(English: 'Of the Supreme Pontiffs') is an apostolic letter of Pope Benedict XVI, issued in July 2007. This letter specifies the circumstances in which priests of the Latin Church could celebrate Mass according to what Benedict XVI called the "Missal promulgated by Blessed John XXIII in 1962" (the latest edition of the Roman Missal, in the form known as the Tridentine Mass or Traditional Latin Mass) and administer most of the sacraments in the form used before the liturgical reforms that followed the Second Vatican Council.

The document was dated 7 July 2007 and carried an effective date of 14 September 2007. Pope Benedict released an accompanying explanatory letter at the same time.

It granted greater freedom for priests to use the Tridentine liturgy in its 1962 form, stating that all priests of the Latin Church may freely celebrate Mass with the 1962 Missal privately. It also provided that "in parishes where a group of the faithful attached to the previous liturgical tradition stably exists, the parish priest should willingly accede to their requests to celebrate Holy Mass according to the rite of the 1962 Roman Missal" and should "ensure that the good of these members of the faithful is harmonised with the ordinary pastoral care of the parish, under the governance of the bishop".

The Tridentine, Latin-language form of the  was allowed for the celebration of all the seven sacraments (even if Holy Orders was not expressly mentioned). In the same article 9, it also allowed the Roman Breviary as revised under Pius X to clergymen ordained (deacons, priests, bishops).

In July 2021, Pope Francis abrogated  with the  which established  the new circumstances for celebration of the 1962 Roman Missal.

Background

The Roman Rite of Mass has undergone, especially in the early centuries, various developments. In response to , the 1963 document of the Second Vatican Council, it was systematically revised, leading to the publication, in 1970, of Pope Paul VI's revision of the Roman Missal, which some Traditionalist Catholics claimed constituted a rupture with what went before. Such concerns led French Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre to found a seminary and society of priests – the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX) – dedicated to the exclusive celebration of sacraments according to the traditional Roman Rite, in 1970. Canonically suspended by the Holy See in 1976, Lefebvre continued negotiations with Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II over the following decade. While these negotiations did not produce a regularization of the SSPX, they did induce John Paul II to issue a decree in 1984, Quattuor Abhinc Annos, providing a limited permission, or indult, to celebrate the traditional Roman Rite. However, many traditionalists, frustrated with the unwillingness of most bishops to implement the indult in their dioceses, demanded what they called a universal indult whereby all priests would be allowed to use the former rite even publicly without seeking any specific authorisation.

International monthly 30Days interviewed Castrillón Hoyos, President of the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei, the body charged with overseeing the implementation of the , who commented on 30Days question whether, even after publication of the , "a small minority of believers may impose the Mass of Saint Pius V on the parish". He stated: "Those who say that obviously haven't read the . It's clear that no parish priest will be obliged to celebrate the Mass of Saint Pius V. Only that if a group of the faithful, having a priest disposed to say it, asks to celebrate this Mass, the parish priest or the rector of the church can't oppose it."

The Society of St. Pius X, whose founder Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre was excommunicated in 1988 following the Ecône Consecrations, set permission to use the Tridentine Mass as a preliminary condition for engaging in any doctrinal dialogue with the Holy See.

Contents of the

Name
As is customary for papal documents, the  (which has no title) is referred to by its incipit, the opening words of the (Latin) original text: . "Supreme Pontiff" is a title of the popes, and the opening sentence states that it has always been a concern "of the Supreme Pontiffs" that the Church should offer fitting worship to God.

Summary of

Pope Benedict XVI released the document after "much reflection, numerous consultations, and prayer."

In article 1 of the document, he spoke of "the typical edition of the Roman Missal, which was promulgated by Blessed John XXIII in 1962", as "never abrogated". In the letter he specified this as "never juridically abrogated". In article 2 he stated that, "in Masses celebrated without a congregation, any Catholic priest of the Latin rite, whether secular or regular, may use either the Roman Missal published in 1962 by Blessed Pope John XXIII or the Roman Missal promulgated in 1970 by Pope Paul VI, and may do so on any day, with the exception of the Easter Triduum". For such a celebration with either Missal, the priest needs no permission from the Apostolic See or from his own Ordinary. In article 4, he said that these Masses celebrated without a congregation "may be attended also by members of the lay faithful who spontaneously request to do so, with respect for the requirements of law".

The document superseded the letter  of 1984 and the  of 1988, which had allowed individual bishops, under certain conditions, to establish places where Mass could be said using the 1962 Missal. It granted greater freedom for priests to use the Tridentine liturgy in its 1962 form, stating that all priests of the Latin Church may freely celebrate Mass with the 1962 Missal privately. It also provided that "in parishes where a group of the faithful attached to the previous liturgical tradition stably exists, the parish priest should willingly accede to their requests to celebrate Holy Mass according to the rite of the 1962 Roman Missal" and should "ensure that the good of these members of the faithful is harmonised with the ordinary pastoral care of the parish, under the governance of the bishop" (Article 5).

Regarding public Masses, the Pope asked parish priests and rectors of churches to permit, at the request of a group of the faithful attached to the previous liturgical tradition stably existing in the parish, celebration of a Tridentine Mass on weekdays, but also one such Mass on Sundays and feasts, by a priest who is qualified and who is not excluded by law, and to grant permission also if requested "in special circumstances such as marriages, funerals or occasional celebrations, e.g. pilgrimages".

Apart from celebration of Mass, Pope Benedict authorised parish priests to grant, "after careful consideration" and "if advantageous for the good of souls", permission to use the older ritual in the administration of Baptism, Marriage, Penance, and Anointing of the Sick. He also allowed bishops, on the same condition, to use the earlier Pontifical in administering Confirmation, and permitted clergy to use the 1962 edition of the Roman Breviary.

Bishops could establish "personal parishes" or appoint chaplains for administering the sacraments according to the old form.

The Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei, whose role the document confirmed, was given authority to ensure observance of the rules laid down in the document. Stable groups of the kind mentioned in article 5 whose parish priest does not grant them their request should inform the diocesan bishop, who is asked to satisfy their desire. If he does not wish to do so, they should inform the Pontifical Commission, to which also a bishop who does not have the means to respond to their wish can have recourse for advice and assistance.

The  allows what some traditionalists would call the novelty of proclaiming the Scripture readings "also" in the vernacular language in Masses with a congregation, and in the accompanying letter the Pope said that "new Saints and some of the new Prefaces can and should be inserted in the old Missal", a matter that he committed for study to the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei.

Conditions for use of the 1962 Missal

The conditions for the use of the 1962 Missal previously in force were replaced by the following:

 "In Masses celebrated without a congregation, any Catholic priest of the Latin Church, whether secular or religious, may use either the Roman Missal published in 1962 by Blessed John XXIII, or the Roman Missal promulgated in 1970 by Pope Paul VI, and may do so on any day, with the exception of the Easter Triduum (when Masses without a congregation are not allowed). For such a celebration with either Missal, the priest needs no permission from the Apostolic See or from his own Ordinary. The celebrations of Mass mentioned above[...] may be attended also by members of the lay faithful who spontaneously request to do so, with respect for the requirements of law." (Articles 2 and 4)
 "In parishes where a group of the faithful attached to the previous liturgical tradition stably exists, the parish priest should willingly accede to their requests to celebrate Holy Mass according to the rite of the 1962 Roman Missal. He should ensure that the good of these members of the faithful is harmonized with the ordinary pastoral care of the parish, under the governance of the bishop in accordance with Canon 392, avoiding discord and favouring the unity of the whole Church. In churches other than parish or conventual churches, it is for the rector of the church to grant the above permission." (Article 5 §1 and §5)"Celebration according to the Missal of Blessed John XXIII can take place on weekdays; on Sundays and feast days, however, such a celebration may also take place." The English translation omits the limitation on Sundays and feast days to a single such Mass. This limitation is expressed in the Latin text, which is what has juridical value. (Article 5 §2)"For those faithful or priests who request it, the pastor should allow celebrations in this extraordinary form also in special circumstances such as marriages, funerals or occasional celebrations, e.g. pilgrimages." (Article 5 §3)"Priests using the Missal of Blessed John XXIII must be qualified () and not prevented by law." Excommunication or suspension  would be examples of legal prohibitions against celebrating Mass. (Article 5 §4)
 If communities of Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, whether of pontifical or diocesan right, wish to celebrate the conventual or community Mass in their own oratories according to the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, they are permitted to do so. If an individual community or an entire Institute or Society wishes to have such celebrations frequently, habitually or permanently, the matter is to be decided by the Major Superiors according to the norm of law and their particular laws and statutes." (Article 3)

In an interview on Vatican Radio, the then Cardinal President of the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei Darío Castrillón Hoyos commented that "priests can decide, without permission from the Holy See or the bishop, to celebrate the Mass in the ancient rite. And this holds true for all priests. It is the parish priests who must open the doors to those priests that, having the faculty [to do so], go to celebrate. It is not therefore necessary to ask any other permission."

Article 2 of the  applies, without distinction, to priests of the Latin Rite, all of whom are therefore authorized to use, in Masses celebrated without the people, either the older (1962) or the newer (1970) form of the Roman Rite, even if they are also authorized to use another Latin liturgical rite, such as the Ambrosian Rite. It does not apply to priests of the Eastern Catholic Churches. It concerns only the Roman Rite and does not deal with use of older forms of other Latin liturgical rites, which is a matter for the authorities charged with regulating those rites.

With letter 13/2007 of 20 January 2010 the Pontifical Council Ecclesia Dei responded positively to a question whether a parish priest (pastor) or another priest may on his own initiative publicly celebrate the extraordinary form, along with the customary regular use of the new form, "so that the faithful, both young and old, can familiarize themselves with the old rites and benefit from their perceptible beauty and transcendence". Although the Council accompanied this response with the observation that a stable group of the faithful attached to the older form has a right to assist at Mass in the extraordinary form, a website that published the response interpreted it as not requiring the existence of such a stable group.

Summary of the accompanying letter
In his accompanying letter, Pope Benedict explained that his action was aimed at broadly and generously providing for the rituals which nourished the faithful for centuries and at "coming to an interior reconciliation in the heart of the Church" with Traditionalist Catholics in disagreement with the Holy See, such as the members of the Society of St. Pius X. He stated that, while it had first been thought that interest in the Tridentine Mass would disappear with the older generation that had grown up with it, some young persons too have "felt its attraction and found in it a form of encounter with the mystery of the Eucharist particularly suited to them." In view of fears expressed while the document was in preparation, he took pains to emphasize that his decision in no way detracts from the authority of the Second Vatican Council and that, not only for juridical reasons, but also because the requisite "degree of liturgical formation and some knowledge of the Latin language" are not found very often, "the Missal published by Paul VI and then republished in two subsequent editions by John Paul II, obviously is and continues to be the normal Form – the  – of the Eucharistic Liturgy."

In his cover letter to the bishops, Pope Benedict declared unfounded two fears that had been expressed with regard to the change that he was making: that the change would detract from the authority of the Second Vatican Council; and that it would lead to disarray or even divisions within parish communities.

He recognised that "there have been exaggerations and at times social aspects unduly linked to the attitude of the faithful attached to the ancient Latin liturgical tradition." To avoid the situation whereby the desire to recover the old form of liturgy "occurred above all because in many places celebrations were not faithful to the prescriptions of the new Missal, but the latter actually was understood as authorising or even requiring creativity, which frequently led to deformations of the liturgy which were hard to bear[...] caus(ing) deep pain to individuals totally rooted in the faith of the Church", he recommended faithful observance of the Missal of Paul VI: "The most sure guarantee that the Missal of Paul VI can unite parish communities and be loved by them consists in its being celebrated with great reverence in harmony with the liturgical directives. This will bring out the spiritual richness and the theological depth of this Missal."

Interior reconciliation
Benedict cited "interior reconciliation in the heart of the Church" as a "positive reason" for the .

Benedict, who himself led discussions with the SSPX during his tenure as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, gave as a reason for making the effort represented by his  the regretted fact that, "over the centuries[...] at critical moments when divisions were coming about, not enough was done by the Church's leaders to maintain or regain reconciliation and unity" and "omissions on the part of the Church have had their share of blame for the fact that these divisions were able to harden." However, he pointed out, in the same cover letter, that, "needless to say, in order to experience full communion, the priests of the communities adhering to the former usage cannot, as a matter of principle, exclude celebrating according to the new books. The total exclusion of the new rite would not in fact be consistent with the recognition of its value and holiness."

The Pope clarified that, as a result of his , "the last version of the  prior to the Council, which was published with the authority of Pope John XXIII in 1962 and used during the Council will now be able to be used as a  of the liturgical celebration", but that "the Missal published by Paul VI and then republished in two subsequent editions by John Paul II obviously is and continues to be the normal Form – the  – of the Eucharistic Liturgy"; and that: "It is clearly seen that the new Missal will certainly remain the ordinary Form of the Roman Rite, not only on account of the juridical norms, but also because of the actual situation of the communities of the faithful."

After saying in his letter to bishops, with which he accompanied the , that "in the movement led by Archbishop Lefebvre, fidelity to the old Missal became an external mark of identity", Pope Benedict added: "The reasons for the break which arose over this, however, were at a deeper level."

Appeal of the ancient form
Apart from the question of reconciliation with traditionalist groups, the Pope also mentioned that, immediately after the promulgation of the new form of the Mass, it was presumed that "requests for the use of the 1962 Missal would be limited to the older generation which had grown up with it", but recognizes that "in the meantime it has clearly been demonstrated that young persons too have discovered this liturgical form, felt its attraction and found in it a form of encounter with the Mystery of the Most Holy Eucharist, particularly suited to them." Due to this continuing appeal of the ancient form of the Mass across generational groups, it was felt that cases should no longer be decided on a case-by-case basis, and that instead the need had arisen for "clearer juridical regulation which had not been foreseen" in the past.

The Pope stressed: "There is no contradiction between the two editions of the Roman Missal. In the history of the liturgy there is growth and progress, but no rupture. What earlier generations held as sacred, remains sacred and great for us too, and it cannot be all of a sudden entirely forbidden or even considered harmful. It behooves all of us to preserve the riches which have developed in the Church's faith and prayer, and to give them their proper place." He continued by demanding recognition also of the "value and holiness" of celebration according to the new books.

Reactions

Reactions by Catholic bishops
Most internal official reactions emphasised the wish of unity and reconciliation within the Church. Archbishop José Horacio Gómez of San Antonio said in a press statement that he believed the letter "will open up great possibilities for reconciliation and unity with those who have shown great devotion to the Roman liturgy prior to the reform of 1970.[...] People will be able to more clearly see the growth and progress we have realized since Vatican II, while at the same time preserving the rich heritage and legacy of the Church." The Bishops' Conference of Scotland said in a statement that the document "reflects the pastoral concern" of Benedict XVI "for those who find themselves drawn to that form of the Eucharistic celebration,[...] a pastoral concern which the bishops of Scotland share," sharing the Pope's "concern about the unity of the Church."

An atypical reaction was that of Chilean bishop Juan Ignacio González Errázuriz, who said the document was aimed not so much at "putting an end to the schism of Archbishop Lefebvre and his followers" as at promoting unity among Chinese Catholics. However, even the parts of the Catholic Church in China that were under the control of the Government-created Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association had for years already been using the revised form of the Mass and in the vernacular, not the Tridentine Mass in Latin.

Italian bishop Luca Brandolini said, "I can't fight back the tears. This is the saddest moment in my life as a man, priest and bishop. It's a day of mourning, not just for me but for the many people who worked for the Second Vatican Council. A reform for which many people worked, with great sacrifice and only inspired by the desire to renew the Church, has now been cancelled."

Others expressed concern that the loosening of the restrictions for celebration of the Mass would cause practical problems for parish priests who might be pressured to offer the Mass according to the 1962 Missal, and that such pressure would "seem like a standard aimed at testing the priests' loyalty to the pope". Cardinal Castrillón responded to this concern by pointing out that the  does not oblige any priest to use the 1962 Missal: all that the parish priest or rector of a church is asked to do is to permit a stable group adhering to the earlier tradition and who have a priest disposed to use that Missal to celebrate Mass in the church. Only a limited number of priests actually know how to celebrate the Tridentine Mass, and a shortage of priests means that many priests already have full schedules on weekends. In response to these concerns, a number of Bishops announced their intentions to issue guidance on how best to implement  in their dioceses in line with the 's rule that "Priests who use the Missal of Bl. John XXIII must be qualified to do so". One of these was Bishop Donald W. Trautman of the Diocese of Erie, Pennsylvania, who indicated that those priests who celebrate such a Mass would first need to show that they have the requisite knowledge of its rubrics and of Latin.

Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, archbishop of Westminster, said: "On behalf of the bishops of England and Wales, I welcome the Holy Father's call for unity within the Church and especially toward those who are very attached to celebrating the Mass according to the Missal of 1962."

Writer Damian Thompson, Editor-in-chief of the Catholic Herald and Telegraph journalist and blogger, wrote on 16 November 2007 that, as a result of the publication of Pope Benedict's document of 7 July 2007, "Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor was most displeased. Last week he hit back with a 'commentary' on . According to Murphy-O'Connor, the ruling leaves the power of local bishops untouched. In fact, it removes the bishops' power to block the ancient liturgy; the cardinal is misrepresenting its contents." Thompson believed that Pope Benedict had a low opinion of the English bishops, and on 5 November 2007 suggested that three of them were in the mind of the Secretary of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Malcolm Ranjith, when he remarked that the document , which had come into force on 14 September, had met with "criticisms and opposition, even from theologians, liturgists, priests, Bishops, and even Cardinals", and that "there have been, by some dioceses, even interpretative documents which inexplicably aim to limit the Pope's . These actions mask behind them, on one hand, prejudices of an ideological kind and, on the other, pride, one of the gravest sins. I repeat: I invite all to obey the Pope." Making a comparison between bishops attending a Mass celebrated by a visiting cardinal and attendance at the launch of a new book, Thompson also "passed on a rumour" that Pope Benedict was annoyed at the absence of any English bishop at the Pontifical High Mass that Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, head of Ecclesia Dei, celebrated in Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor's own Westminster Cathedral on 14 June 2008. After the Mass, Cardinal Castrillón Hoyos spoke with journalists. To an unnamed conservative journalist who insisted vehemently that some bishops in England were denying permission for the old Mass to be celebrated in their dioceses, the cardinal said such cases were few. He also met with Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor and, according to a statement issued by the English cardinal's office, "Cardinal Castrillón expressed his gratitude to his fellow cardinal for the generous way which the bishops of England and Wales had responded to an indult from Pope Paul VI allowing traditionalists to celebrate the old rite and for their reception of Pope Benedict's ".

Reactions of traditionalist Catholic groups
Various advocates for the Tridentine Mass voiced cautious optimism for the future and prepared for the practical aspects of the decision. In a statement, The Latin Mass Society of Ireland said: "We are very grateful to the Pope for enriching the life of the Church in this way and for enhancing legitimate liturgical diversity. In doing this Pope Benedict is building on the foundation laid by his predecessor Pope John Paul II in his 1988  . The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales said: "Thirty-seven years ago, the Latin Mass Society was denounced by The Universe newspaper for its attachment to the Traditional Latin Rite under the banner headline, 'Latin Madness'. Today, the loyalty, determination and sufferings of the Traditional faithful have been vindicated by Pope Benedict XVI's wise and pastoral . This [decision] puts an end to the discrimination, marginalisation and exclusion which, too often, Traditional Catholics have suffered. ...However, now is the time for the 'interior reconciliation in the heart of the Church' for which Pope Benedict calls".

SSPX
The Priestly Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), which was consulted by Pope Benedict during the process, said in a statement of the SSPX Superior General Bernard Fellay that it "extends its deep gratitude to the Sovereign Pontiff [Benedict] for this great spiritual benefit" and "rejoices to see the Church thus regain her liturgical Tradition, and give the possibility of a free access to the treasure of the Traditional Mass[...] (for those) who had so far been deprived of it". The Society, however, points out that "difficulties still remain". It wishes that the "favorable climate established by the Holy See" will "make it possible to consider more serenely the disputed doctrinal issues" and that the decree of excommunication which still affects its bishops be withdrawn. Fellay adds: "The letter which accompanies the Motu Proprio does not hide however the difficulties that still remain", then stated that the Society is eager "after the decree of excommunication which still affects its bishops has been withdrawn—to consider more serenely the disputed doctrinal issues."

Russian Orthodox Patriarch

Patriarch Alexius II responded to the question, "The Pope has published a document restoring the possibility of using the Missal of Saint Pius V for celebrating the Eucharist. How do you judge this decision?", by saying: "Recovering and recognizing the value of ancient liturgical tradition is something we welcome. We hold very strongly to tradition. Without the faithful guardianship of liturgical tradition, the Russian Orthodox Church would not have been able to resist the period of persecution."

Jewish reaction

The Jewish Anti-Defamation League (ADL) attacked the document, because the text of the Good Friday Prayer for the Jews in the 1962 Missal includes a request to God to "lift the veil" from Jewish hearts and to show mercy, according to one translation, " to the Jews" (or " to the Jews"), and refers to "the blindness of that people" (to Christ). Other objections were raised in the mistaken belief that the pre-1960 form of the Prayer for the Jews that was included in the original form of the Tridentine Mass was being restored, a form that spoke of "the faithless Jews" (), which some interpreted as meaning "the perfidious Jews". Pope John XXIII replaced this prayer in 1959, so that it does not appear in the missal permitted by . The American Jewish Committee (AJC) stated in a press release:

In response to such continued complaints, Pope Benedict XVI in 2008 replaced the prayer in the 1962 Missal with a newly composed prayer that makes no mention of blindness or darkness.

Benedict XVI's 2008 commentary
In a 2008 interview in during his flight to France, Benedict XVI said  "is merely an act of tolerance, with a pastoral aim, for those people who were brought up with this liturgy, who love it, are familiar with it and want to live with this liturgy. They form a small group, because this presupposes a schooling in Latin, a training in a certain culture. Yet for these people, to have the love and tolerance to let them live with this liturgy seems to me a normal requirement of the faith and pastoral concern of any Bishop of our Church. There is no opposition between the liturgy renewed by the Second Vatican Council and this liturgy."

With the approval of Pope Benedict XVI, the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei issued the instruction  of 30 April 2011, feast of Saint Pius V, to clarify some aspects of .

The normative part of the document (nn.12-35) contains 23 brief points on various arguments. It reaffirms the competence of the diocesan bishops in implementing the , recalling that in the event of a dispute about the celebration in  judgement falls to the Ecclesia Dei Commission. It clarifies the concept of  (in short "group of faithful")  ("stable") whose desire to participate in the celebration of the  must be welcomed and accepted by pastors. While leaving the assessment of the number of people required for its establishment to the wise judgement of pastors, it states that the group does not necessarily have to be composed of persons belonging to a single parish, but may result from people who come together from different parishes or even from other dioceses. While always taking into account compliance with wider pastoral needs, the Instruction proposes a spirit of "generous welcome" towards groups of faithful who request the  or priests who request to occasionally celebrate in such a form with some of the faithful. The clarification (n.19) according to which the faithful who request the celebration in  "must not in any way support or belong to groups that show themselves to be contrary to the validity or legitimacy of " and/or authority of the Pope, is most important. This would be in flagrant contradiction to the 's very aim of "reconciliation". Priests must have a sufficient knowledge of Latin and know the rite to be celebrated. Bishops are therefore encouraged to make proper formation for this purpose available in seminaries, and the possibility of recourse, if there are no other suitable priests, to the collaboration of priests from the Institutes set up by the  Commission (which normally use the ) is also indicated. The use of the 1962 forms of conferring Holy Orders is permitted only in those institutes that exclusively celebrate the 1962 Missal that are under the Pontifical Commission .

Article 8 specified the aims of  as:

Other sections include:

 On diocesan bishops:
On the  ("group of the faithful"): The head of the Holy See's Press Office, Father Federico Lombardi called this clarification "most important".
On :
 On norms of law later than 1962:

 On the :

Abrogation
On 16 July 2021, Pope Francis issued a  entitled  and an accompanying letter that replaced the conditions delineated by  for the celebration of the 1962 Roman Missal and in particular declared that it is the exclusive right of the diocesan bishop with the approbation of the Holy See, not of individual priests, to authorize its use.  further stated that now "the liturgical books promulgated by Saint Paul VI and Saint John Paul II, in conformity with the decrees of Vatican Council II, are the unique expression of the  of the Roman Rite". This changes the position of the Mass of Paul VI from the "ordinary" expression of the Roman Rite to the only current expression.

On 29 June 2022, Pope Francis's  was released. In it, Francis explained he published  because some people accepted Vatican II but rejected the liturgical reforms that followed it which had been promulgated by Paul VI and John Paul II. He added that since  "expresses the reality of the liturgy", he had stressed in  that the reformed Vatican II liturgy is "the unique expression of the  of the Roman Rite". He stated he was determined to make it so that "unity be re-established in the whole Church of the Roman Rite".

In February 2023, Pope Francis issued a rescript, clarifying that bishops must obtain authorization from the Holy See before granting permission for parish churches to be used for Eucharistic celebrations with the preconciliar rite and before allowing priests ordained after 16 July 2021 to use the 1962 Roman Missal.

See also
 Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Summorum Pontificum in English
 Accompanying letter in English
 Universae Ecclesiae: Instruction of the Ecclesia Dei on Summorum Pontificum (version with Latin text with English translation)

2007 in Christianity
2007 documents
Traditionalist Catholicism
Ecclesia Dei
Latin religious words and phrases
Mass in the Catholic Church
Motu proprio of Pope Benedict XVI
Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei
Tridentine Mass
Catholic liturgical law
Apostolic letters

Summorum Pontificum


Atenulf II (died October 1064) was the duke of Gaeta for a brief two years (1062–1064) under the regency of his mother, Maria. He was the son and successor of Atenulf I, who had been forced to recognise the suzerainty of the prince of Capua, Richard I, and his son Jordan in 1058.

Atenulf I died on 2 February and on 1 June, Maria had confirmed a year-long treaty with several neighbouring counties against the dominance of the Normans of Aversa and Capua. During March of the year of peace, Atenulf II remained at Gaeta and on 28 June 1063, Gaeta was captured by Jordan and became a city of the prince of Capua. Atenulf was allowed to maintain possession until the next year, when his mother's new husband, William of Montreuil, was installed as duke.

Sources
Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016-1130. Longmans: London, 1967.
Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris, 1907.

1064 deaths
Dukes of Gaeta
Year of birth unknown

Atenulf II of Gaeta


Bulbinella rossii, commonly known as the Ross lily, is a species of flowering plant in genus Bulbinella. Despite its common name, it does not belong to the lily family Liliaceae. It is one of the subantarctic megaherbs. The specific epithet honours British Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross, who visited Campbell Island in December 1840. Bulbinella rossii is featured on the reverse of the current five dollar New Zealand banknote.

Description
Bulbinella rossii is a large, dioecious, perennial lily, growing up to 1 m in height and with a basal diameter of 40 mm. The dark green, fleshy, strap-like leaves are 0.6–1 m long and 15–60 mm wide. The inflorescence is a cylindrical raceme up to 600 mm long.  The golden yellow flowers are densely crowded, 10–14 mm in diameter, and are often flushed with orange.  The ovoid seed capsule is 10 mm long, containing narrowly winged, dark brown seeds. The plant flowers from October to January and fruits from December to March.

Distribution and habitat
This species is endemic to New Zealand's subantarctic Auckland and Campbell Islands. There, it is common and widespread from sea level to the tops of the island mountains. Because it thrives where the ground has been disturbed, and because it is not particularly palatable to browsing animals, it is common near old human habitation sites and may form dense colonies in open herbfield and tussock grassland.

Conservation status
The species is listed as "At Risk - Naturally Uncommon" in the most recent (2018) assessment using New Zealand Threatened Classification for plants, because of its restricted range.

References

Notes

Sources

rossii
Flora of the Auckland Islands
Flora of the Campbell Islands
Dioecious plants

Bulbinella rossii


Ratan Naval Tata (born 28 December 1937) is an Indian industrialist, philanthropist and former chairman of Tata Sons. He was a chairman of the Tata Group from 1990 to 2012, and interim chairman from October 2016 through February 2017. He continues to head its charitable trusts. In 2008, he received the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian honour in India, after receiving the Padma Bhushan, the third highest civilian honour in 2000.

He is the son of Naval Tata, who was adopted by Ratanji Tata, son of Jamsetji Tata, the founder of the Tata Group. He graduated from the Cornell University College of Architecture with a bachelor's degree in architecture. He joined Tata in 1961, where he worked on the shop floor of Tata Steel. He later succeeded J. R. D. Tata as chairman of Tata Sons upon the latter's retirement in 1991. Under his tenure the Tata Group acquired Tetley, Jaguar Land Rover, and Corus, in an attempt to turn Tata from a largely India-centric group into a global business. Tata is also one of the largest philanthropists in the world, having donated around 60–65% of his income to charity.

Ratan Tata is also a prolific investor and has made numerous investments in several startups.Tata has invested in over 30 start-ups till date, most from his personal capacity and some via his investment company.

Early life

Ratan Tata was born in Bombay, now Mumbai, during the British Raj, on 28 December 1937. He is the son of Naval Tata, who was born in Surat and later adopted into the Tata family, and Sooni Tata, the niece of Tata group founder Jamsetji Tata. Tata's biological grandfather, Hormusji Tata, was a member of the Tata family by blood. In 1948, when Tata was 10, his parents separated, and he was subsequently raised and adopted by Navajbai Tata, his grandmother and widow of Ratanji Tata. He has a younger brother Jimmy Tata and a half-brother, Noel Tata, from Naval Tata's second marriage with Simone Tata, with whom he was raised.

He studied at the Campion School, Mumbai till the 8th class. After which, he studied at the Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai, the Bishop Cotton School in Shimla, and the Riverdale Country School in New York City, which he graduated from in 1955. After graduating from high school, Tata enrolled in Cornell University, from which he graduated with a bachelor's degree in architecture in 1959. In 2008, Tata gifted Cornell $50 Million, becoming the largest international donor in the university's history.

Career
In the 1970s, Tata was given a managerial position in the Tata group. He achieved initial success by turning the subsidiary National Radio and Electronics (NELCO) around, only to see it collapse during an economic slowdown. In 1991, J. R. D. Tata stepped down as chairman of Tata Sons, naming him his successor. Initially, Tata faced stiff resistance from the heads of various subsidiaries, who had a large amount of operational freedom under the senior Tata's tenure. In response, Tata implemented a number of policies designed to consolidate power, including the implementation of a retirement age, having subsidiaries report directly to the group office, and requiring subsidiaries to contribute their profit to building the Tata group brand. Tata prioritised innovation and delegated many responsibilities to younger talent. Under his leadership, overlapping operations between subsidiaries were streamlined into company-wide operations, with the group exiting unrelated businesses to take on globalisation.

During the 21 years Tata led the Tata Group, revenues grew over 40 times, and profit over 50 times. When he took over the company, sales overwhelmingly comprised commodity sales, but at the end of his tenure, the majority of sales came from brands. He had Tata Tea acquire Tetley, Tata Motors acquire Jaguar Land Rover, and Tata Steel acquire Corus. These acquisitions repositioned Tata from a largely India-centric group into a global business, with over 65% of revenues coming from operations and sales internationally.

He also conceptualized and spearheaded the development of the Tata Nano car, which helped put cars at a price-point within reach of the average Indian consumer. Tata Motors has since rolled out the first batch of Tigor Electric Vehicles from its Sanand Plant in Gujarat, which Tata has described as "fast-forward[ing] India's electric dream."

Upon turning 75, Ratan Tata resigned his executive powers in the Tata group on 28 December 2012. An ensuing leadership crisis over his succession drew intense media scrutiny. The board of directors and legal division of the company refused to appoint his successor, Cyrus Mistry, a relative of Tata and the son of Pallonji Mistry of the Shapoorji Pallonji Group, which was the largest individual shareholder of the Tata group. On 24 October 2016, Cyrus Mistry was removed as chairman of Tata Sons, and Ratan Tata was made interim chairman. A selection committee, which included Tata as a member, was formed to find a successor. On 12 January 2017, Natarajan Chandrasekaran was named as the chairman of Tata Sons, a role he assumed in February 2017. In February 2017, Mistry was removed as a director for Tata Sons. The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal later found in December 2019 that the removal of Cyrus Mistry as the chairman of Tata Sons was illegal, and ordered that he be reinstated. On appeal, India's Supreme Court upheld the dismissal of Cyrus Mistry.

Tata has also invested in multiple companies with his own wealth. He has invested in Snapdeal – one of India's leading e-commerce websites. In January 2016, he invested in Teabox, an online premium Indian Tea seller, and CashKaro.com, a discount coupons and cash-back website. He has made small investments in both early and late stage companies in India, such as INR 0.95 Cr in Ola Cabs. In April 2015, it was reported that Tata had acquired a stake in Chinese smartphone startup Xiaomi. In 2016, he invested in Nestaway an online real-estate portal that later acquired Zenify to start the online real-estate and pet-care portal, Dogspot. Tata also launched India's companionship startup for senior citizens, Goodfellows, in a bid to encourage intergenerational friendships."

Philanthropy
Tata is a supporter of education, medicine and rural development, and considered a leading philanthropist in India. Tata supported University of New South Wales Faculty of Engineering to develop capacitive deionization to provide improved water for challenged areas.

Tata Hall at the University of California, San Diego (UC San Diego) is a state-of-the-art research facility that was opened in November 2018. The building is named after the Tata Trusts, who donated $70 million to UC San Diego in 2016 to establish the Tata Institute for Genetics and Society (TIGS), which is housed within the building.

Tata Hall is a 4-story building that spans over 128,000 square feet and houses research facilities for the biological and physical sciences. The building has state-of-the-art laboratories, offices, and meeting spaces that are designed to foster collaboration and innovation among researchers. It is a LEED-certified building, which means it is designed to be environmentally sustainable and energy-efficient.

Tata Hall at UC San Diego is a research facility focused on biotechnology and houses the Tata Institute for Genetics and Society, which conducts research on genetics and disease control. It is named after the Tata Trusts, who made a $70 million gift to UC San Diego in 2016 to establish the Tata Institute for Genetics and Society. The Tata Institute for Genetics and Society at UC San Diego is a joint initiative between the Tata Trusts and UC San Diego. It aims to address some of the world's most pressing problems, such as the spread of infectious diseases and the need for sustainable food sources. The research conducted at the institute focuses on a range of topics, including gene editing, stem cell therapy, and disease control.

Tata Education and Development Trust, a philanthropic affiliate of Tata Group, endowed a $28  million Tata Scholarship Fund that will allow Cornell University to provide financial aid to undergraduate students from India. The scholarship fund will support approximately 20 scholars at any given time and will ensure that the very best Indian students have access to Cornell, regardless of their financial circumstances. The scholarship will be awarded annually; recipients will receive the scholarship for the duration of their undergraduate study at Cornell.

In 2010, Tata Group companies and Tata charities donated $50 million for the construction of an executive center at Harvard Business School (HBS). The executive center has been named Tata Hall, after Ratan Tata (AMP '75), chairman emeritus of Tata Sons. The total construction costs have been estimated at $100 million. Tata Hall is located in the northeast corner of the HBS campus, and is devoted to the Harvard Business School's mid-career Executive Education program. It is seven stories tall, and about 155,000 gross square feet. It houses approximately 180 bedrooms, in addition to academic and multi-purpose spaces.

The Tata Innovation Center at Cornell Tech is named after Ratan Tata, and mixes academics and industry in a building on the Roosevelt Island campus. The seven-floor structure is meant primarily as a business incubator for students, faculty, and staff,[40] with 70% of the building being commercially leased and 30% devoted to academic space. Tata Consultancy Services is a tenant in the space.

Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) has given the largest ever donation by a company to Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) for a facility to research cognitive systems and autonomous vehicles. TCS donated $35 million for this grand 48,000 square-foot building that is called TCS Hall.

In 2014, Tata Group endowed the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay and formed the Tata Center for Technology and Design (TCTD) to develop design and engineering principles suited to the needs of people and communities with limited resources. They gave ₹950 million to the institute which was the largest ever donation received in its history.

Tata Trusts under the Chairmanship of Ratan Tata provided a grant of ₹750 million to the Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science to study mechanisms underlying the cause of Alzheimer's disease and to evolve methods for its early diagnosis and treatment. This grant was to be spread over 5 years starting in 2014.

Tata Group, under the leadership of Ratan Tata formed the MIT Tata Center of Technology and Design at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with a mission to address the challenges of resource-constrained communities, with an initial focus on India.

Board memberships and affiliations
Ratan Tata was the interim chairman of Tata Sons. He continues to head the main two Tata trusts Sir Dorabji Tata and Allied Trusts and Sir Ratan Tata Trust and their allied trusts, with a combined stake of 66% in Tata Sons, Tata group's holding company.

He has served in various capacities in organizations in India and abroad. He is a member of Prime Minister's 'Council on Trade and Industry' and the 'National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council'. He is on the jury panel of Pritzker Architecture Prize – considered to be one of the world's premier architecture prizes.

Over the years Tata has served on the Cornell University Board of Trustees, personally advising the school's administration in matters of international involvement, particularly regarding projects connected to India. More broadly, Tata has served on the board's Academic Affairs, Student Life, and Development Committees. In 2013 he was named Cornell Entrepreneur of the Year.

He is a director on the boards of Alcoa Inc., Mondelez International and Board of Governors of the East–West Center. He is also a member of the board of trustees of University of Southern California, Harvard Business School Board of Dean's Advisors, X Prize and Cornell University. He is a member on the board of International Advisory Council at Bocconi University.

He is also a member of the Harvard Business School India Advisory Board (IAB) since 2006 and previously a member of the Harvard Business School Asia-Pacific Advisory Board (APAB) 2001–2006.

He is on the advisory board of Hakluyt & Co, an international  consultancy company.

In 2013, he was appointed to the board of trustees of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

In February 2015, Ratan took an advisory role at Kalari Capital, a venture capital firm founded by Vani Kola.

In October 2016, Tata Sons removed Cyrus Mistry as its chairman, nearly 4 years after he took over the reins of the over $100 billion conglomerate, Ratan Tata made a comeback, taking over the company's interim boss for 4 months. On 12 January 2017, Natarajan Chandrasekaran was named as the chairman of Tata Sons, a role he assumed in February 2017.

Honours and awards

Ratan Tata received the Padma Bhushan in 2000 and Padma Vibhushan in 2008, the third and second highest civilian honours awarded by the Government of India. Along with national civilian honours, Tata has also received various state civilian honours like 'Maharashtra Bhushan' in 2006 for his huge work in the public administration in Maharashtra and   'Assam Baibhav' in 2021 for his exceptional contribution towards furthering cancer care in Assam.

Other awards include:

Personal life
Tata has never married and has no children. In 2011, Ratan Tata stated, "I came close to getting married four times and each time I backed off in fear or for one reason or another."

In popular culture
Mega Icons (2018–2020), an Indian documentary television series on National Geographic about prominent Indian personalities, dedicated an episode to Ratan Tata's contributions.

References

Bibliography

External links

 Ratan Naval Tata's chairman profile at Tata Group
 Profile at The Guardian
 Interview on Charlie Rose

 Creating Emerging Markets Interview at the Harvard Business School

Cornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning alumni
Businesspeople from Mumbai
Businesspeople in metals
Tata family
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in trade & industry
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in trade and industry
1937 births
Living people
Parsi people from Mumbai
Indian industrialists
Recipients of the Maharashtra Bhushan Award
Businesspeople in steel
Tata Group people
Cathedral and John Connon School alumni
Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics
Parsi people
Honorary Officers of the Order of Australia
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Engineering
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Riverdale Country School alumni
Bishop Cotton School Shimla alumni
Indian philanthropists

Ratan Tata


Mario Rapisardi (25 February 1844, in Catania – 4 January 1912, in Catania) was an Italian poet, supporter of Risorgimento and member of the Scapigliatura (definition but refused).

Life
As a boy, he was taught "grammar, rhetoric and the Latin language" by two priests and "a psicontologico mixture that he thought was philosophy" by a friar.  To please his father, he then unwillingly took the usual course in jurisprudence, but never wanted to take the laurea in that or any other faculty.  He wrote at this time "there is nothing noteworthy in my life, unless it is this, that - for good or ill - it formed me, destroying the wretched and false education I had received [up to then] and instructing and educating me, in my own way, to be outside whatever school, whatever sect, scornful of systems and prejudices".

He began his poetic career at fourteen with an ode to Saint Agatha, in which he dared to recommend the freedom of his fatherland (then under the Bourbon regime), and in 1863 published a volume of verses under the title Canti.  In 1865 he came to Florence for the first time, returning there often later in his life.  There he got to know Giovanni Prati, Niccolò Tommaseo, Atto Vannucci, Pietro Fanfani, Andrea Maffei, Giuseppe Regaldi, Erminia, Arnaldo Fusinato, Francesco Dall'Ongaro, Terenzio Mamiani and other "illustri e buoni", as he later called them.  Also in Florence he published his La Palingenesi in 1868, recommending a religious revival for humanity.  It got good reviews, and Victor Hugo read it and wrote to Rapisardi, saying "...[it is a] noble poem.  You are a forerunner".

In 1870 he received a teaching post at the University of Catania.  Don Pedro II, emperor of Brazil, attended one of his lessons in 1876 and recommended him to the last book of Dante's De Monarchia.  Rapisardi was made ordinario of Italian literature at the university in 1878, and presented the inaugural lecture of the academic year there in 1879.  His topic was "The new scientific concept", one he saw as brave seeing as he was delivering the lecture "before the authorities, in this country and on this solemn occasion".

In 1881 he began a controversy with Giosuè Carducci.  In 1885 the Florentine Amelia Poniatowski Sabernich became his lover, remaining so until his death. In 1886, he was in Rome on the board to discuss universities, and wrote to her "Di Roma non mi piacciono che alcuni ruderi, pochi, non tutti quelli che guardano a bocca aperta i forestieri; le chiese splendide tutte mi fanno rabbia: sono reggie, non tempi. (O Santa Maria del Fiore! Quella sì che è la casa del Dio Ignoto, e tale da fare raccogliere l'animo più incredulo in meditazioni sublimi)". He refused the nomination offered to him by the constituency of Trapani well 6200 votes, a figure so extraordinary, blaming his failing health, the failure of his studies and the nature "devoid of political stores."

As a professor in Catania, he wrote a poetic history of humanity called Luzifero. Also wrote Giobbe and Atlantide. He was a Mason (as was Carducci) and a chapter of the higher degrees is named after him.

In 1894 he was attacked by some socialists for advising calm during the famous "moti di Sicilia", to which he replied that such events seemed "untimely" and lacked "a common programme" and effective leaders, and that he had been made a "moderator" not a "peacemaker".  In 1897 he answered an invitation to collaborate on the magazine L'Università, excusing himself as not having enough time or the right attitude to write for the newspapers and trying to dissuade the editors from getting him to contribute anything political in character.  In 1905 a proposal to dismiss him from the university caused protests from students in several Italian universities, and in 1909 he replied to an invitation by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti by writing that "the obligation on poets is not to found new schools or aggrandize the ancients; his duty is to express things as they are and represent reality as he sees and feels it, with complete sincerity, with heat and with the colour of his soul (...)

He died in Catania in 1912, and Catania went into official mourning for three days, with his funeral attracting over 150,000 people (including official representatives sent from Tunisia to attend).  However, due to opposition from the church authorities, his body remained unburied in a storage area at the town cemetery for ten days.

Works
1858 - Ode to sant'Agata
1863 - Canti, a volume of verses
1872, Pisa - Le ricordanze, collection of lyric verses
1875, Florence - Catullo e Lesbia
1877, Milan - Lucifero, praising Rationalism's triumph over Transcendence.
1879, Milan - Translation of Lucretius's De rerum natura
1885, Catania - Giustizia, collection of social-reform poetry.
1884, Catania - Giobbe, poem expressing the accents of human pain.
1887, Catania - Le poesie religiose, advocating religion of a pantheistic mould.
1888 - Duetto, a social-reform poem for which he was tried by the magistrate of Venice.
1889, Naples - Translation of the works of Catullus.
1892, Palermo - Translation of Percy Bysshe Shelley's Prometheus Unbound.
1894 - The poem Atlantide, a biting satire and work of caricature about the literati of the day.
1897 - Translation of the Odes of Horace.
1902 - L'asceta and other poems.

Bibliography
 "Mario Rapisardi", atti del convegno a cura di Sarah Zappulla Muscarà, Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania 1991

Other projects
  Italian WikiSource has material related to Mario Rapisardi
  Italian WikiQuote has material related to Mario Rapisardi

Notes

External links

 Letter to Francesco Paolo Frontini, from Mario Rapisardi, on the occasion of the publication of the Romanza Lauda di Suora (1889)
 Letter to Francesco Paolo Frontini, from Mario Rapisardi (1906)
 Epitaph of Mario Rapisardi
 Works citing Mario Rapisardi
 Francesco Paolo Frontini and Mario Rapisardi
 Life and works of Mario Rapisardi

1844 births
1912 deaths
Italian poets
Italian republicans
Italian male poets
Italian people of the Italian unification
Writers from Catania
Sicilian-language poets

Mario Rapisardi


Dolhain is the industrial centre of the city of Limbourg, Wallonia, in the Belgian province of Liège.

It occupies the site of the lower town of the ancient city of Limbourg, which was destroyed by Louis XIV in 1675. On a rocky eminence above Dolhain are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old castle of Limbourg, the cradle of the ancient family of that name from which sprang the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The Gothic church of St George of the 13th century has been restored. At a short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe, the vast reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free from lime for its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe to Verviers is about 80 km in length.

References

Limbourg
Populated places in Liège Province

Dolhain


James Sargent Russell (March 22, 1903 –  April 14, 1996) was an admiral in the United States Navy.

Biography
Russell was born in Tacoma, Washington, the son of noted architect Ambrose J. Russell and Loella Janet (Sargent) Russell. He attended DeKoven Hall School and graduated from Stadium High School in 1918. He joined the Merchant Marine as an ordinary seaman, before entering the United States Naval Academy in 1922. He graduated, and was commissioned as ensign, on 3 June 1926.

Russel served aboard the battleship . He entered the flight training program at Naval Air Station Pensacola, and was designated a Naval Aviator in 1929.

In the next decade he was assigned to tours of aviation duty both aboard ship and ashore, and also obtained a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the California Institute of Technology.

In July 1941 Russell joined Patrol Squadron 42 (VP-42), a PBY squadron based in the Aleutians, and on August 16 of that same year, assumed command. When the United States entered World War II he led VP-42 into action against Japanese forces in the Aleutian Islands Campaign, receiving the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal for his actions in leading his squadron against the enemy in "extremely hazardous weather conditions". Later that same year he was awarded the Legion of Merit for his "exceptionally meritorious" services in establishing advanced bases in the area and operating his squadron from them. His squadron was itself also awarded a Navy Unit Commendation. While in command of VP-42, Russell played a key role in the capture of the Akutan Zero.

Russell returned to Washington for duty in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Bureau of Aeronautics. He then returned to the Pacific as chief of staff to the commander of Carrier Division 2, part of the Fast Carrier Task Force. For his planning and coordination of the Striking Group in action against the Japanese he was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit.

After the war, he commanded the escort carrier . He then reported to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for duty as commander of the commission's task group during the "Operation Sandstone" atomic bomb tests of 1948. For his contribution to the successful completion of these tests, he was awarded a second Gold Star in lieu of a third Legion of Merit.

From 1951 until March 1952 Russell commanded the aircraft carrier  as a unit of the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Following this duty he again served in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, as head of the Military Requirements and New Development Branch, Air Warfare Division, until July 1953, when he assumed duty as director of the Air Warfare Division. He was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1953. On 16 May 1954 he became commander of Carrier Division 17, and in October of that year transferred to command of Carrier Division 5.

On 4 March 1955, he assumed the duties of chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. In that position he was awarded the 1956 Collier Trophy, along with Mr. C. J. McCarthy of Chance Vought Aircraft,  for their work in the development of the Vought F-8 Crusader supersonic fighter – the outstanding contribution to aviation in that year.

From June 1957 Russell served as deputy commander in chief of the Atlantic Fleet with the rank of vice admiral before being appointed Vice Chief of Naval Operations on 21 July 1958 with the four-star rank of admiral. He served in that post until 1962, and then as Commander-in-Chief of NATO's Allied Forces Southern Europe (CinCAFSOUTH) before retiring in 1965.

Decorations
Apart from his US military medals Russell was awarded French Legion of Honor; Greece's Order of George I; Italy's Order of Merit of the Italian Republic; Peru's Great Cross of Naval Merit; and Brazil's Order of Naval Merit.

References

External links
 Mention of his death in the US Congressional Record

United States Navy admirals
1903 births
1996 deaths
United States Navy pilots of World War II
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Order of George I
Recipients of the Order of Naval Merit (Brazil)
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
People from Lakewood, Washington
Recipients of the Air Medal
Vice Chiefs of Naval Operations
Stadium High School alumni

James Sargent Russell


The Cycle Messenger World Championships, or CMWCs, are an annual urban cycling competition whereby cycle messengers and cycling enthusiasts showcase their skills in an array of events, many of which simulate everyday tasks for a cycle messenger. Each year, the CMWCs are held in a different city around the world, with each host city designing its own unique course. The highlight of the CMWCs is the main race in which cyclists are given manifests and must pickup and deliver items to various locations around the host city as quickly and efficiently as possible.  The total number of pickups and deliveries, or "drop offs" is unknown to the messengers before the race, but has been known to reach up to 100 stops and usually takes between 3–4 hours to complete. The cyclist who completes all of the assigned deliveries in the least amount of time wins the race. In addition to the main race there are also several side events which have become increasingly popular over the past few years. These events change yearly depending on the discretion of the host city but usually include backward circles, bike polo, bunnyhop, cargo race, longest skid, sprints, and trackstand.

History
The idea for the Cycle Messenger World Championships, or Cycle Messenger Championships (CMCs) as it was initially called, was first conceived in 1992 by Achim Beier and his assistant, Stefan Klessman.  Both worked for messenger Berlin, a Berlin-based messenger service, and were inspired to have a gathering of the world's bicycle messengers after talking with co-worker and ex-Washington D.C. bicycle messenger Michael "Ozone" Odom. Beier then took a trip to New York City where he visited Washington Square Park and talked with local bicycle messengers including James "The General" Moore about the proposed idea. The idea was received well by the local messengers and thus Beier and Klessman began planning the logistics of the first Cycle Messenger Championships.

Since no competition of this type had ever taken place, there were many challenges to overcome before the first CMC be completed. Most notably, the host city, Berlin, needed to approve the proposal of such an event. This, in itself, was an enormous task since many streets had to be shut down for an entire weekend, the duration of the event, including Straße des 17. Juni, the main thoroughfare for East-West traffic through Berlin, and the area around Brandenburg Gate.  In the end, the city of Berlin approved the event with only minor changes to Beier's requests and in 1993 the first Cycle Messenger Championships took place. In all, around 500 messengers participated in the inaugural event.

Though the 1993 CMC was declared a success, it lost a substantial amount of money. As a result, Beier and Klessman decided to transfer ownership of the event to a sports marketing company which had expressed interest in organizing it. Beier and Klessman stayed with the project, acting as consultants, to ensure that the competition retained its authenticity.

The marketing company, though based in Berlin, had a partner in London and thus it was decided that the 1994 CMWC would be located there. Unfortunately though, months before the scheduled date of the CMWC the marketing company pulled its sponsorship of the event and left Beier and Klessman alone on the project.

After much deliberation, it was decided that the 1994 CMWC would still take place in London, though now it would be organized solely by cycle messengers. Against all odds, the event took place and attracted around 500 participants. Once again, the CMWC was deemed a success.

With the sting of the marketing company's withdrawal still fresh, several cycle messengers at the 1994 event decided to form a committee dedicated to the successful realization of the CMWC. Largely self-appointed and without any real power the committee floundered. The need for such an organization, however, was being realized by more and more cyclists.

The 1995 CMWC took place in Toronto, and in 1996 it was hosted in San Francisco. It was here that the International Federation of Bike Messengers Association, or IFBMA, was created for the purpose of guaranteeing that the CMWC would take place each year. This committee, unlike the previous one, was open to all who wished to attend and thus had the potential of being a legitimate organization.

Cycle Messenger World Championships
Since the inception of the IFBMA the CMWCs have taken place each year in different locations around the world. The following is a list of host cities along with the year they hosted the CMWCs and the champions from each year.

Categories
From the very first CMWC, the main race had two gender categories that participants could compete in, Men and Women.

At the 2017 championship in Montreal, the name of the women's category was changed to the more inclusive "WTNB", which meant that the category was open to women, trans people, and non-binary people.

The year after, at the 2018 championship in Riga, the WTNB category was again renamed to WTF while the men's category was renamed "Open" allowing people of any gender to compete in this category.
At the same championship, thanks to the work of the Star Bike Messenger Association (formerly the Women's Bike Messenger Association), official guidelines about gender categories at CMWC's were voted in as an amendment to the IFBMA by-laws. This meant that all future CMWC's must have two categories named Open and WTNB.

In 2022 at the championship in New York City the organizers chose to divide the WTNB category into two separate categories named "WT", which was open for women and trans people and "NB", which was only open for non-binary people.

Events

Main Race

The main race is designed to simulate the normal workday of a cycle messenger. At the start of the race, depending on what format  is used, each messenger is given a manifest or a number of packages with the location of pick-ups and drop-offs of packages throughout the closed course. The course is composed of numbered or named checkpoints spread throughout a closed course which has been anywhere from a few kilometers to 10 kilometers or more in total track distance. Participants usually must traverse the length & breadth of the course many times to complete the event. The messengers seek to quickly and efficiently plan their routes in order to pick up and deliver each package in a timely manner. Several different systems have been used, most of these involve manifests, some involve multiple manifests. The total number of manifests and deliveries is unknown to the messengers before the start of the race but has been known to reach as high as 100 pick-ups and drop-offs. The field of cyclists is narrowed down after each manifest in some forms of this event but in others no elimination process is used and results are tallied for the entire field. The event usually takes between 3 and 4 hours to complete.

Cargo Race

This side event requires cyclists to transport oversized objects from one point to another.  Typical objects chosen for delivery range from beer kegs to boxes. Hay bales, pallets and lengths of lumber are also used in the challenge. Cyclists are encouraged to come up with creative ways of transporting such irregularly shaped objects while still using a bicycle.  Many competitors prefer to use panniers and trailers, while some even use specially designed bicycles for the event.

Sprints

The sprints are a shorter distance race, usually ranging from 200–300 meters in length, on a closed course with the cyclist crossing the finish line first declared the winner. Elimination rounds are utilized to determine the winner, usually 5-10 participants race each heat.

Track stand

The track stand competition is an event in which cyclists try to maintain a stationary position for as long as possible while on a bicycle.  All cyclists start off with both hands and feet on the bike in the traditional trackstand position.  As the competition progresses, cyclists are instructed to remove specific limbs from the bicycle.  The order which cyclists remove their limbs from the bicycle usually starts with taking off one hand, then both hands, one foot, then both feet.  The cyclist who remains balanced in an upright and stationary position the longest is declared the winner.

Skids

This competition consists of cyclists attempting to create the longest skid.  Quite possibly one of the most dangerous events other than the main race, competitors sprint toward a starting line then lock up their back wheel to initiate the skid.  Competitors must then balance themselves over their handlebars to create as little friction as possible between the rear stationary wheel and the ground while still steering their bicycle.  Each cyclist is given two attempts to skid as far as possible.  The record for the longest skid at the CMWC is set around 500 feet. It is not necessary to actually leave a "skid mark" and competitors are allowed to move their pedals slightly as well as to cause the rear wheel to leave the ground while trying to pivot their weight forward in order to decease friction between the road surface and rear wheel. An Exhibition event, this skill has no application in the actual function of a bicycle messenger.

Backward Circles

Like the Skids, this event has no correlation in simulating the ordinary workday of a cycle messenger. This competition requires cyclists to pedal backwards in consistent and consecutive circles.  The cyclist who can complete the most consecutive backward circles is declared the winner.

Bunny hop

This event has been described as the high jump of cycling. Designed to simulate the need for avoiding obstacles during a messenger's workday, contestants must use their bikes to jump over a bar of increasing height. Contestants  unable to clear the bar after two attempts at a particular height are eliminated from the competition. The last contestant remaining is declared the winner. The current CMWC record for this event is 1.27 meters set by Marlon Prather at the 1998 CMWC in Washington D.C., USA. Since the late 1990s a notable rise in popularity of the fixed gear bicycle has caused this event to decline as few participants are able to bunnyhop their fixed gear bicycles over any object of much more than 10 to 20 centimeters.

Bike polo

Bike polo follows the same general guidelines as hockey only this event is played using bikes.  This event has no correlation to any particular bicycle messenger skill but was introduced for the 2008 CMWC in Toronto because a number of bicycle messengers enjoy playing the game and bicycle messengers are credited for much of the hype and expansion of this sport. The 2008 tournament drew over 100 participants on 35 teams and lasted throughout the event. It was the first large and international bike polo tourney in history, presented as the first ever World Bike Polo Championships. Only a portion of the participants were bicycle messengers, the rest were polo players drawn to the tournament for its potential size due to its sponsorship by the CMWC 2008, although the tournament results were not included as CMWC results. Teams consisting of three cyclists used mallets to pass a ball and score as many goals as possible. Teams usually compete on a concrete court of varying sizes.

La Ocho

This event is not considered a portion of the CMWC but was attempted on one occasion at a CMWC event in Guatemala, but the event was never realized.

This figure-8 track was designed by architect Dieter Janssen especially for the 2010 CMWC at Panajachel, Guatemala.  The 200 meter course consisted of an Euler spiral loop built from rammed-earth with banked curves and a heavy timber over-under bridge intersection in the middle. The geometry was idealized for a 65 km/h speed, though its range could support a minimum of 12.8 km/h and a maximum of 140.9 km/h based on an average rider's weight, the expected frictional force and a maximum inclination angle of 45 degrees.
Unfortunately, the track was destroyed by rain before the event took place. The race was held on level ground with no bridge. Lines drawn on the surface indicated where the track might have been. In construction it never resembled the design provided by the architect, heavy timber abandoned for 4x4 & 2x4 stud frame construction. Banked turns were never achieved.

Reception

The CMWCs have been well received by the local populations of several host cities while others consider the event a nuisance.  For instance, the 2007 CMWCs in Dublin, Ireland, were pushed to the outer limits of the city after the local population protested the event.  On the other hand, the 2002 CMWCs held in Copenhagen, Denmark, were welcomed by the city and competitors were even treated to a free breakfast and free beer courtesy of the mayor.

See also
European Cycle Messenger Championships

References

Cycling events

Cycle Messenger World Championships


Selena y Los Dinos was the band which Mexican-American Tejano pop singer Selena belonged to until her untimely death in 1995.

Biography

Beginning
The band was created when Selena was nine-years old by her father, Abraham Quintanilla Jr. He immediately spread his musical talent (which he pursued himself in his earlier days) among his three children. Suzette was put on the drums. A.B. was put on the bass guitar. The family first showcased their band at their restaurant "Papa Gayos" (English: Parrots). Then they continued to sing at more and more different places.

Within a year the family's restaurant went bankrupt and the family was forced to move in with relatives as Abraham had quit his job to manage the restaurant full-time. The band then performed wherever they could, including weddings, street corners, fairs, and quinceañeras, at some places gaining a lot of appreciation, while others not so much. The band was even "booed" off while performing at a wedding, followed by food being thrown on stage.

Chris Pérez
In 1988, the Quintanilla family was present at a party of the band Chris Pérez was currently in. Impressed by his talent, A.B. asked Chris to join Selena y Los Dinos. Although he accepted, his support to the band proved to be much more than anticipated. Selena and Chris quickly fell in love and married in 1992. After Selena's death, Chris formed a band called the Chris Pérez Band which he dedicated a song to the Selena called "The Best I Can". After the band broke up in 2002, he formed another band with Selena's brother A.B. called Kumbia All Starz.

Selena ¡VIVE!
The band members reunited for the tribute concert, in honor of Selena, on April 7, 2005. Selena ¡VIVE!, was held at the Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas. Not only did the event sold-out, it became the highest-rated and most-viewed Spanish-language Television special ever in the history of American television. The introduction was made by Jennifer Lopez.

Band members
 Selena - lead vocals
 Chris Pérez - lead and rhythm guitars
 Ricky Vela - keyboards
 Joe Ojeda - keyboards
 A.B. Quintanilla III - bass, backing vocals
 Suzette Quintanilla - drums, percussion
 Jesse "O'Jay" Martinez - drums, percussion
 Arturo Meza - percussion, congas
 Pete Astudillo - backing vocals
 Don Shelton - backing vocals
 Fredy Correa - backing vocals

Discography

Selena y Los Dinos made seven independent LP records. They also made eighteen compilation albums that were released and one remix album. In 1984, Selena y Los Dinos signed with Freddie Records and released their debut album entitled Mis Primeras Grabaciones, the album ended up with disappointing sales and Freddie Records wanted to put Selena y Los Dinos second album on hold until the band became more seasoned, the band ended up leaving Freddie Records after contract disagreements.

In 1985, Selena y Los Dinos was signed with Cara Records. Selena's father and manager, Abraham Quintanilla Jr felt that the band would do much better with a Tejano record label. Selena y Los Dinos recorded a few singles for Cara Records but a full album was never produced. Selena was moved to GP Productions which was owned by Manny Guerra. Guerra was a Tejano singer-songwriter and music producer. Selena y Los Dinos recorded Alpha and released it in 1986. Alpha became the first LP record to be successfully released in stores without any issues involved.

The band then released their third LP record Muñequito de Trapo ("Rag Doll") on June 29, 1987. They also released their fourth LP record And the Winner Is... later that same year. Selena began recording the LP record right after she had won the "Female Vocalist of the Year" award at the Tejano Music Awards that same year. In early 1987, the band were moved to Record Producer (RP Records). This record company was also owned by Guerra. They had released Preciosa ("Precious") in February 1988, and sold only 20,000 units.

They then released their last LP record Dulce Amor ("Sweet Love") in December 1988. The album sold 24,000 units. In early 1989, Selena signed a record deal with EMI Latin. She became the first artist to sign with them. In March 1990, Selena y Los Dinos released their first compilation album called Mis Primeros Éxitos ("My First Hits"). The album had re-recorded songs that were released before Selena had signed with EMI Latin. In 1990, the band released Personal Best. In 1992, the band released their third compilation album called Baila Esta Cumbia ("Dance This Cumbia"). The next year, they released Quiero.... After Selena was killed in 1995, the band released Grandes Exitos ("Greatest Hits"). In the early 2000s, Selena's father had released an "early years" collection called Selena y Sus Inicios ("Selena and Her Beginnings"), a few years later, he had released another set of early recordings from Selena called Classic Series; which were re-issues of Selena's LP records from 1986 to 1989.

LP albums
 Selena y Los Dinos (1984) Sales: 65,000
 Alpha (1987) Sales: 5,000
 Muñequito de Trapo (1987) Sales: 7,000
 And the Winner Is... (1987) Sales: 12,500
 Preciosa (1988) Sales: 20,000
 Dulce Amor (1989) Sales: 24,000

 1995 re-release (Mis Primeras Grabaciones).
 LP record was not sold in stores.

Compilation albums
 Mis Primeros Éxitos (1990) Sales: 10,000
 Personal Best (1990) Sales: 4,000
 Baila Esta Cumbia (1992) Sales: 27,000
 Quiero... (1993) Sales: 35,000
 Grandes Exitos (1995) Sales: 57,000
 Selena y Sus Inicios (2004) 4 volumes
 Classic Series (2007) 5 volumes
 Inolvidable (2009)

Remix albums
 Enamorada De Ti (2012)

Notes

References

Selena
American pop music groups
Musical groups from Texas
Tejano music

Selena y Los Dinos


Ecstatica II is an action-adventure game developed by British team Andrew Spencer Studios and released for DOS/Windows by Psygnosis in 1997. It is a sequel to Ecstatica.

Gameplay
The game play remains similar to Ecstatica, with improvements to the game's controls and more detailed ellipsoid graphics. The play area is much larger than the first title and offers free-roaming gameplay involving exploration of the castle. Enemies also respawn after a certain period. The protagonist can pick up various swords with different strength and reach. He can also use magic attacks against his foes by either equipping a staff or learning spells from scrolls.

Plot
The story starts right where the first game ended, when the Nameless Traveller, who turns out to be a Prince in an unnamed country, rescued Ecstatica from the doomed town of Tirich. The Prince returns to his kingdom with Ecstatica, planning to get married, only to find out that his castle has been savagely pillaged and plundered and his people have been brutally massacred by demons, goblins, and human barbarians. Just as they arrive at the drawbridge, a winged demon flies by and kidnaps Ecstatica while the Prince is knocked unconscious by another winged demon, only to wake up and realize he has been put into the castle's pillory. However, the Prince is revitalized and set free by a mysterious female voice that urges him to defeat the evil Archmage to restore the balance of the world by restoring the 7 Elder sign and at the same time to rescue his beloved Ecstatica from the Archmage before she is used as a sacrifice.

Development
Ecstatica II uses ellipsoid graphics in order to give polygonal objects smooth edges instead of sharp ones. Andrew Spencer explained how the programming for the ellipsoid graphics works: "All the objects are algorithmic, which means there's a little bit of programming in each one. Trees and plants, for example, are fractals with a bit of randomness built in and a few rules to follow. Ferns are told to get lighter toward the end; plants are told to develop stalks and then sprout into flowers. In a sense, the program, written in C, grows the object rather than builds it." The enemies were designed so that no two individuals would have exactly the same stats.

The game was originally set to release in March 1997.

Reception

A reviewer for Next Generation praised the high quality of the ellipsoid graphics engine, the smoothness of the character animations, and the wide variety of moves available to the player character, but criticized the use of prerendered scenery, noting that it results in load times as the character moves between camera shots and often obscures items, enemies, and traps. Tim Soete of GameSpot likewise found the prerendered scenery often makes the game confusing and frustrating, and that the effective use of ellipsoids and wide variety of combat moves are strong points. He also praised the massive length of the game. He concluded, "What's important is that, because it's so graphically rich and varied in its gameplay, Ecstatica II is a game you can really get lost in." GamePros Art Angel assessed that "With much improved graphics, an expanded map, increased character movements, and a larger variety of enemies, Ecstatica II has surpassed its predecessor in almost every way." However, he found the controls overly complex and too slow to respond in the heat of battle. He gave the game a 4.5 out of 5 for graphics, particularly noting the "beautifully rendered" ellipsoids and strong use of color, and a 4.0 out of 5 for sound, control, and funfactor.

References

External links

1997 video games
Action-adventure games
DOS games
Psygnosis games
Video game sequels
Video games with pre-rendered 3D graphics
Windows games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom

Ecstatica II


This is a list of supercouples, fictional couples who have been titled supercouples by the media, usually with the addition of substantial fan support; they may have been referred to as power couples or dynamic duos, and are often defined by a standard set of criteria or circumstances; these circumstances include mania (significant press and media attention being placed on the couple, having to do with charm rather than negativity), the couple being labeled a supercouple by valid sources, the couple having notably impacted popular culture (such as by mania or by becoming a de facto symbol for its genre), and having been
listed as an all-time top romance. Each of these examples have been identified by scholars, critics and press as defining supercouples.

Soap opera

Prime time television

Some notable supercouples within prime time television:

Film

In other media

Comic book

Toys

Notes

References

Supercouples
Supercouples

supercouples

List of supercouples


The Department of Film was one of five departments that comprised the Central Party Propaganda Office of the German Nazi Party (NSDAP), established by Adolf Hitler in 1933 as part of the Party's Reichspropagandaleitung. The Central Party Propaganda Office was separate from the official government Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, although both groups were run by Joseph Goebbels. Goebbels was named Reichspropagandaleiter and given total control of Germany's press and film "for the spreading of the National Socialist world view to the entire German people"
. The Department's main duty was organizing film shows "suitable for public enlightenment and education". The head of the Department of Film (called Reichsamtsleiter) was Karl Neumann.

Film was one of the most important forms of propaganda in Nazi Germany because it was easily attained by all people. Hitler himself declared it superior to the written word, which required "arduous reading" to understand. The importance of film propaganda is underscored by the fact that 45 million people attended the film shows put on by the NSDAP. Reichsamtsleiter Neumann declared that the goal of the Department of Film was not directly political in nature, but was rather to influence the culture, education, and entertainment of the general population.

The strong emphasis the Nazi Party placed on film was also influenced by the personal feelings of Hitler and Goebbels, both of whom were fascinated by the medium. Both men regularly showed films in their homes and often discussed movies and moviemaking.

The Department of Film consisted of seven distinct offices, each of which oversaw a specific area related to Germany's film propaganda:

Organization
Bookkeeping
Production and Equipment
Dramaturgy
Cultural Films
Press Office
Slides

The Office of Slides was actually a separate body, known as the Gaubildstelle, which was under the supervision of the Department of Film. The Gaubildstelle archived all slides and images of important events, which were then organized and screened by the Department of Film. The Department selected and screened films that focused on "the virtues of the Aryan type, German military and industrial strength, and the evils of the Nazi's enemies". Often these propaganda films focused on Germany's enemies, particularly to foster anti-British sentiment among the public. The Film Office provided local groups with films, while the leader of the local group was responsible for all preparations.

The Department produced few films before 1939, when Neumann pushed for a greater output. The precise number of films produced during the Nazi era has been lost, but scholars estimate that between 1150 and 1350 feature films were made. One example of film created and endorsed by the Department for Film was the 1940 antisemitic film The Eternal Jew.

See also
 Nazism and cinema
 List of German films of 1933–45
 Reichsfilmkammer
 Nazi propaganda

References

Film organisations in Germany
Nazi propaganda organizations
Propaganda film units

Department of Film (Nazi Germany)


A duster is a light, loose-fitting long coat.
The original dusters were full-length, light-colored canvas or linen coats worn by horsemen to protect their clothing from trail dust. These dusters were typically slit up the back to hip level for ease of wear on horseback. Dusters intended for riding may have features such as a buttonable rear slit and leg straps to hold the flaps in place.  For better protection against rain, dusters were made from oilcloth and later from waxed cotton.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both men and women wore dusters to protect their clothes when riding in open motorcars on the dirt roads of the day.

Today

Western horsemen's dusters figured little in Western films until Sergio Leone re-introduced them in his movies The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1966) and Once Upon a Time in the West (1968). The latter played for many months in Paris and was in part credited with a revival of the duster in men's fashions in that city. Similarly, in the film genre of heroic bloodshed, primarily through Chow Yun Fat and John Woo, the hero is often seen wearing a duster. That is also true of the fictional anti-hero Omar Little, who wears dusters both as outerwear and as a silk sleepwear coverup in the HBO series, The Wire.

Dusters gained renewed popularity in the late 20th century and are now a standard item of Western wear.
The Tenth Doctor played by David Tennant wore a cinnamon brown duster coat on Doctor Who.
Van Pelt, the main antagonist of Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle wore a dark brown duster coat. Harry Dresden from Jim Butcher's Dresden Files wears a duster, as well as other cowboy-like attire. In the television comedy series "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia", a black leather duster is featured in several episodes that is prized by several main characters, who often argue over who looks better wearing it.

In modern times, leather dusters are worn by motorcyclists to prevent road rash.

See also

Driza-Bone
J. Barbour & Sons
Trench coat

References

Sources

Safety clothing
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Western wear
Coats (clothing)
Western (genre) staples and terminology

Duster (clothing)