Ruby Alline Bullock (December 1, 1936 – September 4, 2010) was an American songwriter. She was the older full sister of singer Tina Turner. Bullock once served as the manager of the girl group the Ikettes. She wrote songs for Ike & Tina Turner as well as their band the Kings of Rhythm, including "Funkier Than a Mosquita's Tweeter" which was covered by Nina Simone.

Biography
Ruby Alline Bullock was born on December 1, 1936, the second child of Zelma Priscilla (née Currie) and first to Floyd Richard Bullock. She had a half-sister, Evelyn Juanita Currie, who was two years older, and a younger sister, Anna Mae Bullock, three years her junior. Her family lived in Nutbush, Tennessee where her father worked as an overseer of the sharecroppers at Poindexter Farm on Highway 180.

During World War II, her parents moved up north for work and she stayed at her maternal grandparents' home while her younger sister stayed with their paternal grandparents. After the war, Bullock and her sisters were reunited with their parents in Knoxville, Tennessee. Shortly after, the family returned to Haywood County and she attended Flagg Grove Elementary School. In 1950, her mother left without notice, moving to St. Louis, Missouri, to escape her volatile marriage. Her father remarried soon after and moved to Detroit, Michigan. Bullock and her sisters were sent to live with their grandmother Georgeanna Currie in Brownsville, Tennessee. As a teenager, her half-sister Evelyn died in a car crash alongside her cousins Margaret and Vela Evans. After graduating from Carver High School in Brownsville, Bullock moved to Detroit to live with some relatives for a short while before reuniting with her mother in St. Louis.

In 1956, Bullock's grandmother Georgeanna died and her sister Anna Mae joined them in St. Louis. Bullock introduced her sister to the club scene in St. Louis and the neighboring East St. Louis, Illinois. Bullock worked as a barmaid at the Manhattan Club where the house band was Ike Turner and his Kings of Rhythm. Turner had the most popular band in the Greater St. Louis area. Bullock was dating Kings of Rhythm drummer Eugene Washington when he gave Anna Mae the microphone during an intermission in 1957. Anna Mae joined the band as Little Ann, one of Turner's vocalists.

In 1960, Turner renamed Little Ann, giving her the name Tina Turner, and formed the Ike & Tina Turner Revue. The duo released a string of hit records, including "A Fool in Love" (1960), "It's Gonna Work Out Fine" (1961), and "I Idolize You" (1961). Bullock eventually relocated to Los Angeles and lived with Ike and Tina's four sons while they toured across the country. She worked in the business side of the Ike & Tina Turner organization. She briefly managed the Ikettes (Robbie Montgomery, Venetta Fields, and Jessie Smith) after they left the revue in 1965, but Ike prevented them from using the name; they became the Mirettes. As a songwriter, Bullock wrote songs for Ike & Tina Turner, most notably "Funkier Than a Mosquita's Tweeter" on their album Workin' Together (1970). The song has been covered by various artists, including Nina Simone. She also wrote three songs on the 1972 album Strange Fruit by Family Vibes (formerly the Kings of Rhythm).

After her sister's acrimonious divorce from Ike in 1978, Bullock still considered him her brother-in-law and attended his funeral in 2007. She told Ebony in 2008: "He was generous and jovial. He seemed like he was forgiving and wanted to be forgiven for the things he did in his early years. The media, after he died, tried to destroy his name." By then, she was using the surname Selico. She died at 73 in Valley Village, California, on September 4, 2010. She is survived by her daughter, Jacquline Bullock, and her grandchildren.

Songwriting credits

 1970: Ike Turner – "Love Is a Game"
 1970: Ike & Tina Turner – "Funkier Than a Mosquita's Tweeter"
 1971: Ike & Tina Turner – "Baby (What You Want Me to Do)"
 1971: Ike & Tina Turner – "Pick Me Up (Take Me Where Your Home Is)"
 1972: The Family Vibes – "Happy but Lonely"
 1972: The Family Vibes – "Bootie Lip"
 1972: The Family Vibes – "D.M.Z."
 1974: Nina Simone – "Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter"
 2005: Nikka Costa – "Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter"
 2009: Joe Bonamassa – "Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter"
2011: Kara Grainger – "Babe What You Want Me to Do"
 2012: Morgan James – "Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter"
 2016: Cherrill Rae – "Funkier Than a Mosquita's Tweeter"

References

External links
 Aillene Bullock credits on AllMusic

1936 births
2010 deaths
People from Brownsville, Tennessee
People from Knoxville, Tennessee
People from St. Louis
Musicians from Los Angeles
African-American songwriters
American women songwriters
Songwriters from Tennessee
African-American women musicians
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women
21st-century African-American women

Alline Bullock


Kemetic Orthodoxy is a modern religious movement based on the reconstruction of ancient Egyptian religion known as Kemeticism. It was founded in 1988 by Tamara Siuda, who until 2023 was recognized as the leader of the movement, called its "Nisut" or "Pharaoh".

Although named "Kemetic Orthodoxy," Siuda considers it a cultic concept rather than a revealed religion. Followers prioritize the practice of "correct" action, rituals, and liturgy rather than adhering to a specific scripture. Worship often takes place in both public and personal shrines. The main temple is located in Joliet, Illinois, and various state shrines are maintained by priests worldwide.

The faith is guided by five fundamental principles: upholding ma'at (cosmic order), belief in Netjer (the supreme being), veneration of akhu (ancestors), participation in and respect for the community, and acknowledgment of Siuda as the Nisut. Practitioners of the faith are known as "Shemsu".

Kemetic Orthodoxy has attracted attention from sociologists and Egyptologists for its size, prominence on the internet, and its influence on Kemeticism as a whole. Many other Kemetic groups have emerged from or defined themselves in relation to it. The presence of a central authority and emphasis on tradition within Kemetic Orthodoxy sets it apart from other predominantly online-organized religions and challenges early theories about the nature of religion on the internet.

Main beliefs

Kemetic Orthodoxy is based on the religious practices of Ancient Egypt, although it is not strictly a reconstructionist religion. While it draws from primary Egyptian sources, it also incorporates additional rites developed by Siuda and incorporates elements from other modern African Traditional Religions and African diaspora religions.

The belief system of Kemetic Orthodoxy centers around five principal tenets, often described as four main tenets unified by a fundamental commitment to upholding ma'at. It is important to note that these tenets are not considered dogma by the organization. Instead, they serve as a foundation for the beliefs of most Kemetic Orthodoxy members, but individual beliefs may vary. The religion does not mandate uniformity in practice, and differing viewpoints are seen as different ways of understanding God, or Netjer.

Belief in upholding Ma'at
In Ancient Egyptian religion, Ma'at represents the principles of truth, justice, and balance, as well as the goddess embodying these ideals. Upholding Ma'at is of great importance in Kemetic Orthodox practice. The rituals and prayers performed by members are considered to contribute to the preservation and promotion of Ma'at. Additionally, members are encouraged to take tangible steps in addressing social justice matters. The House of Netjer has publicly denounced police violence and anti-immigration policies in the USA.

Belief in Netjer (the supreme being)
Kemetic Orthodoxy holds the belief that the Ancient Egyptian gods are manifestations of a supreme being known as Netjer, which can be translated as "divine power." These manifestations are referred to as the "Names" of Netjer. While the House of Netjer's website may describe this belief as monolatry, it is more accurately characterized as inclusive monotheism. The Names are understood to encompass personal deities, impersonal forces, and metaphorical concepts simultaneously. It is also recognized that Names can merge and identify with one another, resulting in historically documented syncretizations, such as Sekhmet-Hathor. Siuda believes that the gods manifest in this way to allow for human comprehension.

Members of Kemetic Orthodoxy report receiving communication from Netjer through dreams, omens, divination, and sensing its presence in natural phenomena.

Akhu (Ancestor) veneration
Members of Kemetic Orthodoxy believe that their ancestors reside in the Duat as Akhu. As Akhu have already experienced human life, it is believed that they can offer valuable guidance and support to their descendants in matters related to daily life. Honoring the Akhu is seen as a way to ensure their happiness and contentment in the Duat.

There are various ways in which members believe they can honor their Akhu. These practices range from maintaining household ancestor shrines where offerings can be made, to writing letters addressed to the Akhu and posting them on a dedicated website, similar to the tradition of writing letters to the deceased in Ancient Egypt.

Within Kemetic Orthodoxy, Akhu are generally classified into three categories: Family, National, and Associational.

Family Akhu encompass deceased family members such as parents, siblings, and children.

National Akhu are associated with the Kemetic Orthodoxy organization. This can be compared to the veneration of pharaohs or notable individuals in Ancient Egypt.

Associational Akhu include any other Akhu connected to an individual, whether through direct contact by the Akhu, shared interests, or other reasons for forming a bond. Examples may include celebrities or political leaders.

Participation in and respect for the community
Members are encouraged to view Kemetic Orthodoxy as an extended spiritual community. The House of Netjer provides resources such as spiritual counseling, discussion groups, and fellowship chats over IRC and on their forum to foster a sense of belonging and connection among members. Kemetic Orthodoxy also places importance on the role of family in the personal lives of adherents, promoting the cultivation of strong relationships and understanding with family members. This concept is closely tied to the principle of Akhu veneration, highlighting the value placed on honoring and maintaining bonds with one's ancestors.

Acknowledgment of Siuda as the Nisut
During her tenure as such, the recognition of Tamara L. Siuda as the spiritual leader, or Nisut-Bity, held significant importance within Kemetic Orthodoxy. The teachings and guidance provided by Siuda form the foundation of the religion. Additionally, adherents believe that the Nisut embodies the current manifestation of the "kingly ka" or invested spirit of Heru.  Upon her coronation in 1996, Siuda's followers believed she became the 196th Pharaoh of the Ancient Egyptian religion. In Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh held both political and religious authority, serving as the direct link between the people and Netjer (God). However, within Kemetic Orthodoxy, Siuda's role primarily focused on the religious aspect of this position. As the Nisut, Siuda fulfilled various responsibilities, including performing daily rituals to uphold ma'at (truth, justice, and balance) and counter isfet (chaos), offering regular prayers for the members of the faith, and providing guidance on religious matters to her followers. Adherents do not worship Siuda as a deity but attribute to her a semi-divine status.

Siuda publicly announced her abdication from the position of Nisut on August 1st, stating that the role placed too much responsibility and authority on one person. She additionally expressed that she had been hesitant to take on the role to begin with, but believed that Netjer deemed it necessary at the time. The organizational structure that Kemetic Orthodoxy will now take has not yet been determined.

Worship

Worship practices in Kemetic Orthodoxy encompass a variety of forms. The religion includes official rituals conducted by the priesthood and the Nisut (spiritual leader) of Kemetic Orthodoxy. Additionally, there is a daily rite called Senut performed by temple members. Individual practitioners also have the freedom to engage in more personalized forms of worship.

Kemetic Orthodoxy adheres to a festival calendar that draws inspiration from historical sources. This calendar aligns with the celestial phenomena observed in ancient calendars, but it is adjusted based on the position of the modern "royal residence" at the organization's main temple and headquarters in Joliet.

Group worship

There are various types of group rituals in Kemetic Orthodoxy, some of which can be conducted in person while others are simulcasted through Internet Relay Chat. In simulcasted rituals, participants in the chat room are informed about the ongoing activities by a priest who is physically present at the Truth and the Mother Shrine. At certain points, participants joining remotely may be asked to perform a ritual action at home and notify the attending priest in the chat room once completed.

It is important to note that while Kemetic Orthodoxy has a significant online presence, it is considered a religion that exists on the internet rather than an internet-based religion, as emphasized by Siuda. Offline gatherings and rituals are also organized by members of Kemetic Orthodoxy. The Kemetic New Year, Wep Ronpet, is a notable event that takes place at Tawy House in August, where members come together for rituals, fellowship, lectures, and workshops.

One example of group worship in Kemetic Orthodoxy is Saq, as mentioned by Krogh & Pillifant (2004). Saq involves ritual possession, where a specialized priest is believed to be fully possessed by a deity. Through this medium, the deity communicates with members of Kemetic Orthodoxy and accepts offerings. Saq rituals can be conducted entirely in person or simulcasted online, with participants in the online platform sending messages to the attending priest, who then relays them to the deity during possession. It is described as one of the most profound and immediate experiences in Kemetic Orthodoxy.

Personal/Individual worship

Individuals engage in worship through a wide range of practices, encompassing both structured rituals and spontaneous prayers. Worship is a continuous and personal process. Here are a few examples of personal worship and rituals:

Personal shrines
Most members of Kemetic Orthodoxy incorporate household shrines into their devotional practices. These shrines serve as a dedicated space for worshiping the deities they follow. The essential components of a shrine include an incense burner or diffuser, a lamp or candle, and a designated area for offerings. The shrine may feature representations of specific deities or have a more generalized focus. It often contains objects that have been offered to the deities. Individuals utilize these shrines to perform various rituals, including the daily rite of Senut. They may honor deities they feel a particular connection to, deities associated with specific festivals or seasons, or deities for whom they have a specific request.

Alongside these personal shrines dedicated to deities, members of Kemetic Orthodoxy are encouraged to establish shrines to their ancestors or Akhu as part of ancestor veneration. These shrines typically hold mementos and items associated with deceased individuals who were close to the member. They serve as the central focal point for honoring ancestors within the member's home.

Senut ritual

Senut, which translates to "shrine," is a ritual that was created by Siuda specifically for members of Kemetic Orthodoxy. It serves as a formal worship practice within a framework where dedicated temples and regional shrines may be unavailable. The Senut ritual encompasses multiple rites and is designed to be a comprehensive ritual that can be performed individually. It contains all the essential elements found in Kemetic rituals, ensuring that practitioners can engage in a fully functional ritual regardless of whether they are practicing alone or as part of a group.

Other personal worship

In addition to the Senut ritual, Kemetic Orthodoxy allows for the development of personal and informal forms of worship. Members are encouraged to cultivate their own individual practices, which can vary from person to person. Informal prayers and worship are recognized as vital components of the faith.

While individual worship holds significant importance in Kemetic Orthodoxy, the experiences and practices are often shared among fellow members of the religion. This shared aspect is intended to foster stronger connections between individuals and Netjer. Many practitioners express their devotion through artistic expressions such as paintings, drawings, sculptures, jewelry, poetry, music, dance, and storytelling. These creative works are often shared and appreciated by other members of the community.

History

Kemetic Orthodoxy originated from the teachings of Siuda. The temple's foundation can be traced back to 1988 when Siuda reported having a series of visions during her initiation as a Wiccan priestess. Motivated to learn about ancient Egyptian religion as it was practiced, Siuda pursued a degree in Egyptology. She formed a small study and worship group during this time, which gradually attracted more members. In 1993, the group obtained federal recognition as a religious entity and changed its name from the House of Bast to the House of Netjer. The temple received tax-exempt status in 1999.

In 2003, the House of Netjer acquired a permanent building in Joliet, Illinois, to serve as the temple's home. This facility includes the main state shrine for Kemetic Orthodoxy followers, known as The Truth and the Mother Shrine. It also houses the offices of some priesthood members, as well as Siuda's permanent living quarters and office.

Community
The House of Netjer community spans across multiple countries, creating a global network of members. To facilitate communication and connection, members are organized into geographical regions. Certain regions hold regular meet-ups, providing opportunities for socializing, fellowship, and worship. Some gatherings even invite non-members to interact with the community.

In addition to in-person events, the community also holds online chats in various formats. Online events come in diverse forms, ranging from informal fellowship gatherings to structured educational sessions. These sessions involve group discussions led by one or more members on topics of interest.

Membership

There are two categories of membership in Kemetic Orthodoxy: Remetj and Shemsu. Remetj, which translates to "royal subjects," are commonly referred to as "friends of the faith." Remetj may include individuals who have completed the free online group introductory course but have not yet become full members, as well as those who intend to become members in the future but have not taken that step. Additionally, individuals who were born into the faith may also be considered Remetj. A person who was previously a full member but no longer holds that status may also be referred to as a Remetj.

Shemsu, meaning "followers," are individuals who have made the decision to become full members of the House of Netjer temple. To become a Shemsu, one must have previously been a Remetj (having completed the introductory course) and participate in a ritual that signifies full membership.

This ritual consists of two parts. The first part involves determining the convert's "Parent" and "Beloved" gods. According to Kemetic Orthodox belief, the Parent god(s) create the eternal soul, or ba, of the candidate, while the Beloved gods, who can be multiple, take a personal interest in guiding the individual throughout their life. This ritual, known as the "Ritual Parent Divination" (RPD), is a geomantic divination conducted by Siuda on behalf of the convert. The results of the RPD may be communicated through a face-to-face meeting between Siuda and the Remetj or through telephone and internet communication.

The second part of the ritual is a community gathering of Remetj and Shemsu known as Shemsu naming. Within the Shemsu group, there are those who have undergone an initiation rite called Weshem-ib, also known as the "testing of the heart." During this process, members take special vows not only prioritizing Kemetic Orthodoxy over other religious practices but also committing to serve the religion and its members. These responsibilities are in addition to the regular oaths taken by Shemsu. A Shemsu who has completed the Weshem-ib is referred to as a Shemsu-Ankh. It is important to note that all priests within Kemetic Orthodoxy must undertake this rite.

Priesthood

The priesthood of Kemetic Orthodoxy consists of both lay (non-ordained) and ordained priests, using the term "priest" for both males and females. The primary role of a priest is to serve the members of the faith, rather than the Names of Netjer.

A W'ab priest, known as a purity priest, is a lay priest within Kemetic Orthodoxy. These individuals are Shemsu-Ankh members who have undergone additional training and taken oaths of service to the faith community. As W'ab priests, their main responsibility is to oversee and assist with matters of purity. They are also responsible for maintaining an official shrine and conducting daily rituals there. Some of these shrines are open to visiting members, particularly for specific rituals and celebrations.

An Imakhu (plural Imakhiu), translated as revered one, is the only type of ordained priest in modern Kemetic Orthodoxy. They are granted legal credentials and have the right to use the title of "Reverend" outside of the Kemetic Orthodox faith. All Imakhu priests also serve as W'ab priests.

Imakhu priests have various responsibilities, including assisting the Nisut (spiritual leader) in supporting and guiding the faithful. This can involve counseling (if trained), conducting weddings, providing support and instruction to Remetj, Shemsu, and Beginners, and acting as official representatives of the Nisut. They also handle administrative tasks within the House of Netjer temple, such as managing finances, correspondence, time and resource management, reporting to the membership and Siuda, teaching, maintaining the Kemetic Orthodox online presence, scheduling appointments and trips for Siuda, ensuring personal security, and other related duties.

In recognition of exceptional service, an Imakhu may be granted the title of Kai-Imakhu, with the prefix "Kai" meaning "exalted". Kai-Imakhu priests, in addition to their regular Imakhu responsibilities, are also responsible for overseeing other Imakhu priests.

Tawy House Retreat Center

The Tawy House Retreat Center organizes religious and study retreats for members of Kemetic Orthodoxy. These retreats include the week-long celebrations of Wep Ronpet, also known as Kemetic New Year's Day, which takes place in early August.

The Truth and the Mother Shrine is the primary state shrine for followers of the Kemetic Orthodox Religion. It encompasses a variety of individual and group deity shrines, such as the Akhushrine and Nisut shrine. The specific shrines within the Truth and the Mother Shrine may rotate throughout the year based on current festivals and the needs of the community. Additionally, the Truth and the Mother Shrine is connected to various priest shrines located around the world.

The Imhotep Kemetic Orthodox Seminary is a school dedicated to the theological study of the Kemetic Orthodox religion. It offers introductory and intermediate classes in the Middle Egyptian language, as well as a course in Kemetic protective magic known as "Sau." While these courses are available, they are optional for all members of the faith.

The Udjat Foundation was a related non-profit organization specifically focused on supporting children's welfare causes.

Kemetic Orthodoxy and other religions

Kemetic Orthodoxy does not maintain any formal affiliations or official relationships with other religions. Other contemporary Kemetic groups, such as Akhet Hwt-Hrw, Per Ankh, and Per Heh, operate independently and have distinct beliefs separate from Kemetic Orthodoxy.

Religious pluralism

In Kemetic Orthodoxy, it is acknowledged that individuals may choose to follow multiple religious paths. However, members are encouraged to maintain a clear separation between their Kemetic beliefs and practices and any other religious beliefs or practices they may hold. For those who have undergone the Weshem-ib or "testing of the heart" ritual, there is an expectation to prioritize their Kemetic practices and beliefs above other religious considerations. It is important to note that participation in the Weshem-ib ritual is not obligatory for all Kemetic Orthodox members, although it is a mandatory requirement for priesthood.

Proselytism

The Kemetic Orthodox religion does not actively promote or encourage its members to seek converts.

References and notes

Offline references
 Dawson, Lorne & Cowan, Douglas. Religion Online: Finding Faith on the Internet. Routledge, 2004.

 Krogh, Marilyn. & Pillifant, Brooke Ashley. "Kemetic Orthodoxy: Ancient Egyptian Religion on the Internet: A Research Note." Sociology of Religion 65.2(2004): 167-175.
 Siuda, Tamara L. The Ancient Egyptian Prayerbook. Azrael, 2005.

External links
Kemetic Orthodoxy main site
The House of Netjer forums and gallery
Tawy House
Imhotep Kemetic Orthodox Seminary
The Udjat Foundation

Kemetism
Modern pagan organizations based in the United States
Modern pagan organizations established in 1988

Kemetic Orthodoxy


Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors.

When looking at artworks and architecture from antiquity and the middle ages, people tend to believe that they were monochrome. In reality, the pre-Renaissance past was full of colour, and all the Greco-Roman sculptures and Gothic cathedrals, that are now white, beige or grey, were initially painted in bright colours. As André Malraux stated, "Athens was never white but her statues, bereft of color, have conditioned the artistic sensibilities of Europe... the whole past has reached us colorless." Polychrome was and is a practice not limited only to the Western world. Non-Western artworks, like Chinese temples, Oceanian Uli figures, or Maya ceramic vases, were also decorated with colours.

Ancient Near East
Similarly to the ancient art of other regions, Ancient Near Eastern art was polychrome, bright colours being often present. Many sculptures no longer have their original colouring today, but there are still examples that keep it. One of the best is the Ishtar Gate, the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon (in the area of present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq). It was constructed in 575 BC by the order of King Nebuchadnezzar II on the north side of the city. It was part of a grand walled processional way leading into the city. Its colours are as rich as they were back in the day because of the fact that the walls were made of glazed brick.

Many Ancient Near Eastern sculptures were painted too. Although they are grey today, all the Assyrian reliefs that decorated royal palaces were painted in highly saturated colours.

Ancient Egypt
Thanks to the dry climate of Egypt, the original colours of many ancient sculptures in round, reliefs, paintings and various objects were well preserved. Some of the best preserved examples of ancient Egyptian architecture were the tombs, covered inside with sculpted reliefs painted in bright colours or just frescos. Egyptian artists primarily worked in black, red, yellow, brown, blue, and green pigments. These colours were derived from ground minerals, synthetic materials (Egyptian blue, Egyptian green, and frits used to make glass and ceramic glazes), and carbon-based blacks (soot and charcoal). Most of the minerals were available from local supplies, like iron-oxide pigments (red ochre, yellow ochre, and umber); white derived from the calcium carbonate found in Egypt's extensive limestone hills; and blue and green from azurite and malachite.

Besides their decorative effect, colours were also used for their symbolic associations. Colours on sculptures, coffins, and architecture had both aesthetic and symbolic qualities. Ancient Egyptians saw black as the colour of the fertile alluvial soil, and so associated it with fertility and regeneration. Black was also associated with the afterlife, and was the colour of funerary deities like Anubis. White was the colour of purity, while green and blue were associated with vegetation and rejuvenation. Because of this, Osiris was often shown with green skin, and the faces of coffins from the 26th Dynasty were often green. Red, orange, and yellow were associated with the sun. Red was also the colour of the deserts, and hence associated with Seth and the forces of destruction.

Later, during the 19th century, expeditions took place that had the purpose of cataloging the art and culture of ancient Egypt. Description de l'Égypte is a series of early 19th century publications full of illustrations of monuments and artifacts of Ancient Egypt. Most are black-and-white, but some are colourful, so they can show the polychromy from the past. In some cases, only a few traces of paint remained on the walls, pillars and sculptures, but the illustrators attempted successfully at showing the buildings' original state in their pictures.

Classical world

Some very early polychrome pottery has been excavated on Minoan Crete such as at the Bronze Age site of Phaistos. In ancient Greece sculptures were painted in strong colors. The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone. But it could cover sculptures in their totality. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art. For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have recently been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. The polychrome of stone statues was paralleled by the use of materials to distinguish skin, clothing and other details in chryselephantine sculptures, and by the use of metals to depict lips, nipples, etc., on high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes.

An early example of polychrome decoration was found in the Parthenon atop the Acropolis of Athens. By the time European antiquarianism took off in the 18th century, however, the paint that had been on classical buildings had completely weathered off. Thus, the antiquarians' and architects' first impressions of these ruins were that classical beauty was expressed only through shape and composition, lacking in robust colors, and it was that impression which informed neoclassical architecture. However, some classicists such as Jacques Ignace Hittorff noticed traces of paint on classical architecture and this slowly came to be accepted. Such acceptance was later accelerated by observation of minute color traces by microscopic and other means, enabling less tentative reconstructions than Hittorff and his contemporaries had been able to produce. An example of classical Greek architectural polychrome may be seen in the full size replica of the Parthenon exhibited in Nashville, Tennessee, US.

East Asia
Chinese art is known for the use of vibrant colours. Neolithic Chinese ceramic vessels, like those produced by the Yangshao culture, show the use of black and red pigments. Later, tomb and religious sculptures appear as a consequence of the spread of Buddhism. The deities most common in Chinese Buddhist sculpture are forms of the Buddha and the bodhisattva Guanyin. Traces of gold and bright colours in which sculptures were painted still give an idea of their effect. During the Han and Tang dynasties, polychrome ceramic figurines of servants, entertainers, tenants and soldiers were placed in the tombs of people from upper-class. These figurines were mass-produced in moulds. Although Chinese porcelain is best known as being blue-and-white, many colorful ceramic vases and figures were produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties. During the same two dynasties, cloisonné vessels that use copper wires (cloisons) and bright enamel were also manufactured.

Similarly to what was happening in China, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan in 538 (or perhaps 552 AD) lead to the production of polychrome Japanese Buddhist sculptures. Japanese religious imagery had until then consisted of disposable clay figures used to convey prayers to the spirit world.

Medieval
Throughout medieval Europe religious sculptures in wood and other media were often brightly painted or colored, as were the interiors of church buildings. These were often destroyed or whitewashed during iconoclast phases of the Protestant Reformation or in other unrest such as the French Revolution, though some have survived in museums such as the V&A, Musée de Cluny and Louvre. The exteriors of churches were painted as well, but little has survived. Exposure to the elements and changing tastes and religious approval over time acted against their preservation. The "Majesty Portal" of the Collegiate church of Toro is the most extensive remaining example, due to the construction of a chapel which enclosed and protected it from the elements just a century after it was completed.

17th and 18th centuries

While stone and metal sculpture normally remained uncolored, like the classical survivals, polychromed wood sculptures were produced by Spanish artists: Juan Martínez Montañés, Gregorio Fernández (17th century); German: Ignaz Günther, Philipp Jakob Straub (18th century), or Brazilian: Aleijadinho (19th century).

Monochromatic color solutions of architectural orders were also designed in the late,
dynamic Baroque, drawing on the ideas of Borromini and Guarini. Single-colored stone
cladding was used: light sandstone, as in the case of the façade of the Bamberg Jesuit
church (Gunzelmann 2016) designed by Georg and Leonhard Dientzenhofer (1686–1693),
the façade of the monastery church in Michelsberg by Leonard Dientzenhofer (1696), and
the abbey church in Neresheim by J.B. Neumann (1747–1792).

In the space of present-day Germany, during the 18th century, the Asam brothers (Egid Quirin Asam and Cosmas Damian Asam) designed churches with undulating walls, curved borken pediments and polychromy. In the German-speaking space, multiple Rococo churches and libraries with pastel polychrome stuccos and columns were built. There, faux marble columns are made from wood pillars that are covered in a layer of polychrome stucco, a mixture of plaster, lime and pigment. When these ingredients are mixed, a homogenous-coloured paste is created. To achieve the marble look, thinner batches of darker and lighter paste are made, so that veins begin to appear. It's all roughly mixed by hand. When the material hardens it's polished by rubbing with fine sandpaper, and thus this layer of polychrome stucco becomes glossy and imitates really realistically marble. A good example of this is the Library of the Wiblingen Abbey in Ulm, Germany. Faux marble made of stucco will continue to be used during the 19th and early 20th centuries too. It is used only for interiors, because stucco dissolves outside through of contact with water.

In Wallachia, during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Brâncovenesc style was popular in architecture and decorative arts. It is named after Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu, during whose reign it was developed. Some of the churches in this style have polychrome facades, decorated with murals, like the church of the Stavropoleos Monastery in Bucharest, Romania.

The 2nd half of the 18th century was the rise of Neoclassicism, a movement which tries its best at reviving the styles of Ancient Greece, Rome, the Etruscan civilization and sometimes even Egypt. During Louis XVI's reign (1760-1789), interiors in the Louis XVI style start to be decorated with arabesques, inspired by those discovered in ancient houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They are painted in pastel colours, painted white with the ornate parts gilt, or polychrome. The State Dining Room of the Inveraray Castle in Scotland, decorated by two French painters, is a good example of a polychrome Louis XVI style interior.

Porcelain

With the arrival of European porcelain in the 18th century, brightly colored pottery figurines with a wide range of colors became very popular. Porcelain was developed in China in the 9th century. Its recipe was kept secret from other nations, and only successfully copied in the 15th century by the Japanese and Vietnamese. During the 18th century, German kilns finally figured out how to make porcelain, beginning with the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger and the physicist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhausen, who made the first European variety in 1709. The Meissen Porcelain Factory was founded in the following year, and it became the leading European porcelain manufacturer. Later, other kilns stole the recipe or came up with their own porcelain technology. Another really famous factory was the Sèvres, which produced stunning porcelain for the French elite during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.

19th century
Compared to the 18th century, polychromy was somewhat more widespread in the 19th. However, the facades of most buildings remained white, most sculptures were unpainted, and most furniture was in the shades of its materials. Colours were added usually though glazed ceramics on buildings, different types of stone on sculptures, and through painting or intarsia most often on furniture. Like in the 18th century, porcelain remained quite colourful, many figures being life-like. In contrast with their exteriors, interiors of many houses of the rich were often decorated with boiserie, stucco, and/or painted. Like in the 2nd half of the 18th century, multiple bronze clocks and decorative objects have two tints through gilding and patina. Porcelain elements were also added for more colour.

Neoclassicism
Despite evidence of polychrome being discovered on Ancient Greek architecture and sculptures, most Neoclassical buildings have white or beige facades, and black metalwork. Around 1840, the French architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff, published studies of Sicilian architecture, documenting extensive evidence of color. The 'polychrome controversy' raged for over a decade and proved to be a challenge for Neoclassical architects throughout Europe.

Due to the discovery of frescos in the Roman cities Pompeii and Herculaneum during the 18th century, multiple 18th and 19th century Neoclassical houses have their interiors decorated with colourful Pompeian style frescos. They often feature bright red, known as "Pompeian red". The fashion for Pompeian styles of painting resulted in rooms finished in vivid blocks of colour. Examples include the Pompeian Room from the Hinxton Hall in Cambridgeshire, the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Empress Joséphine's Bedroom from the Château de Malmaison, and Napoleon's bath of the Château de Rambouillet. By the beginning of the 19th century, painters were also able to create effects of marbling and graining to imitate wood.

19th century Maximalism
'More is more' was the aesthetic principle followed in the Victorian era. Maximalism, is present in many types of Victorian era designs, like ceramics, furniture, cutlery, tableware, fashion, architecture, book illustration, clocks etc. Despite the appetite for ornamentation, many of them remain decorated with only a few colours, especially furniture. Ceramics were the field where polychrome was widespread. Besides objects, polychrome ceramic was also present in architecture and some furniture pieces and architecture through tiles.

The objects and buildings of the 19th century shown in the galleries of this page are without any doubt impressive. Today were are delighted by their ornaments, colours and styles. However, up to the 1960s, with the rise of Postmodernism, when people started to question Modernism and began to appreciate things from the pre-Modern past, the verdict of Victorian designs wasn't good. During the early 20th century and even when they were made, some described the Victorian age as being one that has been providing us with some of the ugliest objects that have ever been made. Descriptions like 'aesthetic monstrosities' or 'ornamental abominations' were around at the time, and it only got worse. At the end of the 19th century, Marc-Louis Solon (1835-1913), a well established ceramic designer, who worked for Minton and Company, was not unusual in commenting that the period 'bears the stamp of an unmitigated bad taste'. As time passed, negative opinions only got worse. Pioneer Mondern architects Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier felt that works like this were not simply bad, they were such an affront they should have been made illegal.

Polychrome brickwork

Polychrome brickwork is a style of architectural brickwork which emerged in the 1860s and used bricks of different colours (brown, cream, yellow, red, blue and black) in patterned combinations to highlight architectural features. These patterns were made around window arches or were just applied on walls. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining. Early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks. Elements of glazed ceramic with details were also used for more complex ornaments.

Romanian Revival style

In the Kingdom of Romania, the Romanian Revival style appeared at the end of the 19th century. It is the Romanian equivalent of the National Romantic style that was popular at the same time in Northern Europe. The movement is heavily inspired by Brâncovenesc architecture, a style that was popular in Wallachia in the late 17th and ealry 18th centuries. Interiors of houses in this style built before WW1 are often decorated with a variety of bright colours. In the case of a few buildings, the polychrome extends on the exterior too, through the use of colorful glazed ceramic tiles. The style became more popular in the 20th century. A Romanian Revival house that stands out through its variety of colours is the Gheorghe Petrașcu House (Piața Romană no. 5) in Bucharest, by Spiru Cegăneanu, 1912

20th century
In the twentieth century there were notable periods of polychromy in architecture, from the expressions of Art Nouveau throughout Europe, to the international flourishing of Art Deco or Art Moderne, to the development of postmodernism in the latter decades of the century. During these periods, brickwork, stone, tile, stucco and metal facades were designed with a focus on the use of new colors and patterns, while architects often looked for inspiration to historical examples ranging from Islamic tilework to English Victorian brick.

Before WWI
At the beginning of the 20th century, before the world wars, Revivalism (including Neoclassicism and the Gothic Revival) and eclecticism of historic styles were very popular in design and architecture. Many of the things said about the 19th century are still in this period. Many of the buildings from this period have their interiors decorated with colours, through tiles, mosaics, stuccos or murals. When it comes to exteriors, most polychrome facades are decorated with ceramic tiles.

Art Nouveau was also in fashion during the 1900s all over the Western world. However, it fragmented by 1911 and from then it steadily faded, until it disappeared with WW1. Some regular Art Nouveau buildings have their facades decorated with colourful glazed ceramic ornaments. The colours used are often more earthy and faded compared to the intense ones used by Neoclassicism. Compared to other movements in design and architecture, Art Nouveau was one with different versions in multiple countries. The Belgian and French form is characterized by organic shapes, ornaments taken from the plant world, sinuous lines, asymmetry (especially when it comes to objects design), the whiplash motif, the femme fatale, and other elements of nature. In Austria, Germany and the UK, it took a more stylized geometric form, as a form of protest towards revivalism and eclecticism. The geometric ornaments found in Gustav Klimt's paintings and in the furniture of Koloman Moser are representative of the Vienna Secession (Austrian Art Nouveau). In some countries, artists found inspiration in national tradition and folklore. In the UK for example, multiple silversmiths used interlaces taken from Celtic art. Similarly, Hungarian, Russian, and Ukrainian architects used polychromatic folkloric motifs on their buildings, usually through colourful ceramic ornaments.

Modernism
During the interwar period and the middle of the 20th century, Modernism was in fashion. To Modernists, form was more important than ornament, so solid blocks of strong colour were often used to emphasize shape and create contrast. Primary colours and black and white were preferred. This is really the case of the Dutch De Stijl movement, which began in 1917. The style involved reducing an object (whether a painting or a design) to its essentials, using only black, white and primary colours, and a simple geometry of straight lines and planes. Gerrit Rietveld's Red and Blue Chair (1917-1918) and Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht (1924) show this use of colour. Polychromy in Modernist design was not limited to De Stijl. The Unité d'habitation, a residential housing typology developed by Le Corbusier, has some flat colourful parts.

Some Art Deco objects, buildings and interiors stand out through their polychromy and use of intense colours. Fauvism, with its highly saturated colours, like the paintings of Henri Matisse, was an influence for some Art Deco designers. Another influence for polychromy were the Ballets Russes. Leon Bakst's stage designs filled Parisian artistic circles with enthusiasm for bright colours.

Despite their lack of ornamentation, multiple Mid-century modern designs, like Lucienne Day's textiles, Charles and Ray Eames's Hang-It-All coat hanger (1953), or Irving Harper's Marshmallow sofa (1956), are decorated with colours. Aside from individual objects, mid-century modern interiors were also quite colourful. This was also caused by the fact that after WW2, plastics became increasingly popular as a material for kitchenware and kitchen units, light fixtures, electrical appliances and toys, and by the fact that plastic could be produced in a wide range of colours, from jade green to red.

Postmodernism
The use of vivid colours continued with Postmodernism, in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Compared to Mid-century modern objects, which often had intense colours but were monochrome, Postmodern design and architecture stand out through the use of a variety of colours on single objects or buildings. Postmodern architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi (Allen Memorial Art Museum addition; Best Company Warehouse), Michael Graves (Snyderman House; Humana Building), and James Stirling (Neue Staatsgalerie; Arthur M. Sackler Museum), among others. In the UK, John Outram created numerous bright and colourful buildings throughout the 1980s and 90s, including the "Temple of Storms" pumping station. Aside from architecture, bright colours were present on everything, from furniture to textiles and posters. Neon greens and yellows were popular in product design, as were fluorescent tones of scarlet, pink, and orange used together. Injection-moulded plastics gave designers new creative freedom, making it possible to mass produce almost any shape (and colour) quickly and cheaply.

An artist well known for her polychrome artworks is Niki de Saint Phalle, who produced many sculptures painted in bold colours. She devoted the later decades of her life to building a live-in sculpture park in Tuscany, the Tarot Garden, with artworks covered in vibrant colourful mosaics.

United States
Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the modern paint industry following the American Civil War also helped to fuel the (sometimes extravagant) use of multiple colors.

The polychrome facade style faded with the rise of the 20th century's revival movements, which stressed classical colors applied in restrained fashion and, more importantly, with the birth of modernism, which advocated clean, unornamented facades rendered in white stucco or paint. Polychromy reappeared with the flourishing of the preservation movement and its embrace of (what had previously been seen as) the excesses of the Victorian era and in San Francisco, California in the 1970s to describe its abundant late-nineteenth-century houses. These earned the endearment 'Painted Ladies', a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have been painted with period colors.

John Joseph Earley (1881–1945) developed a "polychrome" process of concrete slab construction and ornamentation that was admired across America. In the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, his products graced a variety of buildings — all formed by the staff of the Earley Studio in Rosslyn, Virginia. Earley's Polychrome Historic District houses in Silver Spring, Maryland were built in the mid-1930s. The concrete panels were pre-cast with colorful stones and shipped to the lot for on-site assembly. Earley wanted to develop a higher standard of affordable housing after the Depression, but only a handful of the houses were built before he died; written records of his concrete casting techniques were destroyed in a fire. Less well-known, but just as impressive, is the Dr. Fealy Polychrome House that Earley built atop a hill in Southeast Washington, D.C. overlooking the city. His uniquely designed polychrome houses were outstanding among prefabricated houses in the country, appreciated for their Art Deco ornament and superb craftsmanship.

Native American ceramic artists, in particular those in the Southwest, produced polychrome pottery from the time of the Mogollon cultures and Mimbres peoples to contemporary times.

21st century
In the 2000s, the art of designing art toys was taking off. Multiple monochrome or polychrome vinyl figurines were produced during this period, and are still produced during the 2020s. A few artists who designed vinyl toys include Joe Ledbetter, Takashi Murakami, Flying Förtress and CoonOne1.

A rapper who stood out though his colourful outfits was Tyler, the Creator. In June of 2011, he officially launched a streetwear brand called Golf Wang. Partnering with graphic designer Phil Toselli, who became the brand's lead art director, Tyler created full seasonal collections. Tyler also collaborated with Vans, creating multiple polychrome shoes. Both Golf Wang and the result of the Vans collaboration stand out through the use of multiple vibrant colours.

During the 2010s and the early 2020s, a new interest for Postmodern architecture and design appeared. One of the causes were memorial exhibitions that presented the style, the most comprehensive and influential one being held at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London in 2011, called Postmodernism: Style and Subversion, 1975-1990. The Salone del Mobile in Milan since 2014 showcased revivals, reinterpretations, and new postmodern-influenced designs. Because of this, multiple funky polychrome buildings were erected, like the House for Essex, Wrabness, Essex, the UK, by FAT and Grayson Perry, 2014 or the Miami Museum Garage, Miami, USA, by WORKac, 2018.

Besides revivals of Postmodernism, another key design movement of the early 2020s is Maximalism. Since its philosophy can be summarized as "more is more", contrasting with the minimalist motto "less is more", it is characterized by a wide use of intense colours and patterns.

Polychromatic light
The term polychromatic means having several colors. It is used to describe light that exhibits more than one color, which also means that it contains radiation of more than one wavelength. The study of polychromatics is particularly useful in the production of diffraction gratings.

See also
 Encarnación Spanish form of polychrome sculpture
 Monochrome (opposite of polychrome)

Notes

References

External links

 Research in the field of ancient polychrome sculpture In German
 Amiens Cathedral in Colour
 Polychromatic, Reference.com's definition.

Visual arts terminology
Color
Painting techniques

Polychrome


"Gotta Get Away" is a song by American rock band the Offspring. It is the fourth track and third single from their breakthrough album, Smash (1994). The song was a modest hit in several countries and peaked at  6 on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Gotta Get Away" was inspired by an early track, "Cogs", written while the band was still named Manic Subsidal. Although the song was a big hit, it did not reach the heights nor achieve the popularity, success, airplay, or sales of the album's previous singles "Come Out and Play" and "Self Esteem".

The song has two single covers. The first, the cover for the CD single, depicts a skeleton in the same style as the previous singles from Smash: "Come Out and Play" and "Self Esteem". The second, the cover for the 7-inch vinyl, shows the actor from the video standing outside the coliseum, his eyes covered by the song title. The song also appears as the same numbered track on the Offpsring's Greatest Hits (2005).

Content
The lyrics refer to the pressure that lead singer Dexter Holland was under to finish the album on time.

Music video
The music video for the song was directed by Samuel Bayer and filmed at the Fairgrounds Coliseum in Salt Lake City, UT on December 17, 1994. The video starts with a boy entering a coliseum where a mosh pit breaks out while the band plays. It is predominantly in black and white. The video ends with the same boy lying on the floor alone. The music video appears on the Complete Music Video Collection DVD, released in 2005.

Track listings

CD single

Swedish CD maxi and U.K. 7-inch black vinyl

Charts

Release history

References

External links

The Offspring songs
1994 songs
1995 singles
Epitaph Records singles
Music videos directed by Samuel Bayer
Songs written by Dexter Holland

Gotta Get Away (The Offspring song)


Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Fassi (commonly known as Qutbul Ujud Imam Fassi) (1760?–1863) was the originator of the Fassi family of Sheikhs who constitute the Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya Sufi order.

Early life
Fassi was born either in the year 1173 Hijri (ca 1760 CE) or 1218 Hijri in Fes in Morocco, from which the family name "al-Fassi" had earlier been derived. His mother died during his very childhood. He was a hafiz al-Quran during his childhood and travelled to various parts of the world and finally Makkah in search of wisdom.

Names
Imam Fassi can be briefly referred to as Qutbul Ujud or Qutbul Ujud Hazrat Fassi. Some of the full versions of his name include Qutbur Rabbani, Haikalus Samadhani, Qutbul ujood, Abu Abdullah Seiyaduna Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Masood bin Abdur Rahman al-Makki al-Hasani al-Idrissi al-Fassi ash-Shadhili (Rali.) or Hazrat Qutbul Ujud Seyyidina Mohammad al-Fassy ash-Shadhili (Rah...).

Education
Imam Fassi travelled to Mecca to memorise and learn the Quran with tajwid. He travelled to many places in search of good preachers. His main sheikh was Sidi al-Sheikh Muhammad bin Hamzah al-Madani (Sheikh Qutb Mohammad bin Hamza lafir al-Madani (Rali…)).

Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya

Imam Fassi and his descendants form a branch of Shadhiliyya which is the only tariqush Shukr (Order of Gratitude).

The Spiritual Chain
The silsila of the Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya order (called as Silsilat ad dhahab) is as follows:
 Allah Rabbul Izza
 Jibra'il
 Muhammad
 Ali ibn Abi Talib
 Imam Hasan
 Abu Muhammad Jaabir
 Sa'eed Al Ghazwani
 Abu Muhammad Fath as Su'ud
 Abu Muhammad Sa'ad
 Abi Muhammad Sa'eed
 Abu al Qasim bin Marwan
 Is'haq Ibrahim al Basari
 Zainuddin al Qazwini
 Syedi Shamsuddin
 Syedi Tajuddin
 Syedi Noruddin
 Syedi Fakhruddin
 Tuqaiyuddin al fukhair
 Abdur Rahman al madani al Attar Az zayyat
 Abd as-Salam ibn Mashish al-Alami ash Shahid
 Imam Noruddin Abul Hasan Alee ash-Shadhili
 Abul Abbas al-Mursi
 Ahmed bin Ata'ullah Al Iskandari
 Dawood Al Bakhili
 Muhammad Wafa
 Ali Wafa
 Yahya al Qadiri
 Ahmed bin Uqba Al hadhrami
 Sheikh Shihabuddin Abul Abbas Ahmed Zarruq Al Fassi
 Ibrahim Ithaam
 Alee Sanhani
 Abdur Rahman al Majdhubi (Majzoubi)
 Yusuf al-Fassi
 Syed Muhammad
 Abdur Rahman al Fassi
 Qasim al Ikhlasi
 Ahmad ibn Abdhullah al Fassi
 Arabi ibn Ahmed bin Abdullah Sahib al Maqfiyya
 Ali al Jamal al Imrani
 Muhammad al Arabi bin Ahmed ad Darqawi
 Muhammad ibn Hamza Dhafir al-Madani
 Muhammad (al Ajwad) b. Muhammad b. Masood b. Abdur rahman al Makki al Idrissi al Fassi ash Shadhili (Imam Fassi)
 Shamsuddin Makki ibn Muhammad al Fassi
 Ahmad al Arabi
 Muhammad Ibraheem Fassi ibn Shamsuddin Makki al Fassi
 Abdullah al Fassi ibn Shamsuddin Makki al Fassi
 Dr. Muhammad ibn Mohammad Ibrahim al Fassi
 Abdul Wahab al Fassi ibn Mohammed Ibrahim al Fassi ash Shadhili
 Abdul Qadir al Fassi ibn Muhammad Ibrahim al Fassi ash Shadhili
 Najmul Ulema Hazrat Ajwad ibn Abdallah al Fassi ash Shadhili (Present day Sheikh us Sujjadah of Fassiyatush shadhiliyya Sufi order. He lives in Makkah).

References

Saudi Arabian Muslims
Shadhili order
People from Fez, Morocco
Moroccan Sufis
Saudi Arabian Sufis
Saudi Arabian people of Moroccan descent

Imam Fassi


A bailey or ward in a fortification is a leveled courtyard, typically enclosed by a curtain wall. In particular, an early type of European castle was known as a motte-and-bailey. Castles and fortifications may have more than one bailey, and the enclosure wall building material may have been at first in wood, and later transitioned to stone. Their layout depends both on the local topography and the level of fortification technology employed, ranging from simple enclosures to elaborate concentric defences. In addition to the gradual evolution of more complex fortification plans, there are also significant differences in regional traditions of military architecture regarding subdivisions into baileys.

Upper, lower, middle, inner and outer wards or baileys
Baileys can be arranged in sequence along a hill (as in a spur castle), giving an upper bailey and lower bailey. They can also be nested one inside the other, as in a concentric castle, giving an outer bailey and inner bailey. Large castles may have two outer baileys; if in line they may form an outer and middle bailey. On the other hand, tower houses lack an enclosed bailey.

The most important and prestigious buildings, such as the great hall and the keep or bergfried, were usually located in the inner bailey of the castle, sometimes called the central bailey or main bailey. Nonetheless, there are a few castles where the keep is outside the inner bailey, such as Château de Dourdan and Flint Castle. The lower or outer bailey often held less important structures, such as stables, if there was not enough space in the inner bailey.

Outer baileys could also be largely defensive in function, without significant buildings. In the concentric castles of the military orders, such as Krak des Chevaliers or Belvoir, the inner bailey resembled a cloistered monastery, while the outer bailey was little more than a narrow passage between the concentric enceintes. In general, baileys could have any shape, including irregular or elongated ones, when the walls followed the contour lines of the terrain where the castle was sited. Rectangular shapes are very common (as in castra and quadrangular castles).

A particularly complex arrangement of baileys can be found at Château Gaillard. There is both a lower bailey separated from the main castle by a deep ditch, and a concentric arrangement inside the main castle with an inner and middle bailey.

Holy Roman Empire
In the Germanic castles of the Holy Roman Empire, there is a distinction between a Vorburg and a Kernburg roughly corresponding to lower and upper baileys in English castles. In German-speaking countries, many castles had double curtain walls with a narrow enclosure outside the main walls, acting as a killing ground between them, referred to as a zwinger. The outermost wall was a Zwingermauer or type of low mantlet wall. These were often added at vulnerable points like the gate of a castle or town, but were rarely as fully developed as in the concentric castles in Wales or the Crusader castles.

Gallery with examples of castle wards

See Also
 Old Bailey

References

Castle architecture

Bailey (castle)


Alphonse Raymond (July 26, 1884 – June 6, 1958) was a Quebec businessman, financier and public official.

He was born in Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré, Quebec and educated at Quebec's Normal School. He moved to Montreal in 1902 and founded a canning factory in 1905.

In his commercial life, he was a director of Catelli Food Products Ltd., vice-president of the Montreal Refrigerating and Storage Ltd., and vice-president of the Provincial Bank of Canada as well as a board member of several finance and investment firms. He also held several governance positions at the University of Montreal.

Raymond was appointed to the Legislative Council of Quebec representing the division of Lorimier in 1936  by Quebec Premier Maurice Duplessis and sat on the body for the rest of his life as a supporter of the Union Nationale. He served as Speaker of the council from 1936 to 1940 and again from 1944 to 1950.

References

1884 births
1958 deaths
Union Nationale (Quebec) MLCs
Presidents of the Legislative Council of Quebec
Burials at Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery

Alphonse Raymond


Nuclear accidents in Japan include the following major cases:

The fast breeder Monju Nuclear Power Plant sodium leak in December 1995 (the reactor is still shut-down), the Tokai reprocessing waste explosion in March 1997, the criticality accident at the Tokai fuel fabrication facility in September 1999 and a widespread falsification scandal starting in August 2002 that lead to shut down all of Tokyo Electric Power Company's 17 nuclear reactors.

Also, on 9 August 2004, five workers were killed after a steam leak at the Mihama Nuclear Power Plant-3 station. The subsequent investigation revealed a serious lack in systematic inspection in Japanese nuclear plants, which led to a massive inspection program.

On 16 July 2007, a severe earthquake (measuring 6.8 on the Richter scale) hit the region where Tokyo Electric's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant is located. The plant with seven units is the largest single nuclear power station in the world. All of the reactors were shut down and are expected to remain closed for damage verification and repairs for at least one year.

Following an earthquake, tsunami, and failure of cooling systems at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20km of the plant were moved out. Explosions and a fire resulted in dangerous levels of radiation, resulting in a stock market collapse and panic-buying in supermarkets. As of April 2011, water is still being poured into the damaged reactors to cool melting fuel rods. John Price, a former member of the Safety Policy Unit at the UK's National Nuclear Corporation, has said that it "might be 100 years before melting fuel rods can be safely removed from Japan's Fukushima nuclear plant". Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.

Related pages
Nuclear disasters
Earthquake engineering
Tsunami

References

Nuclear accidents
History of Japan
Nuclear energy

Nuclear accidents in Japan


Anthony Trollope (1815–1882) was an English novelist who wrote 47 novels and a number of other books.

His mother Frances Trollope was also a writer. Trollope became an official of the Post Office and lived in Ireland from 1841 to 1859; he left his Post Office job in 1867.

Trollope is well known for his series of novels set in the imaginary county of Barsetshire.  His first novel was published in 1847 and The Warden, the first Barsetshire novel, in 1855. The rest of the series were published during the next 12 years: The Barchester Chronicles (1857), Doctor Thorne (1858), Framley Parsonage (1861), The Small House at Allington (1864), and The Last Chronicle of Barset (1867). Barsetshire is imagined as a county in southwest England. The county town is Barchester, which is the seat of the Bishop of Barchester.

Trollope also wrote a series of political novels featuring the Palliser family. These began in 1864 with Can You Forgive Her?. The rest of the series is Phineas Finn (1869), The Eustace Diamonds (1873), Phineas Redux (1876), The Prime Minister (1876), and The Duke's Children (1880). Trollope was an industrious and disciplined writer who wrote short stories, travel books and biographies as well as novels.

Source
Drabble, Margaret, ed. (1985) The Oxford Companion to English Literature; 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; pp. 996-97

English novelists
1815 births
1882 deaths

Anthony Trollope


The yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis) is an arboreal and nocturnal gliding possum. It lives in the native eucalypt forests right down eastern Australia, from northern Queensland to Victoria.

Habitat
The yellow-bellied glider lives in forests and woodlands in eastern Australia and is found at a range of altitudes from sea level to 1400 metres.

In North Queensland, the sub-species lives at over 700 m above sea level. There are 13 different populations in three places where this glider lives in North Queensland. One population lives on Mount Windsor Tableland, another on Mount Carbine Tableland, and the third lives in a linear habitat from Atherton to Kirrama on the Atherton Tableland. These three populations together have about 6000 individual gliders. With their habitat in danger, the yellow-bellied glider is classified as uncommon to rare and is named vulnerable to the tropics. This species is more widespread in southern Queensland, NSW and Victoria.

The yellow-bellied glider is gregarious and spends the day in a leaf-lined tree hole, which is usually shared with other members of the same family.  It is also one of the most vocal possum gliders. It has a distinctive growling call that it uses as means of communication. A recording of the distinctive call can be heard at

It eats nectar, honeydew, insects, pollen and a wide spread of tree sap.

References

Marsupials of Australia
Diprotodonts

Yellow-bellied glider


Percy LeBaron Spencer (July 19, 1894 – September 8, 1970) was an American physicist and inventor who became known as the inventor of the microwave oven.

Early life

Spencer was born in Howland, Maine. Eighteen months later, Spencer's father died, and his mother soon left him in the care of his aunt and uncle. His uncle then died when Spencer was just seven years old. Spencer subsequently left grammar school to earn money to support himself and his aunt. From the ages of twelve to sixteen, he worked from sunrise to sunset at a spool mill. At the later age, he discovered that a local paper mill was soon to begin using electricity, a concept little known in his rural home region, and he began learning as much as possible about the phenomenon. When he applied to work at the mill, he was one of three people hired to install electricity in the plant, despite never having received any formal training in electrical engineering or even finishing grammar school.

At the age of 18, Spencer decided to join the U.S. Navy. He had become interested in wireless communications after learning about the wireless operators aboard the Titanic when it sank. In the Navy he made himself an expert on radio technology: "I just got hold of a lot of textbooks and taught myself while I was standing watch at night." He also subsequently taught himself trigonometry, calculus, chemistry, physics, and metallurgy.

Career
By 1939 Spencer became one of the world's leading experts in radar tube design. Spencer worked at Raytheon, a contractor for the U.S. Department of Defense, as the chief of the power tube division. While working at Raytheon, Spencer developed a more efficient way to manufacture magnetrons, increasing production from 100 to 2600 magnetrons per day. With his reputation and expertise, Spencer helped Raytheon win a government contract to develop and produce combat radar equipment for M.I.T.'s Radiation Laboratory. This was of huge importance to the Allies of World War II and became the military's second-highest priority project during World War II, behind the Manhattan Project. For his work, he was awarded the Distinguished Public Service Award by the U.S. Navy.

The legend is that one day while building magnetrons, Spencer was standing in front of an active radar set when he noticed the candy bar he had in his pocket melted. Spencer was not the first to notice this phenomenon, but he was the first to investigate it. He decided to experiment using food, including popcorn kernels, which became the world's first microwaved popcorn. In another experiment, an egg was placed in a tea kettle, and the magnetron was placed directly above it. The result was the egg exploding in the face of one of his co-workers, who was looking in the kettle to observe. Spencer then created the first true microwave oven by attaching a high-density electromagnetic field generator to an enclosed metal box. The magnetron emitted microwaves into the metal box blocking any escape and allowing for controlled and safe experimentation. He then placed various food items in the box, while observing the effects and monitoring temperatures. There are no credible primary sources that verify this story.

Raytheon filed a U.S. Patent application on October 8, 1945, for a microwave cooking oven.. In 1947, the first commercially produced microwave oven was about 6 feet tall, weighed about 750 lbs, and cost about $5,000 (). In 1967 the first more affordable, $495 (), and reasonably sized (counter-top) Radarange brand microwave oven was made available for sale, produced by Amana (a division of Raytheon).

Spencer became Senior Vice President and a Senior Member of the Board of Directors at Raytheon. He received 300 patents during his career. Originally, a Raytheon facility in Burlington, Massachusetts involved in vacuum tube development and manufacturing was named Spencer Labs after Spencer. This facility was eventually closed. Later, a new building at the Raytheon Missile Defense Center in Woburn, Massachusetts, was named in his honor. Other achievements and awards, besides the Distinguished Public Service Award, included membership of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Fellowship in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and an Honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Massachusetts, despite having no formal education.

For his invention, Spencer received no royalties, but he was paid a one-time $2.00 gratuity from Raytheon, the same token payment the company made to all inventors on its payroll at that time for company patents.

Personal life
Spencer and his wife, Louise, had three children: John, James, and George. He counted Vannevar Bush, Omar Bradley, William Redington Hewlett and David Packard as friends. Later, he married Lillian Ottenheimer on November 18, 1960.

Legacy
Raytheon Integrated Defense Systems, which deals extensively in radar systems, named a building after Spencer in the Woburn, Massachusetts facility. An early Radarange model sits in the lobby, across from the dining center.

References

External links
 "Gramps - How an orphan from Maine became the Edison of the modern age" by Rod Spencer
 Inventor's Stories: Percy Spencer
 Percy L. Spencer - The National Inventors Hall of Fame
Who Invented Microwaves?
 "Percy Spencer and His Itch to Know" by Don Murray, Reader's Digest, August 1958

1894 births
1970 deaths
20th-century American engineers
People from Penobscot County, Maine
Raytheon Company people
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Public Service Award
20th-century American inventors

Percy Spencer


The Latgalians (, ) are a Latvian ethnographic group living in Latgale region, who speak Latgalian and Standard Latvian. Their distinct culture sets them apart from other Latvians.

Name
In the Latgalian language, the terms latgalīši and latgaļi have been traditionally used as synonyms describing both ancient and contemporary Latgalians as a part of the same continuum. The term latgalīši (in both meanings) prevailed in Latgalian literature and mass media during the first decades of the 20th century, whereas the term latgali has been consistently used (also in both meanings) in Latgalian literature and media published during the 1920s and 1930s in Latvia and from 1940 to 1988 in exile. Since the cultural revival of Latgalians in 1988, there is a tendency in Latgalian literature and media to follow Latvians in their use of both names.

Early history
Modern Latgalians developed as a result of Latgale having developed separately from other parts of contemporary Latvia after it was divided between Sweden and Poland after 1621 Truce of Altmark, leaving the most eastern part of Latvia under Polish control as Inflanty Voivodeship. This resulted in the Roman Catholic church becoming the main religious denomination in Latgale (while the rest of Latvia is traditionally Lutheran). The local dialects of Latvian language underwent a sound change probably due to Slavic influence, resulting in another feature distinguishing Latgalians from rest of Latvians. After the first Partition of Poland in 1772, Inflanty was incorporated in the Russian Empire. In 1865, as part of Russia's anti-Polish policies, a period of Russification was begun, during which the Latgalian language (written in Latin script) was forbidden. This ban was lifted in 1904, and a period of Latgalian reawakening began.

There are small Latgalian communities in Siberia, Russia, as a result of the emigration of Latgalians at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. At these times the estimated number of Latgalia emigrants was about  50,000 people (modern estimate) or about 10% of the population of Latgale. According to the 2010 Russian census,  1,089 persons identified themselves as Latgalians in Russia.

First World War to Soviet era

During the first independence of Latvia (1918–1940), Latgale was the only region of Latvia with strong regional political parties. Although Latvian governments mainly promoted a united Latvian culture, fostering assimilation of Latgalians, especially after the coup by Kārlis Ulmanis in 1934, the Latgalian language was also used. Books were published in Latgalian, it was taught in some schools, and people could choose to use Latgalian when communicating with the government. They were classified as a Narodnosti in the First All Union Census of the Soviet Union in 1926. In the Nazi German Generalplan Ost, as far as can be told from the surviving documentation, the Latgalians were scheduled for deportation, while only half of the Latvian population was to be treated so. The reasons for this difference are unclear, but possibly based on racist linguistic arguments, considering that the Nazis planned to physically remove 85% of the Lithuanians (whose language – and by erroneous inference ethnicity – has similarities to Latgalian).

The Soviet period severely damaged Latgalian culture. Although publishing in Latgalian was generally banned, some political periodicals, like Ludzas Taisneiba (also Ludzys Taisneiba, "Truth of Ludza") were published from the end of the 1940s to the 1960s in Latgalian. Russian and Latvian were the only recognized languages.

Modern times

Latgalians continued to publish books and periodicals abroad. Publishing in Latgalian in Latvia resumed during the Third National Awakening in the late 1980s but is still rare (e.g. the internet culture magazine Lakuga.lv). The Latgalian language is mostly used at home in rural areas and Latvian is overwhelmingly used in official use and in urban areas. Some government protection for the Latgalian language is provided by the language law of 2000 which states that "the State shall ensure the maintenance, protection and development of the Latgalian written language as a historic variant of the Latvian language."

Some Latgalians consider themselves to be an ethnic group separate from Latvians. The majority and historical opinion is, however, that present-day Latgalians are a subgroup of the Latvians who are united by a dialect, which has many regional varieties. The number of people who would identify themselves as separate from Latvians is unknown because the Latvian government does not identify Latgalians as a separate group in census data.

The 2011 Census of Latvia established that 8.8% of Latvia's inhabitants or 164,500 people speak Latgalian daily. 97,600 of them live in Latgale, 29,400 in Riga, and 14,400 in Riga region.

According to the 2010 Russian census,  1,089 persons identified themselves as Latgalians in Russia.

References

Ethnic groups in Latvia
People from Latgale

Latgalians (modern)


Anoiapithecus is an extinct ape genus thought to be closely related to Dryopithecus.  Both genera lived during the Miocene, approximately 12 million years ago. Fossil specimens named by Salvador Moyà-Solà are known from the deposits from Spain.

The discoverers described Anoiapithecus brevirostris as a hominoid (superfamily Hominoidea) in the dryopithecine tribe. They believe that it has more modern traits than the Kenyapithecines from which Kenya's Kenyapithecus wickeri brings fragmentary information. The African specimens are considered a sister taxon to the hominids, and 2 million years younger European specimens must be from the time after these two groups split. This means that hominids may have evolved in Europe.

The name comes from the Anoia River region in Catalonia, where the fossil was found. It has been given the nickname Lluc (since it is a male individual). The name Lluc is the Catalan form of Luke, which in Latin suggests "light", as this discovery enlighted our early evolution.

The modern anatomical features that characterized the family Hominidae visible in Lluc's fossil among others are: unique facial pattern for hominoids, nasal aperture wide at the base, high cheek bone, and deep palate.

See also

References

Prehistoric apes
Miocene primates of Europe
Fossil taxa described in 2009
Fossils of Spain
Prehistoric primate genera

Anoiapithecus


Greater Boston is the metropolitan region of New England encompassing the municipality of Boston (the capital of the U.S. state of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England) and its surrounding areas. The region forms the northern arc of the Northeast megalopolis, so Greater Boston means both a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) and a combined statistical area (CSA), which is broader. The MSA consists of most of the eastern third of Massachusetts, excluding the South Coast and Cape Cod; the CSA additionally includes the municipalities of Providence (capital of Rhode Island), Manchester (the largest city in the U.S. state of New Hampshire), Worcester (the second largest city in Massachusetts and in New England), the South Coast region, and Cape Cod. While the city of Boston covers  and has 675,647 residents as of the 2020 census, the urbanization has extended well into surrounding areas and the CSA has a more than 8.4 million people, making it one of the most populous such regions in the U.S.  The CSA is one of two in Massachusetts, the other being Greater Springfield. Greater Boston is the only CSA in New England that lies in three states (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island); some definitions extend it into a fourth (Connecticut).

Boston
Metropolitan areas of the United States

Greater Boston


Gloria Dubner (born May 5, 1950) is an Argentinian astrophysicist and Director of the Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio in Buenos Aires and a Senior Researcher at the National Scientific and Technical Research Council. She is known for her research on supernovas.

Education
Dubner was born on May 5, 1950, in the city of Chajarí, located in the Entre Ríos Province in Argentina. She received her Licentiate degree in physics in 1974 from the University of Buenos Aires at the age of 23. She then attended National University of La Plata, where she received her PhD in physics in 1982 under the mentorship of astronomer and Guggenheim Fellow Fernando Raúl Colomb.

Research and career

Career trajectory
Between 1975 and 1987, Dubner worked at the Argentine Institute of Radio Astronomy. In 1988, she began working at the Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio (IAFE). In 1997, she also was appointed as a researcher at the National Scientific and Technical Research Council, continuing her study of supernovas. In 2009, she became the Director of IAFE and also serves as the Director of the Supernovas and Interstellar Environment group.

Research contributions
Dubner has participated in a number of international collaborations to study galactic supernova remnants. For instance, in 1994, she and her American collaborators Frank Winkler and W. Miller Gross were awarded a National Science Foundation grant to image the expanding shell of gas left over after a star explodes using data collected from radio telescopes in the US and Argentina.

Starting in 2015, Dubner also led a collaboration between five observatories that led to the production of the most detailed image produced of the Crab Nebula, a bright supernova explosion first observed by Chinese astronomers in 1054. The collaboration leveraged data collected at different wavelengths to create a composite image using: infrared data generated by the Spitzer Space Telescope from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, visible light data from the Hubble Space Telescope, ultraviolet data from the XMM-Newton operated by the European Space Agency, radio image and X-ray data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, and radio data from the Very Large Array operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory.

Leadership and recognition
Dubner is an active member of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), serving on a variety of commissions including the Working Group for Historic Radio Astronomy, the Division for Interstellar Matter and Local Universe, and the Commission for Astrochemistry. In 2006, she served on the Organizing Committee to report advances in the field of radio astronomy between 2002 and 2005. In 2012, she was part of the organizing committee of the IAU's XXVIII General Assembly for Women in Astronomy Meeting. In June 2008, the minor planet 9515 Dubner was named in her honor, recognizing her achievements at the IAU. The planet was first discovered at the observatory in El Leoncito National Park in 1975.In 2023 she won the Platinum Konex Award as the most important physicist in Argentina.

References

Argentine women physicists
1950 births
Women astronomers
20th-century Argentine astronomers
University of Buenos Aires alumni
National University of La Plata alumni
Living people
21st-century Argentine astronomers

Gloria Dubner


WLFP (99.7 MHz, "99.7 The Wolf") is a commercial country music radio station licensed to Memphis, Tennessee, serving the Memphis metropolitan area and much of surrounding West Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and eastern Arkansas. The station is owned by Audacy, Inc. The WLFP studios are located in Memphis' Colonial Acres neighborhood, while the station transmitter resides in northeast Memphis. Besides a standard analog transmission, WLFP is also available online via Audacy.

Founded by The Commercial Appeal in 1947 as WMCF, and known from 1960 to 2023 as WMC-FM, WLFP is notable for being an FM "superpower station," with an output exceeding Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restrictions; of FM stations operating in the FCC's Zone II, WLFP is the most powerful.

History
The Memphis Publishing Company, a subsidiary of Scripps-Howard Newspapers which owned the Memphis Commercial Appeal and founded WMC (790 AM), launched this station as WMCF on May 22, 1947. WMCF was the first FM station established in Memphis and the second in the state of Tennessee, after WSM-FM in Nashville, which began in 1941. From its establishment, WMCF had an output of 515,000 watts; this would be adjusted multiple times before settling at its current power output of 300,000 watts. As the FM adjunct to WMC, WMCF largely simulcast the AM station's programming.

On December 11, 1948, a TV station was added, WMCT. WMC, WMCF and WMCT moved to studios at 1960 Union Avenue in Midtown Memphis in 1959 and celebrated with a broadcast hosted by comedian George Gobel. WMCF changed its call sign to WMC-FM on May 27, 1960; WMCT would become WMC-TV in 1967.

WMC-FM was the first FM radio station in the market, and the first in Tennessee, to play progressive rock, beginning February 6, 1967. Personalities on the station included Greg Hamilton, Ron Michaels, Jon Scott, David Day, and the program director was Mike Powell. Artists included the likes of King Crimson, It's a Beautiful Day, and Quicksilver Messenger Service. The versions of "Light My Fire" by The Doors and "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida" by Iron Butterfly (with its extended drum solo) were longer than the one most stations played.  In the early 1970s, the station was responsible for regionally breaking many new artists such as David Bowie, Alice Cooper, Lynyrd Skynyrd, ZZ Top and Billy Joel. By 1978, WMC-FM had evolved to a Top 40/CHR format, which would transition to a hot adult contemporary format by September 1992.

Scripps Howard sold WMC, WMC-FM, and WMC-TV to Atlanta businessman Bert Ellis in 1993. Ellis, in turn, sold his station group in the spring quarter of 1996 to a new broadcasting group formed by the Retirement Systems of Alabama, also composed of Aflac's broadcast holdings and Ellis' Raycom Sports operations; this was subsequently named Raycom Media.

Raycom Media sold off WMC and WMC-FM in 2000 to Infinity Broadcasting, a subsidiary of CBS Radio, while keeping WMC-TV. In 2006, Entercom Communications purchased WMC and WMC-FM from CBS Radio; this preceded both companies merging a decade later. WMC and WMC-FM relocated to the Entercom complex in the Moriah Woods Business Park, near the intersection of I-240 and Mount Moriah Road in eastern Memphis.

Many of the station's air personalities worked there for a decade or longer.  Most notably, Ron Olson had been the station's morning host since the 1980s, partnered with Steve Conley and Karen Perrin for some of that time, until leaving the station to join co-owned WRVR in January 2018. Tom Prestigiacomo had been the afternoon host since 1979, staying for nearly three decades; Prestigiacomo left in 2007 for rival AC outlet WKIM.

By 2023, WMC-FM's schedule included the morning team of Ryan Anderson and Erin Austin; Jill Bucco in middays; Chris Michaels in afternoons; Chase Daniels in evenings; and Bennett Doyle in overnights. WMC-FM also carried the "Acoustic Sunrise" program hosted by Matthew Reid on weekends.

In April 2023, as part of a memo to staff, Audacy disclosed that the country music programming of WLFP (94.1 FM) would relocate to WMC-FM as "99.7 The Wolf", replacing WMC-FM's hot adult contemporary format (which would continue as a stream exclusively on Audacy's online app), following the sale of the 94.1 license to the Educational Media Foundation. The move of "The Wolf" would take place at 12p.m. on June 12, 2023, following a six-hour farewell program for "FM 100", in which a majority of the past and then-current airstaff voiced their stories about the station. The final song on "FM 100" was "Memphis, I'm Coming Home to You" by The Breaks (a longtime promotional song for the station penned in 1980 by station program director Gary Guthrie), while the first song on "99.7 The Wolf" was "Like I Love Country Music" by Chattanooga native Kane Brown; the first promotional sweeper under the "Wolf" format was a final tribute saluting the "FM 100" format. The WMC-FM call sign would be retired on June 20, when the WLFP call sign moved from 94.1 (which was renamed WMLE); due to a clerical error relating to the FCC database's treatment of stations with three-letter call signs, the initial application for the transfer specified co-owned WZMX in Hartford, Connecticut, as the recipient of the WLFP call sign.

Superpower status
Current FCC restrictions were passed in 1962 and mandate a maximum 100,000 watts across most of the country on the FM band, with most of the Northeast and much of California limited to 50,000 watts.  WLFP is calculated to exceed power restrictions by 4.6 decibels. However, WLFP was grandfathered at the high power since it went on the air before the restrictions began.

References

External links

LFP
Audacy, Inc. radio stations
Country radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1947
1947 establishments in Tennessee

WLFP (FM)


FC Spandau 06 is a German football club based in the Spandau district of Berlin. The club was formed out of the 2003 merger of the traditional side Spandauer Ballclub 1906 and newcomer 1. FC Spandau which was established in 1997.

History

Spandauer Ballspielclub 1906
Spandauer BC was originally formed as SC Britannia Spandau. In 1919, following World War I, they merged with Borussia Spandau to play as Hertha Spandau until 1923 when they once again became SBC. The team enjoyed a short turn in the top-flight Oberliga Berlin-Brandenburg in 1932–33, but did not become part of the new Gauliga Berlin (I) after the re-organization of German football under the Third Reich the following season.

After World War II occupying Allied authorities ordered the disbanding of most organizations in the country, including sports and football associations. In late 1945 the memberships of several pre-war clubs within the district were organized as a Sportgruppe (sports group) from which SBC emerged in 1953.

The club was promoted out of lower-league city play into the Amateurliga Berlin (IV) in 1967 and played fourth- and fifth-tier football until the late 70s, when they were elevated into the Oberliga Berlin (III) through league re-organization and signing some British players amongst them Paul McGaffney who had earlier been with Te Be Berlin in the 2nd Bundesliga. SBC played at that level until 1993, never managing better than a 6th-place finish. Another league re-organization pushed them down through fourth division into fifth-tier play in the Verbandsliga Berlin (V) until they were again relegated in 2002 to the Landesliga Berlin-1 (VI).

1. FC Spandau
1. FC Spandau was founded in 1997 as an initiative of district mayor, Werner Salomon, who hoped to bring together the district's traditional clubs, including SBC, Spandauer SV, and Spandau SC as a single association with the goal of becoming Berlin's number three football power after Hertha Berlin and 1. FC Union Berlin. That ambition was never realized. By 1999 only Ruhlebener SC had answered the call and the new club was in financial crisis, eventually leading to 1. FC joining SBC in 2003.

The newly combined side steadily improved over the next few seasons and after a Landesliga Berlin (VI) championship in 2006 played as high as the Verbandsliga Berlin (V) but have since fallen to the tier eight Bezirksliga. A runners-up finish at this level in 2015–16 took the club back up to the Landesliga.

They play their home matches in Sportplatz Ziegelhof which was built in 1951 and has a capacity of 3,000 (300 seats).

External links
 Official team page
 The Abseits Guide to German Soccer

Football clubs in Berlin
Association football clubs established in 1906
1906 establishments in Germany
Football clubs in Germany

FC Spandau 06