is a television personality and businesswoman from Japan.  She was the CEO of Sanyo Electric from 2005 to 2007.

Television career
Beginning in 1979, Nonaka was a newscaster and anchorwoman for NHK, the national TV station in Japan. Her main programs at NHK included Weekly Abroad、Sports and News、Sunday Sports Special and others. From 1993 to 1997, she was the anchorwoman for the popular business program World Business Satellite at TV Tokyo. In addition to activities as a journalist, she has been member for many Japanese government committees for Cabinet Office, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.

Furthermore, she has been adviser and a member of the board of directors for many large Japanese corporations such as Asahi Breweries, Sumitomo Corporation, NTT Docomo, Nikko Citigroup, and Unisys, Japan.

Sanyo Electric
In 2002, she became an outside director of the board for Sanyo Electric. In 2005, she became chairperson and CEO for Sanyo Electric, with no experience in electronics or senior management; she had spent her entire career until that point as a popular broadcast journalist. Upon her taking chairperson position, she created the new corporation vision 'Think Gaia' and started to restructure many business divisions under the new vision for Sanyo to become a leading company to solve environmental problems with its technology. She created a three-year Evolution Plan aimed at reorganizing the business portfolio and improving the corporate financial structure and conditions.

In a short time, Sanyo introduced more than ten new Think Gaia (TG) products, and the following four "world-first" products:

 Eneloop batteries: rechargeable batteries that can be recharged up to a thousand times.
 Aqua: a washing machine and dryer that reduces water usage in a wash-cycle from 200 liters to 8 liters by purifying the used water and making air-washing possible through ozone technology.
 Enegreen: an innovative way to reduce electricity consumption in air-conditioners, refrigerators, and food show-cases in stores and supermarkets. Enegreen absorbs as much CO2 as a forest with an area 130-times larger than the store.
 Virus-Washer: an air-cleaner that eliminates up to 99 percent of airborne viruses, including avian influenza (bird flu) virus, using a technology that electrolyzes simple tap water.

Sanyo underwent drastic restructuring in the first two years and under the three-year Evolution Plan raised the bottom line from red to black, with an operating income of about 750 million dollars and a net profit of around 280 million for the fiscal year ending March 2008.

However, under her two year's chairpersonship, Ms. Nonaka constantly fought about how to run the company with board members sent by the main investors insisted that the corporate vision "Think Gaia" was too "naive" and "feminine" to produce the desired profit.
It was apparent that the main investors' interest was to make a capital gains by selling their shares not to run manufacturing business.

The conflict with the main investors owing the majority of the board led to her resignation as Chairperson of Sanyo in March 2007.

'Think Gaia' vision was also created to shift Sanyo business portfolio in order to make Sanyo profitable by not only to focus on Sanyo's business strength (the most profitable business in the field of solar business and rechargeable batteries, eneloop and hi-brid automobile batteries, as well as the world best technological strength) but also to restructure business unmatched to the 'Think Gaia' vision and money losing business (primarily home electronics business). Nonaka's vision and intention were never understood by many critics and more so by the main investors at that time.

In November 2008, Panasonic announced to buy Sanyo in order to acquire Sanyo's green business, solar and rechargeable batteries.

Current social activities
"The Gaia Initiative", a not-for-profit organization was established in 2007 to call not only one corporation, Sanyo, but also wider stakeholders (corporations, citizen, government and NGO/NPO) for solving environmental problems in the world, GAIA.

In May 2008, NPO Gaia initiative of Nonaka agreed to collaborate with The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) in India with Dr.Rajendra Pachauri, chairman of IPCC and the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize winner.

She also work closely with Dr.Ervin Laszlo,  the head of The Club of Budapest,  and contributed her writing to his recent book 'Worldshif Notebook'. Laszlo is a systems philosopher, integral theorist, and classical pianist. Twice nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, he has authored more than 70 books.
She initiated Worldshift Network Japan and is leading the 'Worldshift' movement in Japan.

She is also the executive member of 'Club of Rome'

She graduated from Sophia University with a major in Journalism, and went on to study photo journalism at the University of Missouri, Columbia in the United States.

References

External links
 NPO Gaia Initiative
 2006 Fortune Most Powerful Women in Business Global 50
 Club of Budapest
 Club of Rome

1954 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Tokyo
Sophia University alumni
University of Missouri alumni
Japanese journalists
Japanese television personalities
Japanese women journalists
21st-century Japanese businesswomen
21st-century Japanese businesspeople
Japanese broadcast news analysts
Japanese women chief executives
Women television journalists

Tomoyo Nonaka


Between Us Girls is a 1942 American drama film directed by Henry Koster and starring Diana Barrymore, Kay Francis, Robert Cummings, John Boles, Andy Devine, and Scotty Beckett.

The film was made by Universal Pictures. It is a remake of the 1934 Austrian film A Precocious Girl which had been made by the German subsidiary of the company Deutsche Universal.

This film is now in the public domain due to failure to renew copyright after 27 years.

Plot
Carrie, a strong-willed but mischievous 20-year-old actress, returns from a successful stage play in Detroit to New York to see her mother, Chris. After the two of them meet, Chris tells Carrie that she has a new boyfriend, Steve Forbes. Although she is in love with Steve, Chris admits that, because she worried that he would think of her as old if he knew she had a fully-grown daughter, she had implied to him during their conversations that Carrie was much younger.

Determined to help Chris succeed with Steve, Carrie disguises herself as a twelve-year-old, braiding her hair in pigtails, wearing children's clothes, and acting immaturely when Steve and his younger friend Jim Blake arrive. (A picture of Carrie as an adult that Steve and Jim accidentally see is described as Chris' alcoholic sister.) Despite Carrie ostensibly being a child, she and Jim are attracted to one another, and when it is revealed that he has a girlfriend, Carrie concocts an elaborate set of excuses to keep him with her, resulting in his girlfriend leaving him. In one of their outings, Carrie's hand is cut at an ice-cream parlor; in another, she drives a car recklessly and is arrested for speeding, but is able to narrowly escape telling the truth about her age.

The night before Carrie is scheduled to return to Detroit to act in a stage adaptation of Joan of Arc, Carrie and Chris go to a nightclub to celebrate, where they run into Steve and Jim. As she appears to be an adult, Carrie is introduced once again as Chris' adult sister, but Jim realizes the truth after seeing the cut on her hand. Jim angrily leaves the party; Carrie follows him, entering his car and explaining the truth to him as he drives. The two of them stop next to a lake, and Jim throws her in for revenge, before driving off.

Later, Steve proposes marriage to Chris, and Chris explains the scheme. Meanwhile, after realizing he loves Carrie, Jim sneaks onto the set of Joan of Arc, disguising himself as a knight and proposing to her mid-scene. Without breaking character, Carrie accepts the proposal.

Cast
Diana Barrymore as Carrie
Robert Cummings as Jim Blake
Kay Francis as Chris
John Boles as Steve J. Forbes
Andy Devine as Mike Kilinsky
Ethel Griffies as Gallagher
Walter Catlett as Sergeant
Guinn Williams as Pop
Scotty Beckett as Little prince [Leopold]
Andrew Tombes as Doctor
Mary Treen as Marybelle
Irving Bacon as Soda clerk
Walter Woolf King as Actor [King]
Lillian Yarbo as Phoebe, the Maid

Production
The film was originally known as Boy Meets Baby. In January 1942 Universal announced that it would be produced and directed by Henry Koster; Koster had directed most of Deanna Durbin's films to date but this was his first as producer. The male lead would be Bob Cummings and the script would be by Leonard Spigelglass based on a play by Régis Gignoux and Jacques Théry.

Universal wanted Deanna Durbin to star but she was reluctant to make the movie. The studio attempted to borrow Mary Lee from Republic but could not agree to terms. In March Universal cast Diana Barrymore who had just made Eagle Squadron (1941) for the studio. The title was changed to Love and Kisses, Caroline. The role involved the character having to play a 12-year-old girl, Sadie Thompson and Queen Victoria. Studio boss Cliff Work called it "the greatest part for a girl in 20 years."

The following month John Boles and Kay Francis joined the cast.

Shooting
Filming took place from April to July 1942.

Koster said Barrymore "was a hard person to cope with. She meant well but I think she had some of the mental difficulties her father had. She was always busy with other things when we wanted to shoot her scenes. Also it was not a good picture... They wanted to have a showcase for Diana Barrymore thinking that she might become a great actress. I don't think she had any of the Barrymore talent but she had the Madame Sans-Gene attitude on the set and in her private life. She was, well, may I say the poor man's Tallulah Bankhead."

Hedda Hopper visited the set to meet Barrymore. The day later Hopper wrote "Diana Barrymore is on the spot. With the great tradition of her family, she [Diana] can't behave like any other star out for a fling... She's likeable but has plenty to learn, and should stop playing around both on the set and in private life, which leads to those rumors floating around. No matter what Jack did, he treated the press as friend and she'd better change her tune – and quickly."

Hopper also wrote about an incident on set where Barrymore chased her then boyfriend Bramwell Fletcher all over the set to hit him."It interfered with the scene so Bob Cummings caught her and gave her a good sound spanking", wrote Hopper, "which delighted everybody on the set except for the youngest member of the Royal Family."

In June the film was retitled Between Us Girls.

Reception
The Los Angeles Times called Barrymore "delightful". Hedda Hopper said "Diana as yet has no grasp of real screen acting. Young, headstrong and inexperienced she's starring in a picture in which she might be better playing a bit."

See also
List of films in the public domain in the United States
A Precocious Girl (1934)

References

External links

1942 films
Films directed by Henry Koster
Universal Pictures films
1942 drama films
American drama films
American remakes of foreign films
Remakes of Austrian films
American black-and-white films
1940s American films
1940s English-language films

Between Us Girls


The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the Great Indian Event of 1857, the Indian Mutiny, the Sepoy Mutiny, India's First War of Independence, or India's First Struggle for Independence, began on 10 May 1857 at Meerut as a mutiny of sepoy of the British East India Company's army. Sepoy in the Presidency of Bengal revolted against their British officers.

Causes

Long term
The causes of the rebellion are hard to pin down and have been much argued about. Before the rebellion, 50,000 British troops and 300,000 sepoy served in the East India Company army.

The forces were divided into three presidency armies: Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. Those armies had a make-up that varied from region to region.

The Bengal Army recruited higher castes such as Rajputs and Bhumihar brahmins and reduced the enlistment of lower castes in 1855. In contrast, the Madras Army and the Bombay Army were "more localized, caste-neutral armies" that "did not prefer high-caste men". The domination of higher castes in the Bengal Army has been blamed in part for the initial mutinies that led to the rebellion.

There were some changes in the terms of their service, which may have created resentment. As the  East India Company expanded, soldiers were now expected  to serve in less familiar regions, such as in Burma, and to make do without the "foreign service" remuneration that they used to have. Another financial grievance stemmed from the General Service Act, which denied retired sepoy a pension. That applied only to recruits, but older sepoy suspected that it might apply to those already in service. Moreover, the Bengal Army was paid less than the Madras and Bombay Armies, which increased its members' fears over pensions.

Short term
The immediate event that angered the sepoy was the ammunition for the new Enfield rifles, which they had to use. The cartridges that were used in the new rifles had to be bitten open. The Muslims were angry because they thought that the paper cartridges had pig fat in them. Hindu soldiers were angry because they believed the cartridges had cow fat in them. On January 27, Colonel Richard Birch ordered that no cartridges should have grease on them and that sepoy could grease them with whatever they wanted.

During the 1850s, the British rulers continued to take some regions forcibly that had been ruled by Indians. For example, the British, under the decision of Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, seized in 1856 the kingdom of Agra and Oudh, which is now part of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. That went against Indian customs and did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals, the nominal Indian emperors, and the Peshwas, the most powerful Maratha rulers.

Events

The rebellion broke out after a soldier, called Mangal Pandey, attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant while his regiment was in Barrackpore. General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the soldier refused. Later, the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier and hanged both of them for treachery. All other soldiers of that regiment lost their places in the army. On May 10, 1857, cavalry troops doing parade at Meerut broke rank, freed the soldiers of the 3rd Regiment and moved towards Delhi. Soon, many Indians of northern India joined the soldiers; entered the Delhi Fort, where Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II lived; and made him unwillingly become the leader of the rebellion.

Very soon, the revolt spread throughout northern India. Important Indian leaders of royal families joined the rebellion and started fighting the British in several places. Its leaders included Ahmed Ullah, an advisor of the ex-King of Oudh; Nana Saheb, his nephew Rao Saheb, and his retainers, Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmibai; the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Singh; the Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in Bihar; and Firuz Saha, a relative of the Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah.

At first, the British were slow to respond, but they later took rapid action with heavy forces and brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India. They also redirected many of the regiments that were going to China to India. The British forces reached Delhi and surrounded the city from July 1 to August 31, 1857. Eventually, street-to-street fighting broke out between the British troops and the Indians. Ultimately, the British took control of Delhi. The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the Siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also critical.

Battle of Gwalior
The last decisive battle was at Gwalior (now in Madhya Pradesh) in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed. A few days later, the British retook the fortress of Gwalior. They had now practically suppressed the rebellion, but some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early 1859. Tantia Tope was captured and executed in April 1859.

British reactions
The rebellion was an event of great importance in the front of history of modern India. The British Parliament withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858. The British started ruling India directly through its representative, Governor General, also called the Viceroy, and formally made India part of the British Empire. The British promised "the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India" equal treatment under British law. In 1877, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India and the Viceroy of India ruled India for her.

The British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon), in Burma (now called Myanmar), where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about 400 years, ended with his death.

The British also took many steps to employ members of Indian higher castes and rulers in the government and started to employ Indians in the civil services but only at the lower levels. The British stopped both taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India and interfering in religious matters. They increased the number of British soldiers and banned others from handling artillery.
In Britain, newspapers focused on the violence of the mutiny. Charles Dickens wrote that the British should take revenge in his 1857 novella The Perils of Certain English Prisoners.

Chronology
1857
May – after the mutiny in Meerut (10th), ther revolt starts and later develops into a wider mutiny  with outbreaks in Delhi, Ferozepur, Bombay, Aligarh, Mainpuri, Etawah, Bulandshahr, Nasirabad, Bareilly, Moradabad, Shahjahanpur and elsewhere. Sepoys are disarmed in Lahore, Agra, Lucknow, Peshawar and Mardan. The Delhi Field Force advances to Karnaul British Commander-in-Chief of General Anson.
June – Mutinies in Sitapur, Hansi, Hissar, Azamgarh, Gorakhpur and Nimach; in Gwalior, Bharatpur and Jhansi; in Kanpur, followed by the siege of the Europeans (4th-25th) and a massacre; mutiny in Banaras forestalled; mutinies at Jewanpur, Allahabad, Jullundur, Phillaur, Nowgong, Rhoni, Fatehgarh, Aurangabad (Deccan), Fatehpur and Jubbulpore; Indian units are forcibly disarmed at Nagpur and Barrackpore; mutinies at Faizabad, Sultanpur and Lucknow; order is restored in Lucknow but the district remains disturbed (Europeans take shelter in the Residency); British defeat at Chinhat (30rd) near Lucknow; siege of Lucknow begins. Battle of Badli-ki-Serai (8th); Delhi Field Force takes up position on the Ridge and begins operations against Delhi; further spreading of the revolt through the Ganges Plain, Rajputana, and Central India.
July – Mutinies in Indore and Mhow, Augur, Jhelum, Saugor, Sialkot, Dinapur and Agra; siege of the Lucknow Residency continues until July; operations against Delhi continue until July; General Barnard dies after commanding at Delhi (5th); General Havelock's force advances from Allahabad to the relief of Kanpur and arrives on the 17th, one day too late to save those massacred there; disarming of Indian units in Rawalpindi; Sialkot mutineers defeated at Trimmu Ghat (16th)
August – Mutinies at Kolhapur (Bombay Presidency), Poonamallee (near Madras), Jubbulpore, Bhopawar (near Indore), and Mian Mir (near Lahore); rebellion spreads through the Saugor and Narbada districts. Also disarmament of Indian units at Berhampur (1st); siege of the Lucknow Residency continues; Havelock's first attempt at relief fails.
September – Failure of an outbreak in Karachi (14th.); further outbreaks in the Saugor and Narbada districts; siege of Saugor begins; Delhi is assaulted and captured by the British (14th-20th); the Lucknow residency is relieved by Havelock and Outram (25th), but a new siege of the reinforced garrison begins
October – Mutiny at Bhagalpur (near Dinapur); unrest in Bihar, north Bengal and Assam; mutiny in Bombay City is forestalled (15th); revolt in Kotah state (15 Oct.)
November – Sir Colin Campbell relieves Lucknow (17th); the garrison is evacuated and the city and Residency are temporarily abandoned; General Windham is defeated outside Kanpur (28th)
December – Decisive Battle of Kanpur (6th); the armies of Rao Sahib and of Tatya Tope are routed by Sir Colin Campbell; campaign in the Doab; capture of Fatehgarh.

1858
January – General Sir Hugh Rose begins the Central India campaign; Sir Colin Campbell begins the campaign to recapture Lucknow
February – General Rose relieves Saugor; Campbell's Army of Oudh assembles on the Kanpur-Lucknow road, awaits Jang Bahadur's Gurkha Army from Nepal
March – Lucknow is recaptured on 21 March; Central India campaign continues
April – Battle of the Betwa; the nearby city of Jhansi is stormed and captured (3-6 April); Azamgarh  isrecaptured; advance on Kalpi (25 April); Campbell begins reconquering Rohilkhand; Koer Singh leads a rising in Bihar but is defeated and dies of his wounds
May – Battle of Bareilly, followed by its recapture; Battle of Kunch; recapture of Jagdispur; reoccupation of Kalpi; Battle of Mohamdi (24 May) and end of resistance in Rohilkhand; rebels begin guerrilla war in the jungle; Tatya Tope and the Rani of Jhansi outside Gwalior
June – Gwalior Army deserts to rebels and Tatya Tope; the Rani of Jhansi seize Gwalior; General Rose marches from Kalpi to Gwalior arrive on the 16th; Battle of Kotah-i-Serai on the 17th; Battle of Gwalior on the 18th in which Gwalior fortress is recaptured; guerrilla forces in Oudh, Bihar and along the Nepalese frontier are meanwhile suppressed
July to December – suppression of guerrilla forces except in Rajputana and Central India

1859
April – Trial (15th) and execution (18th) of Tatya Tope (Ramachandra Pandurang Tope), the last captured rebel leader; which ended the rebellion

References

Sources
Edwardes, Michael (1975) Red Year. London: Sphere Books; pp. 153–55 (events of the rebellion)

Textbooks and academic monographs
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Wars involving the United Kingdom
19th century in India
Wars of independence
British India
Rebellions in Asia
1857
19th-century rebellions
Mutinies
Resistance to the British Empire
Indian independence movement

Indian Rebellion of 1857


Josiah Turner, Jr. (December 27, 1821 – October 26, 1901) was an American lawyer, politician and newspaper editor from North Carolina.

Turner, one-time president of the North Carolina Railroad Company, was elected to represent Orange County in the North Carolina House of Representatives (1852, 1854 and 1879–1880) and in the North Carolina Senate (1858, 1860 and 1868).

Turner was a Whig before the collapse of that party in the late 1850s and was opposed to secession in the run-up to the American Civil War. After the war began, however, he served in the Confederate States Army, ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the Confederate House of Representatives in 1861 (losing to Archibald H. Arrington), and was elected to that body in 1863, serving in the Second Confederate Congress. There, he opposed the policies of President Jefferson Davis.

Turner was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1865 as a "Conservative" but was not seated. Elected again to the state legislature after the war, he opposed Republican Gov. William W. Holden, who had Turner arrested in Hillsborough for allegedly assisting the Ku Klux Klan. Turner also used his newspaper, the Raleigh Sentinel, to attack Holden and his party. "Turner's crusade is considered to have been largely responsible for the recapture of the state legislature by the Democrats (then called Conservatives) and for the overthrow of Governor William W. Holden in 1870 and his impeachment in 1871," wrote William S. Powell. But, said Powell, Turner was "no financial wizard" and the paper ended up in the hands of the publishers of the Raleigh Observer. Eventually, they folded the paper into The News & Observer.

Turner was elected to the legislature in August 1878 and at the same time commenced another campaign for Congress, this time as an Independent Democrat with the support of some Republicans. But other Republicans could not stomach Turner due to his past reputation as, in the words of the New York Times, "the most violent opponent the Republicans ever had in this state." The resulting split in the opposition seemed to ensure a November victory for Democrat Joseph J. Davis.

In 1880, "Turner's behavior [as a state legislator] became 'very erratic,' according to an account in A Biographical History of North Carolina from Colonial Times to the Present, published in 1906.
'He manifested a special antipathy to the speaker, Hon. John M. Moring, whom he denominated as a 'gander head,' and his conduct was so obstreperous that at length the body, worn out by his unruly and unseemly proceedings, was driven to expel him as a member,' reads the account." No other member of the North Carolina General Assembly was so removed from office again until Thomas E. Wright was expelled in 2008.

Turner's last major campaign was another run for Congress in 1884 as a Republican. He was defeated by William Ruffin Cox.

References

External links
Inventory of the Josiah Turner Papers, 1805-1923 held in the Wilson Library at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Under the Dome

1821 births
1901 deaths
Members of the Confederate House of Representatives from North Carolina
19th-century American politicians
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
North Carolina state senators
North Carolina lawyers
Expelled members of the North Carolina General Assembly

Josiah Turner


Giovanni Stefano Menochio,  - , was an Italian Jesuit biblical scholar.

Life
Menochio was born at Padua, and entered the Society of Jesus on 25 May 1594. After the usual years of training and teaching the classics, he became professor of sacred scripture and then of moral theology at Milan; thereafter began his long life of superiorship. He was successively superior of Cremona, Milan, and Genoa, rector of the Roman College, provincial of the provinces of Milan and Rome, assistant of Italy, and admonitor to the Fathers-General Vincenzo Carafa and Francesco Piccolomini.  He died in Rome.

Works
His first exegetical essay was a politico-Biblical study: Hieropoliticon, sive Institutiones Politicæ e Sacris Scripturis depromptæ, 956 pages (Lyon, 1625). This book on theocratic politics was dedicated to Cardinal Alessandro Orsini. A second edition (Cologne, 1626) was dedicated to Ferdinand III. The Jesuit poet Sarbewski made this study the subject of an ode (see "Lyrica", II, n. 18).

The next year there appeared an economic study of the Bible: Institutiones Oeconomicæ ex Sacris Litteris depromptæ, 543 pages (Lyon, 1627). The author translated into Italian these lessons on the care of one's own household; this translation was a posthumous publication: Economia Christiana, 542 pages (Venice, 1656).

His magnum opus was Brevis Explicatio Sensus Literalis Sacræ Scripturæ optimus quibusque Auctoribus per Epitomen Collecta, 3 vols., 115 pages, 449, 549+29 (Cologne, 1630). Many other editions of this commentary have been published in many lands: Cologne, 1659; Antwerp, 1679; Lyons, 1683, 1697, 1703; the revised edition of René-Joseph Tournemine, S. J., published at Paris, 1719, 1721, 1731; Avignon, 1768; Ghent, 1829; the enlarged and revised edition of Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, S. J., published at Venice, 1743, 1755, 1761.

The scholia of Menochio are introduced into the Bibla Magna and the Bibla Maxima of Jean de La Haye; the Bibla Sacra of Lucas Brugensis; the Cursus Script. Sacr. of Migne; fourteen editions of the Sainte Bible of Louis de Carrières, S. J.; and La Sainte Bible of Claude-Joseph Drioux (Paris, 1873).

A later critic, Simon, though not at all in sympathy with Menochio's orthodoxy, says "C'est un des plus judicieux scoliates que nous ayons tant sur le Vieux que sur le Nouveau Testament" (Hist. Crit. du N. T., xliv). Reusch (Kirchenlexikon) prefers the notes of Menochio to those of Manuel de Sá and Mariana.

This commentator sought to find the literal meaning of the Holy Writ in the Bible and the Fathers. Menochio studied the text in its original, and brought to bear upon that study knowledge of Jewish antiquities.

Main works

 Le stuore, tessute di varia erudizione sacra, morale e profana (Rome, 1646-54, 6 vols. 4to); the first published under the fictitious name of Giovanni Corona.

See also
 Hebrew republic

References

1575 births
1655 deaths
Italian biblical scholars
17th-century Italian Jesuits
Writers from Pavia

Giovanni Stefano Menochio


Gummo is a 1997 teenage drama movie. Harmony Korine wrote and directed the movie. Gummo is set in Xenia, Ohio, a Midwestern town that was devastated by a tornado.

The movie was shot in Nashville, Tennessee under a budget of $1 million. It was not given a large theatrical release. Because of that,Gummo failed to bring in much money. Reviews on the movie from the critics were mixed.

Plot
A young boy named Solomon narrates events from the tornado that went through the small town of Xenia, Ohio. A mute adolescent boy, nicknamed Bunny Boy, wears only tennis shoes, shorts and pink bunny ears on an overpass in the rain.

A boy named Tummler, who is also a friend for Solomon, carries a cat by its neck. He drowns the cat in a barrel of water. Gummo then cuts into a different scene with Tummler in a wrecked car with a girl. They fondle one another. Tummler realizes there is a lump on one of the girl's breast's. Tummler and Solomon then ride down on a hill on bicycles.

Later, Tummler points an air rifle at another cat. Solomon stops him from killing the cat and says it was a housecat. The boys leave. The camera then follows the cat to its owners' house. The cat is owned by three sisters, two are teenagers, the third has not gone through puberty yet.

The movie later cuts to a scene in which two foul-mouthed boys dressed as cowboys destroy things in a junkyard. Bunny Boy comes. The other boys shoot him "dead" using cap guns. Bunny Boy plays dead. The boys curse at him, go through his pockets and remove one of his shows. The boys later get bored of it. Bunny Boy is left on the ground

Cast

 Jacob Reynolds as Solomon
 Nick Sutton as Tummler
 Linda Manz as Solomon's mother
 Chloë Sevigny as Dot
 Carisa Glucksman as Helen
 Darby Dougherty as Darby
 Jacob Sewell as Bunny Boy
 Mark Gonzales as Chair wrestler
 Max Perlich as Cole
 Daniel Martin as Jarrod Wiggley
 Harmony Korine as Boy on couch

Filming
Gummo was shot in some of the poorest neighborhoods across Nashville.

The movie was shot in just four weeks in the summer of 1996.

Themes
Gummo goes over multiple issues, like vandalism, homicide, violence, drug abuse, profanity, sexual abuse, homophobia, prostitution and sexism.

Release
The movie was first shown at the 24th Telluride Film Festival on August 29, 1997. The original rating for the movie was NC-17. It was edited so it could receive an R.

Critical reception
As of 2021, Gummo holds a 38% "rotten" rating under Rotten Tomatoes with 56 reviews. Under Metacritic, the movie is rated at 19/100, which means "an overwhelming dislike".

References

1997 drama movies
1990s teen drama movies
1990s LGBT movies
American teen drama movies
American LGBT movies
Obscenity controversies

Gummo


Lindsay McQueen (Villajoyosa, Spain, 28 May 1979) is a hydroflight athlete. He has been involved with the company FlyBoard since it was invented by a French watercraft rider, Franky Zapata in spring 2011 and has actively taken part in the growth of FlyBoard.

He has taken part in all World Championships to date, Qatar (2012), Qatar (2013) and Dubai (2014). His best result was in 2012, when he came in 5th place, disqualified by a head-to-head battle in quarterfinals by Stephane Prayas from France, who went on to become the World Champion of that year.

He lives and trains in Ibiza there he is also sponsored. He is an image of the Ushuaïa beach hotel, Maremoto Jets, SEA-DOO Watercraft, Alkkemist premium Gin and FlyBoard Spain.

Early life and education
At age 5 he started water-skiing at the Cable Ski Benidorm in his home town in Benidorm (Alicante) and at age 8 he started to compete for the Spanish water-ski team in the category of Slalom achieving various Spanish champion titles. At age 13 he moved to Nottingham, UK to study. After finishing his studies at Carlton le Willows school he moved back to Spain where at age 19 started water-skiing professionally again and working as an instructor at Cerro de Alarcón water-ski school in Madrid where amongst other personalities he gave lessons to the present king of Spain SM Felipe VI. He was also one of the first Wakeboarder's in Spain and was the winner of the first Spanish national Wakeboard Championship held at Casa de Campo, Madrid. At age 29 he moved to Ibiza, Spain where he continued with businesses related to water-sports and in beginning of 2012 when French watercraft rider Franky Zapata invented the FlyBoard he signed the exclusivity for Spain and has dedicated his life to this sport ever since.

Performances and media

Competitions
1988. Water-skiing Spanish national champion in the "Alevin category"
1989. Water-skiing Spanish national champion in the "Alevin category"
1990. Water-skiing Spanish national champion in the "Alevin category"
1991. Water-skiing Spanish national champion in the "Alevin category"
1998. First Wakeboard Spanish national champion at Casa de Campo, Madrid
2012. FlyBoard World Cup 5th place at Doha, Qatar
2013. FlyBoard World Cup disqualified in first round for "flipping" the Jet ski, new rule for that year.
2014. FlyBoard World Cup 10th place after first round at Dubai, UAE

References

External links

 vision of Franky Zapata and Lindsay McQueen

1979 births
People educated at Carlton le Willows Academy
Living people

Lindsay McQueen


Andrew Neumann (born 1960) is a Democratic state legislator from Michigan.  He  served in the Michigan State House of Representatives, representing the 106th District from 2009 to 2010.  The 106th District is located in the North East Lower Peninsula and includes all of Alcona, Alpena, Crawford, Montmorency, Oscoda, and Presque Isle counties.  He was elected on November 4, 2008 to replace outgoing Rep. Matthew Gillard.  Neumann previously represented the 106th District from 1999–2003 and was an unsuccessful candidate for the Michigan State Senate in 2002.  In 2003, he was appointed Fire Marshal for the State of Michigan.

Biography
Andy Neumann was born in Alpena, Michigan in 1960.  He graduated from Alpena High School and attended Alpena Community College, where he received a degree in business management.  After college, Neumann became a firefighter and certified paramedic with the city of Alpena from 1982 to 1998.  He owned a business called Northern Healthcare Management from 1990-1996.  He lives in Alpena and Lansing. He has two daughters Kristin and Sarah.

Political career
In 1996, Andy Neumann was elected to the Alpena County Commissioner where he served on Budget and Finance, Public Safety and Health, Law Enforcement, and Insurance Committees.  In 1998, he announced his candidacy for the 106th State House District, which at that time included the Counties of Alpena, Presque Isle, Cheboygan, and Charlevoix.  Neumann won the Democratic Primary and went on to narrowly defeat Republican Phil Ludlow in the General Election.  Neumann was easily re-elected in 2000.

In 2002, Neumann ran for the open 36th District State Senate Seat, located in the North East Lower Peninsula.  Neumann narrowly lost to Republican Tony Stamas, of Midland.  He was succeeded in the State House by Democrat Matthew Gillard.  In 2003, he was appointed Michigan State Fire Marshal.

Neumann's successor, Matthew Gillard, retired in 2008 because of term limits, which prevent a house member from serving more than three terms.  Neumann announced his candidacy for the 106th District, which was slightly altered from the district he had represented previously, but still included his home in Alpena.  Neumann won the Democratic Primary and went on to defeat Republican Peter Pettalia in the general election.  Neumann is a conservative Democrat, receiving an "A" rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund, and while in the legislature, he was a strong advocate for gun rights, voting in favor of a plan to make it easier to carry concealed weapons and against a plan that would limit gun purchases to one gun per month.

Term limits prevented Neumann from running for re-election in 2010.

References

External links
 Official website
 House Democrats website
 Campaign site
 Project Vote Smart

1960 births
Living people
Democratic Party members of the Michigan House of Representatives
American Lutherans
People from Alpena, Michigan
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians

Andy Neumann


Sir Robert Edgar Megarry, PC, FBA (1 June 1910 – 11 October 2006) was an eminent British lawyer and judge. Originally a solicitor, he requalified as a barrister and also pursued a parallel career as a legal academic. He later became a High Court judge and served as Vice-Chancellor of the Chancery Division from 1976 to 1981. Afterwards he served as Vice-Chancellor of the Supreme Court from 1982 until his retirement in 1985.

A prolific legal writer, he is known for such works as The Law of Real Property, Lectures on the Town and Country Planning Act 1947, and A Manual of the Law of Real Property, as well as a series of legal miscellanies.

Early life and career
Megarry's father was a solicitor in Belfast; his mother's father was a Major General. Megarry was born in Croydon, Surrey and was educated at Lancing and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He did not concentrate on his academic studies at university, writing for student newspaper Varsity as its first music critic, played football and tennis for his college, and obtained a pilot's licence; he ended up with a third class degree. He married his wife, Iris Davies, in 1936, and they had three daughters. His wife died in 2001, but he was survived by his daughters.

Having trained as a solicitor, he practised as one from 1935 to 1941. He also taught law students, and lectured at Cambridge from 1939 to 1940. He worked at the Ministry of Supply during World War II, rising to Assistant Secretary by 1946. With encouragement from Arthur Lehman Goodhart, Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford University, he retrained as a barrister, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1944, and left the Civil Service to practise as a barrister in 1946, specialising in equity and land law.  In parallel to his legal career, he also taught law at Cambridge University, becoming a fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1945, and rising to become a university Reader by 1967. He was elected as a member of the Bar Council in 1948. He became a Queen's Counsel in 1956, was a bencher at Lincoln's Inn in 1962, and was Treasurer in 1981.

Megarry was also highly regarded as a legal scholar, publishing numerous articles in the Law Quarterly Review, of which he was an assistant editor. He was president of the Society of Public Teachers of Law between 1965 and 1966. In 1970, he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy.

He was prosecuted at the Old Bailey for submitting false income tax returns in 1954. The prosecuting counsel was Sir Harry Hylton-Foster, the Solicitor General and later Speaker of the House of Commons; counsel for the defence was Frederick Lawton, later a senior judge.  Megarry's tax affairs were complex, with his earnings as a lecturer dealt with by his wife and his self-employed income from his legal practice dealt with by his clerk. Each assumed that the other was dealing with certain items of income, but in fact neither did, so they were omitted from Megarry's tax returns. The judge directed the jury to acquit Megarry, on the grounds that the error was a genuine mistake with no intention to defraud the tax authorities.

Judicial career
Megarry was appointed as a High Court judge in 1967, assigned to the Chancery Division, and receiving the customary knighthood. He became Vice-Chancellor of that Division in 1976, effectively its head, as the deputy of the absent Lord Chancellor. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1978, and held the new post of Vice-Chancellor of the Supreme Court from 1982 to 1985.

He had a traditional view of the law, and was unwilling to set new legal precedent. In Gaiman v National Association for Mental Health, he ruled that the National Association for Mental Health was able to expel 302 suspect members, to prevent a suspected take-over by the Church of Scientology. In Midland Cold Storage v Steer he denounced picketing by dock workers as "the law of the jungle", but held that he had no jurisdiction to ban it, deferring to the National Industrial Relations Court. He was the first Chancery judge to sit outside London, when he attended a mock funeral in Iken in Suffolk to test how easy it would be to carry a coffin along an alleged right of way in St Edmundsbury and Ipswich Diocesan Board of Finance v Clark.

He sat in the case of Tito v Waddell (No 2), brought by the former residents of Banaba Island, Gilbert and Ellice Islands, whose island was all but destroyed by phosphate mining. He took the court on a 3-week trip to the south Pacific, to visit the island. After sitting for 206 days, Megarry delivered a judgment containing 100,000 words. He asked the Crown to do its duty to the islanders, but found that he was unable to require it to do anything.

He was appointed as Vice-Chancellor in 1976. In 1977, he declined to grant The Beatles an injunction to prohibit the sale of an unauthorised record based on informal and unrehearsed tapes. In 1979, he upheld a worldwide playing ban imposed on George Best by FIFA arising from a complaint by Best's former employer, Fulham Football Club. Also in 1979, he was unable to uphold a complaint in Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner, regarding phone tapping during a police investigation. However, in 1984 the European Court of Human Rights decided that it was a contravention of the European Convention on Human Rights. Megarry ordered Granada Television to disclose the name of a confidential source in 1980, following leaks of information from British Steel Corporation.

He ruled in two cases involving the National Union of Mineworkers in 1984. In the first case, Cowan v Scargill he declined a request from the National Coal Board for a mandatory order to direct union representative how to act as trustees of a pension fund, but gave directions on the representatives' fiduciary duties instead, saying that in his opinion the trustees were obliged to consider investment outside the UK and in industries that compete with coal. He would have said breach of the former would have risked the miners leaders being in contempt of court; breach of the latter would simply enable them to be removed as trustees. In the second case, a month later, he prohibited the NUM from calling a strike in Nottinghamshire, because a ballot had not been held, and then declared that an NUM plan to discipline non-striking miners was illegal.

He was chairman of the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting for 15 years, from 1972 to 1987.

Legal writings
Megarry was also an accomplished legal writer, publishing several leading textbooks. He is perhaps best known as joint author of The Law of Real Property with William Wade, first published in 1957 and usually known as Megarry and Wade. A 6th edition, edited by Charles Harpum, was published in 1999. Megarry also wrote a handbook to the Rent Acts in 1939, which ran to 11 editions by 1988. His Lectures on the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 was published in 1949, shortly after the new town planning legislation was passed, and he also published A Manual of the Law of Real Property (1946), which ran to 8 editions. He was the sole editor of the 23rd edition of Snell's Equity (1947); he then edited the 24th edition (1954) to the 27th edition (1973) jointly with Paul Vivian Baker. His works broke new ground, in presenting technical areas of the law in a clear and systematic way, to the benefit of generations of law students.

His love of the minutiae of legal practice led him to publish several legal miscellanies, including Miscellany-at-law (1955), Arabinesque-at-law (1969), Inns Ancient and Modern (1972), A Second Miscellany-at-Law (1973) and A New Miscellany-At-Law (2005). In 2014, The Green Bag published a "rump" chapter, titled "Contempt," that Megarry had written but not readied for publication before his death, and had entrusted to renowned legal lexicographer Bryan A. Garner to see into print.

He was also a book review and assistant editor of the Law Quarterly Review from 1944 to 1967, and a consultant for the BBC's radio programme Law in Action from 1953 to 1966. He also published An Introduction to Lincoln's Inn in 1971.

Retirement
He retired as a judge in 1985, but occasionally sat until 1991. He was a member of the panel of judges of the Privy Council that decided the important negligence case of Yuen Kun Yeu in 1987. In retirement, he lectured in law in North America, and was Visitor at the University of Essex and in Cambridge.

He was an active member of the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies into the 1990s. His last book, A New Miscellany-at-Law, was published in December 2005.

He died in London.

Arms

Notes

References
Obituary, The Times, 16 October 2006
Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, 17 October 2006
Obituary, The Guardian, 19 October 2006
Obituary, The Independent, 28 October 2006

English legal writers
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
People educated at Lancing College
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
People associated with the University of Essex
Knights Bachelor
1910 births
2006 deaths
Chancery Division judges
English King's Counsel
20th-century English lawyers
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

Robert Megarry


In logic, the monadic predicate calculus (also called monadic first-order logic) is the fragment of first-order logic in which all relation symbols in the signature are monadic (that is, they take only one argument), and there are no function symbols. All atomic formulas are thus of the form , where  is a relation symbol and  is a variable.

Monadic predicate calculus can be contrasted with polyadic predicate calculus, which allows relation symbols that take two or more arguments.

Expressiveness

The absence of polyadic relation symbols severely restricts what can be expressed in the monadic predicate calculus. It is so weak that, unlike the full predicate calculus, it is  decidable—there is a decision procedure that determines whether a given formula of monadic predicate calculus is logically valid (true for all nonempty domains). Adding a single binary relation symbol to monadic logic, however, results in an undecidable logic.

Relationship with term logic

The need to go beyond monadic logic was not appreciated until the work on the logic of relations, by Augustus De Morgan and Charles Sanders Peirce in the nineteenth century, and by Frege in his 1879 Begriffsschrifft. Prior to the work of these three men, term logic (syllogistic logic) was widely considered adequate for formal deductive reasoning.

Inferences in term logic can all be represented in the monadic predicate calculus. For example the argument
 All dogs are mammals.
 No mammal is a bird.
 Thus, no dog is a bird.
can be notated in the language of monadic predicate calculus as

where ,  and  denote the predicates of being, respectively, a dog, a mammal, and a bird.

Conversely, monadic predicate calculus is not significantly more expressive than term logic. Each formula in the monadic predicate calculus is equivalent to a formula in which quantifiers appear only in closed subformulas of the form

or

These formulas slightly generalize the basic judgements considered in term logic. For example, this form allows statements such as "Every mammal is either a herbivore or a carnivore (or both)", . Reasoning about such statements can, however, still be handled within the framework of term logic, although not by the 19 classical Aristotelian syllogisms alone.

Taking propositional logic as given, every formula in the monadic predicate calculus expresses something that can likewise be formulated in term logic. On the other hand, a modern view of the problem of multiple generality in traditional logic concludes that quantifiers cannot nest usefully if there are no polyadic predicates to relate the bound variables.

Variants

The formal system described above is sometimes called the pure monadic predicate calculus, where "pure" signifies the absence of function letters. Allowing monadic function letters changes the logic only superficially, whereas admitting even a single binary function letter results in an undecidable logic.

Monadic second-order logic allows predicates of higher arity in formulas, but restricts second-order quantification to unary predicates, i.e. the only second-order variables allowed are subset variables.

Footnotes

Predicate logic
Logical calculi

Monadic predicate calculus


The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, a book by Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University, and Neil Asher Silberman, an archaeologist, historian and contributing editor to Archaeology Magazine published in 2001 by Simon & Schuster using its imprint The Free Press and reprinted in 2002 using its Touchstone imprint, discusses the archaeology of Israel and its relationship to the origins and content of the Hebrew Bible.

Finkelstein and Silberman contend that the composition of the Bible began in the Iron Age, centuries after the events of Israel's founding myths—the patriarchs and the Exodus from Egypt. They argue that numerous biblical passages conflict with the Bronze Age and Iron Age archaeological record of the Land of Israel, and that the text reflects an authorship bias toward the Kingdom of Judah at the expense of the Kingdom of Israel. They also reject the historical plausibility of a prosperous united kingdom of Israel and Judah ruled by David and Solomon from Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE, instead positing this narrative as an ideological construct promoted by late Judahite kings such as Hezekiah and Josiah. The book was both praised and criticized by biblical scholars for its reconstruction of ancient Israel's history.

Methodology
The methodology applied by the authors is historical criticism with an emphasis on archaeology. Writing on the website of "The Bible and Interpretation", the authors describe their approach as one "in which the Bible is one of the most important artifacts and cultural achievements [but] not the unquestioned narrative framework into which every archaeological find must be fit." Their main contention is that:

On the basis of this evidence they propose

As noted by a reviewer on Salon.com the approach and conclusions of The Bible Unearthed are not particularly new. Ze'ev Herzog, professor of archaeology at Tel Aviv University, wrote a cover story for Haaretz in 1999 in which he reached similar conclusions following the same methodology; Herzog noted also that some of these findings have been accepted by the majority of biblical scholars and archaeologists for years and even decades, even though they have only recently begun to make a dent in the awareness of the general public.

Content
Early biblical archaeology was conducted with the presumption that the Bible must be true, finds only being considered as illustrations for the biblical narrative, and interpreting evidence to fit the Bible. Some archaeologists such as Eilat Mazar continue to take this "Bible and spade" approach, or, like the journal Bible and Spade, attempt to treat archaeology as a tool for proving the Bible's accuracy, but since the 1970s most archaeologists, such as Kenneth Kitchen, have begun instead to interpret the evidence only in the light of other archaeology, treating the Bible as an artifact to be examined, rather than as an unquestioned truth. This approach has led to results both in favor and against the historicity of the Old Testament.

Ancestors and anachronisms

The Bible Unearthed begins by considering what it terms the 'preamble' of the Bible—the Book of Genesis—and its relationship to archaeological evidence for the context in which its narratives are set. Archaeological discoveries about society and culture in the ancient Near East lead the authors to point out a number of anachronisms, suggestive that the narratives were actually set down in the 9th–7th centuries BCE:
Aramaeans are frequently mentioned, but no ancient text mentions them until around 1100 BCE, and they only begin to dominate Israel's northern borders after the 9th century BCE.
The text describes the early origin of the neighbouring kingdom of Edom, but Assyrian records show that Edom only came into existence after the conquest of the region by Assyria in the late 8th century BCE; before then it was without functioning kings, was not a distinct state, and archaeological evidence shows that the territory was only sparsely populated.
The Joseph story refers to camel-based traders carrying gum, balm, and myrrh, which is unlikely prior to the first millennium, such activity only became common in the 8th–7th centuries BCE, when Assyrian hegemony enabled this Arabian trade to flourish into a major industry. Recent excavations in the Timna Valley discovered what may be the earliest bones of domesticated camels found in Israel or even outside the Arabian peninsula, dating to around 930 BCE. This is seen as evidence that the stories of Abraham, Joseph, Jacob and Esau were written after this time.
The land of Goshen has a name that comes from an Arabic group who dominated the Nile Delta only in the 6th and 5th centuries, given as the place and period of the Exodus in Genesis 45:9–10, placing the Exodus incongruently nearly a millennium after its biblical timeline.
The Egyptian Pharaoh is portrayed as fearing invasion from the east, even though Egypt's territory stretched to the northern parts of Canaan, with its main threat consequently being from the north, until the 7th century

The book comments that this corresponds with the documentary hypothesis, in which textual scholarship argues for the majority of the first five biblical books being written between the 8th and 6th centuries. Although archaeological results, and Assyrian records, suggest that the Kingdom of Israel was the greater of the two, it is the Kingdom of Judah which is afforded greater prominence by Genesis, whose narratives concentrate on Abraham, Jerusalem, Judah (the patriarch), and Hebron, more than on characters and places from the northern kingdom (Israel); the Bible Unearthed explains this pre-eminence of Yahwist text as an attempt to seize the opportunity, afforded by the destruction of Israel in 720 BCE, to portray the Israelites as a single people, with Judah having (always) had primacy.

Origin of the Israelites
The book remarks that, despite modern archaeological investigations and the meticulous ancient Egyptian records from the period of Ramesses II, also known as Ozymandias (13th century B.C.), there is an obvious lack of any archaeological evidence for the migration of a band of Semitic people across the Sinai Peninsula, except for the Hyksos. Although the Hyksos are in some ways a good match, their main centre being at Avaris (later renamed 'Pi-Ramesses'), in the heart of the region corresponding to the 'land of Goshen', and Manetho later wrote that the Hyksos eventually founded the Temple in Jerusalem, it throws up other problems, as the Hyksos became not slaves but rulers, and they were chased away rather than chased to bring them back. Nevertheless, the book posits that the exodus narrative perhaps evolved from vague memories of the Hyksos expulsion, spun to encourage resistance to the 7th century domination of Judah by Egypt.

Finkelstein and Silberman argue that instead of the Israelites conquering Canaan after the Exodus (as suggested by the book of Joshua), most of them had in fact always been there; the Israelites were simply Canaanites who developed into a distinct culture. Recent surveys of long-term settlement patterns in the Israelite heartlands show no sign of violent invasion or even peaceful infiltration, but rather a sudden demographic transformation about 1200 BCE in which villages appear in the previously unpopulated highlands; these settlements have a similar appearance to modern Bedouin camps, suggesting that the inhabitants were once pastoral nomads, driven to take up farming by the Late Bronze Age collapse of the Canaanite city-culture.

The authors take issue with the book of Joshua's depiction of the Israelites conquering Canaan in only a few years—far less than the lifetime of one individual—in which cities such as Hazor, Ai, and Jericho, are destroyed. Finkelstein and Silberman view this account as the result of the telescoping effect of the vagaries of folk memory about the destruction caused by other events; modern archaeological examination of these cities shows that their destruction spanned a period of many centuries, with Hazor being destroyed 100 to 300 years after Jericho, while Ai (whose name actually means 'the ruin') was completely abandoned for roughly a millennium "before the collapse of Late Bronze Canaan. ... Like Jericho, there was no settlement at the time of its supposed conquest by the children of Israel."

David and Solomon or the Omrides?
Although the Book of Samuel and initial parts of the Books of Kings, portray Saul, David and Solomon ruling in succession over a powerful and cosmopolitan united kingdom of Israel and Judah, Finkelstein and Silberman regard modern archaeological evidence as showing that this may not be true. Archaeology instead shows that in the time of Solomon, the northern kingdom of Israel was quite small, too poor to be able to pay for a vast army, and with too little bureaucracy to be able to administer a kingdom, certainly not an empire; it only emerged later, around the beginning of the 9th century BCE, in the time of Omri. There is little to suggest that Jerusalem, called by the Bible David's capital, was "more than a typical hill country village" during the time of David and of Solomon, and Judah remained little more than a sparsely populated rural region until the 8th century BCE. Although the Tel Dan Stele seems to confirm that a "House of David" existed, and "clearly validates the biblical description of a figure named David becoming the founder of the dynasty of Judahite kings in Jerusalem", it says nothing else about him.

There are remains of once grand cities at Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer, with archeological evidence showing that they suffered violent destruction. This destruction once was attributed to the 10th century BCE campaigns by Shishak, these cities therefore being ascribed to David and Solomon as proof of the Bible's account of them, but the destruction layers have since been redated to the late 9th century BCE campaign of Hazael, and the cities to the time of the Omride kings.

The Tel Dan Stele, the Mesha Stele, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, and direct evidence from excavations, together paint a picture of the Omride kings ruling a rich, powerful, and cosmopolitan empire, stretching from Damascus to Moab, and building some of the largest and most beautiful constructions of Iron Age Israel; by contrast, the Bible only remarks that the Omrides 'married foreign women' (presumably to make alliances) and upheld Canaanite religion, both of which it regards as wicked. The Bible Unearthed concludes that the biblical writers deliberately invented the empire, power, and wealth, of Saul, David, and Solomon, by appropriating the deeds and achievements of the Omrides, so that they could then denigrate the Omrides and obscure their accomplishments, since these kings held a religious viewpoint that was anathema to the biblical editors.

Hezekiah and monolatry

The Book of Kings, as it stands today, seems to suggest that the religion of Israel and Judah was primarily monotheistic, with one or two wayward kings (such as the Omrides) who tried to introduce Canaanite polytheism, the people occasionally joining in this 'apostasy' from monotheism, but a close reading and the archaeological record reveals that the opposite was true. Iron Age remains show that in the time of the setting of the Book of Kings, sacrifices continued to be offered at hilltop shrines (which the Bible terms "high places"), incense and libations were being offered throughout the land, and clay figurines of deities were still being used in homes everywhere in the land as household gods. Inscriptions from "the early eighth century site of Kuntillet Ajrud in northeastern Sinai" as well as "in a late-monarchic inscription from the Shephelah of Judah", even seem to refer to "the goddess Asherah as being the consort of YHWH".

The world changed for Judah when the kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians in 720 BCE. Judah was flooded with refugees; the population of Israel had been nine times larger than that of Judah, so many small Judean villages suddenly became cities, archaeology evidencing that the population of Jerusalem itself expanded by about 15-fold, turning it from a small hilltown into a large city. The social and religious struggles, which obviously would occur with such a large influx of population, are not mentioned by the Bible. Finkelstein and Silberman argue that the priests of Jerusalem began to promote Yahweh-based monolatry, aligning themselves with king Hezekiah's anti-Assyrian views, perhaps because they believed that Assyrian domination of Israel had caused social injustice, or perhaps because they just wanted to gain economic and/or political control over the newly wealthy countryside; Hezekiah advanced their agenda, banning the worship of deities other than Yahweh, destroying the hilltop shrines, actions which The Bible Unearthed views as preparation for rebelling against Assyria.

By 701 BCE, the Assyrians had captured most of Judah, and then they besieged Jerusalem; the Bible's coverage of the events leading up to the siege is sparse, briefly listing only a few refortifications of Jerusalem, giving a passing mention to the Siloam tunnel, and briefly admitting to the loss of most of Judah's cities, but archaeology gives much more detail. For example, the fortifications of Lachish were heavily strengthened by Hezekiah, but it was besieged, fell, and was then burnt to the ground; according to an illustration on the walls of the Assyrian palace at Ninevah, the Assyrians deported the city's population and religious objects before they burnt it.

The Bible claims that nearly 200,000 men in the army besieging Jerusalem were slaughtered one night by an angel, causing the Assyrian king Sennacherib to relent and return to Assyria; it immediately goes on to state that Sennacherib was killed by his sons, while he was praying to his god, implying that this was shortly after the battle. However, as The Bible Unearthed points out, this contrasts with the Assyrian record on the Taylor Prism, in which Hezekiah's mercenaries abandoned him, and he only then convinced the Assyrian army to leave by handing over not only vast amounts of money, jewels, and high quality ivory-inlaid furniture, but also his own daughters, harem, and musicians, and making Judah into a tributary state of the Assyrians. Additionally, although Sennacherib was clearly murdered (by person(s) uncertain), it was in 681 BCE; he had lived for over 19 years beyond the end of the siege, conducting several military campaigns elsewhere, and rebuilding and refurnishing his palace entirely.

Hezekiah predeceased Sennacherib, dying just a couple of years after the siege. His successor (and son), Manasseh, reversed the religious changes, re-introducing religious pluralism; Finkelstein and Silberman suggest that this may have been an attempt to gain co-operation from village elders and clans, so that he would not need so much centralised administration, and could therefore allow the countryside to return to economic autonomy. According to the archaeology there must have been a deliberate expansion of agriculture into the Judean desert, and the rich finds from this period suggest that much profit was gained from Judah's now peaceful position in the middle of many of the caravan routes between Assyria's allies; the state certainly increased its administration of trade to levels that far exceed those before.

Hezekiah's actions had given away the gold and silver from the Jerusalem Temple, impoverished his state, lost him his own daughters and concubines, and reduced his territory to a small region around Jerusalem, most of the people elsewhere in Judah being deported; Manasseh had brought peace and prosperity back to the country, but because the Book of Kings bases its narrative on theological prejudice, it condemns him as the most sinful monarch ever to rule Judah and hails instead Hezekiah as the great king. The Bible Unearthed suggests that the priesthood and populace outside Jerusalem may well have held the opposite opinion—that Hezekiah's imposition of monolatry was blasphemous, and the disasters that befell the country during his reign had been punishment from the gods.

Josiah and the birth of the Bible
As recorded in the Book of Kings, Manasseh's grandson, Josiah, enacted a large religious reform soon after he became king; he ordered renovations to the Jerusalem Temple, during which the High Priest 'found' a scroll of the law, which insisted on monotheism with sacrifice centralised at a single temple—that in Jerusalem. Finkelstein and Silberman note that most scholars regard the core of Deuteronomy as being the "scroll of the law" in question, and regard it as having been written not long before it was 'found', rather than being an ancient missing scroll as characterised in the Bible; Deuteronomy is strikingly similar to early 7th century Assyrian vassal-treaties, in which are set out the rights and obligations of a vassal state (in this case Judah) to their sovereign (in this case, Yahweh). Josiah imposed this scroll as the new religious orthodoxy, and, like Hezekiah before him, destroyed the old cult centres; Josiah even went so far as to slaughter the priests of these shrines, burn their bodies, and bury their bones in the tombs near them, upon the old altars.

The sudden collapse of the Assyrian Empire in the last decades of the 7th century BCE offered an opportunity for Josiah to expand Judah's territory into the former kingdom of Israel, abandoned by the Assyrians. It was now that the author of Deuteronomy, working in Josiah's court, reworked older legends, texts, and histories into a single national history; with the message that it had been the non-Deuteronomic practices of the Israelites that had led to their downfalls, and implied that Joshua, as well as David in some respects, was a foreshadowing of what Josiah could achieve.

Archaeology suggests that Josiah was initially successful, extending his territory northwards towards Bethel, a cult-centre of the kingdom of Israel; however he then rode out to meet the Egyptian Pharaoh—Necho—at Meggido. Necho had been merely 'passing through', leading an army to join the Assyrian civil war on the side of the Assyrian (rather than Babylonian) faction, but Josiah was killed; the circumstances of his death are uncertain, though the Book of Chronicles claims that despite Necho's lack of enmity for Josiah, Josiah insisted on attacking him. Finkelstein and Silberman suggest that Necho may have objected to Josiah's expansionist policies, which could have threatened the Egyptian dominance of the region to the west of Judah (the Philistine lands) or of the strategically important Jezreel Valley to its north, or could equally have objected to the effect of the new (deuteronomic) social policies on the caravan routes, which ran through southern Judah.

With Josiah's death Egypt became suzerain over Judah. The new king, Egypt's vassal ruler, undid Josiah's changes, restoring the former shrines and returning the country once again to religious pluralism. But when the Babylonian faction eventually won the Assyrian civil war, they set out to forcibly retake the former Assyrian tributaries. Judah, as a loyal Egyptian vassal-state, resisted, with disastrous consequences: the Babylonians plundered Jerusalem in 597 BCE and imposed their own vassal king; these events are described in the Bible and confirmed, with variations, in the Babylonian Chronicle. A few years later, the king of Judah rebelled against his Babylonian masters, and the Babylonians returned to destroy all the cities in Judah, burning Jerusalem to the ground in 587 BCE.

In 539 BCE, the Achaemenids conquered Babylon, and, in accordance with their Zoroastrian perspective, allowed the people deported by the Babylonians to return; this is described by the Cyrus Cylinder, which also indicates that the Persians repaired the temples in these conquered lands, returning any sacred artifacts to them. According to the archaeological record, no more than 25% of the population had actually been deported; according to the Book of Ezra and its parallel passages in the First Book of Esdras, when the deportees began to return, their leader—Zerubbabel—refused to allow the undeported Israelites to assist them in reconstructing the Jerusalem temple, apparently believing that only the former deportees had the right to determine the beliefs and practices which could count as the orthodoxy. Although the undeported majority then tried to stop the reconstruction, Darius, the new Achaemenid king, eventually allowed it to continue.

The conflict between the returnees and those who had always been in Judah evidently required resolution; the two groups had to be reintegrated. Finkelstein and Silberman argue that the Deuteronomic law advanced by parts of the deported elite (the ancestors of the returnees), and the laws and legends of the inveterate inhabitants, were melded together into a single Torah so that it could form a central authority able to unite the population. Artaxerxes, Darius' grandson, commissioned Ezra to take charge of Judah, following the divine laws which Ezra was holding in his hand; The Bible Unearthed comments that academics like Richard Elliott Friedman propose that Ezra himself was the final redactor of the Torah, noting that the Bible identifies him as the scribe of the law of the god of heaven.

Reception
The Bible Unearthed was well received by some biblical scholars and archaeologists and critically by others. Baruch Halpern, professor of Jewish Studies at Pennsylvania State University and leader of the archaeological digs at Megiddo for many years, called it "the boldest and most exhilarating synthesis of Bible and archaeology in fifty years", despite disagreeing with Finkelstein on the historicity of the United Monarchy. Jonathan Kirsch, writing in the Los Angeles Times, called it "a brutally honest assessment of what archeology can and cannot tell us about the historical accuracy of the Bible", which embraces the spirit of modern archaeology by approaching the Bible "as an artifact to be studied and evaluated rather than a work of divine inspiration that must be embraced as a matter of true belief". Phyllis Trible, professor of biblical studies at Wake Forest University, concluded her review in The New York Times as follows:

A review of the book by fellow archaeologist William G. Dever was published in the Biblical Archaeology Review and subsequently in the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. At the outset of the review, Dever described the book as a "convoluted story", writing that "This clever, trendy work may deceive lay readers". What proceeded was heated exchanges between Dever and Finkelstein. Dever's review noted that the book had many strengths, notably archaeology's potential for re-writing the history of "Ancient Israel", but complained that it misrepresented his own views and concluded by characterizing Finkelstein as "idiosyncratic and doctrinaire". Finkelstein's reaction was to call Dever a "jealous academic parasite," and the debate quickly degenerated from that point.

Evangelical Christian biblical scholar Kenneth Kitchen was critical, writing that "[A] careful critical perusal of this work—which certainly has much to say about both archaeology and the biblical writings—reveals that we are dealing very largely with a work of imaginative fiction, not a serious or reliable account of the subject", and "Their treatment of the exodus is among the most factually ignorant and misleading that this writer has ever read." Another evangelical, Richard Hess, also being critical, wrote that "The authors always present their interpretation of the archaeological data but do not mention or interact with contemporary alternative approaches. Thus the book is ideologically driven and controlled."

The book became a bestseller within its field. In February 2009, Amazon.com ranked it as the 8th most popular in the fields of Old Testament Christian Theology, and the Archaeology of Christianity, as well as being the 22nd most popular book on the history of Israel. In 2006, the popularity of the text led to a four-part documentary series upon it, which was subsequently broadcast on The History Channel.

Several books were published in response to The Bible Unearthed:

 Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? by William G. Dever;
 David's Secrets Demons (2004) by Baruch Halpern;
 On the Reliability of the Old Testament (2006) by Kenneth Kitchen.

See also
 Dating the Bible#Torah
 Biblical archaeology

References

Bibliography
 Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon & Schuster, 2002  at Internet Archive

External links
 Review, Denver Seminary
 Review, Institute for Biblical and Scientific Studies
 Review, Journal of Religion and Society, Creighton University
 Review, Salon.com

2001 non-fiction books
Religion in ancient Israel and Judah
Archaeology books
History books about Judaism
Hebrew Bible studies
Biblical archaeology
Books about the Bible
Books about Palestine (region)
Books about ancient Israel and Judah
Free Press (publisher) books

The Bible Unearthed