalion and the 17th Arkansas were sent with a battery of artillery aboard the first train to block the tracks at Egypt Station, a mile west of Aberdeen, Mississippi.

On the evening of December 27, 1864, six members of Burke's Battalion deserted and made their way into the Union lines, where they reported the presence of the former prisoners and the likelihood that they would not resist any Union attack. The next morning Grierson's 1st Brigade advanced and came under fire from Confederate skirmishers, including Burke's Battalion, which was ensconced in a stockade east of the rail line.  After suffering a number of casualties, the 2nd New Jersey Cavalry responded with a charge in which it took severe casualties, including 22 dead, and lost 80 horses but captured more than 500 prisoners, among whom were Burke and 254 former Union soldiers from Burke's Battalion of the 10th Tennessee.

Grierson's prisoners were shipped by steamer to the Union prison camp at Alton, Illinois, where the claims of the "galvanized Yankees" that they desired restoration to their original units were investigated.  Major General Dodge recommended on March 5, 1865, that all the former Union soldiers as well as a number of Confederate troops be enlisted in the U.S. Volunteers for service in the West. The recommendation for clemency was resisted by the Judge Advocate General's Office in Washington, D.C., which advocated that the former Union soldiers be tried for desertion, citing testimony from Union officers at Egypt Station that they resisted at the battle until their ammunition was exhausted. Dodge's recommendation was accepted, however, and the prisoners were permitted to enlist in the 5th and 6th U.S. Volunteers.

O'Neill returned to Andersonville and recruited 150 more prisoners for the 10th Tennessee in January 1865, and approximately 165 more in March.

See also
Scalawag
List of United States Volunteer Civil War units
In cinema:
 Major Dundee
 Two Flags West

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

Dyer, Frederick H. (1908, reprinted 1979), A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion., Vol. 2. Morningside Press. On-line version by Tufts University

Simon, John Y., ed., The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Southern Illinois University Press (1967- ) Multivolume complete edition of letters to and from Grant

The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies  ("O.R.")

External links
1st United States Volunteer Infantry
 Brooks' Battalion of Foreigners: A story of desperation, mutiny, and bravery
When Yankees Fought Yankees, Brian Chastain (2015), an account of the Battle of Egypt Station and Burke's battalion

Military units and formations of the Union Army
Social history of the American Civil War

Galvanized Yankees


Zurab Konstantinovich Tsereteli (, ; born 4 January 1934) is a Georgian-Russian painter, sculptor and architect known for large-scale and at times controversial monuments. Tsereteli has served as the President of the Russian Academy of Arts since 1997.

Life
Zurab Konstantinovich Tsereteli was born in Tbilisi on 4 January 1934. Tsereteli studied at Tbilisi State Academy of Arts, graduating in 1958. The same year, he married Inessa Andronikashvili, a princess from a noble Georgian family that claimed patrilineal descent from Byzantine Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos.

Between the years 1960–1963, Tsereteli worked as a staff artist as the Georgian Academy of Sciences, participating in research expeditions, which in turn served to influence his work. Tsereteli was then granted the position of senior master at the industrial combine of the USSR's Arts Foundation in Tbilisi, where he began to experiment with bronze, stone, glass, wood, and mosaics, as well as creating group commissions for public buildings.

In 1964, he made his first trip abroad to France. He stayed in Paris for three months, during which time visited Pablo Picasso in his studio. This experience served to greatly shape his later creative production. At a later stage he also became acquainted with Marc Chagall and other Impressionist and Post-Impressionist artists, whose characteristic influences can also be seen in the artist's work.

Following his return home, Tsereteli became the chief designer of Soviet resorts on the Black Sea, such as Pitsunda (1967) and Adler (1972). In these works, he combined monumental sculpture, architectural scenery, and three-dimensional mosaic compositions. Following his completion of the project in Pitsunda in 1967, Tsereteli was awarded the title of Honoured Artist of Georgia.

In the 1970s, Tsereteli continued to make public projects in Tbilisi, Ulyanovsk, Yalta and other cities. In this period, Tsereteli also designed several Soviet embassies and consulates over the world, such as those in Brazil, Portugal, and Japan.

In 1978–79, Tsereteli was invited to teach painting as a visiting professor at the College at Brockport, State University of New York. During his stay, he completed and presented to the college two public sculptures on the behalf of the people of the USSR: Prometheus (Light and Knowledge to the World), installed in front of the Allen Administration Building, and Joy and Happiness to All the Children of the World, placed by the Drake Memorial Library. The latter was created in collaboration with Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation in honour of the 1979 Special Olympics held in Brockport and the International Year of the Child.

In 1980, Tsereteli was appointed as the chief designer for the XXII Summer Olympic Games in Moscow. That same year, he completed A Hymn to Man, which sits atop the Concert and Cinema hall of the Izmailovo Hotel Complex, constructed for the Olympics and received the Order of "Friendship of Peoples". In 1981, he became a professor at his alma mater, the Tbilisi Academy of Arts.

In 1983, he created Friendship Forever, in Moscow's Tishinskaya Square (1983), dedicated to the fellowship between Georgia and Russia. The architectural part of the monument was designed by Andrey Voznesensky. In the same period, Tsereteli began work on two large-scale projects in Tbilisi: the monument to Saint Nina (1988-1994), and the History of Georgia complex (1985–present). In 1988, Tsereteli was elected an Academician of the USSR Academy of Arts and his sculptural composition Break the Wall of Distrust was installed on Canon Street, London. In 1990, Good Defeats Evil, Tsereteli's interpretation of St. George slaying the dragon as an allegory for world peace in the modern age, was unveiled at the United Nations Headquarters.

In the 1990s, Tsereteli continued to work on public commissions for the city of Moscow, which many insist was due to his personal friendship with mayor Yuri Luzhkov. The most significant of these projects include: the reconstruction of Cathedral of Christ the Savior, Manege Square, the War Memorial Complex on Poklonnaya Gora, the Moscow Zoo, as well as the 98m tall Peter the Great, monument erected in 1996–97, which has caused mixed feelings among the citizens of Moscow.

The Birth of the New Man was inaugurated in Seville, Spain in 1995, in celebration of the European discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus. The following year, in 1996, Marbella also received a sculpture, entitled Victory.

In March 2016, he was appointed UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador.

In 1997, Tsereteli was elected the President of the Russian Academy of Arts. He established the Moscow Museum of Modern Art in 1995, and it officially opened its doors in 1999, becoming the first state museum in the country entirely dedicated to modern and contemporary art. In 1998, Tsereteli had his first solo exhibition at the New Manege, which was dedicated to the memory of his wife, Inessa. This show became the starting point of the numerous travelling shows of his works, which followed in the 2000s-2010s in Russia, Georgia, Latvia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Bulgaria, Italy, France, the United States, Australia, China, and Japan.

In 2001, the Gallery of Arts of Tsereteli was opened in Moscow as part of the museums and exhibitions complex of the Russian Academy of Arts. In 2006, Tsereteli unveiled his monument To the Struggle Against World Terrorism, or The Tear of Grief, in Bayonne, NJ. It was donated to the United States as an official gift by Russia in the aftermath of 9/11 attacks to show support and solidarity for the American people.

In 2009–10, he was elected a Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (Austria), given the title of Chevalier of the National Order of the Legion of Honor by France, as well as a 1st Rank Order "For Services to the Motherland" by the Russian Federation. In 2011, he received two awards from the Roman Academy of Fine Arts: the "For Life in Art" Prize and the International Giuseppe Sciacca Award for significant contribution to the arts. In 2014, Tsereteli received the UNESCO Five Continents Medal for his contribution to world culture, and in 2015 was elected a Member of the Chinese Academy of Fine Arts.

In 2005, Holocaust was donated by Russia to Israel and opened in Jerusalem. Some of his other works include: the sculpture of Nikolai Gogol in Rome's Villa Borghese (2002), Honoré de Balzac in Agde (2003), Marina Tsvetaeva in Saint-Gilles-Croix-de-Vie (2012), Founding Fathers of the European Union (2012) in Lorraine, and the monument to Pope John Paul II (2014) next to Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral facing the Seine.

Tsereteli founded the Museum of Modern Art in Tbilisi, Georgia in 2012.

Tsereteli continues his service as President of the Russian Academy of Arts, organises regular exhibitions by Georgian and international artists at the Museum of Modern Art in Tbilisi, as well as continuing to produce artwork.

On 6 December 2020, Tsereteli was honored the highest state order of Serbia for his contribution of the interior decoration of the Church of Saint Sava in Belgrade, for which the Russian Academy has been the main contractor.

Controversy

Tsereteli has been heavily criticized throughout the duration of his career, with public opinion heavily shaped by his involvement with the Russian government. In March 2014 he was reported to have signed a letter in support of the position of the President of Russia Vladimir Putin on Russia's military intervention in Ukraine. However, the following day, a statement was released to several Georgian news outlets by the artist's aide, Sergi Shagulashvili, denied that Tsereteli signed the letter and that he "generally does not get involved in politics".

Offices

 Professor and President of the Russian Academy of Arts.
 President of the Foundation for the Children's Park of Miracles (since 1988), hence the rumours of his involvement with the construction of Disneyland in Russia.
 Founder of the Moscow International Foundation for Support to UNESCO, he was appointed a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador on 30 March 1996.
 Since 2005 he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia.
 Eminent Member of the Sergio Vieira de Mello Foundation.

Projects

 The statue of Peter the Great in downtown Moscow which, at 94 meters, is the eighth tallest statue in the world. Popular legend states that the Statue was initially of Christopher Columbus, but that after being rejected by the US Government, its head was replaced, and it was sold to the Russian government as a nautical statue of Peter the Great. In November 2008, it was voted the tenth ugliest building in the world by Virtual Tourist.
 A statue known as Birth of the New World depicting Christopher Columbus. The statue was rejected by the US government when Tsereteli attempted to have it installed there in 1992, in connection with the 500th anniversary of his voyage. The municipal government of Cataño, Puerto Rico, consented to having the statue built in their town, but later was unable to garner enough public support and funding. On 15 August 2008, the private contractor in charge of building a series of facilities for the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games announced that the corporation had bought the structure and will build it in the municipality of Mayagüez, expecting to assemble it in time for the games. After this project was abandoned, the statue was moved to the municipality of Arecibo, where its assembly began during the spring of 2014. The statue was unveiled in Arecibo on 14 June 2016. A smaller twin statue named The Birth of a New Man was given by Russia in 1993 and was assembled in Seville, where it is popularly known as Huevo de Colón (Columbus' Egg).
 The statue of St. George at the Moscow War Memorial and several versions of the same subject in Moscow and elsewhere. The foremost among these is a sculpture using sections of scrapped US Pershing II and Soviet SS-20 nuclear missiles.  The sculpture, entitled Good Defeats Evil is on the grounds of the UN building in New York City. The sculpture is a 39-foot high, 40 ton monumental bronze statue of St George fighting the dragon of nuclear war.  It was donated to the UN by the Soviet Union in 1990.
 A 9-1/2 meter tall, 2 metric ton treble clef covered in mosaic gold that tops the cupola of the Moscow International House of Music. The sculpture rotates like a weathervane.
 His Tear of Grief (actually titled To the Struggle Against World Terrorism) features a 40-foot teardrop suspended in the fissure of a 106-foot bronze rectangular tower.  The monument includes the names of all the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks in New York, Washington D.C., and Pennsylvania, as well as the 1993 attack on the World Trade Center. At the ground breaking for the massive project, Vladimir Putin was present and called the sculpture "a gift from the people of Russia." It was erected at the tip of the decommissioned Military Ocean Terminal, now rechristened The Peninsula at Bayonne Harbor, in Bayonne, New Jersey (after nearby Jersey City first accepted, then declined, the free monument) and was dedicated on 11 September 2006. The artist, Bill Clinton, Michael Chertoff, New Jersey Senator Jon Corzine, and a 9/11 widow all spoke at the dedication ceremony.
 On 25 September 2006, another Peter the Great statue by Tsereteli was installed on Vasilievsky Island, St. Petersburg, in front of the Pribaltiiskaya Hotel. The sculptor had originally wished it to be placed in front of the historic Manege next to St. Isaac's Cathedral, but this was turned down because of risk of damage to Quarenghi's building.
The Chronicle of Georgia (or History Memorial of Georgia)
 Other offers of statuary by Tsereteli rejected by intended recipients in recent years include a statue of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill next to Livadia Palace in Yalta (Ukraine), Magellan (Uruguay), the Colossus of Rhodes (Greece), Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York) and Balzac (France).

Cultural activities

Tsereteli heads many cultural projects as a president of the Russian Academy of Arts

Honours and awards
 Hero of Socialist Labour, Order of Lenin and Gold medal "Hammer and Sickle" (11 November 1990) - for his great personal contribution to the development of Soviet art and productive social activities
 Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
1st class (26 July 2010) - for outstanding contribution to the development of fine arts and many years of creative activity
2nd class (4 January 2006) - for outstanding contribution to the development of fine arts
3rd class (29 April 1996) - for his great personal contribution to the development and successful completion of a complex of works on the Victory Monument, Poklonnaya Hill, Moscow
 Order of Friendship of Peoples (1994)
 People's Artist of the Russian Federation (4 January 1994) - for great achievements in the field of fine arts
 People's Artist of the USSR (1980)
 People's Artist of Georgia (1978)
 Russian Federation State Prize in Literature and Art (21 June 1996) - a memorial "Monument of Victory in Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945" on Poklonnaya Hill in Moscow
 Lenin Prize (1976) - for the space-decorations Children's Zone a resort town in Adler (1973)
 USSR State Prize
1970 - for the mosaic composition of Lenin memorial in Ulyanovsk (1969) and in the Palace of Trade Unions Tbilisi (1969–1970)
1982 - for participation in the creation of the hotel complex "Izmailovo" in Moscow (1980)
 Chevalier of the Legion of Honour (France, 2010)
 Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters (France, 2005)
 Medal "Astana" (Kazakhstan, 11 December 1998)
 Badge "For Services to Moscow" (Moscow, 30 December 2003) - for his great personal contribution to the development of fine art, many years of fruitful activity for the city and the Muscovites
 Order of Akhmad Kadyrov (Chechnya, 2005) - for his personal contribution to the commemoration of the first president of the Chechen Republic, the Hero of Russia Akhmad-Hadji Kadyrov, activities that promote peace, friendship and cooperation between peoples
 Medal "In Praise of Ossetia" (North Ossetia, 2010)

References

UNESCO participation
Moscow news: Zurab Disney Or Walt Tsereteli?
Artnet Magazine, July 10, 2006
moscow-life.com

External links

 The official site of To the Struggle Against World Terrorism monument by Zurab Tsereteli
 Artwork by Zurab Tsereteli at The Cold War Museum
 Good Defeats Evil at the New York Public Art Curriculum
 Monument to Peter the First from Inside and Above. Pictures

1934 births
Living people
Painters from Georgia (country)
Sculptors from Georgia (country)
Artists from Tbilisi
Soviet painters
Soviet sculptors
20th-century Russian painters
Russian male painters
21st-century Russian painters
Russian male sculptors
Russian contemporary artists
Colossal statues
Members of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation
Full Cavaliers of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland"
Billionaires from Georgia (country)
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples
People's Artists of Russia
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Arts
Honorary Members of the Russian Academy of Education
People's Artists of the USSR (visual arts)
State Prize of the Russian Federation laureates
Recipients of the Lenin Prize
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
20th-century sculptors
Tbilisi State Academy of Arts alumni
20th-century artists from Georgia (country)
21st-century artists from Georgia (country)
Naturalised citizens of Russia
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
Architects from Tbilisi

Zurab Tsereteli


St. Paul's Episcopal Church is a historic Carpenter Gothic style Episcopal church building located on a triangular lot at 416 Southeast Grand Avenue at the corner of Fifth and Green streets in Lee's Summit, Missouri, United States. The parish was established in 1867. The original sanctuary and current building were designed by the Rev. Frederick B. Scheetz and completed in 1884. The building is a rare example of an extant wood framed Carpenter Gothic church in the state of Missouri. The interior walls and vaulted ceilings are covered with narrow strips of wood paneling set diagonally on the walls and horizontally on the ceiling. A trio of stained glass windows is set above the wooden altar in the apse at the north end of the transept. The church has received few if any alterations since it was built in 1884.

An early description of the newly built church would be accurate today: "The church is frame, 40 feet by 24, with a porch in front 8 by 10 feet, with a bell tower extending above the roof. It is strongly and well built, with a solid stone foundation, which is so high in the rear of the church as to give room for a cellar for wood. The interior is ceiled throughout with narrow stuff put on diagonally, the timbers above do not show."'

St. Paul's Episcopal Church embodies a distinctive; type of 'vernacular' adaptation to the earlier Gothic Revival style important in church construction. Economic exigencies as well as available materials quite probably limited this Midwestern frame structure to a relatively small derivative of the more expansive models constructed in the eastern United States. The simple form and decorative features of St. Paul's reflect the Midwestern 19th century philosophy of spiritual beliefs constrained by the realities of the time and place. The continuity in the structure can easily be interpreted to reflect the continuity in the religious community, which began and still maintains the building. St. Paul's Episcopal was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 9, 1985.

Current status
St. Paul's is still an active parish in the Episcopal Diocese of West Missouri. The Rev. Mark McGuire is the current rector.

http://www.stpaulsls.org/

References
 St. Paul's Episcopal Church: History

External links
 St. Paul's Episcopal Church website

Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
Carpenter Gothic church buildings in the United States
Churches completed in 1884
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
Buildings and structures in Lee's Summit, Missouri
Episcopal church buildings in Missouri
Churches in Jackson County, Missouri
Gothic Revival church buildings in Missouri
National Register of Historic Places in Jackson County, Missouri

Saint Paul's Episcopal Church (Lee's Summit, Missouri)


"The Children's Parade" is the series finale of the American supernatural television series Ghost Whisperer, due to its cancellation on May 18, 2010. It is the 22nd and final episode of the show's fifth season, and the 107th episode overall. It originally aired on May 21, 2010 on CBS in the United States.

Plot
Melinda and Jim have told Aiden ghosts aren't real, and neither are the shadows and shinies, but he didn't stop seeing them. Melinda can no longer tell the dead from the living. Eli has trouble talking because of a toothache, but when Carl asks him why Melinda is ignoring him, Eli says he told her Aiden shouldn't see ghosts, and he reveals that he must have been possessed by the shadows when he said that, because he would never normally say such a thing, since it is the worst time for Aiden not to use his gift.

At the hospital, the ghost of a thirteen-year-old boy is leading the child ghosts of polio victims on marches to show they are not afraid of the shadows. Melinda gets taken over by the shadows, and when Carl sees Aiden talking to someone he can't see, Aiden reveals that it's a shiny- or the crossed over ghost of a child. After the Book of Changes tells Carl and Eli how to stop the shadows, Aiden must convince the shinies to help. Mel and Aiden cross over the polio victims and the boy. Mel and Jim tell Aiden they were wrong to try to get him to deny his gift.

Cast

Main cast
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Melinda Gordon
David Conrad as Jim Clancy
Camryn Manheim as Delia Banks
Christoph Sanders as Ned Banks
Jamie Kennedy as Eli James
Connor Gibbs as Aiden Lucas

Guest Starring
Nick Hodaly as Fred the Janitor
Billy Unger as Pete
George Wendt as George the Plumber
Asante Jones as Stuart
Jack Donner as Man in Hospital Gown
Peter Holden as Darren
Tammy Townsend as Jacqueline
Zayne Emory as Pig Mask Kid
Rebecca McFarland as Joan

Recurring
Joey King as Cassidy

Reception
The episode averaged 6.85 million viewers, rating of 1.6/7 and a share of 9. Isabelle Carreau commented on the episode as a surprise because of the "happy ending and no cliffhangers", although there still were unfinished storylines. She also commented on how quickly the Shadows were destroyed without fulfilling the promise of an action-packed episode and an epic battle.

Cancellation
On May 18, 2010 CBS announced that Ghost Whisperer would not return for a sixth season. After the cancellation on May 18, 2010 it was rumored that ABC would produce a sixth season because it produced the show along with CBS. On May 27, 2010, Michael Ausiello confirmed the show's cancellation.

References

2010 American television episodes
Ghost Whisperer episodes
American television series finales
Television episodes set in New York (state)
Television episodes about ghosts

The Children's Parade


Phaius amboinensis, commonly known as Arnhem Land swamp orchid, is a plant in the orchid family and is native to areas from Malesia through to New Guinea, Australia and islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is an evergreen, terrestrial herb with up to eight pleated leaves and up to twenty, relatively large white flowers with a yellow labellum. It grows in wet, shady forests.

Description
Phaius amboinensis is an evergreen, terrestrial herb which forms large clumps. It has three or four fleshy stems,  long and  wide. Each stem has between three and eight dark green, pleated leaves  long and  wide. Between five and twenty resupinate white flowers  long and  wide are borne on a flowering stem  tall. The dorsal sepal is  long,  wide and more or less upright. The lateral sepals are a similar length but  wide and spread apart from each other. The petals are a similar length to the sepals but narrower. The labellum is yellow,  long and  wide with three lobes and wavy edges. There is a complex callus in the centre of the labellum. Flowering occurs from August to November in Australia and over a longer period in Asia.

Taxonomy and naming
Phaius amboinensis was first formally described in 1856 by Carl Ludwig Blume in his book Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum sive stirpium Exoticarum, Novarum vel Minus Cognitarum ex Vivis aut Siccis Brevis Expositio et Descriptio. The specific epithet (amboinensis) is a reference to Ambon Island where the type specimen was collected.

Distribution and habitat
The Arnhem Land swamp orchid in deep shade in wet forests. It occurs in Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, the Northern Territory, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa.

References

Plants described in 1856
amboinensis
Orchids of the Northern Territory
Orchids of Indonesia
Orchids of New Guinea
Orchids of Oceania
Orchids of the Philippines

Phaius amboinensis


The Three Mile Island accident occurred on March 28th, 1979 at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania.  It was "the single most important event in the fifty-year history of nuclear power regulation in the United States".  Many people have seen the event as a turning point for the nuclear power industry in the United States.
The Three Mile Island power station is near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The accident resulted in a partial core meltdown in Unit 2 of the nuclear power plant. Unit 2's pressurized water reactor was of 900 MWe capacity.

The chain of events that led to the crisis at the TMI plant included several minor equipment failures that operator errors drastically compounded, resulting in a major accident. The Three Mile Island accident is largely seen as a failure of crisis management. According to one reviewer of the book:

Reactor operators were not trained to deal with accident conditions, and the NRC had not established effective communication with utilities. Moreover, once the accident occurred, the lines of authority proved to be ill defined. The public received conflicting reports that caused needless panic and evacuations. It was these systemic weaknesses in the regulatory system that allowed gifted people to make the mistakes they did.

Large portions of the TMI-2 reactor core melted, though the fact that a partial meltdown had occurred did not become clear until 1985. The greatest source of concern during the TMI crisis was a hydrogen bubble that formed in the top of the pressure vessel which held the core:
Although opinions differed, some reactor experts feared that over time the hydrogen bubble might become flammable or, less likely, explosive by combining with free oxygen in the vessel. If the bubble burned or exploded, it could rupture the pressure vessel and force the damaged reactor core into the containment building. The loss of the vessel would not make a breach of containment inevitable, but it would increase the risk of a disastrous release of radiation.

In the end, the Three Mile Island accident, though it "caused a grave crisis, did not produce a public health disaster". In the face of a core meltdown, the pressure vessel held and there was no breach of the  plant's containment structure. Only "tiny amounts of the most dangerous forms of volatile radiation escaped to the atmosphere". The TMI-2 cleanup took 11 years and cost about US$1 billion.

J. Samuel Walker suggests that the TMI accident incited widespread criticism of nuclear power technology, the nuclear industry, and the NRC. Critics faulted the industry and the NRC for their poor performance both before and after the accident. The international attention garnered by the crisis redoubled the determination of, and enhanced the credibility of, the anti-nuclear movement. Arguably, the United States nuclear industry has never recovered.

Walker reports that studies looking for long-term radiation effects resulting from the accident have reached conflicting conclusions, but it seems that any increase in cancers is slight enough to have occurred by chance.

Notes

Nuclear accidents
1979 in the United States
March events
20th century in Pennsylvania
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

Three Mile Island accident


Karl Hult(born 1944) is a Swedish biochemist and researcher. He is a professor emeritus at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, and has contributed to research within the fields of metabolism and biocatalysis.

Research
Hult's early research was in the field of fungal metabolism, and metabolic studies of Alternaria alternata lead to the discovery of the mannitol cycle.

He also studied the fungal secondary metabolite ochratoxin A, a potential human carcinogen produced by some Aspergillus and Penicillium species.

The last two decades, his research has been in the area of biocatalysis, with an interest in both the fundamental understanding of enzyme function and mechanism as well as more applied research. The work has been centered on the fungal enzyme Pseudozyma (formerly Candida) antarctica lipase B.

Education
 197? Master of Science in chemical engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
 1980 PhD in biochemistry
 1984 Assistant professor
 1985 Associate professor
 1986 Professor

References

External links
 Key publications

Swedish biochemists
1944 births
Living people

Karl Hult


FAW Group Corporation is a Chinese Government-owned corporation automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Changchun, Jilin, China. Its principal products are automobiles; buses; light, medium, and heavy-duty trucks; and auto parts. FAW became China's first automobile manufacturer when it unveiled the nation's first domestically produced passenger car, the Hong Qi, in 1958.

Sources

Automobile companies of China
Jilin

FAW Group


Catch share is a fishery management system that allocates a secure privilege to harvest a specific area or percentage of a fishery's total catch to individuals, communities, or associations. Examples of catch shares are individual transferable quota (ITQs), individual fishing quota (IFQs), territorial use rights for fishing (TURFs), limited access privileges (LAPs), sectors (also known as cooperatives), and dedicated access privileges (DAPs).

Catch shares provide long-term secure privileges to participants and, in theory, an incentive for efficient, sustainable use of fish stocks. Actual outcomes in terms of efficiency and ecological sustainability are varied, based on design and implementation of the program.

Catch share programs generally fall into two categories. Quota-based programs, like ITQs, establish a fishery-wide catch limit, assign portions (or shares) of the catch to participants and hold participants directly accountable to stay within the catch limit.

Area-based programs, like TURFs, allocate a secure, exclusive area to participants and include appropriate controls on fishing mortality that ensure long-term sustainability of the stock. A combination of both quota- and area-based approaches has also been used.

Background
The term "catch share" has taken root recently, but similar management systems providing secure and exclusive access to fishery resources have been in use for many years. Community-based management in Japan's near-shore fisheries dates back to feudal times, and modern individually-allocated catch share programs were first implemented by the state of Wisconsin in the early 1970s for important fish stocks in the Great Lakes. Also, Iceland and the Netherlands implemented catch shares for important stocks in the late 1970s.

The use of catch share programs worldwide has been expanding since the earliest implementations in the 1970s. Some countries, such as Iceland, New Zealand, and Australia, have made catch share programs the default management system.

The United States has implemented the vast majority of its catch share programs in the 21st century. In 2010, catch shares were implemented in the United States Northeast Multispecies fishery and in the United States Atlantic Sea Scallop fishery. In 2011, a catch share program was implemented in the Pacific Coast Groundfish Limited Entry Trawl fishery, which includes fishermen from the states of Washington, Oregon, and California.

Worldwide, there are nearly 200 catch share programs, used in 40 countries, to manage a wide variety of marine and freshwater species including finfish, sharks and crustaceans. Catch shares are used in developing and industrialized nations, artisanal and industrial fleets, and in high- and low-value fisheries.

Theory
Fisheries have historically been treated as a common property resource. The dangers of managing fisheries as a common property resource were included in the development of modern theory of fishery economics, first introduced in 1954 by H. Scott Gordon. The theoretical framework showed that the common property nature of fisheries results in competition between individual operators to increase their share of the catch, which can ultimately lead to excessive capital, such as fishing vessels and gear, overfishing and resource wastage. In common property fisheries, individual operators face an incentive to harvest as many fish as quickly as possible to pre-empt the activities by other operators.

Catch shares have been proposed as a potential solution for the common property challenges found in many fisheries and have typically been implemented after a variety of other approaches have failed. Most commercial fisheries begin under open access conditions in which any fisherman is able to enter the fishery, put in effort, and catch fish. However, if fish biomass is no longer able to sustain the amount of fishing effort exerted in the fishery, populations begin to decline, and fishing becomes less profitable. Conventional management systems tend to respond using input controls such as limiting the number of entrants to the fishery, restricting boat and gear capacity, limiting the number of days at sea, and applying catch allowances per trip. However, studies show that the approaches are sometimes ineffective in controlling overall harvest, and managers often implement additional effort-based regulations, output controls, to set strict fishery catch limits. Although catch limits have proven sufficient to sustain a fishery, the management approaches alone do not fundamentally eliminate the incentive for fishermen to compete and increase their share of the catch, which can lead to reduced fishery profitability and dangerous fishing conditions.

By providing secure shares of quota to fishermen, individuals or groups, it is argued that catch share programs have the potential for a fundamental shift of the behavior of fishery participants and incentives for long term stewardship. For example, with quota-based catch shares, the value of the share is directly tied to the landings value of the fishery, which may increase if the health of the fishery improves.

Many catch share programs allow for voluntary trading, a process that allows operators to purchase shares, temporarily or permanently, from those willing to sell or lease shares. Transfers are considered an important component of catch shares because they can promote the most economically-efficient use of the resource.

Outcomes
Empirical research in the past two decades has shown that catch share management of fisheries has a variety of ecological, economic and social outcomes when it is compared with traditional management of fishery inputs. Studies examining the ecological impacts of catch share management show that they stabilize landings and catch limits. Additional research has also shown reduced discards in catch share fisheries.

However, when they are compared to fisheries managed under conventional catch limits, recent studies have demonstrated that catch share offer no advantages to the long term sustainability of a fishery and may exacerbate localized fishery depletion.

The economic impacts of catch shares are well-documented and vary on the program design and fishery goals. Catch share programs has been shown to stop the race for fish that is often experienced in traditionally-managed fisheries. With improved certainty, catch shares have also extended season lengths by providing operators with a longer time period to harvest and the ability to coordinate fishing trips based on market conditions. Empirical evidence has shown that fisheries become more profitable, as the costs of fishing are reduced, and dockside prices for products increase.

Many catch share programs are designed to reduce overcapitalization and active fishing vessels, for a transition from many temporary fishing jobs to fewer but more stable full-time jobs.

Criticism
Changes resulting from a transition to catch shares often improve the economics of the active participants in the fishery, but in some cases, they are considered undesirable from a community or welfare economics perspective.  In specific programs, critiques largely focus on tradeoffs, which commonly involve changes in fleet capacity, employment, and aggregation of shares in the fishery.

Reduction in fleet capacity is frequently cited as a negative outcome of catch shares, but such a reduction may be listed as explicit fishery goal. Catch share fisheries can result in greater capitalization of the fishing fleet when the capital required to purchase shares is included. At the same time, catch share programs may experience a change in the structure of employment, transforming from many part-time jobs, paid as a share of landings value, to fewer full-time positions paid by wages. As a result of capacity reduction and employment shifts, programs can result in a reduction in the number of fishery participants.

For example, the Bering Sea crab catch share program in the United States experienced a significant reduction in the number of participants and part-time jobs and is currently operated by fewer full-time positions. Although fishing jobs are longer because of the lengthening of the fishing season, the percentage of total landings value that is paid to employees in this fishery has decreased substantially. As a result, it is argued that the tradeoffs associated with certain catch share programs include increased unemployment, economic contraction of coastal communities, and economic losses to businesses and communities that rely on the fishing fleet.

Although a number of catch share programs do include financing options for small businesses and new entrants, some fishing communities, academics, journalists, and nonprofit organizations have claimed that catch shares serve as a mechanism for the consolidation of fishing rights, often by corporations with better financing capacity than independent fishermen. New institutions are being developed to improve communities' access to shares, allow new entrants into the fishery, and/or keep quota within the community. They include the development and use of permit banks, community license banks and Community Fishing Associations. Programs' design features, including concentration caps, owner-on-board regulations, and trading restrictions, can be used to help alleviate potential unwanted social outcomes. However, it is argued the measures have only mitigated, not prevented, the undesirable social and economic outcomes that accompany catch share programs. Critics have claimed that proliferation of catch share management is reflective of the increasingly strong link between the government and the private sector and that the programs are typically the result of special interest influence over legislation.

See also
 List of harvested aquatic animals by weight

References

Further reading

 Environmental Defense Fund (2010). "Catch Share Design Center" Catch Share Database, Directory of Resources and Game.

Fishing industry
Quotas

Catch share


Queen Valley is a census-designated place (CDP) in north central Pinal County, Arizona, United States. The population was 820 at the 2000 census.

Geography
Queen Valley is located at . at an elevation of 2000 feet along the south side of the west flowing Queen Creek. The Tonto National Forest boundary and Comet Peak (2681 ft.) lie 1.5 miles to the east. The dam for the Whitlow Ranch Flood Control Basin is one mile to the east.

Florence Junction lies  to the southwest along US Route 60 and Queen Valley Road connects Queen Valley with US 60, two miles east of Florence Junction. Apache Junction lies to the northwest. The Superstition Mountains lie to the north and northwest.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 9.6 square miles (24.9 km2), all  land.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 820 people, 417 households, and 296 families living in the CDP.  The population density was .  There were 595 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.6% White, 0.1% Black or African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.5% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races.  6.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 417 households, out of which 5.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.1% were married couples living together, 2.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 1.97 and the average family size was 2.26.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 7.4% under the age of 18, 1.5% from 18 to 24, 10.4% from 25 to 44, 31.3% from 45 to 64, and 49.4% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 65 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $43,188, and the median income for a family was $44,213. Males had a median income of $42,344 versus $20,764 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $28,886.  None of the families and 5.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 6.1% of those over 64.

References

External links
Queen Valley Domestic Water Improvement District
Queen Valley Sanitary District

Census-designated places in Pinal County, Arizona
Census-designated places in Arizona

Queen Valley, Arizona


Jamshied Sharifi (born October 17, 1960) is an American composer and musician. He was born in Topeka, Kansas to an Iranian father and an American mother. At an early age, Sharifi was exposed to Jazz and Middle Eastern music by his father and to European classical and church music by his mother. He began to study classical piano at age five and quickly developed a thirst for musical instruction and a desire to improvise. At age nine he began studying guitar and drums, and at age ten added flute.

Living people
1960 births
Musicians from Kansas
American composers

Jamshied Sharifi


Juan Negrín López (; 3 February 1892 – 12 November 1956) was a Spanish physician and politician who served as prime minister of the Second Spanish Republic. He was a leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (, PSOE)  and of the left-leaning Popular Front government during the Spanish Civil War. He also served as finance minister. He was the last Loyalist premier of Spain (1937–1939), leading the Republican forces defeated by the Nationalists under General Francisco Franco. He was President of the Council of Ministers of the Second Spanish Republic and the Spanish Republican government in exile between 1937 and 1945. He died in exile in Paris, France.

None of the leaders of the Second Spanish Republic has been as vilified as Negrín, not only by Francoist historians but also by important sectors of the exiled Spanish Left. The leadership of his own Socialist Party were among his detractors, including his friend and fellow socialist leader Indalecio Prieto. He has been depicted as primarily responsible for losing the civil war, leading with a dictatorial style, selling Spain out to the Soviets, and robbing the Spanish treasury.

According to the historian Stanley G. Payne, after the end of the civil war there was no person more hated than Negrín. More recent scholarship, like the work of Negrin's biographer Gabriel Jackson, attempted to dispel many of these accusations. According to Jackson, Negrín was a pragmatic, social democratic leader who allied with the Soviets to keep the Republican cause alive until the outbreak of a world war, which would grant Republican Spain more allies in Western Europe. The PSOE expelled Negrín in 1946, but he was posthumously rehabilitated in 2008.

Early years
Born in Las Palmas on the Canary Islands, Negrín came from a deeply Catholic middle-class family. His father, Juan Negrin Cabrera, was a prosperous and reputable merchant and businessman of the islands, married to María Dolores López Marrero. Juan was the firstborn son and had one brother Heriberto, who adhered to the Claretian order, and a sister Dolores.
Since Juan had excelled in science subjects and had shown an interest in medicine, his father decided to send him, at the age of 15, to study in Germany in 1906, attracted by the enormous prestige of German universities at the time.

In Germany
Negrin studied for two years at the Medical Faculty of Kiel. In 1908, to specialize in medical physiology, he moved to Leipzig, to the best physiology institute of Germany and even in Europe. He stayed in Germany for almost a decade, studying first medicine, then chemistry and to some extent, economics. He proved to be a brilliant student with extraordinary capacity for scientific research. In 1912 (when he was only twenty years old) under the guidance of Theodor von Brücke he obtained a doctorate in medicine and was immediately incorporated into the Institute of Physiology in Leipzig as a research assistant and then as an assistant professor.

On 21 July 1914 he married María Fidelman Brodsky, a piano student and daughter of a wealthy family of Russian exiles living in the Netherlands. The couple had five children, three of whom survived: Juan, Rómulo, and Miguel. Negrín spoke English, French, German, and Russian, in addition to his native Spanish.

Back to Spain
At the end of 1915, in the middle of the First World War, the increasing difficulties he encountered in Germany to continue working prompted Negrin to return to Spain. He already had a solid professional prestige guaranteed by his research on the adrenal glands and the central nervous system and by a remarkable series of articles published in the best scientific journals in Europe. He was a pupil of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who won the Nobel Prize of Medicine. In 1919 he obtained his medical degree in Spain, and in 1922 he became a professor of physiology at the Physiology Department at the Complutense University of Madrid Medical School at the age of 29. His physiology laboratory in Madrid became an internationally renowned research centre and a truly exceptional school of scientific training. Among the many students he inspired was Severo Ochoa, winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine:

Negrin opened wide, fascinating vistas to my imagination, not only through his lectures and laboratory teaching, but through his advice, encouragement, and stimulation to read scientific monographs and textbooks in languages other than Spanish.

According to Ochoa, Negrín was a demanding tutor and a high proportion of students failed his exams. He also set up a private laboratory that was very successful. In 1923, his youngest daughter died in childbirth, which Negrín himself attended. Two years later, his other daughter died at the age of ten as a result of a typhus epidemic. These misfortunes would lead to the estrangement of the marriage and the entry into Negrín's life of Feliciana López de Dom Pablo, one of his laboratory assistants, who would become his companion in 1926 until his death. His wife did not tolerate this relationship and attributed permanent affairs to him.

In politics
During his stay in Germany, Negrin had become very close to German social democracy, then at one of the moments of its maximum height and socio-political and cultural influence, but far removed from his conservative family tradition. Negrín joined the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the spring of 1929, at the height of the crisis of the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera and the monarchy of Alfonso XIII. He aligned himself from the very beginning and with the moderate and reformist faction headed by Indalecio Prieto – with whom he forged a close friendship that only broke down due to the civil war – and opposed to the one led by Francisco Largo Caballero, representing the left (Marxist and revolutionary) wing of the UGT trade union and the PSOE. From 1930 onwards, he declined his academic activity in favour of politics, and in 1934 he requested a leave of absence from his professorship. In the 1931 Spanish general election he was elected deputy for Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, and re-elected in 1933 and 1936.

Between April 1931 and July 1936, as political tension and social polarisation increased in Spain, Negrín identified in the socialist movement with Prieto's moderate positions and firmly opposed to the radical tendency led by Largo Caballero.  The moderate faction of the PSOE, the majority in the executive committee, was in favour of maintaining the coalition with Prime Minister Manuel Azaña's Republicans in order to complete the ambitious programme of social democratic political and social reforms that had been launched by the left-wing government between 1931 and 1933 (secularisation of the state, agrarian reform, administrative decentralisation, military reform, progressive labour legislation, etc.). According to Prieto, Negrín and their supporters, this republican-socialist conjunction was essential to successfully promote the reforms and overcome the double opposition offered by the possible reaction of the right-wing defenders of the status quo with the help of the army and by the also possible revolution of the anarcho-syndicalist or communist-inspired workers' left.

In Spanish socialism he represented a clear option of republicanism and centrism, identifiable with the political position of his friend Indalecio Prieto. With regard to the revolutionary general strike of 1934 – against the appointment of three ministers of the conservative Catholic Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights (, CEDA) to the right-wing government of Alejandro Lerroux – sponsored by Largo Caballero, Negrín opted for the option of republican unity advocated by Prieto as opposed to the revolutionary project put forward by Largo Caballero, which caused him to distance himself from Luis Araquistain and led to an irreparable split within Spanish socialism. The events of 1934, in particular the uprising in Asturias, were a prelude to the civil war.

Spanish Civil War

After the military uprising in Morocco on 17 July 1936, Spain was rapidly divided in two: a "Republican" or "Loyalist" Spain consisting of the Second Spanish Republic, and a "Nationalist" Spain under the insurgent generals, and, eventually, under the leadership of General Francisco Franco. The Republic faced tremendous odds from the outset, including the Nationalist military superiority, internal divisions, and European non-intervention.

The Non-Intervention Agreement, initiated by the French and the British governments, and signed in August 1936, in which European powers renounced all trade in war material, direct or indirect, effectively subjected the Spanish Republic to international isolation and a de facto economic embargo and placed the Republic — and only the Republic — at an enormous material disadvantage throughout the conflict. Italy and Germany supported the Spanish Nationalists from the outset of the Civil War. The Soviet Union began supporting the Republicans four months later.

From the first moment of the war, Negrin combined his activities as a deputy and, later, as a minister, with frequent visits in his private car to different places on the front line of Madrid to encourage the combatants and provide them with food and supplies. Negrín helped many people to escape from the revolutionary  in July and August 1936. His personal courage in pursuit of this was attested to by a friend who recounted that he "made every effort, at considerable risk to himself... to save people in Madrid."  As a result, Negrin was nearly killed by anarchists but was saved by the intervention of finance ministry security staff.

Minister of Finance
 He was named Minister of Finance in September 1936 in the government of Largo Caballero. He only accepted the post out of party discipline, as he considered that Largo Caballero as Prime Minister gave an excessively radical image of the Republic to the outside world and was a serious political and diplomatic blunder that would make it impossible to obtain vital aid from France and Great Britain. As the finance minister, he built up the Carabineros (custom guards), a force of 20,000 men which was later nicknamed the "Hundred Thousand Sons of Negrín" (an allusion to the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis), in order to recover the control of the French frontier posts, which had been seized by the anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT).

With the approval of President Azaña, Largo Caballero and other influential ministers (including Prieto), he took the controversial decision to transfer the Spanish gold reserves to the Soviet Union in return for arms and equipment urgently needed to continue the war (October 1936). Worth $500 million at the time (another $240 million had been sent to France in July), critics argued that this action put the Republican government under the control of Joseph Stalin.

Prime minister
The Barcelona May Days of 1937, when factions on the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War engaged each other in street battles and anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona, led to a governmental crisis that forced Largo Caballero to resign. On 17 May 1937, President Manuel Azaña named Negrín the 135th Prime Minister of Spain, to end  the indiscipline and disarray in the rearguard. Negrín's government included Indalecio Prieto named minister of War, Navy and Air, Julián Zugazagoitia as minister of interior (both socialists), the communists Jesús Hernández Tomás as minister of education and Vicente Uribe as minister of agriculture, the republicans José Giral as foreign minister and Bernardo Giner de los Ríos as public works minister, the Basque Manuel Irujo as minister of justice and the Catalan Nationalist Jaume Aiguader as minister of labour. Negrín's energetic and willful management, exemplified in his campaign slogan ("resistir es vencer", "to resist is to win"), captured for a time the hopes and desires of the depressed and semi-despondent rearguard and revived the meagre forces of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces.

Goals
In the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragon and Catalonia, in addition to the temporary military success, there was a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry, and set up councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government. Negrin's main objectives were to fortify the central government, to reorganize and fortify the Republican Armed Forces and to impose law and order in the Republican-held area, against largely independent armed militias of the labour unions (CNT) and parties, thus curtailing the social revolution inside the Republic. He also wanted to break the international isolation of the Republic in order to get the arms embargo – imposed by the Non-Intervention Committee – lifted, and from 1938 to search an international mediation in order to finish the war. He also wished to normalize the position of the Catholic Church inside the Republic. Eventually, the 'normalization' in Spain was intended to connect the Spanish conflict with Second World War, which he believed to be imminent, although the Munich Agreement between Hitler and British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain on 30 September 1938 definitively made all hope of outside aid vanish.

PCE's support
Although Negrín had always been a centrist in the PSOE, he maintained links with the Communist Party of Spain (, PCE), whose policies at that point were in favour of a Popular Front alignment. Negrín relied on the Communists to curtail the anarchist wing of the Spanish Left, and was forced to rely on the Soviet Union, then led by Stalin, for weapons and armament, because of the arms embargo. The government and the communists were able to exploit their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort, through diplomacy and force. The militias of the anarchists and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (, POUM) were integrated into the regular army, albeit with resistance. The POUM Trotskyists were outlawed and denounced by the Soviet-aligned Communists as an instrument of the fascists. Republican Spain needed the Soviet Union's support because the Non-Intervention Agreement imposed on the conflict prevented the democratically elected government from acquiring arms and other war materiel in its own right on the open market arms to defend itself.

Military situation

On the military level, along 1937 he launched a series of offensives in June (Huesca & Segovia), July, Brunete and August, Belchite, in order to halt the Nationalist offensive in the North, but all failed and by October the Nationalists had occupied all of the Northern territory. Beginning December, he launched an offensive in order to free Teruel, but by February the Republican Army had to retreat after suffering heavy losses and the rebel faction launched a counter-offensive in Aragon, cutting in half the Republican-held zone. In July 1938 Negrín launched an offensive in order to cross the Ebro River and reconnect the two Republican-held zones. The Republican army managed to cross the Ebro, but by November had to retire after it suffered heavy casualties and lost most of its materiel. Finally, in February 1939, he ordered to launch an offensive in Extremadura to stop the Nationalists advancement in their offensive against Catalonia, but was halted after a few days and Catalonia fell.

Home front
The military situation of the Spanish Republic deteriorated steadily under Negrín's government, largely because of the superior quality of the opposing generals and officers many of whom were veterans of the Rif War, and by 1938 the overwhelming advantage of the rebels in terms of men (20%), aircraft and artillery provided by Germany and Italy. The Munich Agreement effectively caused a collapse in Republican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers. Throughout 1938, the unremitting succession of serious military defeats and the failure to secure Franco-British aid, was reflected in a deterioration of material living conditions in the rear (especially in terms of food) that deeply affected the political morale of the popular and military resistance of the Republican side.  Late 1938, the freezing and half starved civilian population in the Siege of Madrid was suffering from severe malnutrition due to the restricted daily ration of 100 grams of bread and lentils (nicknamed "Dr Negrín's pills"). Disheartened by a fifth column, a war weariness took hold of Madrid and defeatism was widespread.

Peace negotiations
 In May 1938, Negrín issued the "Thirteen Points" (Trece Puntos), a program for peace negotiations, including absolute independence of Spain, liberty of conscience, protection of the regional liberties, universal suffrage, an amnesty for all Spaniards and agrarian reform, but Franco rejected any peace deal. Before the fall of Catalonia and the capture of Barcelona by the Nationalists on 26 January 1939, Negrín proposed, in the meeting of the Cortes in Figueres, capitulation with the sole condition of respecting the lives of the vanquished and the holding of a plebiscite so the Spanish people could decide the form of government, but Franco again rejected the new peace deal. On 9 February 1939, Negrín moved to the Central Zone (30% of the Spanish territory) with the intention of defending the remaining territory of the republic until the start of the general European conflict, and organize the evacuation of those most at risk. Negrín thought that there was no other course but resistance, because the Nationalists refused to negotiate any peace deal:

To fight on because there was no other choice, even if winning was not possible, then to salvage what we could – and at the very end our self respect... Why go on resisting? Quite simply because we knew what capitulation would mean.

The critical year of 1938 saw a rupture in the PSOE and the political and personal friendship between Negrín and Prieto. Prieto was removed from the Defence ministry for his defeatism and joined with Largo Caballero and Julián Besteiro (the leader of the PSOE right-wing faction) in denouncing the government's policy as favourable to the communists and opposed to the idea of international mediation. Negrín explained his position to his friend and confidant Juan Simeón Vidarte:

Do you think this odious servitude does not weigh as heavily on me as on anyone else? But there is no other way. When I speak to our friends in France, it is all promises and good words. Then inconveniences begin to arise, and of what was promised there is nothing left. Nothing remains of what was promised. The only reality, however much it pains us, is to accept the help of the Soviet Union, or to surrender unconditionally. (...) What else can I do? Negotiated peace always; unconditional surrender so that half a million Spaniards will be shot, never.

Casado's coup

After the fall of Barcelona, President Manuel Azaña had fled to France, where he resigned as President of the Republic on 3 March 1939. Colonel Segismundo Casado, joined by Besteiro, general José Miaja, Cipriano Mera and disillusioned anarchist leaders ― tired of fighting, which they regarded then as hopeless — planned a coup d'état. Seeking better surrender terms, they seized power in Madrid on 5 March 1939, created the National Defence Council (Consejo Nacional de Defensa), and deposed Negrín. On 6 March, Negrín fled to France. Although the troops led by the PCE rejected the coup on Madrid they were defeated by Cipriano Mera's troops. The uprising against the Negrín government succeeded, at the cost of nearly 2,000 lives. The Junta tried to negotiate a peace deal with the nationalists, but Franco only accepted an unconditional surrender of the Republic. Finally all the members of the Junta (except Besteiro) fled, and by 31 March 1939 the Nationalists seized all the Spanish territory.

Exile and death

Unlike President Azaña, Negrín remained in Spain until the final collapse of the Republican front and his fall from office in March 1939. Negrín decided to openly support the Franco-British war effort against Germany and Italy, remaining in Paris until the fall of France (June 1940) and then going to London. He resided there throughout the Second World War, repeatedly refusing to leave Europe and seek safe haven in Mexico, as did a large number of the Republican leadership. He organized the S.E.R.E. () to help Republican exiles. He remained prime minister of the Spanish Republican government in Exile between 1939 and 1945 (although ignored by most of the exiled political forces).

The Francoist dictatorship stripped Negrín of his academic position and confiscated his estate. In July 1941 he was sentenced to the exorbitant fine of 100 million pesetas by the Special Court of the Law of Political Responsibilities, while in September 1941, the Special Court for the Repression of Freemasonry and Communism sentenced him to 30 years in prison (the maximum penalty, even though Negrin was neither a Mason nor a Communist). His father was imprisoned in Las Palmas for the mere fact of being his father, leaving prison in 1941 to die shortly thereafter in poverty after having been illegally expropriated of all his property.

Disagreements with exile community
In August 1945, at the end of the war with the defeat of the Axis powers, Negrin tried to gather the unanimous support of all the political forces in exile in order to offer a unitary republican front that could gather the support of the allied governments against Franco's dictatorship, taking advantage of his international discredit and the strong rejection that his recent behaviour of sympathy and support for the Italian-German war effort had provoked. In Negrin's opinion, only such a united front would serve as a guarantee before Washington and London of the presence of a replacement alternative to the Franco regime that did not run the risk of resuming the horrors of civil war. However, in view of the impossibility of gaining the support of all the political forces in exile, Negrín resigned from his position as head of the government of the Republic in exile before the plenary session of the Cortes in exile meeting in Mexico in August 1945. The PSOE expelled Negrín and a number of additional party members through a note published in El Socialista on 23 April 1946,  before the celebration of a party congress in Toulouse.

To no avail, in 1948 Negrín spoke out in favour of Franco's Spain's participation in the post-war Marshall Plan, which was opposed by the Spanish Republican government in exile. In his opinion, the economic assistance to Spain was indispensable to the economic recovery of Europe, while its exclusion could have no other result than to increase further the sufferings of the Spanish people. According to Negrín, dreaming of the re-establishment of the Republic through hunger and the impoverishment of Spain was a mistake and mere flawed wishful thinking.

Death and aftermath
Negrín died from a heart attack in Paris on 12 November 1956 at the age of 64, and is buried at the Père Lachaise Cemetery. After the death of Negrín, his son Rómulo Negrín, following the instructions of his father, handed over the so-called "Negrín dossier" – an incomplete series of documents related to the administration of the gold deposited in the Soviet Union – to the government of Francoist Spain in order to prove that it had been spent entirely for the Republican war effort. Negrín had refused to hand over documentation to the exiled Republican government for over 15 years. Willingly handing the documentation over to the Francoist authorities caused profound distress in the exile community. The Francoist authorities accepted the documentation, but publicly hushed up its content so as not to have to negate the propaganda myth of the Spanish gold stolen and squandered by the Republicans in Moscow.

Legacy
According to the historian Stanley G. Payne, after the end of the civil war there was no person more hated. Franco's side considered him a "red traitor", while within the Republican camp, some of his former allies reproached him for the "useless" prolongation of the war and for having "served" the plans of the Soviet Union. However, a New York Times editorial at the time of his demise characterized Negrín as follows:

Gabriel Jackson's biography depicts Negrín as "a fundamentally honest and decent human being who sacrificed his health, reputation, and academic career in a failed attempt to save his country from disaster," and as "an accomplished scientist and cosmopolitan intellectual who in normal circumstances would have never had to become a politician, let alone take his country's reins during the most difficult years of its long history." Jackson was a staunch defender of Negrín. "Negrín was one of those rare prepared politicians, with character; very valuable for his time," he said. According to Jackson:

Negrín was one of the most controversial characters of the Spanish Civil War. "Demonized or praised, Negrin has been considered both a faithful servant of the permanent communist conspiracy in the pay of Moscow, and the most loyal politician to the Republican cause because of his faith in the final triumph, or he has been defined as a kind of seer who knew how to predict the inexorability of the Second World War, so that his policy of resistance at all costs ("resistir es vencer", "to resist is to win") would have led to the victory of the Republic, if the Spanish war had lasted five more months," say Spanish historians Ángel Bahamonde Magro and Javier Cervera Gil. Negrín was post-humously rehabilitated by the PSOE in 2008.

In 2010, a Spanish documentary film, Ciudadano Negrín (Citizen Negrín), directed by Sigfrid Monleón, Imanol Uribe and Carlos Álvarez Pérez was released. The documentary reconstructs the life of Juan Negrín from a variety of sources, including his grandchildren Carmen and Juan. With the help of historians such as Gabriel Jackson and Ángel Viñas, the film aims to give the protagonist a voice, using his writings, speeches and letters to construct the story. The production also benefits from the discovery of home movies filmed by Negrín himself in exile. In 2013, Negrín's granddaughter Carmen Negrín handed over 150,000 original documents that he had transferred to France in several shipments to save them from destruction. The use and custody of the legacy rests with the Juan Negrín Foundation, a non-profit organization founded in Las Palmas, on his home island of Gran Canaria, in 1992.

Cabinets

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

Documents on Negrín from "Trabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes of organised labour", a digitised collection of more than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives of the British Trades Union Congress held in the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick

External links
  Juan Negrín: ¡resistir es vencer!, RTVE, 8 October 2006.

1892 births
1956 deaths
People from Las Palmas
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party politicians
Prime Ministers of Spain
Government ministers of Spain
Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic
Politicians from the Canary Islands
Leaders ousted by a coup
20th-century Spanish physicians
Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction)
Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in France
Economy and finance ministers of Spain
Defence ministers of Spain
Exiled Spanish politicians
Government ministers during the Second Spanish Republic
Academic staff of the Complutense University of Madrid

Juan Negrín


BIBSYS is an administrative agency run by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They help organize research data and library metadata.

BIBSYS works with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions
and the National Library of Norway.

References

Other websites
Om Bibsys

20th-century establishments in Norway
1972 establishments in Europe
Libraries in Europe
Education in Norway
Organizations based in Norway

Bibsys


The Sharp Scale was devised by Henrietta Sharp Cockrell as an objective and scientific way to measure the opacity of paper, particularly of manuscript folios, 'in the field'  without specialized equipment. A practical application of the technique could be done in a museum or library setting.
To apply the method, the folio is first held at a distance of 15 cm from a 60 watt light source (such as an unshaded table lamp).  A dowel (or pencil) is held behind and against it, creating a silhouette.  Folios are then added until the outline of the pencil is no longer visible. The number of the folios needed to obscure the silhouette of the pencil is recorded.

Notes

References
 Savage-Smith, Emilie (2005), A descriptive catalogue of Oriental manuscripts at St John's College, Oxford, Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Savage-Smith, Emilie (2011) "A New Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, Vol.I, Medicine" Oxford University Press

External links
 Book Review
A New Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford: Volume I: Medicine

Units of measurement
Book arts
Papermaking

Sharp Scale


William Robert Galbraith (7 July 1829 – 5 October 1914) was a civil engineer in the United Kingdom during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was employed by the London and South Western Railway as a consulting engineer for over 40 years, overseeing the design and construction of nearly all that company's new lines between 1862 and his retirement in 1907.

In 1892 he formed an engineering consultancy with R. F. Church. As Galbraith & Church they undertook numerous projects for other railways besides the LSWR, including the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway which became known as London Underground's Bakerloo line. In total he designed and oversaw the construction of over 14 miles of London's underground railways). In the 1890s Galbraith was the North British Railway's Parliamentary Consultant, acting as a resident expert and adviser during Parliamentary hearings on the company's engineering projects).

His projects include:
 Kew railway bridge across the River Thames in London, built in 1864-1869 by the London and South Western Railway
 Newport Pagnell to Wolverton Branch Railway, W. R. Galbraith was director from 1871 and was mentioned in the 1870 Act of Parliament which authorised the building of the line as one of the creditors of the railway
 Meldon railway viaduct, built in 1874 by the London and South Western Railway across the West Okement river valley near Okehampton, Devon
 The Swanage Branch Line, opened in 1885
 Hockley Railway Viaduct as part of the Winchester Cheshill branch of the LSWR in 1891.
 The modernisation and expansion of Southampton Docks following their purchase by the LSWR in 1892.
 The Waterloo & City line in London, opened 11 July 1898.
 The Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway, opened in 1901
 The Meon Valley Railway, built between 1898 and 1903.
 The Bakerloo line, built between 1898 and 1906
 Calstock railway viaduct across the Tamar valley, built between 1904 and 1907

References

Marshall, J .,Biographical Dictionary of Railway Engineers, 2nd Edition, Railway & Canal Historical Society, London.

British civil engineers
1829 births
1914 deaths

W. R. Galbraith


Yaoi (やおい) is a term for fiction that shows homosexual male relationships but is usually created by men and women (can be called  Fujoshi/Fudanshi too). Most yaoi fans are male and female.

Yaoi can also show a girls relationship. This is called "yuri". It is mostly created by men. Some yaoi are real but most of are the yaoi's imagination. One example of yaoi anime is Sekaiichi hatsukoi, a good example of a great yaoi manga is "Obnoxious Hero-kun".

Yaoi
Anime and manga genres

Yaoi