Sayreville is a borough in Middlesex County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Sayreville is within the heart of the Raritan Valley region, located on the south banks of the Raritan River, and also located on the Raritan Bay. As of the 2020 United States census, the borough's population was 45,345, an increase of 2,641 (+6.2%) from the 2010 census count of 42,704, which in turn reflected an increase of 2,327 (+5.8%) from the 40,377 counted in the 2000 census.

Sayreville was originally incorporated as a township on April 6, 1876, from portions of South Amboy Township. On April 2, 1919, the borough was reincorporated as the Borough of Sayreville and ratified by a referendum held on April 29, 1919.

History
Native Americans were the first settlers of Sayreville. Tribes of the Navesink lived along the South River where Jernee Mill Road is located today. This was noted on a 1656 New Netherland map by Adriaen van der Donck, a Dutch surveyor and map maker. Attempting to buy land from the Native Americans, European settlers travelled up the Raritan River in 1663. During the 20th century, amateur archaeologists found thousands of Indian artifacts at the location shown on the map.

Predating the incorporation of Sayreville, the Morgan Inn (later known as the Old Spye Inn) was established in 1703 in what is now the Morgan section of Sayreville. Charles Morgan III and his descendants, including Major General James Morgan and Lieutenant Nicholas Morgan, played significant roles in the Revolutionary War. The Morgan family lived in the area for over 200 years and many family members, including Evertsons, are buried in the privately owned Morgan Cemetery, which overlooks Raritan Bay. The Morgans were said to be related to the famous pirate, Captain Henry Morgan, who is said to have visited the Inn on more than one occasion, although this would have been impossible, considering Morgan died in Jamaica in 1688 and the Old Spye Inn wasn't built until 1703.

It was from an episode during the Revolutionary War that the Morgan Inn gained its new name, the Old Spye Inn. According to local legends, a local British loyalist, Abe Mussey, was captured by Continental Army troops in 1777 while signaling to British ships in Raritan Bay. He was tried as a spy at the Inn, convicted in a one-day trial, and sentenced to death by hanging. Mussey's execution was carried out using a tree near the Inn's entrance. Mussey was reported to be buried behind the Inn in an unmarked grave. The Inn was destroyed by fire in 1976, but its ruins remain on the National Register of Historic Places.

Originally known as Roundabout (for the river bends in the area) and then as Wood's Landing, the community was renamed in the 1860s for James R. Sayre Jr. of Newark, who co-founded Sayre and Fisher Brick Company in the 1850s together with Peter Fisher. It was one of the many companies that took advantage of the extensive clay deposits that supported the brick industry from the early 19th century until 1970. From its inception, Sayre & Fisher quickly grew into one of the largest brick-making companies in the world. Production grew from 54 million bricks annually in 1878, to 178 million bricks a year in 1913, and had reached a total of 6.2 billion bricks in the 100 years through its centennial in 1950.

In 1898, DuPont began production of gunpowder at its plant on Deerfield Road, and later off Washington Road. The company later built additional facilities in Sayreville for the production of paint and photo products.

At one time the Raritan River Railroad passed through Sayreville and had several spurs to service Sayre & Fisher and other local industries. A train running on the line was featured in "The Juggernaut," a 1914 episode of the silent movie serial The Perils of Pauline. The episode was staged on the line, including the construction of a bridge over Ducks Nest Pond in Sayreville. The fishing pond is located in the back of Bailey Park, near the DuPont and Hercules factories.

In 1918 during World War I, Sayreville was heavily damaged by TNT explosions at the Gillespie Shell Loading Plant. The disaster killed dozens and injured hundreds of local victims, damaged hundreds of buildings, required an emergency declaration of martial law, and scattered wide areas of ammunition remnants that continue to surface occasionally.

Sayreville's clay deposits have earned scientific notice as one of the world's major sources of museum-quality fossils found in amber (see New Jersey amber). This prehistoric tree resin managed to encase over a hundred species of insects and plants from approximately 90 million years ago, when Sayreville had a tropical climate. The fossils have been extensively researched and published by David Grimaldi, curator of invertebrate zoology at the American Museum of Natural History.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had a total area of 18.68 square miles (48.37 km2), including 15.83 square miles (41.00 km2) of land and 2.85 square miles (7.37 km2) of water (15.24%).

The borough is located on the southern bank of the Raritan River across from Woodbridge Township and Perth Amboy, and is bordered on the southwest and south by Old Bridge Township. The borough also borders East Brunswick, Edison, South Amboy, and South River in Middlesex County, and Staten Island in New York City.

Low-lying areas near the Raritan River are subject to flooding associated with storm surges. The borough is approximately  southwest of Lower Manhattan,  southwest of Staten Island and  northeast of Philadelphia. Area codes 908, 732 and 848 are used in Sayreville.

Sayreville uses four ZIP Codes; 08871 and 08872 are post offices located in the borough itself, while 08879 is the South Amboy ZIP Code serving the Morgan and Melrose sections of Sayreville, South Amboy, and the Laurence Harbor neighborhood of Old Bridge Township. ZIP Code 08859 is the Parlin post office, which serves adjoining portions of Sayreville and Old Bridge Township.

There are several distinct neighborhoods in Sayreville. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names within the borough include: Crossmans, Ernston, Gillespie, Laurel Park, MacArthur Manor, Melrose, Morgan, Morgan Heights, Phoenix, Runyon, Sayre Woods, Sayreville Junction, and Sayreville Station.

Climate
Sayreville has a temperate climate and a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). Sayreville usually has hot and humid summers, cool to cold winters, and precipitation is spread through the year. The average in July is  and thunderstorms are common during the spring and summer. Sayreville also holds the record for the hottest temperature in the state of New Jersey, recorded on July 10, 1936, at  in Runyon, a neighborhood of Sayreville.

Demographics

2010 census
The 2010 United States census counted 42,704 people, 15,636 households, and 11,414 families in the borough. The population density was 2,695.7 per square mile (1,040.8/km2). There were 16,393 housing units at an average density of 1,034.8 per square mile (399.5/km2). The racial makeup was 67.04% (28,630) White, 10.71% (4,573) Black or African American, 0.23% (100) Native American, 16.12% (6,882) Asian, 0.04% (18) Pacific Islander, 3.50% (1,495) from other races, and 2.36% (1,006) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.31% (5,258) of the population.

Of the 15,636 households, 33.0% had children under the age of 18; 55.7% were married couples living together; 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present and 27.0% were non-families. Of all households, 22.4% were made up of individuals and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.22.

22.6% of the population were under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 28.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.6 years. For every 100 females, the population had 95.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 92.4 males.

The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $71,808 (with a margin of error of +/− $3,796) and the median family income was $84,929 (+/− $6,096). Males had a median income of $63,523 (+/− $3,061) versus $46,180 (+/− $3,434) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $32,259 (+/− $1,187). About 4.4% of families and 5.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.2% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

2000 census
As of the 2000 United States census there were 40,377 people, 14,955 households, and 10,917 families residing in the borough. The population density was . There were 15,235 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 76.47% White, 8.62% African American, 0.13% Native American, 10.56% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 2.12% from other races, and 2.08% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 7.29% of the population.

There were 14,955 households, out of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.5% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. 22.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.17.

In the borough the population was spread out, with 23.6% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 34.2% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.0 males.

The median income for a household in the borough was $58,919, and the median income for a family was $66,266. Males had a median income of $47,427 versus $35,151 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $24,736. About 3.4% of families and 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.1% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.

Government

Local government
Sayreville is governed under the borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 municipalities (of the 564) statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of the mayor and the borough council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. The mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The borough council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The borough form of government used by Sayreville is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council.

, the mayor of Sayreville is Democrat Victoria Kilpatrick, whose term of office ends December 31, 2023. Members of the Borough Council are Daniel Balka (R, 2025), Vincent J. Conti (D, 2023), Mary J. Novak (D, 2023), Christian Onuoha (R, 2024) and Donna Roberts (R, 2025), with a vacant seat expiring in December 2024.

Eunice K. Dwumfour (R), who had taken office in January 2021 for a three-year term, was found dead in her car in February 2023, the victim of a shooting.

In January 2020, Dave McGill was selected from a list of three candidates nominated by the Democratic municipal committee to complete the term expiring in December 2020 that had been held by Victoria Kilpatrick until she left office to take office as mayor.

In December 2018, the borough council selected former councilmember Dave McGill from a list of three candidates nominated by the Democratic municipal committee to fill the seat expiring in December 2019 that had been held by Ricci Melendez until he resigned from office to focus his time on his business.

Emergency services
Sayreville's EMS-Rescue System is operated by a combination paid-volunteer system. Coverage is split between Hackensack Meridian Health JFK EMS and an all-volunteer township membership. The Sayreville Emergency Squad was founded in 1936 and provides EMS-Rescue Service with its sister Squad, Morgan First Aid. Both squads provide Emergency medical services, Motor Vehicle Extrication, Boat and Water Rescue, Search and Rescue, and any other rescue function needed. As one of the few completely volunteer first aid squads remaining in central New Jersey, they provide these services free to the citizens of Sayreville.

Sayreville also has an all-volunteer fire department. It has four fire companies, Sayreville Engine Company #1, Melrose Hose Company #1, Morgan Hose & Chemical Company #1 and President Park Volunteer Fire Company, which respond to 900 calls per year.

Sayreville operates an all-volunteer auxiliary police, which assists the police department with night patrols, Sunday church crossings and various borough events. They are also called into action in the event of large-scale borough emergencies where the police department is stressed for manpower.

Federal, state and county representation
Sayreville is located in the 6th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 19th state legislative district.

Politics
As of March 2011, there were a total of 24,248 registered voters in Sayreville, of which 9,394 (38.7%) were registered as Democrats, 2,778 (11.5%) were registered as Republicans and 12,053 (49.7%) were registered as unaffiliated. There were 23 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens.

In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 58.8% of the vote (9,362 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 40.2% (6,394 votes), and other candidates with 1.0% (167 votes), among the 16,040 ballots cast by the borough's 24,804 registered voters (117 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 64.7%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 53.3% of the vote (9,392 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 44.5% (7,839 votes) and other candidates with 1.3% (228 votes), among the 17,608 ballots cast by the borough's 24,673 registered voters, for a turnout of 71.4%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 51.0% of the vote (8,147 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 47.7% (7,614 votes) and other candidates with 0.6% (144 votes), among the 15,963 ballots cast by the borough's 22,510 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 70.9.

In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 64.4% of the vote (6,199 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 34.6% (3,328 votes), and other candidates with 1.1% (102 votes), among the 9,780 ballots cast by the borough's 25,151 registered voters (151 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 38.9%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 52.9% of the vote (5,952 ballots cast), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 37.9% (4,263 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 6.8% (766 votes) and other candidates with 1.3% (148 votes), among the 11,242 ballots cast by the borough's 24,033 registered voters, yielding a 46.8% turnout.

Education
The Sayreville Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of eight schools, had an enrollment of 6,285 students and 527.6 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.9:1. Schools in the district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are
Cheesequake School with 225 students in grade PreK,
Emma L. Arleth Elementary School with 453 students in grades K-3,
Dwight D. Eisenhower Elementary School with 489 students in grades K-3,
Harry S. Truman Elementary School with 453 students in grades K-3,
Woodrow Wilson Elementary School with 306 students in grades K-3,
Samsel Upper Elementary School with 989 students in grades 4-5,
Sayreville Middle School with 1,386 students in grades 6-8,
Sayreville War Memorial High School with 1,755 students in grades 9-12 and
Jesse Selover Preschool offers a half-day program for children ages 3 to 5 years with mild to moderate disabilities, and a full-day program for children of the same age with moderate disabilities who require a greater degree of time and attention.

Eighth grade students from all of Middlesex County are eligible to apply to attend the high school programs offered by the Middlesex County Vocational and Technical Schools, a county-wide vocational school district that offers full-time career and technical education at Middlesex County Academy in Edison, the Academy for Allied Health and Biomedical Sciences in Woodbridge Township and at its East Brunswick, Perth Amboy and Piscataway technical high schools, with no tuition charged to students for attendance.

Our Lady of the Victories School (opened in 1890) and St. Stanislaus Kostka School (opened in 1915) are Pre-K–8 Catholic schools that operate under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Metuchen.

Redevelopment

Although the borough remains an industrial community, the addition of many technology companies and a growing residential population has changed the landscape of this central New Jersey town.

Randy Corman, Executive Director of the Sayreville Economic and Redevelopment Agency (SERA), has been heading up the development of the parcel of land commonly referred to as the National Lead Site / Amboy Cinemas lot since about 2000. This new development would clear woods, trees, and wetlands and install an entire city complete with commercial, industrial, residential, and recreational facilities, all near the Middlesex County Utilities Authority (Sewerage Authority) and the Middlesex County Fire Academy. There has also been much litigation as to the makeup of the members and public opinion about this project has never been put to a ballot. In addition, closed-door meetings have been accused of going against the Sunshine Open Meeting Act.

The master plan of the area was finalized in 2012, with plans to create a mixed-use development which includes a shopping center, luxury mall, apartments, town homes, offices, and multiple marinas. Phase 1 of the plan has begun construction as of 2013. Plans include a luxury mall with  of space,  of luxury shopping, entertainment, restaurants and groceries, a  Bass Pro Shops, a  regional power center, 1,400 apartments and 600 homes, along with waterfront dining, hotels and office space.

Flood plain
Following extensive flooding near the river during Hurricane Sandy in 2012, many residents accepted an offer funded by the federal government in 2013 to buy out 250 houses in the floodplain.

Transportation

Roads and highways

, the borough had a total of  of roadways, of which  were maintained by the municipality,  by Middlesex County,  by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and  by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.

Several major roads and highways pass through the borough.

The Garden State Parkway is the most prominent highway serving Sayreville. U.S. 9 and Route 35 also pass through. While they don't pass directly through Sayreville, the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95), Interstate 287, Route 440, U.S. 1, Route 18, Route 34 and Route 36 are all nearby and easily accessible.

Three highway bridges span the Raritan River from Sayreville. The Edison Bridge on U.S. 9 connects Woodbridge Township on the north with Sayreville on the south; originally constructed in 1940 as a single span with four lanes, the bridge was replaced in 2003 with a six-lane structure that was constructed at a cost of $48 million. The Driscoll Bridge on the Garden State Parkway also connects Woodbridge Township on the north with Sayreville on the south; while the original bridge was completed and opened in July 1954, a project completed in 2009 provides a total of 15 lanes on two spans, earning it a description as the "world's widest highway bridge". The Victory Bridge carries Route 35, connecting Sayreville with Perth Amboy; from the time of its construction in 1926 until the Edison Bridge was completed in 1939, all traffic heading across the Raritan River was funneled through the Victory Bridge, whose original single-span swing bridge was replaced under a project completed in 2005 that provides two spans of traffic, including a  main span that was the longest precast cantilever segmental construction in the United States at the time of its construction.

Public transportation
NJ Transit offers service between the borough and the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan via the 131 and 139 bus routes. Service within New Jersey is offered to Newark on the 67, to Jersey City on the 64, and to other local destinations on the 815 and 817 routes.

Academy Bus provides additional weekday rush-hour service for commuters to Manhattan.

The Raritan River Railroad provided passenger service to Sayreville's Parlin Station from 1888 through 1938. The railroad is now defunct along this part of the line. Proposals have been made to use the line as a light rail route.

Old Bridge Airport in Old Bridge Township offers short-distance flights to surrounding areas. The closest major airports are Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark / Elizabeth, via the New Jersey Turnpike, which is roughly  (about 32 minutes drive) from the center of Sayreville, and John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens, traveling via the Belt Parkway after crossing through Staten Island, which is roughly  away.

Community

Sayreville is home to the Starland Ballroom concert venue, which opened in December 2003.

The community is home to the EPIC Church International, a non-denominational "megachurch" founded in 1980 that has a weekly attendance over 10,000, which was ranked 44th by Outreach magazine on its 2013 list of the "100 Largest Churches in America", and is the largest church in New Jersey.

Sayreville has many community recreational facilities, home to many sports such as soccer, football, and basketball.

Sayreville has a skate park, located in Kennedy Park, for skaters and bikers all around New Jersey.

Notable people

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Sayreville include:

 Barry T. Albin (born 1952), Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court
 Brandon Bielak (born 1996), pitcher for the Houston Astros of Major League Baseball
 Jon Bon Jovi (born 1962), lead singer of the rock band Bon Jovi
 Randy Corman (born 1960), Sayreville councilmember who served in the New Jersey Senate
 Patrick Crosby (born 1985), professional indoor lacrosse goaltender
 Bob Dustal (born 1935), former pitcher for the Detroit Tigers
 Greg Evigan (born 1953), actor who appeared in B.J. and the Bear and My Two Dads
 Kene Eze (born 1992), soccer player who has played as a forward for National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 club North Geelong Warriors FC
 Jehyve Floyd (born 1997), basketball player for Larisa of the Greek Basket League
 Marilyn Ghigliotti (born 1961), actress who played the character Veronica Loughran in Kevin Smith's cult hit Clerks
 Myles Hartsfield (born 1997), American football safety and running back for the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League
 Dulé Hill (born 1975), actor who has appeared in The West Wing and Psych
 Tom Kelly (born 1950), former manager of the Minnesota Twins
 Kevin Mulvey (born 1985), former MLB pitcher who played for the Minnesota Twins and Arizona Diamondbacks
 Fabian Nicieza (born 1961), comic book writer and editor of Marvel titles X-Men, X-Force, New Warriors, Cable & Deadpool and Thunderbolts
 Eddie Popowski (1913–2001), coach and two-time interim manager of the Boston Red Sox
 Lea Bayers Rapp (born 1946), writer of non-fiction and children's fiction
 Rhonda Rompola (born 1960), coach of the Southern Methodist University women's basketball team from 1991 to 2016.
 Dave Sabo (born 1964), rock guitarist who plays in the heavy metal band Skid Row
 Mohamed Sanu (born 1989), wide receiver for the Atlanta Falcons
 Edward D. Thalmann (1945–2004), expert in diving medicine
 John Wisniewski (born 1962), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1996 to 2018
 Victor J. Wolski (born 1962), federal judge

References

External links

 Official Sayreville website
 Sayreville Historical Society website

1876 establishments in New Jersey
Borough form of New Jersey government
Boroughs in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Populated places established in 1876
Jersey Shore communities in Middlesex County

Sayreville, New Jersey


Park Dong-keun (박동근; born c. 1941), also known as D. K. Park, is a South Korean Grandmaster of taekwondo. He holds the title "Grandmaster," the rank of 9th dan in taekwondo, and was Korea's only undefeated taekwondo fighter in more than 200 International championship competition. Park introduced the martial art of taekwondo to Thailand in 1966, before settling in the United States of America, and was the taekwondo coach of both the US National Team and the US Olympic Team.

Early life and career in Asia
Park was born in Jeollado, Korea, during World War II. He was a member of the South Korean National Team from 1959 to 1966, and served as team captain from 1964 to 1966. He was the South Korean National Champion from 1962 to 1966. On his retirement, he was inducted into the Korean Amateur Athletic Association's Hall of Fame as the only undefeated taekwondo champion from more than 200 International matches.

Park moved to Thailand in 1966 at the personal request of King Bhumibol of Thailand to teach taekwondo to the Thai royal family and US military forces, specifically US Army Security Agency units in Bangkok, (83rd ASA Special Operations Unit,) and in Ban Non Song, (7th ASA Field Station.)

Career in North America
Park initially moved to Louisville, Kentucky, USA, in 1970. He then moved to Jersey City, New Jersey and on September 1, 1971, founded the D. K. Park Tae Kwon Do School (also the birthdate of his daughter, Jane). Later that year, he appeared on television on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Park established the taekwondo program at New York University in 1973. In 1975, he became the first instructor to have two students (Gerard Robbins and Dennis Robinson) win official USA National Taekwondo Championships titles, and both of them competed in the 2nd World Taekwondo Championships in Seoul, South Korea. Park was the head coach for the US National Team in 1979 at the 4th World Championships in Stuttgart, Germany.  In 1982, he was named Coach of the Year by the Amateur Athletic Union.

From 1982 to 1996, Park served as Coaching Committee Chairman of the United States Tae Kwon Do Union. He was the technical coach for the US Olympic taekwondo team at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. This was taekwondo's inaugural appearance at the Olympic Games as a demonstration sport. Park became head coach for the US Olympic taekwondo team at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. In 1993, he was head coach for the US Team at the World Championships (1 gold, 2 silver, 3 bronze), and in 1994 at the Goodwill Games in Saint Petersburg, Russia, resulting again in 1 gold, 2 silver and 3 bronze medals.

Later life
In 1997, Tae Kwon Do Times magazine named Park as its Man of the Year. In 2006, his first book was published: Tae Kwon Do basics, techniques and forms: The indomitable martial art of Korea (co-authored with Allan Schein). He was inducted into the US Taekwondo Grandmasters Society Hall of Fame in 2006 as coach of the year. On 6 April 2007, he was inducted into the Taekwondo Hall of Fame.  He is a Life Member of USA Taekwondo. Park continues teaching taekwondo at his school in Jersey City, New Jersey.

See also
 List of taekwondo grandmasters
 United States at the Olympics

References

External links
 D. K. Park Tae Kwon Do School

Living people
Sportspeople from Jersey City, New Jersey
South Korean male taekwondo practitioners
1940s births
South Korean emigrants to the United States

Park Dong-keun


Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People is a career-spanning retrospective DVD plus bonus EP by American band Primus, released on October 7, 2003. The title was inspired by a crayon-made story book written by guitarist Larry LaLonde's son, and the cover depicts a sculpture made by long-time Primus collaborator Lance "Link" Montoya. The DVD features all of the band's music videos to date, plus short films and live footage from as far back as 1986, whereas the bonus EP features five new songs written and recorded specifically for this release. When promoting the release, bassist Les Claypool remarked that "It seems of late that bands are adding supplemental DVD material to their album releases to promote record sales. We've done the opposite. We've added a supplemental audio recording of brand new music to an extremely comprehensive DVD of classic visuals."

Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People shows the return of drummer Tim Alexander to the lineup, who had previously left the band in 1996. He joins Claypool and LaLonde in performing on the EP, as well as providing commentary for the DVD. Claypool has claimed that two of the five new songs on the EP were written within the first 45 minutes of the lineup working together again, and "Pilcher's Squad" was said to have been written and recorded within a single afternoon. This is also the only Primus release to feature one of the band's earliest drummers, Tim "Curveball" Wright, filmed performing "Sgt. Baker".

DVD features

Music videos
 "John the Fisherman" * (from Frizzle Fry) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "Too Many Puppies" (from Frizzle Fry) - Directed by Kevin Kerslake
 "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver" * (from Sailing the Seas of Cheese) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "Tommy the Cat" * (from Sailing the Seas of Cheese) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "My Name Is Mud" * (from Pork Soda) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "Mr.Krinkle" * (from Pork Soda) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "DMV" * (from Pork Soda) - Directed by Mark Kohr
 "Wynona's Big Brown Beaver" * (from Tales from the Punchbowl) - Directed by Les Claypool
 "Southbound Pachyderm" (from Tales from the Punchbowl) - Directed by Les Claypool
 "Shake Hands with Beef" (from the Brown Album) - Directed by Les Claypool
 "Over the Falls" (from the Brown Album) - Directed by Les Claypool
 "Lacquer Head" (from Antipop) - Directed by Les Claypool - (Banned by MTV)
 "The Devil Went Down to Georgia" (Charlie Daniels cover, from Rhinoplasty) - Directed by Mike Johnson
* Optional commentary track featuring Les, Larry and Tim.

Short films
 Cheesy Home Video - transfer of the video with the same name, edited to exclude the music videos.
 Horrible Swill - transfer of the video with the same name, previously available exclusively to the fan club.
 Horrible Men - previously unreleased assortment of clips from on-stage, backstage and in the studio.
 The Making of "Mr. Krinkle" - previously unreleased short on the making of the music video.
 The Making of "Wynona" - previously unreleased short on the making of the music video.
 The Making of the Brown Album - transfer of a segment from the Videoplasty video.

Live performances
 Radio Relics - Recorded at Stanford University's KZSU college radio station for a campus-only cable channel in 1989
 "To Defy the Laws of Tradition"
 "Too Many Puppies"
 "Frizzle Fry"
 New Year's 93-94 - Recorded at the Henry J. Kaiser Auditorium in Oakland, on New Year's Eve 1993-1994
 "Groundhog's Day"
 "Mr. Krinkle"
 Woodstock 94 - Recorded at the 25th anniversary of the Woodstock Festival in Saugerties, New York in 1994
 "Those Damned Blue Collar Tweekers"
 "My Name is Mud (Bootleg Quality)"
 Florida 95 - Recorded in West Palm Beach, Florida during the Punchbowl tour in 1995
 "Pudding Time"
 "Southbound Pachyderm"
 "Duchess and the Proverbial Mind Spread" - Recorded at Irving Plaza in New York for HBO's Reverb in 1998 (Erroneously listed as "Kalamazoo live" on some pressings)
 "Lacquer Head" - Recorded during the Family Values Tour on Halloween in 1999
 Rarities
 "Sgt. Baker" - Recorded at a rent party at Kommotion in San Francisco sometime between 1986 and 1988
 "Groundhog's Day" - Recorded at the Omni in Oakland in late 1988
 "Tommy the Cat" - Recorded by Bob Cock and the Yellow Sock, 1991, and venue not noted

Other features
The DVD also includes an illustrated discography and slideshow of promotional photographs. Easter eggs include a short video clip of Bob Cock in heaven and an interview.

EP track listing
All lyrics written by Les Claypool. All music written by Les Claypool, Larry LaLonde and Tim Alexander.

Critical reception

In his review for AllMusic, Greg Prato predicts that "while hardcore fans will want to hear what Claypool and the boys have been up to lately in the recording studio, the main attraction of Animals is its exceptional DVD." He notes that "early on, it appeared as though Primus was more about songwriting, before later reinventing itself as a Grateful Dead-worshipping outfit that loved to put jamming before songwriting", and that "fans hoping that Primus would return to streamlined songs will be disappointed, as the band has picked up right where it left off" on the new EP.

Personnel
 Les Claypool - bass, vocals
 Larry LaLonde - guitar on all tracks, except...
 Todd Huth - guitar on the 1988 recording of "Groundhog's Day" and "Sgt. Baker"
 Tim Alexander - drums on all tracks, except...
 Bryan "Brain" Mantia - drums on "Shake Hands with Beef", "Over the Falls", "Lacquer Head" and "Duchess and the Proverbial Mind Spread"
 Jay Lane - drums on the 1988 recording of "Groundhog's Day"
 Tim "Curveball" Wright - drums on "Sgt. Baker"
 "The Devil Went Down to Georgia" performed by Festus Clamrod and The El Sobrante Twangers
 Les Claypool - vocals and bass
 Larry LaLonde - banjo
 Bryan "Brain" Mantia - drums
 Mark "Mirv" Haggard - slide guitar and voice of Johnny
 Bryan Kehoe - voice of the Devil
 Violina Misteriosa - violin

All lyrics written by Claypool, all music written by Primus, except "The Devil Went Down to Georgia" by the Charlie Daniels Band.

Charts
Album

DVD

References

Primus (band) EPs
Primus (band) video albums
2003 EPs
2003 video albums
Interscope Records EPs
Interscope Records video albums
Prawn Song Records EPs
Prawn Song Records video albums
Albums with cover art by Lance Montoya


The Stelvio Pass (  or  ;  ) is a mountain pass in northern Italy bordering Switzerland at an elevation of  above sea level. It is the highest paved mountain pass in the Eastern Alps, and the second highest in the Alps,  below France's Col de l'Iseran ().

Location
The pass is located in the Ortler Alps in Italy between Stilfs () in South Tyrol to the north-east  and Bormio to the south-west in the province of Sondrio. It lies right at the border of Switzerland and is connected to Sta. Maria Val Müstair in the north by the Umbrail Pass on Stelvio's western ramp. The "Three Languages Peak" (Dreisprachenspitze) above the pass is so named because this is where the Italian, German, and Romansh language-speaking areas meet.

The road connects the Valtellina with the Vinschgau valley and the town of Meran. Adjacent to the pass road there is a large summer skiing area. Nearby mountains include Thurwieserspitze, Piz Umbrail, Piz Cotschen, and to the east, the mighty Ortler.

History

The original road was built in 1820–25 by the Austrian Empire to connect the former Hapsburg possession of Lombardy with Austria, covering a climb of . The engineer and project manager was  (1775–1845). Since then, the route has changed very little. Its seventy-five  hairpin turns, 48 of them on the northern side numbered with stones, are a challenge to motorists. Stirling Moss went off the road here during a vintage car event in the 1990s, with an onboard video of his incident being shown on satellite TV.

Before the end of World War I, it formed the border between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Italian Kingdom. The Swiss had an outpost and a hotel (which was destroyed) on the Dreisprachenspitze (literally, Three-Language-Peak). During World War I, fierce battles were fought in the ice and snow of the area, with gun fire even crossing the Swiss area at times. The three nations made an agreement not to fire over Swiss territory, which jutted out in between Austria (to the north) and Italy (to the south). Instead they could fire down the pass, as Swiss territory was up and around the peak. After 1919, with the expansion of Italy, the pass lost its strategic importance.

The Stelvio Pass remains important for sport when it is open from May through November. Countless cyclists and motorcyclists struggle to get to the highest stretch of road in the Eastern Alps. It is the highest finish of any Grand Tour. The Giro d'Italia often crosses the Stelvio Pass (it was crossed by the Giro for the first time in 1953, when Fausto Coppi beat Hugo Koblet). As the highest peak, it has been named the Cima Coppi in each edition. Every year, the pass is closed to motor vehicles on one day in late August when about 8,000 cyclists ride and around 25 runners run to the top of the Stelvio.

Bormio regularly hosts World Cup ski racing, usually in late December for a men's downhill event; its Pista Stelvio is among the most challenging courses on the circuit.

The Stelvio Pass was also picked by the British car show Top Gear as its choice for the "greatest driving road in the world". This conclusion was reached in the first episode of the show's 10th series after the team went in search of a road that would satisfy every "petrolhead's" driving fantasies. Top Gear later decided that the Transfăgărășan Highway in Romania was a superior driving road.

In 2008, Moto Guzzi started selling a Stelvio model, named after the pass. Alfa Romeo debuted its Stelvio crossover SUV at the 2016 Los Angeles Motor Show.

The Stelvio Pass Glacier in Italy, at an altitude of , normally permits skiing year-round, but was closed to skiing for the first time in 90 years in August 2017 due to a heatwave.

Stelvio National Park

Stelvio National Park is the largest in the Italian Alps. It was established in 1935, and covers the Ortles-Cevedale massif, as well as some minor chains that flank it. Wildlife in the park include deer, chamois, ibex, and wolves. Hiking in the park is possible with numerous trails and mountain huts and hiking trails.

Stelvio Bike Day

Each year on the last Saturday of August or the first Saturday of September the Stelvio National Park administration organizes the Stelvio Bike Day. On that day the roads from Bormio and Prad to the pass, as well as the road from Santa Maria Val Müstair to the Umbrail Pass are closed to all traffic except for bicycles. On average around 12,000 cyclists participate in the Bike Day, with the majority taking the road from Prad to the pass and the descent over the Umbrail pass to Val Müstair.

Since 2017 there has also been a Stelvio Marathon for runners, from Prad to Glurns, back to Prad and thence through Stilfs (Stelvio village) to the pass. The first was held on June 17, 2017, with over 300 participants. The second was held on June 16, 2018 and the third on August 31, 2019.

Appearances in Giro d'Italia (since 1953)

See also
 List of highest paved roads in Europe
 List of mountain passes
 Transfăgărășan
 Trollstigen

Notes

References

External links

 Stelvio National Park
 Stelvio Bike Day
 The Great European Rally drives down Stelvio Pass every year with up to 100 cars taking part.
 Stelvio. Crossroads of Peace
 Profile on climbbybike.com
 Photos Hairpins, Map, and Cycling Elevation Profile
 Michelin map of 23032 Passo dello Stelvio
 Photo of Stilfser Joch north ramp and Monte Scorluzzo

Mountain passes of the Alps
Mountain passes of South Tyrol
Climbs in cycle racing in Italy
Roads in Italy
Ortler Alps

Stelvio Pass


Introduction to Outer Space is a March 26, 1958 pamphlet about space exploration edited by the White House. At first it was a report produced by the President's Science Advisory Committee, presided by James R. Killian, in the wake of the Soviet Union's late 1957 Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 launches. To garner further support for the national space program, United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who found the report informative and interesting, decided to make it available to everybody for 15 cents. Introduction to Outer Space described the future of space exploration in simple terms.

It has been suggested that Introduction to Outer Space was the origin of the Star Trek universe phrase "Where no man has gone before", as the booklet reads on its first page:

The first of these factors is the compelling urge of man to explore and to discover, the thrust of curiosity that leads men to try to go where no one has gone before. Most of the surface of the earth has  been explored and men now turn on the exploration of outer space as their next objective.

References

External links

 Introduction to Outer Space  (scan) on fas.org
 Introduction to Outer Space (text) on umd.edu

History of spaceflight
Spaceflight books

Introduction to Outer Space


A health bar is a image in video games that show the player how much health they have left. If the player's health bar is completely empty or the number shown is zero, the player will usually lose a life or die. Many games have health pick-ups that will give the player back lost health if they touch or use them. The health bar is used in many types of video games, including first-person shooters, fighter games, role-playing games, and platformers. Even though many first-person gives the player regenerating health instead of a health bar, there are still some shooter games that have health bars. Most fighter games use health bars, but there are some like the Super Smash Bros. games that measure health by damage percentage. In such games, the goals is to knock the opponent off stage, rather than kill the opponent, and the higher the damage percentage, the further attacks will knock the opponent off stage.

Video games

Health bar (video games)


The Hollywood Cricket Club (HCC) is an amateur cricket club in Los Angeles, California. It is a member of the Southern California Cricket Association. The club was formed in 1932 by British actor and cricketer C. Aubrey Smith.

Smith learned to play cricket at Charterhouse School and was on the same team as Lord Hawke and the three Studd brothers at the University of Cambridge. While at Cambridge, Smith also played for Sussex. In his prime, he played against W. G. Grace and with The Champion on the "Gentlemen versus Players" games held annually between the best amateur and professional cricketers in Britain at Lord's. In 1887 Smith toured Australia with an England team that included Andrew Stoddart. Both players resorted to playing Rugby in New Zealand to earn passage back to England. This was the start of British Lions tours to the Antipodes. Ref (Sentence, P.David, Cricket in America 1710-2000) In 1889 Smith captained the England team in South Africa which introduced the Currie Cup, a competition that continues to this day in South Africa.

Smith went to Hollywood in 1929 and teamed up with Boris Karloff of the Overseas Cricket Club to teach cricket at UCLA in 1932. The same year Arthur Mailey's Australian team captained by Vic Richardson played Smith's team of British actors at UCLA. Smith scored 24 runs against Don Bradman's team. The publicity from the Australians' North American cricket tour was put to good effect with the founding of the Hollywood Cricket Club and the securing of a permanent cricket ground at Griffith Park in Burbank (near the film studios).

A photograph of the Hollywood Cricket Club taken at UCLA in 1932 includes H. B Warner (with whom Smith used to play cricket for the Actors' XI in England), Boris Karloff and Harrow-educated Frank Somerset, who later became secretary of the Screen Actors' Guild (also founded in May 1933). P. G. Wodehouse was Hollywood CC's first secretary—in the same year as he became the highest-paid script writer in Hollywood. Psmith, featured in stories such as The Golden Bat before Wodehouse invented the character of Jeeves, was named for a pre-war Warwickshire CCC cricketer. Wodehouse opened the batting for Dulwich College, but his field tenure with HCC was limited due to script-writing commitments.

The Hollywood Cricket Club built a pavilion at the ground which still stands, though it has since been turned into a wedding reception center at the Burbank Equestrian Center. The original Griffith Park ground had four pitches and it was officially opened on 23 May 1933 with Los Angeles Parks and Recreation Director Williamson as the guest of honor. Williamson gave his name to a knock-out trophy played between local teams. Hollywood was the first to win the Williamson Trophy in 1934. With actors such as Boris Karloff, Aubrey Smith, Ronald Colman, Leslie Howard (who joined for social reasons, despite disliking cricket), David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Olivia de Havilland, Joan Fontaine, Elsa Lanchester and Merle Oberon attending matches at the Griffith Park ground on Sundays the British colony in Hollywood set the tone for tea on lawn.

Evelyn Waugh satirized the HCC in his 1946 book The Loved One, with its protagonist, "Sir Auberon Abercrombie", a thinly-disguised portrait of Sir Aubrey Smith.

From its beginnings, the Hollywood Cricket Club continues to take a leading role in the development of California cricket. In its over 75-year existence, the HCC has ranged worldwide to East Africa, India and Canada, while maintaining an extremely competitive local presence with three teams in separate divisions of the Southern California Cricket Association. The Hollywood Cricket Club attracts test and county players from India, Zimbabwe and England that strengthen its roster on occasion.

Notable past members
 Brian Aherne
 Nigel Bruce
 Ronald Colman
 Gary Crocker
 George Coulouris
 Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
 Bramwell Fletcher
 Errol Flynn
 Cary Grant
 Leslie Howard
 Boris Karloff
 Frank Lawton
 Jack Merivale
 Ray Milland
 David Niven
 Laurence Olivier
 Basil Rathbone
 Ann Richards
 Cliff Severn
 C. Aubrey Smith
 H. B. Warner
 P. G. Wodehouse
 Andy Silva
 Robert Finlayson, younger brother of James Finlayson

Sources
 Sentance, David, Cricket in America 1710-2000 (McFarland, March 2006)

References

External links
 Hollywood Cricket Club
 Southern California cricket association
 USA cricket association
 From Harare to Hollywood - Interview with Gary Crocker
 Caught Niven, bowled Flynn
 'Howzat for Hollywood', BBC Radio 4 documentary

Club cricket teams in the United States
Cricket teams in Los Angeles
1932 establishments in California
Cricket clubs established in 1932

Hollywood Cricket Club


Sheep Island is an uninhabited grassy island of around , located just over  from the shore of Walney Island, opposite Snab Point. It is one of the Islands of Furness and is in the Borough of Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria in north-west England. The island's geographic location is, using the British national grid reference system, .

Sheep Island is accessible on foot at low tide from either Walney, or from Piel Island - a distance of about a mile (approx. 1.5 km). The island is uninhabited and there is no shelter.  Between 1892 and 1922 it included a small isolation hospital located within a wooden building, which was erected by Barrow Borough Council at a cost of £257 but seldom used.

Islands of Furness
Uninhabited islands of England
Barrow-in-Furness

Sheep Island (England)


Prescot railway station serves the town of Prescot, Merseyside, England. It is situated on the electrified Liverpool to Wigan Line.  The station, and all trains serving it, are operated by Northern Trains.  It was opened in 1871 by the London and North Western Railway.

Facilities
The station is staffed throughout the day (as is standard with most Merseytravel stations), from 15 minutes prior to the start of service until 23:30 each day (including Sundays).  The ticket office and main buildings are on the northbound platform, with a shelter on the opposite side.  Train running information is provided via timetable posters and digital information screens; there are also customer help points on both platforms.  Step-free access is available to each platform, though the footbridge linking the two has stairs.

It was announced in February 2020 that the station would benefit from a £20million grant towards accessibility improvements to the station and footbridge, including new lifts, accessible toilets and customer information screens.  These works commenced in spring 2020.

Services
Originally train services on the line consisted of coaches hauled by steam powered locomotives.  During the 1960s, operation of train services was changed to diesel powered multiple unit trains and this continued until May 2015, when electric powered class 319 multiple unit trains began public service on the line.

Monday to Saturday, Prescot is served by trains every 30 minutes between Liverpool Lime Street and Wigan North Western, with some early evening peak period and late evening trains continuing to Preston or .

On Sundays the service is hourly in each direction, with trains running through to Preston and Blackpool.

Gallery

References

External links

Railway stations in the Metropolitan Borough of Knowsley
DfT Category E stations
Former London and North Western Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1872
Northern franchise railway stations

Prescot railway station


San Pedro is the Spanish language form of Saint Peter.  It can refer to:

Places

Argentina
 San Pedro, Buenos Aires Province
 San Pedro, Capayán, Catamarca
 San Pedro, La Rioja
 San Pedro, Misiones
 San Pedro Partido, a partido located in the north of the Argentine province of Buenos Aires
 San Pedro Department, Misiones, the largest and most sparsely populated department in the Misiones Province, Argentina

Belize
 San Pedro Town, a town on the island of Ambergris Caye

Bolivia
 San Pedro prison or El penal de San Pedro, the largest prison in La Paz, Bolivia

Chile
San Pedro de Atacama, a village in the Atacama desert of northern Chile
San Pedro de la Paz
San Pedro, Chile
San Pedro River (Chile)
San Pedro de Inacaliri River
San Pedro (Chile volcano)

Colombia
San Pedro, Valle del Cauca, a town and municipality
San Pedro de Cartago, a town and municipality in the Nariño Department
San Pedro, Sucre

Costa Rica
San Pedro, Costa Rica or San Pedro de Montes de Oca, a city in the canton of Montes de Oca, in San José province
San Pedro de Barva, a village and district in the canton of Barva in the province of Heredia

San Pedro de Poás, a city and district in the canton of Poás in the province of Alajuela
San Pedro de Santa Bárbara, a village and district in the canton of Santa Bárbara in the province of Heredia

Cuba
 San Pedro River (Cuba), a river in Camagüey Province

Dominican Republic
 San Pedro de Macorís Province, a province of the Dominican Republic, also the name of its capital city
 San Pedro de Macorís, capital of that province

Guatemala
 San Pedro Carchá (Alta Verapaz)
 San Pedro Ayampuc (Guatemala dept.)
 San Pedro Sacatepéquez, Guatemala (Guatemala dept.)
 San Pedro Necta (Huehuetenango)
 San Pedro Pinula (Jalapa)
 San Pedro Jocopilas (Quiché)
 San Pedro La Laguna (Sololá)
 Volcán San Pedro

Honduras
San Pedro de Copán (Copán)
San Pedro Sula (Cortés)
San Pedro de Tutule (La Paz)
San Pedro Zacapa (Santa Bárbara)
A prison in Honduras

Ivory Coast
 San Pédro, Ivory Coast

Mexico
San Pedro, Baja California Sur
San Pedro, Coahuila, a municipality
San Pedro Cholula (municipality), a municipality in the state of Puebla
San Pedro Garza García, in Nuevo León
San Pedro, Oaxaca (disambiguation), several places
San Pedro de la Cueva, in Sonora
San Pedro Ocotlán, in Zacatecas
Cerro de San Pedro, San Luis Potosí

Nicaragua
San Pedro de Lóvago

Paraguay
San Pedro Department, Paraguay, a department of Paraguay. The capital is the city of San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú
San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú, the capital of that department
San Pedro del Paraná

Peru
 San Pedro de Lloc, city in La Libertad Region
 San Pedro de Tacna, capital of Tacna Region

Philippines
San Pedro, Laguna, a city in Laguna, Philippines
San Pedro, Bagabag, a barangay in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines
San Pedro Cutud, a barangay in San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines
San Pedro Bay (Philippines), at the northwest end of Leyte Gulf
Fort San Pedro, a historic structure in Cebu, Philippines

Spain
San Pedro, Spain (disambiguation)

United States
San Pedro, Los Angeles, home to the Port of Los Angeles, located in San Pedro Bay
San Pedro, New Mexico, a former village across the Rio Grande from San Antonio, New Mexico
San Pedro Bay (California), an inlet on the Pacific Ocean coast of southern California, United States
San Pedro or Nacimiento Mountains, New Mexico
San Pedro River (Arizona), a northward-flowing stream originating about 10 miles (16 km) south of Sierra Vista, Arizona, near Cananea, Sonora, Mexico
San Pedro Valley (Arizona)

Other uses
 Iglesia de San Pedro Mártir (Calatayud), a former church in Calatayud, Aragon, Spain
 San Pedro (ship), a shipwreck off Bermuda
 San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi), native to South America
 The San Pedro, a ship that was intentionally sunk off of Honolulu, Hawaii by the Atlantis Submarine Company for an artificial reef; the wreck lies alongside the YO-257
 "San Pedro", a song from Mogwai's 2011 album Hardcore Will Never Die, But You Will
 San Pedro, a fictional island mentioned in Madonna's 1986 song "La Isla Bonita"

See also
 San Pedro Bay (disambiguation)
 San Pedro Island (disambiguation)
 San Pedro River (disambiguation)

San Pedro


The International Air Transport Association (IATA ) is a trade association of the world's airlines founded in 1945. IATA has been described as a cartel since, in addition to setting technical standards for airlines, IATA also organized tariff conferences that served as a forum for price fixing.

According to IATA,  it represents 317 airlines, including major carriers, from over 120 countries. The IATA's member airlines account for carrying approximately 82% (2020) of total available seat miles air traffic. IATA supports airline activity and helps formulate industry policy and standards. It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada with executive offices in Geneva, Switzerland.

History
IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 at The Hague, Netherlands. At its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries. Much of IATA's early work was technical and IATA provided input to the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which was reflected in the annexes of the Chicago Convention in 1944, the international treaty that still governs international air transport.

The Chicago Convention did not result in a consensus on the economic regulation of the airline industry. According to Warren Koffler, IATA was formed to fill the resulting void and provide international air carriers with a mechanism to fix prices.

In the late 1940s, IATA started holding conferences to fix prices for international air travel. IATA secretary J.G Gazdik stated that the organization aimed to fix prices at reasonable levels, with due regard being paid to the cost of operations, in order to ensure reasonable profits for airlines.

In 1947 at a time when many airlines were government-owned and loss-making, IATA operated as a cartel, charged by the governments with setting a constrained fare structure that avoided price competition. The first Traffic Conference was held in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro and reached unanimous agreement on some 400 resolutions. IATA Director-General William Hildred recounted that about 200 of the resolutions at the Rio de Janeiro conference were related to establishing a uniform structure for tariffs charged for international air transportation.

The American Civil Aeronautics Board did not intervene to stop IATA's price fixing, and in 1954 law professor Louis B. Schwartz condemned the board's inaction as an "abdication of judicial responsibility". The Economist lambasted IATA's connivance with governments to fix prices and compared IATA with medieval guilds.

In the early 1950s IATA's price fixing regime forced airlines to attempt to differentiate themselves through the quality of their passenger experience. IATA responded by imposing strict limits on the quality of airline service. In 1958, IATA issued a formal ruling barring airlines from serving economy passengers sandwiches with "luxurious" ingredients. The economist Walter Adams observed that the limited service competition permitted by IATA tended to merely divert traffic from one air carrier to another without at the same time enlarging the overall air transport market.

From 1956 to 1975, IATA resolutions capped travel agent commissions at 7% of the airline ticket price. Legal scholar Kenneth Elzinga argued that IATA's commission cap harmed consumers by decreasing the incentive for travel agents to offer improved service to consumers.

By the late 1970s, IATA's price fixing regime was seen as unattractive by many airlines. As a result, major airlines, like Singapore Airlines and Pan-American Airlines, chose to forgo IATA membership.

In 1982, the sociologist John Hannigan described IATA as "the world aviation cartel". IATA enjoyed immunity from antitrust law in several nations.

In 2006, the United States Department of Justice adopted an order withdrawing the antitrust immunity of IATA tariff conferences.

In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted routine flights around the world. In the immediate aftermath most airlines, because of the physical distancing policies implemented by national governments, reduced their seat loading by eliminating the sale of the middle seat in a row of three. This reduction averaged out to a load factor of 62% normal, well below the IATA industry break-even level of 77%. Fares would need to rise as much as 54% if a carrier were to break even, according to calculations done by the IATA, who posit that because of "forward-facing seats that prevent face-to-face contact, and ceiling-to-floor air flows that limit the circulation of respiratory droplets" the risk of transmission is reduced. North American carriers such as WestJet, Air Canada and American Airlines all planned to resume normal pattern sales on 1 July 2020. This industry-driven policy garnered immediate push-back from some Canadians, including those who felt defrauded, while Minister of Transport Marc Garneau noted that the "on-board spacing requirement is a recommendation only and therefore not mandatory" while his Transport Canada department listed physical distancing as a prophylactic among the key positive points in a guide prepared for the Canadian aviation industry.

Chief executives

  Willie Walsh (2021-present)
  Alexandre de Juniac (2016–2021)
  Tony Tyler (2011–2016)
  Giovanni Bisignani (2002–2011)
  Pierre Jean Jeanniot (1993–2002)
  Günter Eser (1985–1992)
  Knut Hammarskjöld (1966–1984)
  Sir William Hildred (1946–1966)

Focus areas

Safety
IATA states that safety is its highest priority. The main instrument for safety is the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA). IOSA has also been mandated at the state level by several countries. In 2017, aviation posted its safest year ever, surpassing the previous record set in 2012. The new global Western-built jet accident rate became the equivalent of one accident every 7.36 million flights. Future improvements will be founded on data sharing with a database fed by a multitude of sources and housed by the Global Safety Information Center. In June 2014, the IATA set up a special panel to study measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. The move was in response to the disappearance without a trace of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014.

Simplifying the Business
Simplifying the Business was launched in 2004. This initiative has introduced a number of crucial concepts to passenger travel, including the electronic ticket and the bar coded boarding pass. Many other innovations are being established as part of the Fast Travel initiative, including a range of self-service baggage options.

An innovative program, launched in 2012 is New Distribution Capability. This will replace the pre-Internet EDIFACT messaging standard, which is still the basis of the global distribution system and travel agent channel, with an XML standard. This will enable the same choices to be offered to high street travel shoppers as are offered to those who book directly through airline websites. A filing with the US Department of Transportation brought over 400 comments.

Environment
IATA members and all industry stakeholders have agreed to three sequential environmental goals:
 An average improvement in fuel efficiency of 1.5% per annum from 2009 through 2020
 A cap on net carbon emissions from aviation from 2020 (carbon-neutral growth)
 A 50% reduction in net aviation carbon emissions by 2050 relative to 2005 levels.

At the 2013 IATA annual general meeting in Cape Town, South Africa, members overwhelmingly endorsed a resolution on "Implementation of the Aviation Carbon-Neutral Growth (CNG2020) Strategy." A representative for the European Federation for Transport and Environment criticized the resolution for relying on carbon offsets instead of direct reductions in aviation carbon emissions.

Services
IATA provides consulting and training services in many areas.

Publications - standards
A number of standards are defined under the umbrella of IATA. One of the most important is the IATA DGR for the transport of dangerous goods (HAZMAT) by air.

See also

 Air Transport Action Group (ATAG)
 Conex box
 Flight planning
 IATA airline code
 IATA airport code
 IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA)
 International Association of Travel Agents Network (IATAN)
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
 International Society of Transport Aircraft Trading
 Kenneth Beaumont
 Standard Schedules Information Manual

References

External links

Airline trade associations
International organizations based in Canada
Organizations established in 1945
Organizations based in Montreal
Non-profit organizations based in Montreal
Cartels

International Air Transport Association


Kajaani (), historically known as Cajanaburg (), is the most populous town and the capital of the Kainuu Region of Finland. It is located southeast of Lake Oulu (Oulujärvi), which drains into the Gulf of Bothnia through the Oulu River (Oulujoki). As of , it had a population of .

The town was founded in the 17th century, fueled by the growth of the tar industry, but it was preceded by a long history of settlements. During the Great Northern War it succumbed to Russian forces, who ruined Kajaani Castle in 1716. Today, the local economy is mainly driven by the sawmill, lumber, and paper industries, although UPM Kymmene's paper mill, the main employer from 1907 until 2008, has since closed. Kajaani's church was built in 1896 in the Neo-Gothic style by the architect Jac Ahrenberg to replace an earlier church. Kajaani's town theatre was established in 1969.

Kajaani is home to two football clubs, AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka, and the ice hockey team Hokki. The Kajaani University of Applied Sciences was established in 1992.

History

Kajaani was one of the cities founded in 1651 by the Swedish Governor General of Finland, Per Brahe. At that time, the Kainuu region—as wood country—was an important producer of tar derived from pine, and the tar trade was its major industry. In 1653-4 the district court sessions of Kajaani and Sotkamo were responsible for authorizing a road to be built between Säräisniemi and Raahe, improving communications in the region.

During the Greater Wrath in the 18th century, Kajaani Castle was forced to surrender to Russian forces. The Russians blew the castle up in March 1716, and it has been in ruins ever since. On 17 October 1808, General Johan August Sandels won a key victory to the south of Kajaani near Iisalmi during the Battle of Koljonvirta of the Finnish War, when his army of just 1,800 defeated over 6,000 Russians. There is a monument on the east side of the river marking where the spot where Lieutenant Jakob Henrik Zidén and Major-General Mikhail Petrovich Dolgorukov fell.

In early 1833, medical doctor Elias Lönnrot, best known for compiling the Kalevala, the national epic of Finland, was appointed district physician in Kajaani and was assigned to assist in dealing with the typhoid and cholera epidemic which was raging during the 1830s. The disease was difficult to treat and he soon fell ill himself with typhus at the end of February 1833 but recovered. Kajaani was severely affected by the famine in 1867-1868 which devastated much of Finland, but the town gradually recovered and by the end of the century had grown to more than 1200 inhabitants. Kajaani Town Hall was built in 1831, the former City Library in 1852, Kainuu's first elementary school in 1883, and Kajaani Church in 1896 as it grew into a notable settlement.

The paper industry took off in Kajaani in the early 20th century in particular. Kajaani Paper Mill was built in 1907 and was run by the firm Kajaani Oy, which had a capital of FMK 5,000,000 (£137,615) in 1948. Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983, and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed. Ämmäkoski power plant was built on the river in 1917 by the Kajaani Lumber Company, and underwent alterations under architect Eino Pitkänen in the 1940s.

The city's grew in the 1960s to 14,600 inhabitants. Industrial development in the 1970s, and the merger of the separate rural municipality of Kajaani, Kajaanin maalaiskunta, and the city in 1977 saw the population jump to 34,574 by 1980. Vuolijoki was consolidated with Kajaani at the beginning of 2007.

In 2012, an oil spill occurred in Kajaani. 110,000 liters of oily water leaked into a river that eventually flowed into the Oulujärvi lake.

Geography

Kajaani is situated in the heart of central Finland. By road is it  north-northwest of Helsinki,  north of Kuopio, and  southeast of Oulu. Villages in the vicinity include Jormua, Koutaniemi, Kuluntalahti, Lahnasjärvi, Lehtovaara, Linnantaus, Mainua, Murtomäki and Paltaniemi. Districts of Kajaani include: Heinisuo, Hetteenmäki, Hoikankangas, Huuhkajanvaara, Katiska, Kettu, Komiaho, Kuurna, Kylmä, Kättö, Kätönlahti, Laajankangas, Lehtikangas, Lohtaja, Nakertaja, Onnela, Palokangas, Petäisenniska, Puistola, Purola, Soidinsuo, Suvantola, Teppana, Tihisenniemi, Tikkapuro, Variskangas and Yläkaupunki.

Kajaani lies on the Kajaani River, between the lakes of Oulujärvi, which drains to the Gulf of Bothnia along the Oulu River, and Nuasjärvi.  Between Kajaani and Oulujärvi are the smaller lakes of Sokajärvi and Paltajärvi, which are frozen during winter. Paltajärvi stands between the Kajaani River and Oulujärvi. The Kajaani and Vuolijoki rivers are noted for their fishing. The island of Käkisaari lies on lake Oulujärvi to the northwest of the town and features residential houses and about 150 summer cottages and holiday apartments, and the island of Toukka lies in the eastern part of the lake. Also within the municipality is the  Laakajärvi, a lake with a maximum depth of , which is a notable nesting area for Great black-backed gull and ospreys.

The surrounding area is dominated by mainly conifer forest, with broad-leafed birch and alder woods on some of the steeper banks and streams. An early 20th century analysis of vegetation cover in Kajaani county recorded 385 different species of vascular plants. Talaskangas Nature Reserve, with nearly pristine natural forest and about 50 different wildlife species, is in the Vieremä and Sonkajärvi local area. Logging was planned in the 1980s, but environmental activists prevented exploitation through lobbying. The reserve was formally established in 1994.

Climate
Kajaani lies within the subarctic climate zone (Köppen: Dfc), but the proximity of the Baltic Sea and warm airflows from the Atlantic Ocean (as well as warm current) result in a much milder climate than many locations at this latitude. Summers are cool, with the hottest month usually in July, with the average high temperature reaching , although during severe heatwaves highs of  have been reached in July and August and a local record of 34.5 °C (94.1 °F), was registered in July during the heatwave of 2010. The summers also have the most rainfall, reaching a peak in July with . Rainfall is fairly constant throughout the year, with no dry season. Winters can be harsh, and temperatures can drop below . The peak of the cold season on average lasts from December 11 to March 8, with an average daily high temperature below , with the greatest snowfall in January.

Demographics

As of , the municipality has a population of  (around 34,000 in the town itself) and covers an area of  of which  is water. The population density is .

The municipality is unilingually Finnish (only  of people from Kajaani speak Swedish as their first language).

Government
The Kajaani City Council consists of 51 members and following the 2012 municipal election the seats are divided for the Centre Party (13), the Finns Party (9), the National Coalition Party (8), the Left Alliance (8), the Social Democratic Party (7), independent (3), the Green League (2) and the Christian Democrats (1). The chairperson of the City Council is Jaana Sankilampi from the Finns Party. The City Government, which includes all parties with the exception of the Christian Democrats and independents, is headed by Marjatta Immonen. The Mayor, whose duty is that of a civil servant independent of the city council, is Jari Tolonen.

Economy

The budgeted income of Kajaani was FIM 930 million in 1996. In its earlier history, Kajaani was a thriving center of the tar industry. A channel built in 1846 especially for the transportation of tar out of the town still exists today.

Today the local economy is driven by mainly the sawmill, lumber and paper industries. Kajaani paper mill, established in 1907 by Kajaani Oy (ex Kajaanin Puutavara Osakeyhtio), was the largest private employer in Kajaani. The factories are on the river bank, at Tihisenniemi. They built a new paper machine in the town in 1980 which was projected to have an annual output of 170,000 tons. Kajaani Oy was eventually acquired by Valmet in 1983, and the subsidiary Kajaani Electronics was formed. Kajaani Electronics was cited as "one of the leading makers of special sensors and analyzers for the pulp and paper industry" in 1990.
When the paper mill was acquired by UPM Kymmene in 1989 it became the third-largest paper company in Finland. It closed in 2008 due to lack of profitability and high energy costs, but has since continued its operations, and was sold to Pölkky Oy in 2012.

In the early 1970s an electronics manufacturing plant was built in Kajaani, and the firm Kajaani Automation was established in 1980. As of 1999 the peat industry in Kajaani earned FIM 0.5 million annually. Some 222 hectares is allocated to peat production, with private firm Vapo Oy contracted to exploit it and deliver peat to the power plant.

According to 1999 figures, Kajaani earns FIM 3 million a year by selling forestry products, and also receives a sizable income from tourist-related activities from its forests. Fishing also contributes to the income of people in the town. Kajaani has three main hotels, the 191-room Scandic Kajanus Kajaani, Hotel Kajaani and  Original Sokos Hotel Valjus, although the  Karolineburg Manor House now also functions as a hotel with 20 rooms. The Sirius restaurant, cited as the best restaurant in the town, serves Finnish cuisine, and is housed in a former government building which hosted conferences between Leonid Brezhnev and Urho Kekkonen. Also of note is the Chinese restaurant Golden Dragon, the Torero which serves Spanish cuisine, Hospoda Kourna and Pikantti. The Central Hospital of Kainuu, which serves the wider region, is situated in Kajaani. Opened in 1968, it has a number of specialist medical departments andworks in cooperation with the Oulu University Hospital. The town also has an eye clinic.

Kainuu Brigade, a unit of the Finnish Army established in 1966, is the third biggest employer in the city. The brigade trains around 4,000 conscripts each year and employs 500 military personnel and 100 civilians.

Landmarks

Kajaani Castle, located on an island on the Kajaani river in the centre of the city, was originally built in 1604 and was commissioned by Charles IX of Sweden. The castle served as an administrative centre, prison, military base and a refuge for the citizens. The Town Hall of Kajaani, on the main square, Raatihuoneentori, was built to the design of Carl Engel in 1831 with a central rooftop clocktower and turret. It underwent restoration in 1990 when it was painted in a "fetching yellow ochre" color.

Kajaani Church was built in 1896 in the Neo-Gothic style by architect Jac Ahrenberg. It replaced an earlier church on the spot which was originally built in 1656 and destroyed by the Russians in 1716 at the time when Kajaani castle was destroyed. The second church was built 1734-35 which served the parish for 160 years until replaced with Ahrenberg's new church. The church, built from wood, has three naves and features a delicate, slender bell tower. It is decorated with English Gothic style carvings. Kajaani Orthodox Church (Kajaanin ortodoksinen seurakunta), which has a regional membership of about 1880 members is centred at Christ Church of the Transfiguration in Kajaani. The church was completed in 1959 to designs by Ilmari Ahonen. It contains murals painted by Petros Sasaki and Alkiviadis Kepolas. In the suburb of Paltaniemi is a church, originally built in 1599, and considered to be the regional centre for the Lutheran Church.

There is a mosque in the town, which is the center of the regional Kainuu Islamic community, which in 2013 had 174 members. Eino Leno House, containing a cafe, was built in 1978 to commemorate famous poet Eino Leino, a native of the town. Keisarintalli, a wooden stable, was used as a boarding house for Tsar Alexander I of Russia during his tour of Finland in 1819. Also of note is the Urho Kekkonen Memorial,  dedicated to the eighth Finnish president, Urho Kekkonen. The  high monument was carved by sculptor Pekka Kauhanen and was unveiled on 3 September 1990, exactly 90 years after Kekkonen's birth.

Culture
The Kajaani Town Theatre, established in 1969, puts on plays and concerts, typically seen by around 200 people. The Art Museum of Kajaani (), located in a building that was a police station, which is connected to Kajaani's former city hall. was founded in 1993 and centers on Finnish modern art. Kainuu Museum ()  displays information related to the tar industry, the Kalevala (the national epic of Finland) and author Elias Lönnrot and others on the ground floor, and regularly hosts temporary exhibitions upstairs.

The most notable annual cultural events in Kajaani are Kajaanin Runoviikko (The Kajaani Poetry Week), originally known as Sana ja Sävel, and Kainuun JazzKevät (The Kainuu Jazz Spring). Kajaani Orchestra began in the 1950s, and was expanded when the Kuopio garrison band moved to Kajaani in 1963.

Radio Kajaus, one of Finland's oldest local radios, began operations in Kajaani in 1989, and remains one of the few completely independent radio stations in Finland. Kainuu Radio, which belongs to the Yle, broadcasts Monday to Friday from 6.30 to 17.00.

Education

The town is served by the Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, a small university of applied sciences which was established in 1992. It provides courses in Activity Tourism, Information Systems, Nursing and Healthcare, Mechanical and Mining Engineering and Business and Innovations, and offers 8 Bachelor's degree programmes and 5 Master programmes delivered in Finnish. The Research Center for Developmental Teaching and Learning at Kajaani University Consortium is associated with the University of Oulu. There is also a polytechnical institute in Kajaani, which had an enrollment of 653 students in the mid 1990s. The 500 PetaFLOP Large Unified Modern Infrastructure supercomputer is being constructed to service 10 European countries.

The government-run Kainuu Music Institute was founded in 1957, and is part of the Kaukametsä Congress and Culture Centre. It is one of the largest musical institutes in Finland, with an enrollment of about 900 from the wider Kainuu region. Kainuu Music dance department Ballet Kaukametsä teaches dance to dancers of different ages. The public library of Kajaani is situated on Kauppakatu street and has free Internet access, and there is also a mobile library service. The Kajaani Journal has been publishing since at least 1919.

Sports
Kajaani has two football clubs, AC Kajaani and Kajaanin Haka. AC Kajaani was formed in 2006 after the merger of FC Tarmo and Kajaanin Palloilijat (KaPa), and plays their home games at the Kajaanin Liikuntapuisto. The men's football first team currently plays in the Kakkonen (Division 2). Kajaanin Haka was formed in 1953 and plays at the Kajaanin liikuntapuisto stadium. The men's football first team currently plays in the Kolmonen (Division 3). The local ice hockey team, Hokki, plays in the Mestis league.
Kajaani ice rink (Kajaanin jäähalli) was inaugurated in 1989 and accommodates for 2372 spectators, 781 in seating and 1591 in standing. There is a race course (Kajaanin ravirata) about  to the north of the centre of Kajaani in Kuluntalahden, which hosts competitions only during the summer season. The track was completed in 2008 with a new café-restaurant.

Kajaani has hiking paths, skiing tracks, gyms, and sports grounds within the municipality. Pöllyvaara and the Vimpeli Hills are notable local ski areas, frequented by tourists during the winter months. Fishing is popular along the banks of the river. Kajaani also has a golf course, and there are also several dancing pavilions in the town.

Transport

There are two important highways from the direction of Helsinki to Kajaani: Highway 5 (E63) and Highway 6. In addition, Highway 22 leads to Kajaani from the direction of Oulu. There is a daily bus service operating between Kajaani, Oulu, Kemijärvi and Rukatunturi, and Bus No.4 runs hourly during weekdays from Pohjolankatu in Kajaani to Paltaniemi. During the summer months there is a cruise service operating between Joensuu and Nurmes.

Kajaani railway station opened in 1905 when the railway from Iisalmi to Kajaani was completed as an extension to the Savonia railroad. The station building was designed by Gustaf Nyström. The Kajaani station trackyard underwent significant upgrading and repair work in 2005, when the railway from Iisalmi to Kontiomäki was electrified. Four trains arrive daily from Helsinki via Kouvola and Kuopio, with the journey taking 7–10 hours to Helsinki depending on the train. There are also daily trains from Joensuu, and connecting trains between Nurmes and Kajaani.

Kajaani Airport, approximately  northwest of Kajaani in the Paltaniemi area, is the main local airport. It is operated by Finavia, and also serves needs of non-commercial general aviation. Construction of the airport began in 1939 with the runway being completed in the autumn, but due to World War it was not fully opened until 22 June 1956. Aegean Airlines and Flybe Nordic provides flights to Chania and Helsinki. The Finnair connection to Helsinki operates during the summer twice daily and three times a day during the winter schedule period. In 2013 the airport served 74,558 passengers.

Notable people
Antti Halonen, ice hockey player
Eino Leino, poet and journalist
Elias Lönnrot, philologist and poetry collector; compiler of The Kalevala
Henrik Flöjt, biathlon athlete
Jorma Korhonen, judoka
Jouko Karjalainen, skier
Marko Kemppainen, skeet shooter
Matti Heikkinen, skier
Olli Malmivaara, ice hockey player
Pekka Suorsa, ski jumper
Riku Nieminen, actor and dancer
Sakari Kukko, musician
Tommi Leinonen, ice hockey player
Urho Kekkonen, 8th President of Finland
Kasperi Heikkinen, Guitar player

International relations

Twin towns — Sister cities
Kajaani is twinned with:

See also
 Kuusamo
 Oulu
 Sotkamo
 Vuolijoki

References

External links

 Town of Kajaani – Official website

Cities and towns in Finland
Municipalities of Kainuu
Grand Duchy of Finland
Populated places established in 1651
1651 establishments in Sweden

Kajaani


Susan Strange (9 June 1923 – 25 October 1998) was a British scholar who was "almost single-handedly responsible for creating international political economy." Notable publications include Sterling and British Policy (1971), Casino Capitalism (1986), States and Markets (1988), The Retreat of the State (1996), and Mad Money (1998).

She helped create the British International Studies Association. She was the first woman to hold the Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics and was the first female academic to have a professorship named after her at the LSE.

Early life
Susan Strange was born on 9 June 1923 in Langton Matravers (County Dorset). She was the daughter of English aviator Louis Strange. She went to the Royal High School, Bath, and to the University of Caen in France, and graduated with a bachelor's degree in economics from the London School of Economics (LSE) during the Second World War. Like Robert W. Cox, the other founder of British International Political Economy, she never obtained a PhD.

Career
Susan Strange earned a first in economics at the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1943. She raised six children and worked as a financial journalist for The Economist, then The Observer until 1957. At The Observer, she became the youngest White House correspondent of her time. She began lecturing on International Politics at the University College London in 1949.

In 1964, she became a full-time researcher at Chatham House (formally The Royal Institute of International Affairs). At the Chatham House, she authored Sterling and British Policy (1971). She set up an influential research group on IPE at the Chatham House in 1971. She played a role in the establishing of the journal Review of International Political Economy, which is the leading journal dedicated to IPE.

From 1978 to 1988, she served as the Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE, and was the first woman at LSE to hold this chair and professorship. At the LSE, she built Britain's first graduate program in IPE. While at LSE she held Visiting Professorships at the Brookings Institution, University of Minnesota, University of California, Columbia University, and the Bologna Center of Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies.

She served as professor of international political economy at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy, from 1989 to 1993. Strange's final academic post, which she held from 1993 until her death in 1998, was as chair of international relations and professor of international political economy at the University of Warwick, where she built up the graduate programme in International Political Economy. She also taught in Japan, where between 1993 and 1996 she was several times guest lecturer at Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo.

She was a major figure in the professional associations in both Britain and the United States. She was an instrumental founding member and the first treasurer of the British International Studies Association, and served as the third female president of the International Studies Association in 1995.

International relations scholarship
Strange was an influential thinker on global affairs. She played a central role in developing international political economy (IPE) as a field of study, and is a key figure in political economy approaches to security studies. Her 1970 article, "International Economics and International Relations: A Case of Mutual Neglect", laid out her arguments for the need of a discipline of IPE.

She argued that power was central to international political economy. She claimed that in general, "economists simply do not understand how the global economy works" due to a poor understanding of power and an over-reliance on abstract economic models. However, she noted that political scientists also have a woeful understanding of international economics due to their emphasis on institutions and power. Thus she became one of the earliest campaigners advocating the necessity of studying both politics and economics for international relations scholars. She influenced scholars such as Robert Gilpin. She was a critic of regime theory, arguing that the scholarship on regimes was too state-centric and carried a hidden bias in favor of maintaining U.S. hegemony.

In the 1980s, she disagreed with claims by other International Studies scholars that U.S. hegemony was on the decline. Strange was skeptical of static indicators of power, arguing that it was structural power that mattered. In particular, interactions between states and markets mattered. She pointed to the superiority of the American technology sector, dominance in services, and the position of the U.S. dollar as the top international currency as real indicators of lasting power.

Power and international financial markets
Strange's key contribution to IPE was on the issue of power, which she considered essential to the character and dynamics of the global economy. She distinguished between relational power (the power to compel A to get B to do something B does not want to do) and structural power (the power to shape and determine the structure of the global political economy).

States and Markets (1988) delineates four key forms of power—security, production, finance, and knowledge; power is the ability to "provide protection, make things, obtain access to credit, and develop and control authoritative modes of interpreting the world". Strange posits that the most overlooked channel of power is financial access, which consequently becomes the most important one to comprehend; in other words, she argues that one cannot comprehend how the world works without a thorough understanding of international financial markets. To illustrate, Casino Capitalism, published in 1986, discusses the dangers of the international financial system, which she considered confirmed by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. There is a financial "contagion" creating a huge instability in the international financial markets.

Her analysis in States and Markets (1988) focused on what she called the "market-authority nexus", the see-saw of power between the market and political authority. She maintained that the global market, relative to the nation state, had gained significant power since the 1970s and that a "dangerous gap" was emerging between the two. She considered nation states inflexible, limited by territorial boundaries in a world of fragile intergovernmental co-operation; "Westfailure" is what she called Westphalia. Markets would be able to flout regulations and reign free, creating more uncertainty and risk in an already chaotic environment.

Position on the International Monetary System
In Casino Capitalism (Blackwells, 1986), Susan Strange problemizes the nonsystem that the international monetary system has become. She compares it with a casino whereon the foreign exchange plays as snakes and ladders. She sets the stakes that international finance has become stronger than states and has been deregularized. The Smithsonian Agreement has been weak leading further to benign neglect from the US, the Eurodollar market and OPEC has been strong undermining the Bretton Woods system. There is no state or actor governing the international monetary system and the international financial markets. American banks are made free to pursue their interests since the 1980s strengthened by the possibility to finance American bonds in the world, making a carousel of bond trading with the OPEC and the Eurodollar market. The forces of market integration set by the Bretton Woods system was going through.

Mad Money (University of Manchester Press, 1998) updated the analysis of Casino Capitalism to the late 1990s. At the time of her death, she was working on an exposition of her theory of the international money system.

Honours and awards
Susan Strange is remembered through the following annual awards:

 Susan Strange Award established in 1998 by the US-based International Studies Association which "recognizes a person whose singular intellect, assertiveness, and insight most challenge conventional wisdom and intellectual and organizational complacency in the international studies community."
 Susan Strange Book Prize established in 2010 by the British International Studies Association "for an outstanding book published in any field of International Studies" each year.
 Susan Strange Young Scholar Award given by the Center for Global Studies at the University of Bonn for "female students who have submitted an excellent thesis with a research focus on international relations".

Personal life
In 1942, she married Denis Merritt (died 1993); they had one son and one daughter, and the marriage was dissolved in 1955. In 1955 she married Clifford Selly, with whom she had three sons, and one daughter.

Bibliography

International Economic Relations of the Western World, 1959-1971: International Monetary Relations (1976)
Casino Capitalism (1986)
States and Markets (1988)

Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for World Market Shares with John M. Stopford and John S. Henley (1991)
The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (1996)
Mad Money: When Markets Outgrow Governments (1998)

References

Sources

 Harry Bauer & Elisabetta Brighi (Eds) (2003) International Relations at LSE: A History of 75 Years, London: Millennium Publishing Group, .

External links

Critical Biography
Obituary

1923 births
1998 deaths
British political scientists
Academics of the London School of Economics
Academic staff of the European University Institute
British international relations scholars
Political realists
People from Dorset
Academics of the University of Warwick
Chatham House people
Women political scientists
British expatriates in France
20th-century political scientists
Presidents of the International Studies Association

Susan Strange


La Chaux-de-Fonds is the capital city of the district of La Chaux-de-Fonds in the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. After Geneva and Lausanne, it is the third-largest city in the French-speaking part of the country. As of December 2016, 38,965 people lived there.

The famous architect Le Corbusier, the writer Blaise Cendrars and the car maker Louis Chevrolet were born there.

In 2009, La Chaux-de-Fonds and Le Locle, its sister city, have jointly been awarded UNESCO World Heritage status for their exceptional universal value.

History

The city was founded in 1656. The region was first inhabited around 10,000 years ago (Epipaleolithic). A skull and other traces have been found in caves nearby.

In the middle of the 14th century, the region was colonized from the southern Val-de-Ruz. La Chaux-de-Fonds is first mentioned in 1350 as la Chaz de Fonz. In 1378 it was mentioned as Chault de Font.

The region was under the authority of the lords of Valangin. In the 15th and 16th centuries, a second wave of colonization came from the so-called Clos de la Franchise (the valleys of Le Locle and La Sagne). Agriculture was the main activity but the village remained small. In 1531 there were only about 35 people living there. The first church was built in 1528. By 1530,  La Chaux-de-Fonds, like the rest of the Valangin lands, converted to the new Reformed faith. The  Lord of Valanginian, René de Challant, fixed the boundaries of the parish in 1550. The church and parish provided a political structure and a small community of Valanginian citizens, free farmers and peasants grew up around the church. By 1615 there were 355 people living in the village. In 1616, the low and middle jurisdiction over La Chaux-de-Fonds moved to Le Locle and La Sagne, while the high court remained in Valanginian. The agriculture, supplemented by mills on the banks of the Doubs, continued to dominate. However, at the end of the 16th century, the city became an important crossroad between Neuchâtel, Franche-Comté and the Bishopric of Basel.

The community grew during the Thirty Years' War, mainly because of its strategic position for trade. Economic activity accelerated in the 18th century with the development of the city's lace and watchmaking industries. Pierre Jacquet-Droz, best known for his automata, was a particularly prominent watchmaker of this era.

In 1794, the city was devastated by fire. Charles-Henri Junod created the new city's plan in 1835, and the city is now known for its "modern," grid-like plan, in comparison with most European cities' meandering streets. The central avenue is named the Avenue Léopold Robert.

Economy
The city's economy is based on industry and watch manufacturers.

Watch companies
Many watch companies started in La Chaux de Fonds:
 Bouchet-Lassale SA, in 1978;
 Marathon Watch Co. in 1904 - Originally founded as Weinsturm Watch.
 Cyma Watches, 1862 - Schwob Frères and Co. 1892 - Cyma Watch Company.
 Eberhard & Co., by George-Emile Eberhard, in 1887;
 Corum
 Ebel, by Eugene Blum and Alice Levy, in 1911;
 Gallet & Co., by Julien Gallet, in 1826;
 Girard-Perregaux, by Constantin Girard and Marie Perregaux, in 1856;
 Heuer Leonidas, now TAG Heuer, by Edouard Heuer, in 1860;
 Invicta Watch Group, by Raphael Picard, in 1837;
 Movado, by Achilles Ditesheim, in 1881;
 Omega SA, in 1848;
 Rolex trademark, registered by Hans Wilsdorf, in 1908. His company, Wilsdorf and Davis, London, was later renamed Rolex Watch Company, Geneva and Biel, Bienne;
 Rotary, by Moise Dreyfuss, in 1895;
 Solvil et Titus, by Paul Ditisheim, in 1892;
 Venus by Paul Arthur Schwarz and Olga Etienne, in 1902;
 Vulcain by Maurice Ditisheim, in 1858.

Twin Town
La Chaux-de-Fonds is twinned with the town of Frameries, Belgium.

References

Other websites

  Watchmaking Heritage Day: Saturday 7 November 2009
 Official website of the city of La Chaux-de-Fonds
  La Chaux-de-Fonds / Le Locle: Pictures Gallery

 International watchmaking museum website
 The Art Nouveau season of events in the city

Cities in Switzerland
Municipalities in La Chaux-de-Fonds
World Heritage Sites in Switzerland

La Chaux-de-Fonds


The word "she" is a third-person singular pronoun used to talk about a female. When the name of a woman has been the subject, then "she" takes the place of that name, in the text. While "she" is the subject form, the word "her" is the object or possessive form (see table below). The word "she" is used for a woman (or girl) where the word "he" would be used for a man, or "it" for a neutral pronoun.

In 1999, the American Dialect Society chose "she" as the word of the past millennium (1000-year period). The Society noted the word was not used before the year 1000; "she" was first seen in writings from the 12th century, where the word "heo" had been used to mean either the feminine or mixed plural as with "they".

This is usually used to referring to someone female, but that isn't always excactly the case.

References

She


Edward Roman (June 2, 1930 – March 1, 1988) was an American college basketball player.  He was the leading scorer of the 1949–50 CCNY Beavers men's basketball team, the only team to win both the NCAA tournament and the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in the same year.  He was also a central figure in the point shaving scandal that came to light in the aftermath of that season.

College career
Roman, a 6'6" center, followed his Taft High School teammate Irwin Dambrot to play college basketball for Nat Holman at the City College of New York.  Roman was part of a strong 1948 recruiting class for the Beavers.  Roman, forward Ed Warner, point guard Alvin Roth and shooting guard Floyd Layne would comprise four-fifths of the starting lineup for CCNY's double championship squad in their first year of eligibility.  Roman led the team in scoring that year at 16.4 points per game and was named to the All-tournament team for the 1950 NCAA Tournament.

Point shaving scandal
The next season, junior Roman and teammate Ed Warner were named co-captains for the Beavers and were poised to defend their championship titles.  However, on February 18, 1951, New York City District Attorney Frank Hogan arrested seven Beavers for shaving points in three games during the championship season - including Ed Roman.  Roman was sentenced to six months in prison but received a suspended sentence.

For his involvement in fixing games, Ed Roman was banned for life from the National Basketball Association.  The City College of New York would deemphasize athletics as a result of the scandal.

Later life
After two years in the Army, Roman finished his studies (ultimately receiving a doctorate at New York University) and worked in the city public school system in Queens as a teacher of physical education and, after the mid-1970s, as a psychological consultant. He had three children: Mark, Joanne and Tammy.  Ed Roman died on March 1, 1988, of leukemia.

References

1930 births
1988 deaths
American men's basketball players
CCNY Beavers men's basketball players
Centers (basketball)
Jewish men's basketball players
New York University alumni
Sportspeople involved in betting scandals
Basketball players from the Bronx

Ed Roman