Russian nationalism () is a form of nationalism that promotes Russian cultural identity and unity. Russian nationalism first rose to prominence as a Pan-Slavic enterprise during the 19th century Russian Empire, and was repressed during the early Bolshevik rule. Russian nationalism was briefly revived through the policies of Joseph Stalin during and after the Second World War, which shared many resemblances with the worldview of early Eurasianist ideologues.

Following the collapse of Soviet Union, Russian nationalism has been associated with Eurasianism, re-invigorated through the Eurasia Movement of Russian philosopher Aleksandr Dugin. Neo-Eurasian socio-political programme has gained widespread acceptance in Putinist Russia; with Dugin's books, treatises and lectures being advocated through universities, schools, military institutes, police academies and other governmental organizations as part of Putin government's embrace of authoritarianism and condemnation of liberal democracy.

The definition of Russian national identity within Russian nationalism has been characterized in different ways. In ethnic terms one including asserting that those identified as ethnic Russians are the Russian nation, another is the All-Russian nation concept developed in the Russian Empire that views Russians as having three sub-national groups within it including Great Russians (those commonly identified as ethnic Russians today), Little Russians (Ukrainians), and White Russians (Belarusians). Russian nationalists have identified Russia as the main successor of the Kievan Rus' and typically view the arising of separate national identities of Belarusians and Ukrainians as having broken away from Russian national identity. In the Eurasianist perspective, Russia is distinctive civilization separate from both Europe and Asia, and includes ethnic non-Russians of Turkic and Asiatic cultures.

History

Imperial Russian nationalism

The Russian motto "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" was coined by Count Sergey Uvarov and it was adopted as the official ideology by Emperor Nicholas I. Three components of Uvarov's triad were:
OrthodoxyOrthodox Christianity and the protection of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Autocracyunconditional loyalty to the House of Romanov in return for paternalist protection for all social estates.
Nationality (, has also been translated as national spirit).

The Slavophile movement became popular in 19th-century Russia. Slavophiles opposed the presence of Western European influences in Russia and as a result, they were determined to protect Russian culture and traditions. Aleksey Khomyakov, Ivan Kireyevsky, and Konstantin Aksakov are credited with co-founding the movement.

A notable folk revival in Russian art was loosely related to Slavophilia. Many works concerning Russian history, mythology and fairy tales appeared. Operas by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Mikhail Glinka and Alexander Borodin; paintings by Viktor Vasnetsov, Ivan Bilibin and Ilya Repin; and poems by Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, among others, are considered masterpieces of Russian romantic nationalism.

Pan-Slavism, an ideal of unity of all Slavic Orthodox Christian nations, gained popularity in the mid- to late 19th century. One of its major ideologists was Nikolay Danilevsky. Pan-Slavism was fueled by and it was also the fuel for Russia's numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire, which Russia waged with the goal of liberating Orthodox nationalities, such as the Bulgarians, the Romanians, the Serbs and the Greeks, from Muslim rule. The final goal was Constantinople; the Russian Empire still considered itself the "Third Rome" and it believed that its duty required it to succeed the "Second Rome", which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Pan-Slavism also played a key role in Russia's entry into World War I, since the 1914 war against Serbia by Austria-Hungary triggered Russia's response.

Early 20th century ultra-nationalism
In the beginning of 20th century, new nationalist and rightist organizations and parties emerged in Russia, such as the Russian Assembly, the Union of the Russian People, the Union of Archangel Michael ("Black Hundreds") and others.

Nationalism during the Soviet era

Under the outlook of international communism that was especially strong at the time, Vladimir Lenin separated patriotism into what he defined as proletarian, socialist patriotism from bourgeois nationalism. Lenin promoted the right of all nations to self-determination and the right to unity of all workers within nations, but he also condemned chauvinism and claimed there were both justified and unjustified feelings of national pride. Lenin explicitly denounced conventional Russian nationalism as "Great Russian chauvinism", and his government sought to accommodate the country's multiple ethnic groups by creating republics and sub-republic units to provide non-Russian ethnic groups with autonomy and protection from Russian domination. Lenin also sought to balance the ethnic representation of leadership of the country by promoting non-Russian officials in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to counter the large presence of Russians in the Party. However, even during this early period of Soviet history, the Soviet government appealed to Russian nationalism when it needed support - especially on the Soviet borderlands in the Soviet Union's early years.

Since Russian patriotism served as a legitimizing prop of old order, Bolshevik leaders were anxious to suppress its manifestations and ensure its eventual extinction. They officially discouraged Russian nationalism and remnants of Imperial patriotism, such as the wearing of military awards received before the Civil War. Some of their followers disagreed; in non-Russian territories, Bolshevik power was often regarded as renewed Russian imperialism during 1919 to 1921. In 1922, the Soviet Union was formed with its members combined, but Russia was the largest and most populous member. After 1923 following Lenin's ideas, a policy of korenizatsiya, which provided government support for non-Russian culture and languages within the non-Russian republics, was adopted. However, this policy was not strictly enforced due to domination of Russians in Soviet Union. This domination had been formally criticized in the tsarist empire by Lenin and others as Great Russian chauvinism. Thomas Winderl wrote "The USSR became in a certain sense more a prison-house of nations than the old Empire had ever been. [...] The Russian-dominated center established an inequitable relationship with the ethnic groups it voluntarily helped to construct." Various scholars focused on the nationalist features that already existed during the Leninist period. Korenizatsiya's multinational construction weakened during Stalin's rule. Stalin's policies established a clear shift to Russian nationalism, starting from the idea that Russians were "first among equals" in the Soviet Union, escalating through the "nationalities deportations". According to scholar Jon K. Chang, the Bolsheviks "never made a clean break from Tsarist-era nationalist, populist and primordialist beliefs". Russian historian Andrei Savin stated that Stalin's policy shifted away from internationalism towards National Bolshevism in the 1930s. In a marked change from elimination of the class enemies, the nationality-based repressions declared entire ethnicities counter-revolutionary enemies, although "class dogmas" declaring targeted nationalities to be ideologically opposed to the Soviets were usually added.

Stalin reversed much of his predecessor's previous internationalist policies, signing orders for the exiling multiple distinct ethnic-linguistic groups which were branded as "traitors", including the Balkars, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush (see Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush), Karachays, Kalmyks, Koreans, and Meskhetian Turks, who were collectively deported to Siberia or Central Asia, where they were legally designated as "special settlers", which officially meant that they were second-class citizens with few rights and they were also confined within a small perimeter. Various historians see Stalin's deportations of minority and diaspora nationalities as evidence of the Russian nationalism of the Soviet state under Stalin. Chang wrote that the Soviet deportations of Koreans (and other diaspora, deported peoples such as Germans, Finns, Greeks and many others) illustrated the fact that in whole, essentialized views of race, that is, primordialism was carried over from the Russian nationalism of the Tsarist era. These Soviet tropes and biases produced and converted the Koreans (and the Chinese) into a decidedly, un-Marxist Soviet "yellow peril". The existence of racism lay in the fact that others could occasionally be seen or judged in accordance with a class line or they could be seen or judged on an individual basis but the Koreans could not. Norman M. Naimark believed that the Stalinist "nationalities deportations" were forms of national-cultural genocide. The deportations at the very least changed the cultures, way of life and world views of the deported peoples as the majority were sent to Soviet Central Asia and Siberia. According to historian Jeremy Smith, "As long as Stalin was alive... nationality policy was subject to arbitrary swings. The most disturbing feature of this period was the growth of official Anti-Semitism" including the campaign against "rootless cosmopolitans". Smith observed that "Speeches and newspaper articles raised the spectre of an international Jewish conspiracy to overthrow Soviet power" leading to the purges of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee and the Doctors' plot which was associated with the persecution of Jewish Moscow doctors in planned show trials. If Stalin had not died when he did, the alleged Doctors' plot would have led to the deportation of Jews to Siberia. Meanwhile, the defense of the country during World War II had led to the emergence of a new wave of national pride in the non-Russian republics which led to purges in those republics.

According to Evgeny Dobrenko, "Late Stalinism" after World War II was the transformation of Soviet society away from Marxism to demonize the idea of cosmopolitanism. He argued that Soviet actions up to 1945 could still in some way be explained by Leninist internationalism, but that the Soviet Union was turned into a Russian nationalist entity during the postwar years. Through a widespread study of Soviet literature, he found a vast increase in nationalist themes, cultural puritanism, and paranoia in publications during this eight year period making "Stalinism the heart of Sovietness" well after Stalin's death. Historian David Brandenberger contrasts russocentrism characteristic of this era with Russian nationalism. In his view, ethnic pride and promoted sense of Russian national identity didn't cross the threshold of nationalism as "the party hierarchy never endorsed the idea of Russian self-determination or separatism and vigorously suppressed all those who did, consciously drawing a line between the positive phenomenon of national identity formation and the malignancy of full-blown nationalist ambitions." To define the "pragmatic" combination of Russian national identity promotion in Marxist–Leninist propaganda and "symbolically abandoned" earlier proletarian internationalism, Brandenberger describes Stalin's regime with the term "National Bolshevism".

The creation of an international communist state under control of the workers was perceived by some as accomplishment of Russian nationalistic dreams. Poet Pavel Kogan described his feelings of the Soviet patriotism just before World War II:

According to Nikolai Berdyaev:

In 1944, the Soviet Union abandoned its communist anthem The Internationale and adopted a new national anthem conveying a Russian-centered national pride in its first stanza, "An unbreakable union of free republics, Great Russia has sealed forever."

Although Khrushchev had risen up during Stalinism, his speech On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences and de-Stalinization signified a retreat from official anti-Semitism and Great Russian Chauvinism. Most, though not all nationalities deported by Stalin were allowed to return during Khrushchev, and the Soviet Union to a degree, resumed a policy of cultivating local national developments. Among the nationalities not allowed to return were Koreans and Crimean Tatars. The Kremlin during Khrushchev, generally favoring Russification overall, would attempt several variations of nationalities policy, favoring korenizatsiya (indigenization) in Central Asia without extending privileges to Russians. In Latvia however, regional communist elites tried to reinstate local korenizatsiya 1957-1959, but Khrushchev cracked down on these efforts, exiling Eduards Berklavs, and extended privileges to Russians in Latvia. Nonetheless, during Khrushchev's relatively more tolerant administration, Russian nationalism emerged as a slightly oppositional phenomenon within the Soviet elites. Alexander Shelepin, a Communist Party hardliner and KGB chairman, called for a return to Stalinism and policies more in line with Russian cultural nationalism, as did conservative writers like Sergey Vikulov. The Komsomol leadership also hosted several prominent nationalists such as Sergei Pavlovich Pavlov, an ally of Shelepin, while the Molodaya Gvardiya published numerous neo-Stalinist and nationalist works.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union

Many nationalist movements, both radical and moderate, have arisen after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. One of the oldest and most popular is Vladimir Zhirinovsky's right-wing populist Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union and then Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, which had been a member of the State Duma since its creation in 1993. Rodina was a popular left-wing nationalist party under Dmitry Rogozin, which eventually abandoned its nationalist ideology and merged with the larger Russian socialist nationalist party A Just Russia.

One of the more radical, ultranationalist movements was Russian National Unity, a far-right group that organised paramilitary brigades of its younger members before it was banned in 1999. Before its breakup in late 2000 the Russian National Unity was estimated to have had approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members. Others include BORN (Militant Organization of Russian Nationalists) which was involved in the murder of Stanislav Markelov, the neo-monarchist Pamyat, the Union of Orthodox Banner-Bearers, and the Movement Against Illegal Immigration, which revived the slogan "Russia for Russians." These parties organised an annual rally called the Russian March.

Extremist nationalism
Extremist nationalism in Russia is used in reference to many far-right and a few far-left ultra-nationalist movements and organizations. In Russia, the term nationalism is frequently used in reference to extremist nationalism. However, it is frequently mixed up with "fascism" in Russia. While the meaning of this terminology does not exactly match the formal definitions of fascism, the common denominator is chauvinism. In all other respects, the positions vary over a wide spectrum. Some movements hold a political position in which they believe that the state must be an instrument of nationalism (such as the National Bolshevik Party, headed by Eduard Limonov), while others (for example, Russian National Unity) promote the use of vigilantist tactics against the perceived "enemies of Russia" without participating in politics.

Historically, the first prototypes of such groups were the Black Hundreds in Imperial Russia, the Russian Fascist Organization and the Russian Fascist Party (two organizations which were based in Manchukuo). More recent antisemitic, white supremacist neo-fascist and neo-Nazi organizations include the Russian National Socialist Party.

In 1997, the Moscow Anti-Fascist Center estimated that 40 (nationalist) extremist groups were operating in Russia. The same source reported 35 extremist newspapers, the largest among these being Zavtra. In spite of repression by governmental authorities, a far-right extremist movement has established itself in
Russia.

Neopaganism and the Aryan myth

Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Aryan myth has gained publicity in Russia. Numerous series of collections of works by popularizers of the Aryan idea are published (Secrets of the Russian Land, The True History of the Russian People, etc.). They are available in Russian bookstores and municipal and university libraries. These works are not marginal: they have a circulation of tens of thousands of copies (or millions, for example, for books by Alexander Asov), their content is involved in the formation of the worldview basis of a stratum of the population regarding ancient history.

Authors who develop the Aryan theme are often employees of new amateur academies and geopolitical institutions. Only a small number of them have a history degree. Most of them were educated in the field of technology and exact sciences.

The "Aryan" idea in the version of Slavic neo-paganism (the origin of the Slavs from the "Aryans" from Hyperborea or Central Asia, also called the "race of white gods"; the connection of the Slavs with India; ancient pre-Christian Slavic "runic" books; origin from the "Slavic-Aryans" of the ancient civilizations; the neo-pagan symbol "Kolovrat" as an ancient Slavic symbol; a variant of the alien origin of the "Aryan-Hyperboreans") was popularized in the "documentary" programs of the REN TV television network, including broadcasts by Igor Prokopenko and Oleg Shishkin.

In a number of areas of Russian nationalism, the "Aryan" idea is used to justify the right to the territory of modern Russia or the former Soviet Union, which is declared to be the habitat of the ancient "Slavo-Aryans". In a number of post-Soviet countries, "Aryanism" is cultivated by neo-pagan movements that are not satisfied with the real history of their peoples. The pre-Christian past is idealized, allowing one to present one's ancestors as a great victorious people. The choice falls on paganism, since, according to these ideologists, it is endowed with an "Aryan heroic principle" and is not burdened by Christian morality, calling for mercy and ignoring the idea of the priority of "blood and soil".

Christianity is seen by neo-pagans as a hindrance to a successful "racial struggle". The rejection of Christianity and the return to the "ethnic religion", the "faith of the ancestors", according to neo-pagans, will help overcome the split of the nation and return to it the lost moral "Aryan" values that can lead it out of the crisis. Neo-pagans call for a return to the "Aryan worldview" in the name of public health, which is being destroyed by modern civilization. Within this discourse, the slogans of the Conservative Revolution of the 1920s are once again becoming popular. Declaring themselves "Aryans", the radicals seek to fight for the "salvation of the white race", which results in attacks on "migrants" and other representatives of non-titular nationalities.

In many areas of Slavic neo-paganism (rodnovery), Slavs or Russians are credited with historical and cultural or racial superiority over other peoples. This ideology includes Russian messianism, with the Russian people being considered the only force capable of resisting world evil and leading the rest of the world. The "Aryan" idea sets before Russia the task of building an analogue of the "Fourth Reich", a new "Aryan" empire on a global scale. The Russian Aryan myth rejects any territorial disputes, since the Russian people are depicted as absolutely autochthonous throughout Eurasia.

Less common is the model of an ethno-national state associated with the separatism of certain Russian regions. The fragmentation of Russia into several Russian national states, devoid of ethnic minorities, is supposed. In both cases, it is believed that the cohesion of society in the new state should be built on a single "native faith".

Modern Russian neo-paganism took shape in the second half of the 1970s and is associated with the activities of antisemitic supporters of the Moscow Arabist Valery Yemelyanov (neopagan name - Velemir) and the former dissident and neo-Nazi activist Alexey Dobrovolsky (neopagan name - Dobroslav).

Contemporary nationalism

The Kremlin conducted a campaign against radical nationalists in the 2010s, and as a result, many of them are currently imprisoned, according to a Russian political scientist and a senior visiting fellow at the George Washington University Institute for European, Russian, and Eurasian Studies Maria Lipman. At the same time, Eurasianism has emerged as the dominant nationalist narrative in Putinist Russia. In a poll conducted by Levada Center in 2021, 64% of Russian citizens identify Russia as a non-European country; while only 29% regarded Russia to be part of Europe.

Sociologist Marcel Van Herpen wrote that United Russia increasingly relied on Russian nationalism for support following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine. Nationalist political party Rodina cultivated ties with Eurosceptic, far-right and far-left political movements, supporting them financially and inviting them to Eurasian conferences in Crimea and Saint Petersburg.

However, the Kremlin scaled nationalism down out of fears that prominent figures such as Igor Girkin began to act independently, following a brief period of stirring activism that resulted in Russian men volunteering to fight in Donbas in 2014 and 2015, according to Lipman. In Lipman's view, the Kremlin's aim is to prevent emotions that "might get out of control and motivate people to act independently".

Academics Robert Horvath and Anton Shekhovtsov described how the Kremlin uses far-right groups to promote Russian nationalist or anti-western views in Russia and abroad. According to Horvath, the Kremlin cultivated neo-Nazis who reject democratic institutions and imposed restrictions on mainstream nationalists who may support free elections.

In November 2018, Vladimir Putin described himself as "the most effective nationalist", explaining that Russia is a multiethnic and multireligious state and preserving it as such serves the interests of the ethnic Russians. He remarked that Russian ethnicity didn't exist at some point and it was formed by multiple Slavic tribes.

According to Michael Hirsh, a senior correspondent at Foreign Policy:

Putin's views evolved over time. In his speech on 18 June 2004 at the international conference "Eurasian Integration: Trends of Modern Development and Challenges of Globalization", Putin said about the problems hindering integration: "I would say that these problems can be formulated very simply. This is great-power chauvinism, this is nationalism, this is the personal ambitions of those on whom political decisions depend, and, finally, this is just stupidity, ordinary cavemen's stupidity".

Since around 2014, the Putin regime has adopted Russian nationalism and great-power chauvinism as its main policy. In July 2021, Putin published an essay titled On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians, in which he states that Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians should be in one All-Russian nation as a part of the Russian world and are "one people" whom "forces that have always sought to undermine our unity" wanted to "divide and rule".

In a speech on 21 February 2022, following the escalation in the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, Putin made a number of claims about Ukrainian and Soviet history, including stating that modern Ukraine was created by the Bolsheviks in 1917 as part of a communist appeasement of nationalism of ethnic minorities in the former Russian Empire, specifically blaming Vladimir Lenin for "detaching Ukraine from Russia". Putin spoke of the "historic, strategic mistakes" that were made when in 1991 the USSR "granted sovereignty" to other Soviet republics on "historically Russian land" and called the entire episode "truly fatal". He described Ukraine as being turned into the "anti-Russia" by the West.

Russian nationalism and ethnic minorities

The issue of Russian nationalism with regard to Russia's relationship with its ethnic minorities has been extensively studied since the rapid expansion of Russia from the 16th century onward. Since there is no English word which differentiates the meaning of the word "Russian", in Russian, it is either used as a term for an ethnic people ("Русский" – ethnic Russian) and it is also used as a term for the inhabitants of Russia ("Россиянин" – Russian citizen).

The Russian conquest of Muslim Kazan is considered the first event which transformed Russia from a nearly homogenous nation into a multi-ethnic society. Over the years and from the territorial base which it gained in Kazan, Russia managed to conquer Siberia and Manchuria and it also expanded into the Caucasus. At one point, Russia managed to annex a large territory of Eastern Europe, Finland, Central Asia, Mongolia and, on other occasions, it encroached into Turkish, Chinese, Afghan and Iranian territories. Various ethnic minorities have become increasingly viral and integrated into mainstream Russian society, and as a result, they have created a mixing picture of racial relationships in the modern Russian nationalist mindset. The work of understanding different ethnic minorities in relation to the Russian state can be traced back to the work of Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish prisoner of war who settled in Tsarist Russia and became a geographer.

The concept is strongly understood by various minorities in Russia. The Volga Tatars and the Bashkirs, the two main Muslim peoples in Russia, have long been lauded as model minorities in Russia, and historically, they have been viewed more positively by the Russian nationalist movement. Furthermore, Tatar and Bashkir imams have worked to spread the Russian nationalist ideology in a way which is in accordance with their Islamic faith.

In the Caucasus, Russia gained a significant amount of support from the Ossetians, one of the few Christian-based peoples which live in the mountainous region. There was also a strong amount of support for Russia among Armenians and Greeks, a sentiment which was largely due to the fact that the Armenians, the Greeks and the Orthodox government of Russia all adhered to similar religions.

The Koryo-saram (Koreans) have also been regarded as a model minority in Russia, and as a result, they have been encouraged to colonize sparsely-populated parts of Russia, this policy was first implemented during the Tsarist era and it continues to be implemented today, because Koreans were not hostile to Russian nationalism. Although the Korean diaspora in the Russian Far East was loyal to the Soviet Union and also underwent cultural Russification, Koreans were deported to Central Asia by the Soviet government (1937–1938), based on the erroneous charge that they were aligned with the Japanese. When Khrushchev allowed deported nationalities to return to their homelands, the Koreans remained restricted and they were not rehabilitated. On 26April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman Boris Yeltsin, passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide".

Ukrainians in Russia have been largely integrated and the majority of them pledged loyalty over Russia, while some Ukrainians managed to occupy significant positions in Russian history. Bohdan Khmelnytsky is one of Russia's most celebrated figures who brought Ukraine to the Tsardom of Russia throughout the Pereyaslav Council. Ukrainian Prince Alexander Bezborodko was responsible for manifesting the modern diplomacies of Russia under the reign of Catherine the Great. Soviet leaders Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Konstantin Chernenko and Mikhail Gorbachev also had some ancestral connections to Ukraine. In addition, Russia's biggest opposition leader, Alexei Navalny, is also of paternally of Ukrainian origin as well as being a potential Russian nationalist.

Akhmad Kadyrov and his son Ramzan defected to Russia during the Second Chechen War, pledging loyalty to Putin while maintaining a degree of autonomy for the Chechen Republic, while using this opportunity for securing funds for their regime from Russian federal money. Vladislav Surkov, who is of Chechen origin, was the chief figure who initiated the idea of Russian managed democracy, in which nationalism is a part of the ideology.

Georgians in Russia do not have a positive view of Russian nationalism, and as a result, vast majority of them maintain a neutral or negative opinion. However, Russian expansion into the Caucasus mountains has been driven by Georgian figures such as Pavel Tsitsianov, who initiated the conquest of the Caucasus. Pyotr Bagration was another Georgian who went on to become one of Russia's most celebrated heroes. Soviet Union's transformation into a superpower was the work of yet another Russified Georgian, Joseph Stalin, who had a complex relationship with Russian nationalism.

Some of Dagestan's revered figures have long been respected by Russian nationalists, such as Rasul Gamzatov, who is one of Russia's most respected poets despite his Avar origin. Khabib Nurmagomedov's rise to popularity and fame has earned a divisive opinion among Russians and Dagestanis. Putin loyalist Ramzan Kadirov has made controversial statements attacking the legendary Dagestani leader Imam Shamil, who led the armed resistance of Caucasian Imamate against Russian imperialism during the Murid War. This has resulted in an outpouring of criticism in Dagestanis, who fear that Kadyrovites seek to control the Kizlyarsky and Botlikhsky districts in Dagestan. The comments by Kadyrov are widely seen as part of government attempts to demean religious and national leaders of Russia's Muslim minority who defended their homeland from Imperial Russia.

Germans in Russia have long been treated with privileges under the Tsarist government and many Germans became prominent in Russian politics, education and economy, including the Tsarist House of Romanov, which also included many German-based figures, most notably Catherine the Great. Many Germans fought in the Russian Civil War and regarded themselves as Russian nationalists. The Baltic German nobility were significantly loyal to the Russian Empire, but were resistant to nationalism until the Russian Revolution, identifying mainly as members of the Russian nobility.

A number of critics believe the rise of Russian nationalism is belated. The reason is the passive attitude of Russians towards other peoples inhabiting Russia. Passivity arose because of the huge number of peoples of Russia, which were much smaller in number than Russians. They were easy to dominate and subdue. At the same time, the increase in the representation of Jews, Uzbeks, Germans, Armenians and other representatives of non-Russian peoples in the elites of Russia generates discontent and Russian "belated" nationalism. According to Boris Berezovsky, Russian nationalism is a huge danger that the entire non-Russian population of Russia will face on an increasing scale.

Parties and organizations

 Black Hundreds early 20th century (Defunct)
 Mladorossi (Defunct)
 Union of the Russian People (Defunct)
 Russian Fascist Party (Defunct)

See also

 All-Russian nation
 Moscow, third Rome
 Putinism
 Eurasianism
 Russian Fascist Organization
 Russian Fascist Party
 Russia for Russians
 Russian imperialism
 Russian irredentism
 Russian world
 Russification
 Russophilia

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Russian
 , 2002
  Радикальный национализм в России: проявления и противодействие Центр экстремальной журналистики.

References

Further reading

 Nationalism and xenophobia in Russia , SOVA Center, an independent authority that produces reports and daily updates on the rise of nationalism and xenophobia in the Russian Federation
 Ultra-nationalist, fascist and neo-Nazi movements in Russia Infoshop News
 Western Perceptions of Russian Nationalism (or this link)
 Russian Nationalism and Putin's Russia ()
 On menace of nationalism in Russia. "Yabloko" Party view (in Russian)
 Vladislav Kelle. Nationalism and the future of Russia (in Russian)
 Racial violence escalates in Russia Jane's Intelligence Review, 5 September 2006
 National Socialist Society Radical national socialist organization
 Nordrus – an organization of "Russian radical nationalists" (in Russian)
 "Velvet" Fascism. Ultra-nationalist ideas are popular among the literary mainstream and political saloons by Andrey Kolesnikov
 Russian Fascism and Russian Fascists by Kirill Buketov
 Radical nationalism in Russia and efforts to counteract it in 2006

Politics of Russia

Russian nationalism


A supervillain or supercriminal is a variant of the villainous stock character that is commonly found in American comic books, usually possessing superhuman abilities. A supervillain is the antithesis of a superhero.

Description
Supervillains are often used as foils to present a daunting challenge to a superhero. In instances where the supervillain does not have superhuman, mystical, or alien powers, the supervillain may possess a genius intellect or a skill set that allows them to draft complex schemes or commit crimes in a way normal humans cannot. Other traits may include megalomania and possession of considerable resources to further their aims. Many supervillains share some typical characteristics of real-world dictators, gangsters, mad scientists, trophy hunters, corrupt businesspeople, serial killers, and terrorists, often having an aspiration of world domination.

Notable supervillains
The Joker, Lex Luthor, Doctor Doom, Magneto, Brainiac, Deathstroke, the Green Goblin, Venom, the Reverse-Flash, Sinestro, Loki, Thanos, and Darkseid are some notable male comic book supervillains that have been adapted in film and television. Some notable examples of female supervillains are Catwoman, Harley Quinn, Poison Ivy, Mystique, Hela, Viper, and the Cheetah.

Just like superheroes, supervillains are sometimes members of groups, such as the Injustice League, the Sinister Six, the Legion of Doom, the Brotherhood of Mutants, the Suicide Squad, and the Masters of Evil.

In the documentary A Study in Sherlock, writers Steven Moffat and Mark Gatiss stated that they regarded Professor James Moriarty as a supervillain because he, too, possesses genius-level intelligence and powers of observation and deduction, setting him above ordinary people to the point where only he can pose a credible threat to Sherlock Holmes.

Fu Manchu is an archetypal evil criminal genius and mad scientist created by English author Sax Rohmer in 1913. The Fu Manchu moustache became integral to stereotypical cinematic and television depictions of Chinese villains. Between 1965 and 1969 Christopher Lee played Fu Manchu five times in film, and in 1973 the character first appeared in Marvel Comics.

The James Bond arch-villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld (known for frequently appearing sitting on an armchair while stroking his cat and often leaving his face unseen to the viewer in screen appearances) has become influential to the supervillain tropes in popular cinema, including parodies like Dr. Claw and M.A.D. Cat from the Inspector Gadget animated series, Dr. Evil and Mr. Bigglesworth from the Austin Powers film series, or Dr. Blowhole from the animated TV series The Penguins of Madagascar.

The overarching villain of Star Wars, Emperor Palpatine, leads the tyrannical Galactic Empire, and was inspired by real-world tyrannical leaders.

See also

References

External links

Superhero fiction themes
Stock characters

de:Schurke

Supervillain


The Calles Law (), or Law for Reforming the Penal Code (ley de tolerancia de cultos, "law of worship tolerance"), was a statute enacted in Mexico in 1926, under the presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles, to enforce restrictions against the Catholic Church in Article 130 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Article 130 declared that the church and state are to remain separate. To that end, it required all "churches and religious groupings" to register with the state and placed restrictions on priests and ministers of all religions. Priests and ministers were prohibited from holding public office, canvass on behalf of political parties or candidates, or inherit property from persons other than close blood relatives. President Calles applied existing laws regarding the separation of church and state throughout Mexico and added his own legislation.

In June 1926, he signed the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code", which became known unofficially as the "Calles Law." This law provided specific penalties for priests and individuals who violated Article 130 of the 1917 Constitution. For example, wearing clerical garb in public was punishable by a fine of 500 pesos (approximately 250 U.S. dollars at the time, or worth $4,250 in 2010). A priest who criticized the government could be imprisoned up to five years. Some states enacted further measures in the name of church and state separation. Chihuahua, for example, enacted a law permitting only a single priest to serve the entire Catholic congregation of the state. Tabasco, on the other hand, introduced a law whereby all priests were required to be married to exercise their office. To help enforce the law, Calles seized Church properties, expelled foreign priests, and closed monasteries, convents, and religious schools.

The Church saw the law as a trap to conform the Church to a tyrannical state. One result of the Calles Law was the Cristero War, a popular uprising of Catholic peasants in regions of central Mexico against the federal Mexican government. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed during the war. Whereas Mexico had some 4,500 Catholic priests prior to the Cristero War, by 1934 only 334 Catholic priests were licensed by the government to serve Mexico's 15 million people. By 1935, 17 states were left with no priest at all. Under President Lázaro Cárdenas, the Calles Law was repealed in 1938.

See also
 Plutarco Elías Calles
 Cristero War
 Red Shirts (Mexico)
 Tomás Garrido Canabal

References

Anti-clericalism in Mexico
Cristero War
Law of Mexico
Persecution of Christians

Calles Law


Bruce Daniels is an American hydroclimatologist, business executive and computer programmer. He is known in Silicon Valley as one of the pioneers of the personal computer and user-friendly interfaces.

Daniels earned his Ph.D. from the University of California at Santa Cruz after receiving an Sc.B. and S.M. in computer science from MIT.  He specializes in water-related impacts of climate change, especially in the American West.  His contributions to decisions concerning California water quality date to 2003, when he was appointed to the state's Regional Water Quality Control Board.  In 2011, he was honored as an ARCS Scholar in Northern California. In 2016, he serves as the elected president of the board of directors of the Soquel Creek Water District in Santa Cruz County, California.

Daniels has also been a computer programmer and business executive who has worked for Hewlett Packard, Apple Computer, Oracle, Borland, Sun Microsystems and his own start-up, Singular Software, which created relational database management software for the Apple Macintosh. He was a lead programmer for the Macintosh, and a software manager for the Apple Lisa.  When he was still a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he was one of the creators of an early personal computer game, Zork.

References

Apple Inc. employees
Living people
American video game programmers
Year of birth missing (living people)

Bruce Daniels


The Hilton Hotels brand was re-united internationally after more than 40 years in February 2006, when United States-based Hilton Hotels Corporation purchased the lodging arm of United Kingdom-based Hilton Group PLC, which had acquired Hilton's international operations in 1987 (the companies had been severed originally in 1966).

Hilton Hotels became America's first coast-to-coast hotel chain in 1943. The company places marketing emphasis on business travel, but owns and operates a number of resorts and leisure-oriented hotels as well.

As of April 2007, the chain has 229 Hilton branded hotels across the world and has partnerships with many airlines and car rental companies.

Hilton Hotels & Resorts is the flagship brand of Hilton and one of the largest hotel chains in the world.

The company focuses on business and recreational tourists, so it has hotels in the centers of major cities, near airports, conference centers, as well as in popular vacation destinations around the world. Hilton Hotels & Resorts participates in Hilton Honors, a guest loyalty program of Hilton. Program members who book rooms directly through Hilton services receive exclusive discounts and benefits, such as free Wi-Fi, digital registration, keyless room access and the ability to choose any number you like using the Hilton Honors mobile app.

Gallery of Hilton Hotels buildings around the world

References

Companies based in Virginia
American hotel chains

Hilton Hotels


Mud Lake is a lake located by Redwood, New York. The water from adjacent Crystal Lake flows into Mud Lake and the outlet flows into Butterfield Lake. Fish species present in the lake are northern pike, yellow perch, brown bullhead, and bluegill. There is only carry-down boat access on this lake.

References

Lakes of New York (state)
Lakes of Jefferson County, New York

Mud Lake (Jefferson County, New York)


Robert Plunkett, 5th Baron Dunsany (died 1559) was an Anglo-Irish nobleman of the Tudor period.

Background

He was the only surviving son of Edward Plunkett, 4th Baron of Dunsany and his wife Amy (or Anny) de Bermingham, daughter of Philip de Bermingham and Ellen Strangeways. His mother died in 1500, suggesting a birth date for Robert in the late 1490s. He succeeded to the title in 1521, when his father was killed while assisting the Earl of Surrey, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in putting down a rebellion by the O'Connor and O'Carroll families.

Marriages and  children

Robert married firstly Eleanor Darcy, daughter of Sir William Darcy of Platten and his first wife Margaret St Lawrence. They had at least thirteen children, most of whom survived infancy, including:
John, who died before his father, leaving an only daughter, Elizabeth;
Christopher, 6th Baron of Dunsany;
Gerald, who married Catherine Eustace, daughter of Thomas Eustace, 1st Viscount Baltinglass;
Richard;
Ellen, who married Matthew Begg;
Jenet, who married James FitzGerald;
Alison, who married Christopher Plunkett;
Anne, who married  Simon Pettit;
Mary, who married Richard Luttrell;
Margaret, who married Walter, Baron Skryne;
Elizabeth, who married Sir Walter FitzGerald, a  younger son of Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and his second wife Elizabeth St.John.

Dunsany married secondly Jenet Sarsfield, who had already buried two husbands and was to have six in all. They do not seem to have been married for more than two years when Dunsany died in March 1559; their two sons apparently died in infancy. Despite the brevity of the marriage, Jenet took great pride in her rank as a baroness: although she made three further marriages, two of them to knights, she preferred in later life to be called Lady Dunsany, and was buried under that title in a tomb of her own design.

Career

During the rebellion of Silken Thomas, Dunsany, whose daughter Elizabeth was married to Thomas's uncle Walter FitzGerald (who was later executed for his part in the Rebellion), fell under suspicion of treason, and in the autumn of 1535, he was denounced to the Crown as a ringleader of the rebellion. His enemies urged that he should be attainted but in the event Henry VIII, having virtually destroyed the FitzGerald family, including Dunsany's son-in-law Walter, was prepared to be merciful to the other nobles of the Pale, and Dunsany escaped unscathed.

His later career suggests that he had regained the Crown's trust. He took his seat in the Irish House of Lords in the Parliament of 1541; he was one of the nobles who confirmed the election of Sir Francis Bryan as Governor of Ireland in 1549; and in 1557 he accompanied the Lord Deputy, Sussex, on an expedition against the McDonnells of Ulster. He died in 1559 and was succeeded by his second son, Christopher.

References

Barons of Dunsany
1559 deaths
16th-century Anglo-Irish people
Year of birth unknown

Robert Plunkett, 5th Baron of Dunsany


Integration is the annual techno-cultural fest of Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata usually held during last three weekends of January each year. It is one of the biggest campus events in Kolkata, and attracts participation from all over the world.

Introduction
Integration is a relatively new addition to the set of Kolkata fests, and yet, it has already carved out a niche for itself. Integration is already one of the biggest fests in the city and is entirely organised by the students and research scholars of Indian Statistical Institute (ISI). The fest is held in three parts, namely, the Tech Chapter, the Sports Chapter and the Cultural Chapter.

The Tech Chapter is generally held on the second weekend of January. In this part of Integration, they hold competitive events such as hackathons, scavenger hunts, and esports tournaments. The Tech Quiz, which is organised during this part of Integration, is one of the biggest of its kind in West Bengal. Apart from these, there are workshops and seminars on various technical fields, conducted by eminent personalities from the academia.

The Cultural Fest is held within one week after the Tech Chapter. This part of Integration witnesses the active involvement of stalwarts from various fields, like Mr. Sourav Ganguly, Sri Pranab Mukherjee, Mr. Anupam Kher, Mr. Arun Shourie,  Mr. Harsha Bhogle and others.  The competitive events include debate (Contrapunto), Extempore, singing competitions, photography, movie making, dance competitions, band competition and many other events. Prahelika, the biggest campus quiz in Eastern India, is held during this part of Integration.

The Sports Chapter was introduced in January 2013. It consists of numerous indoor and outdoor sporting events such as football, cricket, chess, bridge, volleyball, etc.Football tournament is one of the biggest college-university tournament in Kolkata. The chess tournament is held in association with West Bengal Chess Association.

History
2010 : Integration was revived after 10 years. On-stage competitions: Smart (virtual stock market), Antakshari, Choice of Chance, Stand-up Comedy, Skit, Singing Competition, Debate, Extempore, etc. Offstage competitions: Creative Writing, Painting, Cartooning, Junk yard wars. An initiative called eco-pals where students took a green pledge to make the hostel campus plastic free. There were talks on Cryptography and Environment. Underground Authority, then known as "Banned", won the band competition.
2011 : As 2011 came, participation increased by leaps and bounds. Short movies and online events had participants from all over the world. Also, Prahelika -the biggest campus quiz in Eastern India- became a part of Integration. Integration organised a panel discussion on Expectations from Future Leaders, an interactive session attended by Shri Pranab Mukherjee, Mr. Sourav Ganguly, Dr. Arun Shourie, Mr. Anupam Kher and Mrs. Rita Bhimani. The event was compered by Mr. Harsha Bhogle. There were rocking performances by the reputed bands Hip Pocket, Fossils and Colors. A traditional folk dance "Chou-Nach" event was also organised.
2012 : This time integration saw the first international performance by Love Runs Blind, featuring the guitar legend Ayub Bachchu . This year, the Tech and Cultural Chapters were held separately on two consecutive weekends. The Gaming Competition was introduced. The 125th birth anniversary of Sukumar Ray was celebrated through a unique event named "Choracchi" - the Kabya Sabha, where renowned poets like Srijato and Apurba Dutta along with Mr. Chandi Lahiri, the famous cartoonist shed light on the life of Sukumar Ray and recited poems. A stage show on sand animation was also held.
2013 : Integration this year reached new heights as she celebrated 100 years of Indian Cinema. Usual events went on along with brand new ones in line with the theme. Prahelika maintained its stature with Arul Mani enchanting the crowd with his charismatic quizzing. Avial registered their first jig at Kolkata on the second day of the Cultural Chapter while Taaltantra, featuring Tanmoy Bose, closed with a mind-blowing showdown. Integration added an entirely new dimension to itself as it went forward to organize a Sports Chapter, which has arguably been the biggest on-campus sporting event in the city in recent times.

Events

Tech Chapter
The tech-part of the integration is generally for the first two days. Following are the major events under the tech-chapter of Integration  :
GROUND-ZERO : The national gamers meet, with teams participating in for the grand prize in games like Counter-Strike: Global Offensive and Dota 2 and individuals fighting their way to top in NFSMW and FIFA 11.
Tech Quiz : This quiz contest tests the young minds from all over India on their acquaintance with all forms of Technology. It is attended by participants from all over West Bengal and carry very attractive prizes (laptops, iPods etc.).
Robowars : This competition has two categories: manual and autonomous. It is a competition where teams will make their own bots at home, and they will be judged based on some predefined criteria.
Junkyard Wars : It is a challenge to the best engineering minds. The participating teams are given the task to make a device (like crossbow, hovercraft, steered toy, etc.) out of junk material, on the spot. Then the teams will have to compete on a track or field using the device they make. Their performance will be judged based on some previously declared criteria.
Seminars and Workshops : It provides an opportunity for students to interact with the maestros in academics and corporate sector. Workshop on ethical hacking and animation using sand medium has been held in the previous years.

Integration has a series of online events that starts some days before the actual fest. Myst-IQ is a complete set of puzzles and quiz relying mostly on logic and common sense. Market Mania is a virtual portfolio management game where participants follow the Indian share market in real time, with huge prize money at stake. Code-IT the biggest online coding competition organised by any research institute of India. The participants are asked to come up with the most efficient and innovative algorithm to a coding problem.

Cultural Events

Prahelika : A prize money of at least Rs. 25,000 in cash, along with other goodies, hosted by celebrity quiz-masters like Derek O'Brien, Harsha Bhogle and Arul Mani, it is one of the biggest campus quiz in Eastern India.

Nikanna : With huge prizes at stake, the solo-dance participants from all over Bengal groove with the rhythm and deliver spell-binding performances.
Jhankar : The best dance groups in the country treasure this opportunity to compete and win the coveted prizes and recognition from the hugely acclaimed judges.
Impromptu : It is the extempore competition of Integration that usually takes place on the first day.
Contrapunto : The debate competition is called Contrapunto. It takes place on the opening day of Integration. It witnesses participation by debaters across the country competing for the winners' trophy.
Alaap : It is the solo singing competition. This competition is one of the biggest of its type in contemporary times.
Band-e-Thlon : The best campus bands fight it out with each other. Underground Authority erstwhile Banned won this competition in 2010.
Thru-d-lens : Thur-d-lens is the name by which the photography competition of Integration is called. It is a very coveted photography event of Eastern India. Niepce (Black and White) and Daguerre(Color) are the two categories. It has been jointly organised with PAD since 2016.
Montage : The short-movie competition attracts participation from all across India. There have been foreign entries in this competition, but there is no recorded instance of any foreign film winning the competition. A few selected films are staged in front of the viewers and film critics in the city. The only foreign movie to have qualified for the final staging so far was from Glassgow. Film institutes and freelancers come together for the staging of Montage. Buddhadeb Dasgupta is among the notable judges who have judged this competition.
Skit : Platform to show one's acting skills.
Pen-fight : This is the name by which the creative writing competition at Integration is known. It aims at recognizing and acknowledging young talents across the country. This event usually sees very thick participation from the students across West Bengal.
Cartooning : This event aims at encouraging young cartoonists. It attracts participants from all over the state, with legends like Chandi Lahiri, judging every year. This event is usually covered enthusiastically by leading newspapers in the city. This has been organised in association with Humane Society International(India) since 2016.

Panel discussion
Interactive session discussion burning issues of the day. This event in the past has seen celebrities like Pranab Mukherjee, Sourav Ganguly, Arun Shourie, Anupam Kher, Rita Bhimani, Chandi Lahiri, Srijato, Apurba Dutta and others.

Showdowns
Celebrated performers from within the country and abroad set the stage on fire. Fossils, Underground Authority, LRB, Colors, Cassini's Division and Chandrabindoo are some of the esteemed names that have graced Integration. Here is the detailed list of bands who have enlightened us with their performances.
 2013 : Avial (band), Taal Tantra featuring Tanmoy Bose
 2014 : Agnee (band)
 2015 : Raghu Dixit, Fossils (band), Kaahon, Crazy Petals.
 2016 : Indian Ocean (band), Parikrama (band), Magic Moments featuring Vishwa Mohan Bhatt and Subhen Chatterjee
 2017 : Coke Studio.
 2018 : Ganesh Talkies (band), Parekh & Singh and Swarathma.
 2019 : Nalayak the band and Monali Thakur.
 2020 : The Local Train.

Celebrity Quotient
Every year, Integration is graced by the presence of eminent personalities from India and abroad. Events of Integration has played host to some of the most eminent names from the world and abroad. Shri Pranab Mukherjee, Sourav Ganguly, Rita Bhimani, Arun Shouri, Anupam Kher, Harsha Bhogle, Sandip Ray, Joy Bhattacharya, Chandi Lahiri, Chandril Bhattacharya, Srijato, Apurba Dutta is but a poorly partial list of celebrities who have been guests at Integration.

Sponsors
Over the past years, Integration has formed alliances with many noted names of the industry, like Ola Cabs, IBM, HDFC, Eclerx, Havells, LIC, Roland Corporation, Roche, ITC Limited, Tata Consultancy Services, National Insurance Company Limited, United Bank of India, UCO Bank, Punjab National Bank, Coca-Cola and Allahabad Bank.

Media partners
Integration enjoys national and international media coverage.  The Daily Telegraph, The Times of India, The Indian Express, The Statesman, The Hindustan Times, Aaj Tak, ABP News, ABP Ananda, Channel 10, 24 Ghanta, Anandabazar Patrika  etc. are some of the leading media houses covering Integration. However they seldom partner on terms of exclusivity with the print media.

Social Responsibility
2% of the amount collected from sponsorship is usually donated to a social cause. An initiative to make the hostel campus plastic-free was initiated in 2010.

References

External links
Indian Statistical Institute
Integration-Official Website

Culfests
Technical festivals in India
India
Indian Statistical Institute
2000 establishments in West Bengal
Festivals established in 2000

Integration (festival)


The Rogers Commission Report was written by a Presidential Commission charged with investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster during its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The report, released and submitted to President Ronald Reagan on June 9, 1986, both determined the cause of the disaster that took place 73 seconds after liftoff, and urged NASA to improve and install new safety features on the shuttles and in its organizational handling of future missions.

Commission members

 William P. Rogers, chairman and former United States Secretary of State (under Richard Nixon) and United States Attorney General (under Dwight Eisenhower)
 Neil Armstrong (vice-chairman), retired astronaut and first human to walk on the Moon (Apollo 11)
 David Campion Acheson, diplomat and son of former Secretary of State Dean Acheson
 Eugene E. Covert, aeronautics expert and former Chief Scientist of the U.S. Air Force
 Richard P. Feynman, theoretical physicist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics
 Robert B. Hotz, editor, Aviation Week and Space Technology
 Donald J. Kutyna, Air Force general with experience in ICBMs and shuttle management
 Sally K. Ride, engineer, astrophysicist and first female American astronaut in space, flew on Challenger as part of missions STS-7 and STS-41-G
 Robert W. Rummel, Trans World Airlines executive and aviation consultant to NASA
 Joseph F. Sutter, Boeing senior vice president and engineering program director on the Boeing 747 aircraft
 Arthur B. C. Walker, Jr, solar physicist and Stanford University professor
 Albert D. Wheelon, physicist and developer of Central Intelligence Agency's aerial surveillance program
 Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager, retired Air Force general and the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight
 Alton G. Keel, Jr., executive director of the commission

Commission witnesses
Day 1, February 6, 1986
 Dr. William R. Graham, Acting Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
 Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
 Arnold D. Aldrich, Manager, National space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center
 Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Shuttle Projects office, Marshall Space Flight Center
Robert Sieck, Director of Shuttle operations, Kennedy Space Center
Richard G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
Thomas L. Moser, Director, Engineering, Johnson Space Center
Richard H. Kohrs, Deputy Manager, National Space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center

Day 2, February 7, 1986
 Marv Jones
 Stanley Klein, FBI
 Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
 Arnold Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program, Johnson Space Center

Day 3, February 10, 1986

 Mr L. Michael Weeks, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
 Irvin Davids, Shuttle propulsion Division
 Lawrence B. Mulloy, project manager, solid rocket boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 4, February 11, 1986
 William R. Graham, Acting Administrator of NASA
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space Flight, NASA
Lawrence B. Mulloy, Project Manager, Solid Rocket Boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA
 Richard C. Cook
Michael B. Mann, Chief, STS Resources Analysis Branch, Office of The Comptroller, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Mr. David Winterhalter, Acting Director, Shuttle Propulsion Group, National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Day 5, February 13, 1986
Dick Kohrs, Deputy Manager, NST Program office, Johnson Space Center
Charlie Stevenson, Photographic Team Analysis, Kennedy Space Center
William R. Lucas
Jesse W. Moore
Milton Silveira
Horace lamberth
Jim Harrington
T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, and Head, Marshall Contingency Investigative Team
Mr. George Hardy
Rick Bachtol
T. Moser, Head, Failure Scenario Team, Johnson Space Center

Day 6, February 14, 1986
Larry mulloy
Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Operations, Morton Thiokol
Robert Lund, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Roger Boisjoly, Structures Section, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Arnold Thompson, Design Engineer, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
Allan J. McDonald, Morton Thiokol, Inc.

Day 7, February 25, 1986
Allan J. McDonald, Manager, SRM Project, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Division, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Thiokol
Arnie Thompson, Supervisor, Structures, Thiokol
Robert Lund, Vice President, Engineering, Thiokol
Joe Kilminster, Vice President, Shuttle Project, Huntsville
Brian G. Russell

Day 8, February 26, 1986
Larry Mulloy, Manager, Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Program, Marshall Space Flight Center
George C. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
Stanley Reinarz, Manager, Marshall Shuttle projects Office
Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Marshall Shuttle Projects Office
Charles Stevenson, Ice Team member
B. K. Davis, Ice Team member
Lieutenant Colonel Edward F. Kolczynski, Commander, Detachment 11, 2d Weather Squadron, Patrick Air Force Base

Day 9, February 27, 1986
Charles Stevenson
B.K. Davis
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Kolczynski
Rocco Petrone, President, Space Transportation Systems Division, North American Space Operations, Rockwell International
Al Martin, Site Director, Launch Support Operations, Kennedy Space Center, Rockwell International
Bob Glaysher, Vice President and Program Manager, Orbiter Operations Support, Rockwell International
Martin Cioffoletti, Vice President, Space Transportation Systems Integration, Rockwell International
Arnie Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems, Johnson Space Center
 William R. Lucas, Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for Space Flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters
Dick G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
Gene Thomas, Director, Launch and Landing Operations, Kennedy Space Center
Ben Powers, Engineer, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 10, March 7, 1986
Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., USAF, Director of Operations, 6655TH ASTG, ESMC
Robert Lang, Shuttle Operations, Mechanical Systems Division, Kennedy Space Center
Carver Kennedy, Director, VAB Operations, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
Bill Barsh, Engineering Manager, External Tank/Solid Rocket Booster Operations, Lockheed Space Operations Company, KSC
Thomas L. Moser, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
 Dr. J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, MSFC
Gary Coultas, Assistant Manager, Orbiter Projects, Johnson Space Center
George Hopson, Director, Systems Analysis and Integration Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 11, March 21, 1986
James R. Thompson Jr., Vice Chairman, STS 51L, Data and Design and Analyst Task force, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., Chairman, Search, Recovery and Reconstruction, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Dan M. Germany, Chairman, photo and television support team, Cape Canaveral, and Deputy Manager, Space Station Project Office, Johnson Flight Space Center, Houston, Texas
Charles Stevenson
George McDonough
John Erickson
J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
Harold N. Scofield, Chief, Control Systems Division, Marshall Space Flight Center
 Robert S. Ryan, Chief, Structural Dynamics Division Systems Dynamics Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Garry M. Lyles, Propulsion Analysis Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
Fredrick D. Bachtel, Thermal Engineering Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 12, April 3, 1986
George Abbey, Director of Flight Crew Operations
John Young, Chief, Astronaut Office
Paul J. Weitz, Deputy Chief, Astronaut Office
Bob Crippen, astronaut
Hank Hartsfield, astronuat
Rear Admiral Richard H. Truly, Associate Administrator for space flight
Arnold D. Aldrich, manager of the space transportation systems
Clifford E. Charlesworth, director of space operations

Day 13, May 3, 1986
Lawrence B. Mulloy, Manager, Solid Rocket Booster Project Office
Lawrence O. Wear, Manager, Solid Rocket Motor Project, Marshall Space Flight Center
Brian G. Russell, Program Manager, Department of solid rocket motor and Final Assembly
Robert Ebeling, Department of solid rocket motor igniter and Final Assembly
J.C. Kilminster, Vice President, Space Booster Programs
Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
George B. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, former Manager, Solid Rocket Booster office
James E. Kingsbury, Science and Engineering
Robert G. Eudy, former Chief Engineer, Solid Rocket Motor, Office of Associate Director For Engineering
John O. Miller, Technical Assistant To Solid Rocket Motor Manager
William L. Ray, Solid Rocket Motor Branch, Propulsion Division, Engineering Directorate
 L. Michael Weeks, Associate Administrator, (technical) for space flight, NASA
Glynn S. Lunney, former Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program Office
John R. Stocker, Assistant General counsel, corporate offices, Rockwell International, corporation

Findings

The commission found that the immediate cause of the Challenger accident was a failure in the O-rings sealing the aft field joint on the right solid rocket booster, causing pressurized hot gases and eventually flame to "blow by" the O-ring and contact the adjacent external tank, causing structural failure. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors including the low temperature on the day of launch.

"An accident rooted in history"
More broadly, the report also determined the contributing causes of the accident. Most salient was the failure of both NASA and its contractor, Morton Thiokol, to respond adequately to the design flaw. The Commission found that as early as 1977, NASA managers had not only known about the flawed O-ring, but that it had the potential for catastrophe. This led the Rogers Commission to conclude that the Challenger disaster was "an accident rooted in history".

Flawed launch decision
The report also strongly criticized the decision-making process that led to the launch of Challenger, saying that it was seriously flawed. Morton Thiokol called a meeting the night before the launch to raise concerns over the forecast temperature in regards to the O-rings. During the meeting, Morton Thiokol's engineers issued a recommendation "not to launch below 53F", the previous lowest temperature of a launch (STS-51C, a year earlier). The NASA managers challenged this and after a 30 minute offline caucus, Morton Thiokol's senior management overruled their engineers decision and gave the launch the go-ahead. The concerns were not communicated beyond the Level III Flight Readiness Review (FRR). It is certain that even though members of higher FRR teams knew about the issues, there were plenty of members who could have stopped the launch but decided not to. This was done in large part because of the management structure at NASA and the lack of major checks and balances, which proved to be fatal in this scenario. The report concluded that:

Role of Richard Feynman

One of the commission's best-known members was theoretical physicist Richard Feynman. His style of investigating with his own direct methods rather than following the commission schedule put him at odds with Rogers, who once commented, "Feynman is becoming a real pain." During a televised hearing, Feynman famously demonstrated how the O-rings became less resilient and subject to seal failures at low temperatures by compressing a sample of the material in a clamp and immersing it in a glass of ice water. Feynman's own investigation reveals a disconnect between NASA's engineers and executives that was far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling misunderstandings of elementary concepts. One such concept was the determination of a safety factor.

In one example, early tests resulted in some of the booster rocket's O-rings burning a third of the way through. These O-rings provided the gas-tight seal needed between the vertically stacked cylindrical sections that made up the solid fuel booster. NASA managers recorded this result as demonstrating that the O-rings had a "safety factor" of 3. Feynman incredulously explains the magnitude of this error: A "safety factor" refers to the practice of building an object to be capable of withstanding more force than the force to which it will conceivably be subjected. To paraphrase Feynman's example, if engineers built a bridge that could bear 3,000 pounds without any damage, even though it was never expected to bear more than 1,000 pounds in practice, the safety factor would be 3. If a 1,000-pound truck drove across the bridge and a crack appeared in a beam, even just a third of the way through a beam, the safety factor is now zero: The bridge is defective, there was no safety factor at all even though the bridge did not actually collapse.

Feynman was clearly disturbed by the fact that NASA management not only misunderstood this concept, but inverted it by using a term denoting an extra level of safety to describe a part that was actually defective and unsafe. Feynman continued to investigate the lack of communication between NASA's management and its engineers, and was struck by management's claim that the risk of catastrophic malfunction on the shuttle was 1 in 105, i.e. 1 in 100,000. Feynman immediately realized that this claim was risible on its face; as he described, this assessment of risk would entail that NASA could expect to launch a shuttle every day for the next 274 years while suffering, on average, only one accident. Investigating the claim further, Feynman discovered that the 1 in 105 figure was stating what they claimed the failure rate ought to be, given that it was a manned vehicle, and working backward to generate the failure rate of components.

Feynman was disturbed by two aspects of this practice. First, NASA management assigned a probability of failure to each individual bolt, sometimes claiming a probability of 1 in 108, i.e. one in one hundred million. Feynman pointed out that it is impossible to calculate such a remote possibility with any scientific rigor. Secondly, Feynman was bothered not just by this sloppy science but by the fact that NASA claimed that the risk of catastrophic failure was "necessarily" 1 in 105. As the figure itself was beyond belief, Feynman questioned exactly what "necessarily" meant in this context, whether it meant that the figure followed logically from other calculations or that it reflected NASA management's desire to make the numbers fit.

Feynman suspected that the 1 in 105 figure was wildly fantastical, and made a rough estimate that the true likelihood of shuttle disaster was closer to 1 in 100. He then decided to poll the engineers themselves, asking them to write down an anonymous estimate of the odds of shuttle explosion. Feynman found that the bulk of the engineers' estimates fell between 1 in 50 and 1 in 200 (at the time of retirement, the Shuttle suffered two catastrophic failures across 135 flights, for a failure rate of 1 in 67.5). Not only did this confirm that NASA management had clearly failed to communicate with their own engineers, but the disparity engaged Feynman's emotions. When describing these wildly differing estimates, Feynman briefly lapses from his damaging but dispassionate detailing of NASA's flaws to recognize the moral failing that resulted from a scientific failing: he was upset NASA presented its fantastical figures as fact to convince a member of the public, schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe, to join the crew. Feynman was not uncomfortable with the concept of a  risk factor, but felt strongly that the recruitment of laypeople required an honest portrayal of the true risk involved.

Feynman's investigation eventually suggested to him that the cause of the Challenger disaster was the very part to which NASA management so mistakenly assigned a safety factor. The O-rings were rubber rings designed to form a seal in the shuttle's solid rocket boosters, preventing the rockets' hot gas from escaping and damaging other parts of the vehicle. Feynman suspected that despite NASA's claims, the O-rings were unsuitable at low temperatures and lost their resilience when cold, thus failing to maintain a tight seal when rocket pressure distorted the structure of the solid fuel booster. Feynman's suspicions were corroborated by General Kutyna, also on the commission, who cunningly provided Feynman with a broad hint by asking about the effect of cold on O-ring seals after mentioning that the temperature on the day of the launch was far lower than had been the case with previous launches: below freezing at ; previously, the coldest launch had been at . In 2013, the BBC film The Challenger revealed that the O-ring insight had in fact come to Kutyna from the astronaut and fellow commission member Sally Ride, who had secretly provided him with NASA test results showing the O-rings became stiff when they were too cold.

Feynman's investigations also revealed that there had been many serious doubts raised about the O-ring seals by engineers at Morton Thiokol, which made the solid fuel boosters, but communication failures had led to their concerns being ignored by NASA management. He found similar failures in procedure in many other areas at NASA, but singled out its software development for praise due to its rigorous and highly effective quality control procedures – then under threat from NASA management, which wished to reduce testing to save money given that the tests had always been passed.

Based on his experiences with NASA's management and engineers, Feynman concluded that the serious deficiencies in NASA management's scientific understanding, the lack of communication between the two camps, and the gross misrepresentation of the Shuttle's dangers, required that NASA take a hiatus from Shuttle launches until it could resolve its internal inconsistencies and present an honest picture of the shuttle's reliability. Feynman soon found that, while he respected the intellects of his fellow Commission members, they universally finished their criticisms of NASA with clear affirmations that the Challenger disaster should be addressed by NASA internally, but that there was no need for NASA to suspend its operations or to receive less funding. Feynman felt that the Commission's conclusions misrepresented its findings, and he could not in good conscience recommend that such a deeply flawed organization as NASA should continue without a suspension of operations and a major overhaul. His fellow commission members were alarmed by Feynman's dissent, and it was only after much petitioning that Feynman's minority report was included at all. Feynman was so critical of flaws in NASA's "safety culture" that he threatened to remove his name from the report unless it included his personal observations on the reliability of the shuttle, which appeared as Appendix F. In the appendix, he stated:

"For a successful technology," Feynman concluded, "reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."

Feynman later wrote about the investigation in his 1988 book What Do You Care What Other People Think?. The second half of the book covers the investigation and the issues between science and politics, and includes the appendix he wrote.

Feynman later reported that, although he had believed he was making discoveries about the problems at NASA on his own, he eventually realized that either NASA or contractor personnel, in an apparent effort to anonymously focus attention on these problem areas, had carefully led him to the evidence which would support the conclusions on which he would later report.

Result
The Rogers Commission offered nine recommendations on improving safety in the space shuttle program, and NASA was directed by President Reagan to report back within thirty days as to how it planned to implement those recommendations. This is a summary of the chapter of Recommendations:
Design and Independent Oversight
Shuttle Management Structure, Astronauts in Management and Shuttle Safety Panel
Criticality Review and Hazard Analysis
Safety Organization
Improved Communications
Landing Safety
Launch Abort and Crew Escape
Flight Rate
Maintenance Safeguards

In response to the commission's recommendation, NASA initiated a total redesign of the space shuttle's solid rocket boosters, which was watched over by an independent oversight group as stipulated by the commission. NASA's contract with Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the solid rocket boosters, included a clause stating that in the event of a failure leading to "loss of life or mission," Thiokol would forfeit $10 million of its incentive fee and formally accept legal liability for the failure. After the Challenger accident, Thiokol agreed to "voluntarily accept" the monetary penalty in exchange for not being forced to accept liability.

NASA also created a new Office of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance, headed as the commission had specified by a NASA associate administrator who reported directly to the NASA administrator. George Rodney, formerly of Martin Marietta, was appointed to this position. Former Challenger flight director Jay Greene became chief of the Safety Division of the directorate.

The unrealistically optimistic launch schedule pursued by NASA had been criticized by the Rogers Commission as a possible contributing cause to the accident. After the accident, NASA attempted to aim at a more realistic shuttle flight rate: it added another orbiter, Endeavour, to the space shuttle fleet to replace Challenger, and it worked with the Department of Defense to put more satellites in orbit using expendable launch vehicles rather than the shuttle. In August 1986, President Reagan also announced that the shuttle would no longer carry commercial satellite payloads. After a 32-month hiatus, the next shuttle mission, STS-26, was launched on September 29, 1988.

After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, attention once again focused on the attitude of NASA management towards safety issues. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) concluded that NASA had failed to learn many of the lessons of Challenger. In particular, the agency had not set up a truly independent office for safety oversight; the CAIB felt that in this area, "NASA's response to the Rogers Commission did not meet the Commission's intent". The CAIB believed that "the causes of the institutional failure responsible for Challenger have not been fixed," saying that the same "flawed decision-making process" that had resulted in the Challenger accident was responsible for Columbias destruction seventeen years later.

See also
 Columbia Accident Investigation Board
 Apollo 1

References

External links
 Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident – the Rogers Commission report on the accident (NASA.gov parsed HTML version)
 Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident – pdf version, compiled by Thomas ('thomasafb') – Volume I only

 Hearing on the Space Shuttle Accident and the Rogers Commission Report. 219 pages (14.2 MB) U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space. Date: 99th Congress, 2nd Session, February 18, June 10 and 17, 1986. See also GPO Challenger index page.
  – Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Appendix F – Personal Observations on Reliability of Shuttle by R. P. Feynman

NASA oversight
Reports of the United States government
1986 in the United States
United States Presidential Commissions
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
Richard Feynman
1986 works

Rogers Commission Report


Hunter Parrish Tharp (born May 13, 1987) is an American actor and singer. He is known for playing the role of Silas Botwin in the Showtime series Weeds and for his performances in the Broadway productions of Godspell in the role of Jesus and Spring Awakening as Melchior.

Early life
Parrish was born in Richmond, Virginia, to Annie Parrish, who works with children with autism, and Bruce Tharp, an engineer. Parrish has an older brother. He graduated from Plano Senior High School and Texas Tech University Independent School District.

Career

2003–2005: Early career
After being seen at a showcase in New York, directed by Peter Sklar, Parrish was offered professional representation and went on to guest star in several television shows and appeared in the film Sleepover (2004).

2005–2012: Weeds and Broadway debut
Parrish gained recognition when he began starring in the hit Showtime series Weeds in 2005. The show ran for eight seasons, ending in 2012. Part of the main ensemble cast, Parrish portrayed the role of the older Botwin son, Silas.

Following filming of Weeds fourth season, Parrish joined the cast of the Tony Award-winning Broadway musical Spring Awakening the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York City. He made his Broadway debut on August 11, 2008, replacement for the lead role of Melchior Gabor for which he received critical acclaim. He remained in the role until the show closed on January 18, 2009. Parrish returned to Broadway two-and-a-half years later, to star in the 2011 Broadway revival of Godspell in which he starred as Jesus. Performances began October 13, 2011. He left the show on April 15, 2012, to film the final season of Weeds.

During this period, Parrish had many other roles on screen. He has supporting parts in the films RV (2006), Freedom Writers (2007), and 17 Again (2009), and It's Complicated (2009).  In Freedom Writers, Parrish played Ben Samuels, the only white student in a California high school class. The National Review Online wrote that Parrish had played the role with "unassuming humour". He had a handful of guest role on TV and took part in the 2008 short "Cougar 101 with Hunter Parrish" for funnyordie.com. From 2007 to 2009, he hosted a web talk show with his friends Kyle Sherman and Allison Tyler called Two Guys and a Girl.

2012–present: Dramatic roles in television and film
Since 2013, Parrish has had a string of recurring roles on television. In 2013 and 2014, he guest starred on The Good Wife as Jeffrey Grant, a young man accused of murder. In 2015, he also had recurring roles in The Following and Hand of God. Parrish had a main role in the Amazon series Good Girls Revolt, which was released in 2016. In 2017, Parrish was cast in the recurring role of Clay Haas in the second season of ABC's thriller series Quantico.

In March 2019, it was announced that Parrish would have one of the lead roles in the Jane The Virgin spin-off series Jane The Novela. Ultimately, the show was not picked up by The CW.

Earlier, in January 2019, it was announced that Parrish be part of the upcoming Netflix drama series Ratched. Produced by Ryan Murphy, Ratched scored a two-season, straight-to-series order, with the first season filmed from January into July 2019. The first season was released on September 18, 2020.

In 2022, Parrish was cast in the Hulu mystery thriller series The Other Black Girl, a television adaptation of the 2021 novel by Zakiya Dalila Harris. The series is scheduled to premiere on September 13, 2023.

Personal life
Parrish has been married to Kathryn Wahl since 2015. The couple have one child, a daughter born in September 2020. Parrish is a Christian.

Filmography

Film

Television

Stage

Discography
In 2012, Parrish recorded his first EP called Guessing Games, featuring six songs. At first, Guessing Games was only available for sale in the lobby of Godspell's home at the Circle in the Square Theatre, but with a bigger release to follow. The first single from the EP, "Sitting at Home", was released on iTunes on June 7, 2012. The complete EP was released later that month, on June 26.

Awards and nominations

References

External links

1987 births
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American singers
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male television actors
Living people
Male actors from Texas
People from Plano, Texas
Singers from Texas
Texas Tech University alumni
21st-century American male singers
American Christians

Hunter Parrish


Andrew Trimble (born 20 October 1984) is a former Irish rugby union player who played for Ulster and represented Ireland at international level.

Club career
He attended Coleraine Academical Institution, where he competed in the Ulster Schools Cup.

He played at outside centre or on the wing for Ulster Rugby. In April 2006 he signed a new three-year deal with Ulster. Trimble also played club rugby for Ballymena RFC in the AIB League and has represented Ireland Schools and the Ireland U21 team.

Due to a pre-season groin injury, however, he required surgery and missed part of the 2007–08 season. He later underwent a hernia operation. On 30 April 2009, Trimble underwent surgery on his right knee to remove a piece of chipped bone.

In May 2018, Trimble announced that he would be retiring from rugby at the end of the 2017–18 season. He does however, on occasion, still partake in amateur level competition with his local Coleraine rugby club.

International career
Trimble, replacing the injured Brian O'Driscoll, made his debut for the Ireland national rugby union team during the 2005 IRB Autumn Internationals, against Australia. He started again the following week against Romania, securing victory for the Irish with two tries.

Building on his earlier success, Trimble made the 22-man squad for Ireland's 2006 Six Nations Championship opener against Italy. He came on as a second-half replacement to score his third try against France, the following week. In the 2007 and 2008, Trimble was a member of the Ireland team for the 2007 Rugby World Cup, and played both on the wing and in the centre. Due to injuries, he missed both Ireland's 2008 and 2009 summer tours.

Trimble scored test tries for Ireland at the 2011 Rugby World Cup, and the 2012 Six Nations Championship.

Trimble featured in the 2014 Six Nations Championship, scoring three tries in total, with a crucial one coming in the final Irish game of the championship against France in Paris which sealed the title.

In September 2015, Trimble was left out of the Ireland squad for the 2015 Rugby World Cup.

Honours

Individual
Ulster Rugby Player of the Year (1): (2006)
BT Irish Rugby Union Players Association's newcomer of the year.
Pro14 Team of the Year (1): 2013-14
IRUPA Players' Player of the Year  (1): 2014

Ulster
Celtic League (1): 2005-06

Ireland
Six Nations (1): 2014
Triple Crown (2): 2006, 2007

Personal life
Trimble attended Coleraine Academical Institution. After graduating, he attended Queen's University Belfast to study physics. After a year however, he dropped out, and decided to study Theology at Belfast Bible College instead. He supports Liverpool F.C. Trimble married his wife, Anna, in March 2009.

Trimble is a devout Christian who reads Psalm 84 to prepare before every match.

Trimble holds both British and Irish passports.

References

External links
Ulster profile
IRFU profile
ESPNscrum profile

1984 births
Living people
Ballymena R.F.C. players
Irish rugby union players
Ireland international rugby union players
People educated at Coleraine Academical Institution
Sportspeople from Coleraine, County Londonderry
Rugby union centres
Ulster Rugby players
Ireland Wolfhounds international rugby union players
Virgin Media Television (Ireland) presenters
Broadcasters from County Londonderry
2007 Rugby World Cup players
2011 Rugby World Cup players

Andrew Trimble