Stowe School is a private school in Stowe, Buckinghamshire in England. Fifteen percent of its students come from other countries. Famous people who went there include Richard Branson, Roger Hodgson, and George Monbiot. It is also a boarding school. Boarders pay £10,325 each term. When three or more children from the same family are at Stowe at the same time, the first and second children pay 10% less and the third pays 5% less.

History
Stowe School opened on 11 May 1923. There were two boarding Houses, Bruce and Temple. In the school's second term Grenville and Chandos Houses were started in the eastern wing of the mansion.

References

1923 establishments in England
Schools in Buckinghamshire

Stowe School


Judah ben Elijah Hadassi (in Hebrew, Yehuda ben Eliyahu) was a Karaite Jewish scholar, controversialist, and liturgist who flourished at Constantinople in the middle of the twelfth century. He was known by the nickname "ha-Abel," which signifies "mourner of Zion." Neubauer thinks that "Hadassi" means "native of Edessa"

Nothing of Hadassi's life is known except that he was the pupil of his elder brother Nathan Hadassi.

He dealt with Hebrew grammar, Masorah, theology, and philosophy, and knew Arabic and Greek well.

Eshkol ha-Kofer

Hadassi acquired his reputation by his treatise Eshkol ha-Kofer or Sefer ha-Peles, on which he began work on 9 October 1148.

It is a treatise on the Ten Commandments, in which the author endeavored to explain them philosophically, and in which he applied all his analytical talent and scholarship. He starts from the premise that all laws contained in the Pentateuch, and those added by the Rabbis, as well as the minor ethical laws by which the Jews regulate their daily life, are implied in the Ten Commandments. Hadassi enumerates, under the head of each of the Ten Commandments, a complete series of coordinate laws; and the whole work is mapped out according to this plan.

The work embodies not only much of the science of his time, but even legends and folk-lore, so that it has appropriately been termed "a sea of learning."

It is written in rhymed prose, the general rhyme throughout the work being ך; and the initial letters of the successive verses form alternately the acrostics of אבגד and תשרק, repeated 379 times. The alphabetic chapters 105-124 are, however, in the regular form of poems.

The first commandment (alphabets 1-95) affirms the existence of God and covers the duties of the created toward the Creator, dealing, for instance, with prayer, repentance, future punishment and reward, and resurrection. Beginning with alphabet 35, Hadassi considers the nature of God, of creation, of angels, of the celestial bodies, etc. In fact, this part of the work is a compendium of religious philosophy, astronomy, physics, natural history, geography, and folk-lore.

The second commandment (alphabets 96-129) affirms the unity of God. Here Hadassi refutes the views of other sects; for example, the Christians, Rabbinites, Samaritans, and Sadducees, who maintain the eternity of the world. He is indignant at those who identify the Karaites with the Sadducees, and shows great animosity toward the Rabbinites. Alphabets 99-100 contain a violent attack upon Christianity.

The third commandment (alphabets 130-143) and the fourth commandment (alphabets 144-248) covers laws concerning the Sabbath, and the holidays and to the laws connected with them, as those relating to sacrifices, which include all laws concerning the kohanim, slaughtering, tzitzit, etc.

This part is the more important as it contains Hadassi's views on exegesis and grammar. To be able to discuss with the Rabbinites the kinds of work permitted or forbidden on the Sabbath, he was obliged to state his own exegetical rules, and to show that Karaites are not inferior to the Rabbinites as exegetes. After giving the thirteen rules ("middot") of R. Ishmael ben Elisha and the thirty-two of R. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili, he gives his own, dividing them into two groups, one of sixty and one of eighty, and finding an allusion to them in the Song of Solomon vi. 8. The sixty "queens" denote the sixty grammatical rules, headed by five "kings" (the five vowels); the eighty "concubines" denote the eighty exegetical rules; and the "virgins without number" represent the numberless grammatical forms in the Hebrew language.

Considering phonetics as necessary for the interpretation of the Law, Hadassi devotes to this study a long treatise, in the form of questions and answers.

The fifth commandment (alphabets 249-264) covers laws regulating the relations between parents and children, of inheritance, mourning, etc.

The sixth commandment (alphabets 265-274) and the seventh commandment (alphabets 275-336) covers laws concerning adultery, incest, cleanliness and uncleanliness, women in childbirth, and the fruit of the first three years.

The eighth commandment (alphabets 337-353) covers laws on the different kinds of theft and fraud.

The ninth commandment (alphabets 354-362) discusses all kinds of false witnesses, including false prophets.

Finally, the tenth commandment (alphabets 363-379) deals with the laws implied in the prohibition against covetousness.

Hadassi illustrates his explanations by examples interspersed with tales and legends.

Model and sources
Obviously his model was Nissim ben Noah's Bitan ha-Maskilim, or Peles Bi'ur ha-Mitzvot, written 370 years earlier.

The sources upon which he drew included the Ma'aseh Bereshit of R. Ishmael ben Elisha; the Baraita of R. Samuel of Nehardea, for astronomy; the Josippon for history; David ben Merwan al-Mukkamas' work on the sects; Eldad ha-Dani, for legends; while for grammar he utilized especially the Karaite grammarians, though he also made use of the Rabbanites, quoting Judah Hayyuj and ibn Janah. One should also note that Hadassi included in his "Eshkol" the first grammatical work of Abraham ibn Ezra, without acknowledgment.

In attacking the Rabbanites, he followed the example of his predecessors, as Solomon ben Jeroham, Japheth ben Ali, Sahl ben Matzliah, and others.

This work was printed at Eupatoria (1836), with an introduction by Caleb Afendopolo entitled Nahal Eshkol. Alphabets 99-100 and part of 98 were excluded from this edition by the censor, but have been published by Bacher in J. Q. R. Hadassi mentions a previously written work of his entitled Sefer Teren bi-Teren, a collection of homonyms which, he says, was an addition to the eighty pairs of Ben Asher (alphabets 163 ב, 168 ס, 173 נ). There exists also a fragment which Abraham Firkovich entitled Sefer ha-Yalqut and attributed to Hadassi, while Pinsker regarded it as an extract from Tobiah's Sefer ha-Mitzvot. P. F. Frankl, however, agreed with Firkovich in regarding it as a part of the "Eshkol ha-Kofer," which Hadassi had previously written in prose.

In the Karaite Siddur there are four piyyutim by Hadassi.

References

Resources
, which cites the following bibliography:
Pinsker, Liḳḳuṭe Ḳadmoniyyot, p. 223; Supplement, p. 93;
Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums, ii. 352 et seq.;
Fürst, Gesch. des Karäert. ii. 211 et seq.:
P. F. Frankl, in Monatsschrift, xxxi. 1-13, 72-85;
Bacher, ib. xl. 14, 68, 109;
J. Q. R. viii. 431 et seq.;
Gottlober, Biḳḳoret le-Toledot ha-Ḳaraïm, p. 172;
introduction to Eshkol ha-Kofer by Caleb Afendopolo, entitled Nahal Eshkol

Karaite rabbis
12th-century Byzantine rabbis
Byzantine poets
Year of death missing
Year of birth unknown
Jewish grammarians
Linguists of Hebrew
Grammarians of Hebrew
Medieval Hebraists
Jewish liturgical poets

Judah Hadassi


Senegambia was a region of West Africa occupying the area of present day Senegal and Gambia. The 20th century
Senegambia Confederation, was a loose confederation between Senegal and Gambia. The term Senegambia was used by the British as early as 1765. They used it to refer to their settlements on the islands off the coast of present day Senegal. The modern use of the term Senegambia means the region that includes both Senegal and Gambia.

Senegambian history
There is little known about the early history of the area. By about 1000 AD the Soninke, Mandinka and Fula peoples had formed settlements along the Gambia River.  The Toucouleur people were settled in east and central Senegal. Kingdoms such as the Jolof and the Sere settled in the area north of the Gambia River. The first Europeans, Portuguese sailors, arrived about 1455. Portugal controlled the area between the Sénégal and Gambia Rivers until the British, Dutch and French moved into the area. They traded goods such as salt, iron, guns and gunpowder for gold, ivory, ebony and slaves.

Senegambia and the Middle Passage
About 24% of the African slaves brought to America, were from Senegambia. The Africans from Senegambia were found nearly everywhere in the United States before the American Civil War, both in the North and South.Senegambia was strongly Muslim. This means that many African slaves in the US had been exposed to Islam much more than the rest of the Americas.

Because of the need for field workers up to two-thirds of Africans taken captive were men. In the Senegambia region due to the high demand by buyers, men and boys were taken from all over the region. Women, however, being in less demand, were taken from the easily accessed coastal areas. Most of them belonged to the Jolof people and so, unlike the men, they had a common language. Due to the fear of slaves revolting, men were kept below decks and in chains. Women were usually kept on deck and were sometimes allowed to move around. Some historians say that it was the women who organized many of the slave uprisings at sea.

Notes

References

1982 establishments in Africa
1989 disestablishments
Former polities of the Cold War
Former countries in Africa
History of Senegal
The Gambia
20th-century disestablishments in Africa
Former federations

Senegambia


In communications, noise spectral density (NSD), noise power density, noise power spectral density, or simply noise density (N0) is the power spectral density of noise or the noise power per unit of bandwidth. It has dimension of power over frequency, whose SI unit is watt per hertz (equivalent to watt-second or joule).
It is commonly used in link budgets as the denominator of the important figure-of-merit ratios, such as carrier-to-noise-density ratio as well as Eb/N0 and Es/N0.

If the noise is one-sided white noise, i.e., constant with frequency, then the total noise power N integrated over a bandwidth B is N = BN0 (for double-sided white noise, the bandwidth is doubled, so N is BN0/2). This is utilized in signal-to-noise ratio calculations.

For thermal noise, its spectral density is given by N0 = kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant in joules per kelvin, and T is the receiver system noise temperature in kelvins.

The noise amplitude spectral density is the square root of the noise power spectral density, and is given in units such as .

See also
Noise-equivalent bandwidth
Spectral density estimation
Welch's method

References

Noise (electronics)
Frequency-domain analysis
Acoustics

Noise spectral density


The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone () is a 1979 Vietnamese drama film directed by . It won the Golden Prize and the Prix FIPRESCI at the 12th Moscow International Film Festival.

The film gives an "unnerving and compelling .. subjective-camera-eye-view" of life under helicopter fire in a free-fire zone in the Mekong Delta during the Vietnam War. The film cuts to an (American) "helicopter-eye view", contrasting painfully with the human tenderness seen earlier.

Plot
The film completely takes place within the perimeter of an empty field, but it exploits both the space under the water (from under the water surface of the field) and the edges of the sky (where there are American warplanes conducting raids).

The setting is the area of Dong Thap Muoi during the days of the Vietnam war. Ba Do, his wife and small child live in a small shack in the middle of the water. They are entrusted by the revolution with the mission of maintaining the lines of communication for the armed forces. The author focused much of the plot's development upon the daily life of the husband and wife, like planting rice, caring for their child, catching snakes, and catching fish, but interwoven with this are American military helicopters raiding the watery field to uncover the guerilla soldiers operating there. When Ba Do is shot by an American helicopter, his wife shoots the helicopter down in order to avenge him.

At the end of the film there is a scene where a photograph of the shot pilot's wife and child falls from his chest. There were many suggestions to edit this scene from the film, however, it was still kept in order for people to see and understand American soldiers more clearly, they also are normal people, with a wife and child like Ba Do, but because of the war they had to be pulled from their families and put into Vietnam to fight.

Cast
 Toi Lam as Ba Do
 Thuy An Nguyen as Sau Xoa
 De Xuan
 Chi Hong

References

External links

1979 films
1979 drama films
Vietnamese-language films
Vietnamese drama films
Vietnamese war films

The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone


Christine Huyen Tran Hà (; born May 9, 1979) is an American chef, writer and TV host. She is the first blind contestant of MasterChef and the winner of its third season in 2012.

Early and personal life
Hà was born as an only child in Los Angeles County, California. Her parents were of Vietnamese origin; they emigrated from Saigon (present day Ho Chi Minh City) to the United States in 1975 after the Vietnam War. She lived in Lakewood, California and Long Beach, California as a young child before her family moved to Houston, Texas. When Hà was 14, her mother died from lung cancer.

Hà graduated with a bachelor's degree in business administration and finance along with MIS from the University of Texas at Austin. She also earned a master's of fine arts in creative fiction and nonfiction from the University of Houston's nationally acclaimed writing program.

Hà has Neuromyelitis optica,  in which a person's own immune system attacks the optic nerves and spinal cord. In 2004, she was diagnosed and gradually started losing her vision, and was almost completely blind by 2007. She describes her vision as "looking at a very foggy mirror after a hot shower". She uses adaptive technologies to help her manage her social media profiles by herself. Hà utilizes the following assistive technologies around her house: VoiceOver, JAWS, Aira glasses, Amigo portable CCTV along with a thermometer, food scale and liquid level indicator that gives an oral reading.

Hà serves as fiction editor for Gulf Coast: A Journal of Literature and Fine Arts, and her work has appeared in Fire Point, The ScissorTale Review and PANK Magazine, among others. In January 2014, she began hosting the cooking show Four Senses on AMI-TV.

Career

2012: MasterChef USA & Recipes from My Home Kitchen: Asian and American Comfort Food

While she has never studied cooking, in the nineteen episodes where she competed on the third season of MasterChef, Hà won seven times in both individual and team challenges; additionally, she placed three times in the top three group. However, she was also in the bottom group twice. On September 10, 2012, Hà was announced the winner of the competition and was awarded $250,000, the MasterChef title, the MasterChef trophy, and a cookbook deal.

Her cookbook, Recipes from My Home Kitchen: Asian and American Comfort Food (), was released on May 14, 2013.

2013–present: Four Senses, Masterchef Vietnam and guest appearances
In 2013, Ha began co-hosting the Canadian TV show Four Senses with Carl Heinrich, the winner of Season 2 of Top Chef Canada.  It is a cooking show geared towards the visually impaired, and airs on AMI (Accessible Media, Inc.) TV, a Canadian cable network designed to make television accessible to the vision and hearing impaired. To compensate for the vision-impaired, the show contains a great deal of audio description, where they are narrating what's going on in the kitchen, what they're doing, how things feel or smell or sound.

In 2015, she revealed on her blog and Facebook page that she would become a judge on the third season of MasterChef Vietnam, having been a guest judge in the previous series, and a guest judge of US MasterChef (season 4), making her the first former contestant and winner worldwide to become a regular judge, and also one of a few female judges after Phan Tôn Tịnh Hải (also Masterchef Vietnam), Michal Ansky of Israel and Christina Tosi.   In the meantime, she also returned along with Luca Manfé and Courtney Lapresi as guests of US MasterChef (season 6). Later in the year, she also made an appearance in MasterChef Celebrity Showdown in the battle of "Champions vs Juniors", where she, alongside Season 4 winner Luca Manfe and Season 6 winner Claudia Sandoval, cooked against 3 contestants from MasterChef Junior season 4 in a Salmon Wellington tag team battle. The three champions emerged as the winner and donate their winnings to their chosen charity.

She also revealed that she was the first chef/author to become the winner of Helen Keller Personal Achievement Award in 2014, an award given to people and organizations that "demonstrated outstanding achievement in improving quality of life for people with vision loss".  Past/current winners included musicians Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and Tom Sullivan, actor Charlie Cox (who portrayed a blind superhero, Matt Murdock/Daredevil, was awarded in June 2015) and businessman Bernard A. Newcomb.

She has also opened small-scale pop-up restaurants around the world in the 5 years since winning Master Chef (2012–2017).

She has traveled around the world to give TED talks about her life experiences as a blind cook and the lessons she has learned along the way. "Christine has also served as a culinary envoy on behalf of the American Embassy in cultural diplomacy programs in Jordan, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia".

In 2018, Hà opened a Vietnamese gastropub in Bravery Chef Hall in Houston, Texas named "The Blind Goat". The name is a combination of her disability and her Vietnamese zodiac sign. The Blind Goat received three stars from the Houston Chronicle and was named a semi-finalist for Best New Restaurant in America by the James Beard Foundation in 2020. In the same Bravery Chef Hall, she and her husband John Suh opened a Korean restaurant called "The Sighted Pig Test Kitchen", which is a combination of her husbands zodiac sign. The menu is centered around authentic Vietnamese dishes, specifically drawing inspiration from Nhau cuisine. Beginning June 2018, Ha began working on her memoir and second cookbook.

At the start of 2020, Ha teamed up with Saigon House chef and owner, Tony Nguyen, to open Xin Chao restaurant in Houston. The menu showcases their Vietnamese-American heritage and culinary skills with a contemporary approach to traditional Vietnamese dishes with a touch of Texas BBQ and Gulf Coast seafood.

References

External links
 The Blind Cook (blog from Christine Hà)
 Gulfcoast
 Christine Hà on Facebook
 Christine Hà on Twitter
Christine Ha on YouTube
 Rene Lynch, 'MasterChef' finalist Christine Ha on being blind, and a fighter, LA Times, September 5, 2012
 Video Inspiring MasterChef USA Audition (Season 3 Episode 1) - Christine Ha: Blind Chef ,  on June 11, 2012
 Video MasterChef US - Season 3 Episode 20 - Final Winner !, on September 10, 2012
 Video Christine Ha at Entertainment Tonight

People from Houston
Living people
1979 births
Participants in American reality television series
Reality cooking competition winners
MasterChef (American TV series)
American blind people
American television chefs
American people of Vietnamese descent
McCombs School of Business alumni
Writers of blogs about home and family
American cookbook writers
People from Lakewood, California
University of Houston alumni
Women cookbook writers
American women bloggers
American bloggers
American women chefs
Asian American chefs
American women non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers
University of Texas at Austin School of Information alumni
Reality cooking competition contestants

Christine Hà


Archibald Stuart Duncan (February 5, 1887 – after 1943) was a doctor and politician in Ontario, Canada. He represented London in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1934 to 1943 as a Liberal.

The son of George Duncan and Christina Campbell, he was born in Dutton and was educated in London and at the University of Western Ontario.

References

External links

1887 births
Year of death missing
Ontario Liberal Party MPPs

Archibald Stuart Duncan


Abdou Kolley (born 1 January 1970) is a Gambian economist and politician who was Gambian Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs. He has held several roles in the Cabinet of the Gambia, having previously served as Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs and Minister of Trade, Industry, Regional Integration and Employment several times, as well as Minister of Fisheries and Water Resources.

Early life and education

Kolley attended both St. Peter's Lower and Upper Basic School, Lamin, and St. Augustine's Senior Secondary School, Banjul, where he received his O Levels and A Levels respectively.

He then continued his education in France, where he completed an Advanced French Diploma at the Jean Monnet University in 1992. He continued his studies at Jean Monnet, completing a Diploma of General University Studies, majoring in economics, in 1995. He received his bachelor's degree in economics in 1996 and his master's degree in economics in 1997, both at Jean Monnet University.

Career

From 1997 to 2000, Kolley worked in the Gambian civil service as an economist at the Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs. During his time at the Ministry, he coordinated Gambia through the initial stage of the World Bank's Capacity Building for Economic Management Project. He also contributed to the foundation of the Gambia Divestiture Agency and the Gambia Public Utilities Regulatory Authority (PURA).

Moving on from the Ministry in 2000, Kolley worked at the Gambia Divestiture Agency that he had helped found. He firstly worked as a senior economist, then principal economist, and then director of the agency. In November 2004, he left the Gambia Divestiture Agency and began working as an economic analyst in the Strategy Policy Unit of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in the Gambia.

In February 2007, Kolley left the UNDP and was appointed as the Minister of Trade, Industry and Employment. As a Minister, he was a member of the National Planning Commission and the National Nutrition Council. He was also the Minister responsible for matters relating to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). From March 2007 to June 2008, he served as the Gambia's governor of the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID), helping complete the bank's restructuring process before handing over responsibility to the Minister of Finance. He also served as a member of the ECOWAS Council of Ministers and the Ministerial Monitoring Committee responsible for overseeing the development of an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between ECOWAS and the European Union.

In June 2009, Kolley was appointed as Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs. In this role, he continued as a member of the National Planning Commission, and also served as the Chairman of the Governing Council of the West African Insurance Institute and of the Africa Constituency Group I in the World Bank and the IMF. He also served as the Gambian governor of EBID, the Islamic Development Bank, the African Development Bank and BSIC.

In March 2010, he was reappointed as the Minister of Trade, Regional Integration and Employment, with the portfolio of Industry removed. He was reappointed as Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs in July 2010, then as Minister of Trade again in January 2011. He was appointed as Minister of Fisheries and Water Resources in February 2012, and then as Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs in April 2012. In July 2013, he was appointed as Minister of Trade, a role which he was removed from in June 2014.

In March 2015, it was reported that Kolley was to succeed Seedy Lette as the Gambian Ambassador to South Africa. However, Kolley was re-appointed as Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs on 16 March, as the previous Minister, Kebba S. Touray, was moved to the diplomatic service.

Awards

Kolley was invested as an Officer of the National Order of the Republic of the Gambia (ORD) by Yahya Jammeh. He is also a Distinguished Fellow of the New Westminster College in British Columbia, Canada.

References

1970 births
Living people
Finance ministers of the Gambia
Trade ministers of the Gambia
Industry ministers of the Gambia
Fisheries ministers of the Gambia

Abdou Kolley


Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning is any computer-aided tomographic process, usually X-ray computed tomography, that uses irradiation to produce three-dimensional internal and external representations of a scanned object. Industrial CT scanning has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of the key uses for industrial CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse engineering applications. Just as in medical imaging, industrial imaging includes both nontomographic radiography (industrial radiography) and computed tomographic radiography (computed tomography).

Types of scanners

Line beam scanning is the traditional process of industrial CT scanning. X-rays are produced and the beam is collimated to create a line. The X-ray line beam is then translated across the part and data is collected by the detector.  The data is then reconstructed to create a 3-D volume rendering of the part.

In cone beam scanning, the part to be scanned is placed on a rotary table. As the part rotates, the cone of X-rays produce a large number of 2D images that are collected by the detector. The 2D images are then processed to create a 3D volume rendering of the external and internal geometries of the part.

History
Industrial CT scanning technology was introduced in 1972 with the invention of the CT scanner for medical imaging by Godfrey Hounsfield. The invention earned him a Nobel Prize in medicine, which he shared with Allan McLeod Cormack. Many advances in CT scanning have allowed for its use in the industrial field for metrology in addition to the visual inspection primarily used in the medical field (medical CT scan).

Analysis and inspection techniques
Various inspection uses and techniques include part-to-CAD comparisons, part-to-part comparisons, assembly and defect analysis, void analysis, wall thickness analysis, and generation of CAD data. The CAD data can be used for reverse engineering, geometric dimensioning and tolerance analysis, and production part approval.

Assembly
One of the most recognized forms of analysis using CT is for assembly, or visual analysis. CT scanning provides views inside components in their functioning position, without disassembly. Some software programs for industrial CT scanning allow for measurements to be taken from the CT dataset volume rendering. These measurements are useful for determining the clearances between assembled parts or the dimension of an individual feature.

Void, crack and defect detection

Traditionally, determining defects, voids and cracks within an object would require destructive testing. CT scanning can detect internal features and flaws displaying this information in 3D without destroying the part. Industrial CT scanning (3D X-ray) is used to detect flaws inside a part such as porosity, an inclusion, or a crack. It has been also used to detect the origin and propagation of damages in concrete.

Metal casting and moulded plastic components are typically prone to porosity because of cooling processes, transitions between thick and thin walls, and material properties. Void analysis can be used to locate, measure, and analyze voids inside plastic or metal components.

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing analysis
Traditionally, without destructive testing, full metrology has only been performed on the exterior dimensions of components, such as with a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) or with a vision system to map exterior surfaces. Internal inspection methods would require using a 2D X-ray of the component or the use of destructive testing. Industrial CT scanning allows for full non-destructive metrology. With unlimited geometrical complexity, 3D printing allows for complex internal features to be created with no impact on cost, such features are not accessible using traditional CMM. The first 3D printed artefact that is optimised for characterisation of form using computed tomography CT

Image-based finite element methods
Image-based finite element method converts the 3D image data from X-ray computed tomography directly into meshes for finite element analysis. Benefits of this method include modelling complex geometries (e.g. composite materials) or accurately modelling "as manufactured" components at the micro-scale.

See also
 CT scan
 Industrial radiography
 Cone beam computed tomography, applications in quality control and metrology.
 PCB reverse engineering, an application of industrial CT to image printed circuit boards non-destructively.

References

Tomography
Materials science
Microtomography
Microtechnology
Nondestructive testing
Reverse engineering
Articles containing video clips

Industrial computed tomography


Liberty, commonly known as Liberty's, is a luxury department store in London, England. It is located on Great Marlborough Street in the West End of London. The building spans from Carnaby Street on the East to Kingly Street on the West, where it forms a three storey archway over the Northern entrance to the Kingly Street mall that houses the Liberty Clock in its centre. Liberty is known around the world for its close connection to art and culture, it is most famous for its bold and floral print fabrics. The vast mock-Tudor store also sells men's, women's and children's fashion, beauty and homewares from a mix of high-end and emerging brands and labels.

The store is known to spot and champion young designers at the start of their careers, and many now-prominent brands were first available at Liberty. The store played essential role in spreading and popularizing the Modern Style. This continues Liberty's long reputation for working with British artists and designers.

History

Early history

Arthur Lasenby Liberty was born in Chesham, Buckinghamshire, in 1843. He was employed by Messrs Farmer and Rogers in Regent Street in 1862, the year of the International Exhibition. By 1874, inspired by his 10 years of service, he decided to start a business of his own, which he did the next year. With a £2,000 loan from his future father-in-law, he accepted the lease of half a shop at 218a Regent Street with three staff members.

The shop opened during 1875 selling ornaments, fabric and objets d'art from Japan and the East. Within eighteen months, he had repaid the loan and acquired the second half of 218 Regent Street. As the business grew, neighbouring properties were bought and added. In 1884, he introduced the costume department, directed by Edward William Godwin (1833–1886), a distinguished architect and a founding member of The Costume Society. He and Arthur Liberty created in-house apparel to challenge the fashions of Paris.

In 1885, 142–144 Regent Street was acquired and housed the ever-increasing demand for carpets and furniture. The basement was named the Eastern Bazaar, and it was the vending place for what was described as "decorative furnishing objects". He named the property Chesham House, after the place in which he grew up. The store became the most fashionable place to shop in London, and Liberty fabrics were used for both clothing and furnishings.

In November 1885, Liberty brought forty-two villagers from India to stage a living village of Indian artisans. Liberty's specialised in Oriental goods, in particular imported Indian silks, and the aim of the display was to generate both publicity and sales for the store. In 1889, Oscar Wilde, a regular client of the store, wrote "Liberty's is the chosen resort of the artistic shopper".

During the 1890s, Liberty built strong relationships with many English designers. Many of these designers, including Archibald Knox, practised the artistic styles known as Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau, and Liberty helped develop Art Nouveau through his encouragement of such designers. The company became associated with this new style, to the extent that in Italy, Art Nouveau became known as the Stile Liberty, after the London shop.

1920s

The Tudor revival building was built so that trading could continue while renovations were being completed on the other premises, and in 1924, this store was constructed from the timbers of two ships: HMS Impregnable (formerly HMS Howe) and HMS Hindustan. The frontage on Great Marlborough Street is the same length as the Hindustan. It became a Grade II* listed building in 1972.

The emporium was designed by Edwin Thomas Hall and his son, Edwin Stanley Hall. They designed the building at the height of the 1920s fashion for Tudor revival. The shop was engineered around three light wells that formed the main focus of the building. Each of these wells was surrounded by smaller rooms to create a homey feel. Many of the rooms had fireplaces and some still exist.

The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner was very critical of the building's architecture, saying: "The scale is wrong, the symmetry is wrong. The proximity to a classical façade put up by the same firm at the same time is wrong, and the goings-on of a store behind such a façade (and below those twisted Tudor chimneys) are wrongest of all".

Arthur Liberty died in 1917, seven years before the completion of his shops.

Post-war
Liberty, during the 1950s, continued its tradition for fashionable and eclectic design. All departments in the shop had a collection of both contemporary and traditional designs. New designers were promoted and often included those still representing the Liberty tradition for handcrafted work.

In 1955, Liberty began opening several regional stores in other UK cities; the first of these was in Manchester. Subsequent shops opened in Bath, Brighton, Chester, York, Kingston upon Thames, Exeter and Norwich.

During the 1960s, extravagant and Eastern influences once again became fashionable, as well as the Art Deco style, and Liberty adapted its furnishing designs from its archive.

In 1996, Liberty announced the closure of its twenty shops outside London, and instead focused on smaller outlets at airports.

Since 1988, Liberty has had a subsidiary in Japan which sells Liberty-branded products in major Japanese shops. It also sells Liberty fabrics to international and local fashion stores with bases in Japan.

2000s
Liberty's London store was sold for £41.5million (equivalent to £ million in ) and then leased back by the firm in 2009, to pay off debts ahead of a potential sale of the company. Subsequently, in 2010, Liberty was taken over by private equity firm BlueGem Capital, in a deal worth £32million (equivalent to £ million in ).

TV documentary
From 2 December 2013, Liberty was the focus of a three-part hour-long episode TV documentary series titled Liberty of London, airing on Channel 4. The documentary follows Ed Burstell (Managing Director) and the department's retail team in the busy lead up to Christmas 2013.

Channel 4 further commissioned a second series of the documentary on 28 October 2014. This series featured four, one hour-long episodes based on six months worth of unprecedented footage. Series two commenced on 12 November 2014.

Collaborations
Liberty has a history of collaborative projects – from William Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti in the nineteenth century to Yves Saint Laurent and Dame Vivienne Westwood in the twentieth century. Recent collaborations include brands such as Scott Henshall, Nike, Dr. Martens, Hello Kitty, Barbour, House of Hackney, Vans, Onia, Manolo Blahnik, Uniqlo, J.Crew, Superga, Target and T. M. Lewin.

See also
Althea McNish -  a textile designer commissioned by Liberty's to design fashion and furnishing textiles and scarves from 1957
List of department stores by country
List of department stores of the United Kingdom
Merton Abbey Mills - a textile factory in Merton, London, which was used extensively for printing Liberty fabrics.

References and sources
References

Sources
Alison Adburgham, Liberty's – A biography of a shop, George Allen and Unwin (1975)

External links

 Liberty at the Vintage Fashion Guild Label Resource

1875 establishments in England
Art Nouveau
Companies based in the City of Westminster
Retail companies established in 1875
Department store buildings in the United Kingdom
Department stores of the United Kingdom
Furniture retailers of the United Kingdom
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade II* listed retail buildings
Shops in London
Tourist attractions in the City of Westminster
Tudor Revival architecture in England

Liberty (department store)


Bencoolen Street is a street in Central, Singapore that starts at the junction of Rochor Road, Rochor Canal Road and Jalan Besar and ends at the junction of Fort Canning Road, Stamford Road and Orchard Road. The street houses several landmarks including Sim Lim Square, Bencoolen Mosque and Albert Complex. A number of hotels and serviced apartments exist, namely Summer View Hotel, Bayview Hotel Singapore, Hotel 81 Bencoolen, Strand Hotel, Rendezvous Hotel and Somerset Bencoolen. It is accessible via Bencoolen MRT station which is located under Bencoolen Street itself.

References
Victor R Savage, Brenda S A Yeoh (2004), Toponymics A Study of Singapore Street Names, Eastern University Press, ''

Roads in Singapore
Museum Planning Area
Rochor

Bencoolen Street


Godfrey Goodman, also called Hugh; (28 February 1582 or 158319 January 1656) was the Anglican Bishop of Gloucester, and a member of the Protestant Church. He was the son of Godfrey Goodman (senior) and Jane Croxton, landed gentry living in Wales. His contemporaries describe him as being a hospitable, quiet man, and lavish in his charity to the poor.

Education and career
Goodman was born in Ruthin, Denbighshire.  From 1593, Goodman was originally educated at Ruthin School but was later sent to Westminster School, where he remained seven years under the protection of his uncle, Gabriel Goodman, Dean of Westminster. He was an earnest student and when only seventeen won a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated there in 1604 and shortly after was ordained at Bangor, Wales.

Goodman's first appointment was to the rectory of Stapleford Abbotts, Essex, in 1606. He made rapid progress in the Church, and was made successively prebend of Westminster in 1607; Rector of West Isley, Berkshire, in 1616; Rector of Kinnerton, Gloucester; Canon of Windsor and prebendary of Hatherton, Staffordshire in St Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton in 1617; Dean of Rochester in 1621; and finally Bishop of Gloucester, 1625–1646. His election to the See of Gloucester was confirmed on 5 March 1625 and he was consecrated a bishop the following day. In addition, he held two livings in Wales, at Llandyssil and Llanarmon. Even as a bishop, he was allowed to retain most of these appointments. In late 1633/early 1634, he was elected Bishop of Hereford, but refused the election and continued in Gloucester.

Involvement with Catholicism
Goodman became one of the Court preachers and was chaplain to Queen Anne, wife of James I. His leaning towards Roman Catholicism made enemies for him at Windsor, and he was reprimanded by the King over Court sermons. A few years later, he was severely reprimanded for having erected a crucifix at Windsor and using altar-cloths with a cross design in his own cathedral at Gloucester, and further for having suspended a minister who insisted on preaching "that all who die papists go inevitably to hell".

It is likely that doubts were arising in his mind about the legitimacy of the Church's separation from Rome, and he sought the society of Catholic priests who were in hiding throughout the country. He was frequently at variance with Archbishop Laud, and in 1640 refused on conscientious grounds to sign the seventeen Articles drawn up by the Archbishop. He was thereupon arrested, but after five weeks in prison he overcame his scruples and signed the Articles. This, however, availed him little, as he was soon impeached by Parliament along with Laud and the ten other signatories of the Articles and was sent to prison for treason in the Tower of London for four months.

In 1643, Goodman's episcopal palace was pillaged by parliamentarian soldiers and over the course of a couple of years he was stripped of all his emoluments. He withdrew from public life to his small Welsh estate in Carnarvon, and it is likely that he converted to Catholicism at this time. He was deprived of his See by Parliament on 9 October 1646, as episcopacy was abolished for the duration of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate.

In about 1650, he came to London, and gave himself up to study and research; he was befriended by some Catholic royalists and lived in close connection with them until his death in 1656. Father Davenport OSF, former chaplain to Queen Henrietta, was his confessor and attended him in his last illness. He died, aged 62 or 63, at Westminster. By his will, in which he made a profession of his Catholic faith, he left most of his property to Ruthin, his native town; his manuscripts and books, however, were given to Trinity College, Cambridge."After a few years, when we had experience of the Scottish government, then-in disparagement of the Scots and in hate and detestation of them-the Queen did seem to revive. Then her memory much magnified-such ringing of bells, such public joy and sermons in commemoration of her, the picture of her tomb painted in many churches; and in effect, more solemnity and joy in memory of her coronation than wad for the coming in of King James". - Goodman

Principal works
 The Fall of Man, or the Corruption of Nature proved by the light of his Natural Reason (1616)
 The two mysteries of the Christian Religion, the Trinity and the Incarnation, explicated (1653)
 Arguments and animadversions on Dr. George Hakewil's Apology
 The Creatures praysing God (1622)
 The Court of King James the First by Sir A.W. reviewed

Goodman's 1620s prose text, "See, see the Word is incarnate", describing the life of Christ, was set to music by the English composer Orlando Gibbons as a verse anthem.

Bibliography
 Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester - Geoffrey Soden, SPCK 1953

References

Bishops of Gloucester
17th-century Church of England bishops
1580s births
1656 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
People of the Elizabethan era
People from Ruthin
People educated at Ruthin School
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Canons of Windsor
Deans of Rochester
17th-century Welsh Anglican priests
Household of Anne of Denmark
16th-century Anglican theologians
17th-century Anglican theologians

Godfrey Goodman


USS Devastator (AM-318) was an Auk-class minesweeper acquired by the U.S. Navy for the dangerous task of removing naval mines from minefields laid in the water to prevent ships from passing.

Construction history
Devastator was launched 19 April 1943 by General Engineering and Dry Dock Co., Alameda, California; sponsored by Mrs. D. A. Shaw; and commissioned 12 January 1944.

World War II service

Devastator – the first ship in the U.S. Navy to bear that name—was an auxiliary ship of the United States Navy.  She served as an escort vessel during the latter half of the Second World War, and later saw service in the Korean War.

Devastator arrived at Pearl Harbor 30 March 1944 as escort for a convoy. The next day she began convoy escort duty in Majuro and Kwajalein, which continued until 30 July. During 3 to 17 August she swept off French Frigate Shoals, and after one voyage to Eniwetok from 4 to 25 September, served at Pearl Harbor on training duty for the remainder of the year.

Iwo Jima and Okinawa operations

Devastator sailed from Pearl Harbor 27 January 1945 as escort for transports bound for the Battle of Iwo Jima. She participated in preinvasion minesweeping for 3 days before the invasion landings of 19 February, then escorted damaged vessels to Saipan, returning to Iwo Jima 1 March to patrol off the island until 7 March.

On 19 March 1945 Devastator got underway from Ulithi for preinvasion minesweeping at Okinawa. She patrolled during and after the invasion and in the heavy suicide attacks of 6 April downed a Japanese plane about  off her port quarter. On 4 July she cleared Okinawa for minesweeping operations in conjunction with the U.S. 3rd Fleet raids on the Japanese mainland. She sailed from Okinawa 15 July for Seattle, Washington arriving 12 August for overhaul.

Devastator remained on the U.S. West Coast for operations except for two extended periods at Pearl Harbor for experiments in hull design development. She was placed out of commission 30 January 1947 into Pacific Reserve Fleet, Long Beach.

Korean War-related service

Recommissioned 26 February 1952 Devastator served in the Far East from 8 July 1952 to 5 February 1953 and again from 5 October 1953 to 2 June 1954 carrying out dangerous sweeps in Korean waters. She then operated on the U.S. west coast until again placed out of commission in reserve 15 April 1955. She was reclassified MSF-318, 7 February 1955.

Decommissioning and disposal
Devastator was decommissioned 15 April 1955. She was sold to Mexico in 1973.

Awards and honors
Devastator received three battle stars for World War II service and two battle stars for Korean War service.

Mexican Navy service
The former Devastator was sold to the Mexican Navy in 1973 and renamed ARM Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (C74). Her pennant number was later changed to G06, and again changed in 1993 to P105. Sabastian Lerdo de Tejada has been retired from service by 2004.

Notes

References

 NavSource Online: Devastator (MSF 318)
 USS Devastator (AM-318, later MSF-318), 1944-1973

External links
 The Mine Sweeper USS Devastator AM-318 Scrapbook
 USS DEVASTATOR (AM-318) - US Navy - Korean War Project
 Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940-1945 AM-318 USS Devastator
 Devastator (AM-318), and Defense (AM317

Auk-class minesweepers of the United States Navy
Ships built in Alameda, California
1943 ships
World War II minesweepers of the United States
Korean War minesweepers of the United States
Valle-class patrol vessels
Pacific Reserve Fleet, Long Beach Group

USS Devastator (AM-318)


The Tonga Meteorological Service is the national meteorological service of Tonga.

History
The Tonga Meteorological Service was established in Marconi House in Nuku'alofa in 1919, primarily as a telegraph office to relay morse code messages from ships.

In 1945, the first Tongan was sent to train as a weather observer in Suva, monitored by the Fiji Government and the New Zealand Air Force. The South Pacific Air Transport Council (SPATC) was established a year later by New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom, France and other Oceanic islands, many islands of the Pacific which enabled new weather stations to be built across the Pacific, including Tonga. In 1948, the first educated weather operator in Tongo set up the Fuaamotu Airport Weather Station, but closed down three years later, so in October 1951, two more officers were recruited to form the Nuku'alofa weather office.

It became the Tonga Meteorological Service when the Tongan government took over its control in 1970, although New Zealand was active until 1986 in allocating funds and paying the wages of the meteorologists who worked at the centre.

The service also regularly reports on the weather through Radio Tonga, and provides local weather forecasts.

References

External links
Official site
Government of Tonga
Governmental meteorological agencies in Oceania

Tonga Meteorological Service


The Master of Rabbinic Studies (MRb) is a graduate degree granted by a Yeshiva or rabbinical school. It involves the academic study of Talmud, Jewish law, philosophy, ethics, and rabbinic literature;
see .
The Master of Talmudic Law is closely related.
In many institutions, this degree is a standard component in the study for semicha (rabbinic ordination).

At accredited institutions this degree requires between 72 and 90 credit hours of study; 72 being the minimum determined by academic accrediting agencies and 90 being on the upper end of certain schools that wish to ensure a broader study of the related material.

Contemporary usage
The MRb is a significantly more extensive program than most master's degrees.  The degree usually consists on average of 90 semester hours, as opposed to the usual 36 or 48.  Ordination in a mainstream yeshiva or rabbinical school requires seven or eight years of education past high school: the first four in undergraduate studies leading to a Bachelor of Talmudic Law and then three or four years of seminary or rabbinical school leading to the MRb.
See  and .

Accreditation and recognition
In North America, four entities that accredit religious schools in particular are recognized by the United States Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation:

Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE)
Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools (AARTS)
Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS)
Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS)

Since these accreditors meet Council for Higher Education Accreditation and United States Department of Education recognition criteria, standards correspond to those of regional accreditors. Contrary to the principles laid out by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation in Transfer and the Public Interest: A Statement to the Community, many regionally accredited institutions continue to base transfer credit decisions solely or primarily upon regional accreditation.

See also
Bachelor of Talmudic Law

Talmudic law

References

External links
 http://www2.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/accreditation_pg8.html
 https://web.archive.org/web/20100410192912/http://www.ajrca.org/programs/rabbinicalschool.shtml
 https://web.archive.org/web/20100207022635/http://admissions.ajula.edu/Content/ContentUnit.asp?CID=5&u=749&t=0
 https://web.archive.org/web/20091206165953/http://www.lecfl.com/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/243685/jewish/Yeshiva-Gedolah-Rabbinical-College.htm
 http://www.citytowninfo.com/school-profiles/ner-israel-rabbinical-college

Jewish education
Rabbinic Studies
Religious degrees

Master of Rabbinic Studies


Miroslav Machovič (born March 21, 1976) is a Slovak former swimmer, who specialized in backstroke events. He is a two-time Olympian (1996 and 2000), and a former Slovak record holder in 50, 100, and (200 m backstroke-till today). During his sporting career, Machovic also trained for STU Trnava and Dukla Banska Bystrica under his coaches Ladislav Hlavatý, Jiřī Walter .

Machovic's Olympic debut came at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. There, he failed to reach the top 16 final in any of his individual events, finishing thirty-third in the  100 m backstroke (57.78), and nineteenth in the 200 m backstroke (2:04.15).

At the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Machovic competed again in a backstroke double. He posted FINA B-standards of 56.63 (100 m backstroke) and 2:01.72 (200 m backstroke) from the European Championships in Helsinki, Finland. On the second day of the Games, Machovic placed twenty-eighth in the 100 m backstroke. Swimming in heat four, he shared a fourth seed with Portugal's Nuno Laurentino in a matching time of 56.95. Three days later, in the 200 m backstroke, Machovic challenged seven other swimmers in heat three, including Austria's 18-year-old Markus Rogan, who later earned a silver in Athens four years later. He came up short in sixth place and thirty-first overall at 2:04.73, exactly three seconds off his Slovak record and entry time.

References

External links
NBC 2008 Olympics profile

1976 births
Living people
Slovak male swimmers
Olympic swimmers for Slovakia
Swimmers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Male backstroke swimmers
Sportspeople from Trnava

Miroslav Machovič


Petru Giovacchini (, ; 1 February 1910 – 29 September 1955) was a Corsican activist,  born in Canale-di-Verde to an old family of the Corsican nobility with deep-rooted pro-Italian feelings. Giovacchini was the most renowned of the Corsican Italians, who actively promoted the unification of Corsica to the Kingdom of Italy during the Fascist years.

Life

Since young he collaborated with writings to the literary newspaper A Muvra. In 1927 he was expelled from the "Liceo National" of Bastia and founded the pro-Italian magazine "Primavera", where he published  the poems "Musa canalinca" and "Rime notturne". Giovacchini was disappointed with the moderate positions of the Movimento Autonomista Corso and decided to move to Italy in 1930 to study medicine at the Pisa University.

In Italy Giovacchini entered in contact with the Italian irredentism movement and because of this was harshly attacked by the French authorities when he returned to Corsica. One of the main accusations he received was that he considered Pasquale Paoli (the hero of Corsica) as the precursor of the Corsican irredentism in favor of the unification of the island to Italy.

He escaped to Italy and in  November 1933 founded in Pavia the famous "Gruppi di Cultura Corsa", with Corsican university students in Italy. In 1936 Giovacchini got his degree and, as a member of the Fascist Party, he quickly volunteered to fight in Ethiopia and successively in Spain, where he was wounded and got the "bronze" medal of honor.

In June 1940 Petru Giovacchini organized hundreds of manifestations in many cities of Italy in order to request the Corsica unification to Italy. Because of this he was elected to represent Corsica in the Italian Fascist Parliament in 1942. When Italy occupied Corsica in November 1942, Giovacchini was named as the possible Governor of Corsica if the Kingdom of Italy were to annex the island of Corsica. He worked with colonel Petru Simone Cristofini to make the Corsican population accept the Italian occupation of Corsica (and later a possible union to Italy).

After the Italian armistice in September 1943, Petru Giovacchini was forced to hide until 1945.  Prosecuted by a French tribunal in Corsica, he received a death sentence in 1945 and so went in exile to Canterano (near Rome).

In September 1955 Petru Giovacchini died, as a consequence of former combat wounds, and since his death, is considered one of the most famous Corsican Italians of the Italian Irredentism era.

Works

The literary works of Petru Giovacchini were:

Musa Canalinca (1929)
Rime notturne (1930)
Aurore, poesie corse (1936)
Corsica Nostra (1942)
Archiatri pontifici corsi (1951)

The Corsican Italians who promoted the ideal of Corsican irredentism published mainly in Italy, because of the persecutions from the French regime in the island.  This was the case of Petru Giovacchini, who (after his initial poems Musa canalinca and Rime notturne, done when young) wrote his main literary works in Italy.

Indeed, he wrote Aurore, poesie corse in 1936 in Livorno, followed by Corsica nostra and the Archiatri pontifici corsi in 1942 and 1951 in Rome (the last, just a few years before his premature death).

External links
Excerpt about "Corsica nostra", book of Petru Giovacchini (in Italian)

Bibliography

 Mastroserio, Giuseppe. Petru Giovacchini – Un Patriota esule in Patria. Editrice Proto.  Bari, 2004.
 Vignoli, Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati Ed. Giuffè. Roma, 2000
 Vita e Tragedia dell'Irredentismo Corso, Rivista Storia Verità, n.4, 1997

See also

 Italia irredenta
 Corsican Italians
 Italian-occupied Corsica
 Simon Petru Cristofini
 Pietro Rocca

1910 births
1955 deaths
People from Haute-Corse
Members of the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations
People of the Italian Social Republic
Italian irredentism
20th century in Corsica
Italian people of the Spanish Civil War
French people of the Spanish Civil War
20th century in Italy
Collaborators with Fascist Italy
People sentenced to death in absentia by France

Petru Giovacchini


Collimated light is light whose rays are parallel. This light spreads slowly as it travels. The word collimated is related to collinear, because all the rays in collimated light line up with each other.

Perfectly collimated light would not spread out with distance at all. No real light is perfectly collimated. Real light will spread a little as it travels. Diffraction prevents anyone from creating a perfectly collimated beam.

Light can be roughly collimated by using a collimator – a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves.

Etymology
The word "collimate" comes from the Latin verb collimare, which originated in a misreading of collineare, "to direct in a straight line".

Sources

Lasers
Laser light from crystal and some gas lasers is highly collimated because it is formed in an optical cavity between two parallel mirrors, in addition to being coherent. The divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian, and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less collimated light due to their short cavity, and therefore higher collimation requires a collimating lens.

Synchrotron light
Synchrotron light is very collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons around a circular track.

Distant sources
The light from stars (other than the Sun) can be considered collimated for almost any purpose, because they are so far away they have almost no angular size.

Lenses and mirrors

A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point. Conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light. Since the source needs to be small, such an optical system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are often used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources.

References

 Pfister, J. & Kneedler, J.A. (s.d.). A guide to lasers in the OR.

Optics
Astronomy

Collimated light


Awka (Igbo: Ọka)  na the capital city of Anambra State, Nigeria. The city being dey declared capital on 21 August 1991, after the creation of Anambra and Enugu state, which moved the capital from Enugu to Awka (an administrative center since pre-colonial times). Awka population dey estimate to  301,657 as of the 2006 Nigerian census, and over 2.5 million as of a 2018 estimate. The city dey located at 199.1 kilometres (123.7 mi), by road, directly north of Port Harcourt in the centre of the densely-populated Igbo heartland in South-East Nigeria.

The West-East Federal highway link am to Lagos, Benin City, Asaba, Onitsha, and Enugu to Awka and several local roads link it to other important towns such as Oko, Ekwulobia, Agulu, Enugwu-Ukwu, Abagana and Nnewi.

Awka


Error concealment is a technique used in signal processing that aims to minimize the deterioration of signals caused by missing data, called packet loss. A signal is a message sent from a transmitter to a receiver in multiple small packets. Packet loss occurs when these packets are misdirected, delayed, resequenced, or corrupted.

Receiver-Based Techniques

When error recovery occurs at the receiving end of the signal, it is receiver-based. These techniques focus on correcting corrupted or missing data.

Waveform substitution

Preliminary attempts at receiver-based error concealment involved packet repetition, replacing lost packets with copies of previously received packets. This function is computationally simple and is performed by a device on the receiver end called a "drop-out compensator".

Zero Insertion

When this technique is used, if a packet is lost, its entries are replaced with 0s.

Interpolation

Interpolation involves making educated guesses about the nature of a missing packet. For example, by following speech patterns in audio or faces in video.

Buffer

Data buffers are used for temporarily storing data while waiting for delayed packets to arrive. They are common in internet browser loading bars and video applications, like YouTube.

Transmitter-Based Techniques

Rather than attempting to recover lost packets, other techniques involve anticipating data loss, manipulating the data prior to transmission.

Retransmission

The simplest transmitter-based technique is retransmission, sending the message multiple times. Although this idea is simple, because of the extra time required to send multiple signals, this technique is incapable of supporting real-time applications.

Packet Repetition

Packet repetition, also called forward error correction (FEC), adds redundant data, which the receiver can use to recover lost packets. This minimizes loss, but increases the size of the packet.

Interleaving

Interleaving involves scrambling the data before transmission. When a packet is lost, rather than losing an entire set of data, small portions of several sets will be gone.  At the receiving end, the message is then deinterleaved to reveal the original message with minimal loss.

Transmission without interleaving:

 Original transmitted sentence:                      ThisIsNotAnExampleOfInterleaving
 Received sentence with a burst error:               ThisIsNot__pleOfInterleaving

The term "AnExample" ends up mostly unintelligible and difficult to correct.

With interleaving:

 Transmitted sentence:                               ThisIsAnExampleOfInterleaving...
 Error-free transmission:                            TIEpfeaghsxlIrv.iAaenli.snmOten.
 Received sentence with a burst error:               TIEpfe__Irv.iAaenli.snmOten.
 Received sentence after deinterleaving:             T_isI_AnE_amp_eOfInterle_vin_...

No word is completely lost and the missing letters can be recovered with minimal guesswork.

Applications
Depending on the method of transmission (analog or digital), there are a variety of ways for errors to propagate in the message.

Analog Applications

Since its invention in the 1950s, the magnetic coating used in analog video tape has experienced radio frequency (RF) signal drop-outs.  Some of the techniques that were used for resolving these issues are analogous to those used for concealing errors in modern compressed video signals.

The process of click removal in audio restoration is another example of error concealment. A closely analogous example in the domain of image processing is the use of digital dust and scratch removal processing in film restoration.

Digital Applications

Error concealment has many digital applications, including web browsing, video conferencing, Skype, and YouTube

See also
 Packet loss concealment

References

Error
Signal processing
Film and video technology
Audio engineering
Broadcast engineering
Error detection and correction
Film and video terminology

Error concealment


Shanklin Chine is a geological feature and tourist attraction in the town of Shanklin, on the Isle of Wight, England. A wooded coastal ravine, it contains waterfalls, trees and lush vegetation, with footpaths and walkways allowing paid access for visitors, and a heritage centre explaining its history.

Geology

A chine is a local word for a stream cutting back into a soft cliff. Formation of the Chine, which cuts through Lower Greensand Cretaceous sandstones, has taken place over the last 10,000 years. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, stones were laid at the top of the waterfall to arrest this progress. There are a continuous series of spring lines on the cliff faces in the Chine. The Isle of Wight has a number of chines, but the largest remaining is Shanklin. With a drop of 32 m (105 ft) to sea level, and a length of just over 400m (a quarter of a mile), the Chine covers an area of approximately 1.2 hectares (three acres).

History
Prior to the Victorian era Shanklin was merely a small agricultural and fishing community, the latter nestling at the foot of the chine, and it was not until the early 19th century that it began to grow. Like most of the chines on the south of the Island, Shanklin Chine was well-used by smugglers.

A romantic landscape

The Chine became one of the earliest tourist attractions on the Isle of Wight, with records of the public visiting the site to view it as far back as 1817. Keats found inspiration for some of his greatest poetry while staying at Shanklin in 1819 and wrote: "The wondrous Chine here is a very great Lion; I wish I had as many guineas as there have been spy-glasses in it." It was a favourite subject for artists including Thomas Rowlandson and Samuel Howitt. Descriptions of the site at the time are surprisingly similar to the present day:

'The delightful village of Shanklin. In this sequestered spot is a good inn, fitted up for the accommodation of visitors. The  object of attraction at Shanklin is the Chine, (which is situated at about ten minutes walk from the inn. This phenomenon of nature is a combination of beauty and grandeur; it is formed by the separation of a lofty cliff, whose height is 280 feet perpendicular, and 100 feet wide at the top. On entering the Chine from the shore, we pass along one side, rugged and barren; through which a winding path has been cut by a poor fisherman; while below the rippling stream urges its way to the ocean, which pours its rolling waters at its feet, and spreads its boundless expanse before it. On the other side the cliff is fertile, covered with hanging wood and bushes, adorned with a neat cottage, and having a little rustic inn. About the middle of the Chine is a small Chalybeate: and the path now conducts by a serpentine course to a scene of awful grandeur, formed by stupendous masses of matter on each side, and the rustling of a small cascade, which falls from the head of the Chine, and passes between the dark and overhanging cliffs.

Extract from Beauties of the Isle of Wight published by S Horsley 1828

Second World War
During the Second World War the Chine was taken over and used as an assault course by the Commandos whose HQ was at Upper Chine School. 40 Royal Marine Commando trained there in preparation for the Dieppe Raid in 1942. A fuel pipeline for Operation Pluto (Pipeline under the Ocean) also ran through the Chine.  of pipework has been preserved at the Chine, and is kept in situ for the public to view.

PLUTO, one of the great secret successes of the war, was the idea of Lord Louis Mountbatten who later became governor of the Isle of Wight. During the Normandy invasion in 1944, forked pipelines from the Chine and Sandown carried petrol  under the Channel to Cherbourg.

References

External links
Shanklin Chine official website

Chines of the Isle of Wight
Chine

Shanklin Chine


Baron is a title of nobility.

Baron, The Baron or Barons may also refer to:

Places
 Barons, Alberta, Canada
 Baron, Gard, France
 Baron, Gironde, France
 Baron, Oise, France
 Baron, Saône-et-Loire, France
 Baron-sur-Odon, France
 Baron, Allahabad, India

People
 Baron (name), people with the surname or given name Baron
 Baron (photographer), Sterling Henry Nahum (1906–1956)

Sports
 Birmingham Barons, a Minor League Baseball team
 Cleveland Barons (disambiguation), several former ice hockey teams
 Oklahoma City Barons, a former ice hockey team in the American Hockey League
 Barons, the nickname of Brewton–Parker College athletics teams

Entertainment
 Barons (TV series), a 2022 Australian TV series
 The Baron (novella), a 1942 Portuguese novella by Branquinho da Fonseca
 The Baron (TV series), a mid-1960s British television series
 The Baron (album), a 1981 album by American country singer Johnny Cash
 "The Baron" (song), a 1981 song by Johnny Cash
 The Baron (film), a 2011 Portuguese film based on the novella
 The Barons, a 2009 Belgian film
 Baron, a fictional kingdom in the game Final Fantasy IV
 Baron Humbert von Gikkingen, a character in The Cat Returns

Other uses
 Euthalia, a genus of butterflies known as barons
 Euthalia aconthea, a species of butterflies known as common barons
 BARON, a mathematical software package
 Beechcraft Baron, an aircraft
 Baron Hotel, Aleppo, Syria
 Baron Services, a weather technology company
 Baron convention, in the game of contract bridge
 The Baron (horse), an Irish thoroughbred racehorse of the mid-19th century
 Baron, a cut of beef comprising a double sirloin joined at the backbone
 Baron Kriminel, a spirit in the Guédé family in Haitian Vodou
 Battlin' Baron, the mascot of Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School

Related pages
 Feudal baron, a vassal holding a barony in fealty to an overlord
 Baron of the Exchequer, a type of English judge
 Cattle baron, the owner of many cattle
 BARON.E, a Swiss pop music duo
 Barony (disambiguation)
 Le Baron (disambiguation) (also spelled le Baron and LeBaron)
 Barron (disambiguation)

Baron (disambiguation)


The Yafuriyya Shia (named for Muhammad ibn Yafur, to whom they were related) was a ghulat sect of Shia Islam. The sect was also referred to as the Muammariyya Shia. The Yafuriyya believed in reincarnation and a man named Muammar al-Kufi to be their Lord.

Beliefs
The Ya'furiyya Shia had the following beliefs:
 They believed that the Imams after Muhammad were (in chronological order):
 Ali, then
 Hasan ibn Ali, then
 When Hasan ibn Ali pledged allegiance to Muawiyah I, the Imamate was taken away from him and given to Husayn ibn Ali
 Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin
 Muhammad al-Baqir
 The Ya'furiyya Shia do not know the names of the Imams after Muhammad al-Baqir, other than a few.
 They believed the world will always have an Imam and never be without one.
 They believed that anyone who denies and rejects the Imams (even one Imam) is an unbeliever.
 They believed that anyone who acknowledges and accepts all the Imams and knows their names is a believer.
 They believed that anyone who acknowledges all the Imams but does not know all or some of their names is neither a believer nor an unbeliever.
 They believed that a man called Mu'ammar al-Kufi was their Lord.
 They did homage to Mu'ammar al-Kufi morning and evening.
 When Mu'ammar al-Kufi died, they said about him what the Christians say about Jesus.
 They believed in metempsychosis.
 They believed the world will go on forever.
 They believed that Paradise is whatever befalls the people in this world in the way of well-being, blessings, possessions, money and fame.
 They believed that Hell is whatever befalls the people in this world in the way of diseases, ill-health, hardship and transmigration of spirits into the beasts, birds and insects. The Ya'furiyya's proof for this belief of theirs was the words of God in the Quran: "There is not an animal that lives on the earth nor a creature that flies on its wings but forms a community that is like yours."
 They believed that adultery, wine, amusements and all the other things forbidden in Islam to be lawful. According to the Ya'furiyya, the reason why Muhammad forbade these amusements and rewards was to prevent the Muslims from then thinking that they had achieved their reward in its complete entirety. This would have then made the Muslims commit fewer acts that would be worthy of the true worldly rewards (by way of the distractions of the amusements and rewards), and more acts that would result in the worldly punishments and transmigration of spirits into beast and reptiles. It would have also required the Muslims to work harder and do more good deeds to maintain their deserving position of the worldly rewards.

See also
 Islamic schools and branches
 List of extinct Shia sects

References

Bibliography
 An Ismaili heresiography: the "Bāb al-shayṭān" from Abū Tammām's Kitāb al ..., By Wilferd Madelung, Paul Ernest Walker, pgg.104-105

Shia Islamic branches
Ghulat sects
Reincarnation

Yaʽfuriyya Shia


Acacia ausfeldii, commonly known as Ausfeld's wattle or whipstick cinnamon wattle, is a shrub species that is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It grows to between 1 and 4 metres high and has phyllodes that are 2 to 7 cm long and 2 to 6 mm wide. The yellow globular flowerheads appear in groups of two or three in the axils of the phyllodes in August to October, followed by straight seed pods which are 4 to 9 cm long and 2 to 4 mm wide.

The species was first formally described in 1867 by German botanist Eduard August von Regel based on a horticultural specimen grown from seed collected by J.G. Ausfeld in Bendigo, Victoria.

Plants thought to be hybrids between this species and Acacia paradoxa have been recorded in Victoria.

References

ausfeldii
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Victoria (state)
Fabales of Australia
Plants described in 1867

Acacia ausfeldii


Sciences Po or Institut d'études politiques de Paris is a special university in France. The school is in Paris. It was created in 1872.

It is a specialist in the fields of economics, administration, social sciences and politics.

Notable graduates

 Charline Avenel, French official
 Paul Biya, President of Cameroon
 Marc Drillech, French sociologist and President of universities
 Roland Dumas, French lawyer and Socialist politician
 François Hollande, President of France
 Adrienne Jablanczy, French economist, professor
 Pierre Mauroy, French Socialist Party politician who was Prime Minister of France from 1981 to 1984
 Jean Peyrelevade, French civil servant, politician and business leader
 Peter Scholl-Latour, French-German professor, journalist and publicis

Notable teachers
 Dominique Strauss-Kahn, French politician, economist

References

More reading
 Sciences Po Paris website
 Richard Descoings, Sciences Po. De la Courneuve à Shanghai, préface de René Rémond, Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2007 ()

Education in France
Universities in Paris

Sciences Po


The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen is the soundtrack from the 2003 film The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, released by Varèse Sarabande on August 1, 2003. The music was composed by Trevor Jones and Joseph Shabalala, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra (conducted by Geoffrey Alexander). The Ladysmith Black Mambazo choral group performed the songs "Kenya - Wait For Me" and "Son of Africa". The soundtrack was not released in stores in the United States, and was at first released only for iTunes. After this did not generate satisfactory sales, it was released by the Varèse Sarabande label for purchase online.

Track listing
 Dawn of a New Century
 Kenya - Wait for Me
 Task Requires Heroes
 Promenade by the Sea
 Nautilus - Sword of the Ocean
 The Game Is On
 Old Tiger
 Capturing Mr. Hyde
 Mina Harker's Secret
 Phantom's Lair
 Portrait of Dorian Gray
 Treachery
 Storming the Fortress
 May This New Century Be Yours
 Son of Africa

External links
 Varèse Sarabande entry
 SoundtrackINFO entry

Superhero film soundtracks
Ladysmith Black Mambazo albums
Soundtrack
2003 soundtrack albums
DC Comics film soundtracks

The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (soundtrack)


Cinema is Everywhere is a 2011 documentary film by writer, director and cinematographer Teal Greyhavens that weaves together three stories from India, Scotland and Tunisia, each featuring personal perspectives on the effects of local, regional and international cinema on people's lives. It is based around the idea that cinema is a universal visual language that people of almost any culture can enjoy and even create regardless of where they are, who they know or how much money they have. It has been called "the global story of cinema and how it affects our everyday lives." The documentary was filmed by Greyhavens in 2009 while he traveled on a Thomas J. Watson Fellowship.

Synopsis
The film follows real-time stories of actors, directors and cinema viewers in four different countries. In Tunisia, a documentary film director struggles to have his frank film about human sexuality be seen in their conservative culture. In India, a young actress struggles with the challenges of making a name for herself while dealing with racist barriers. And in Scotland, actress Tilda Swinton and filmmaker Mark Cousins, create a film festival that travels to audiences rather than having the audiences come to the festival. These stories jump back and forth as the narratives develop, interspersed with scenes from video stores, projection booths and homes of all kinds. Toward the end of film there are brief commentaries by Indian film director Sudhir Mishra and Chinese director Fruit Chan.

Reception
The film premiered at the Austin Film Festival on October 22, 2011, and received an enthusiastic reception. One reviewer called it "a love letter to the joy, beauty, pain and importance of a tool and art form that in 24 frames per second can express our deepest hopes and fears and connect us all." It was screened a month later at the Costa Rica International Film Festival. In January 2012, it was seen at the Jaipur International Film Festival in Jaipur, India.

References

External links

2011 films
American documentary films
Documentary films about the film industry
Documentary films about actors
2011 documentary films
Documentary films about African cinema
2010s English-language films
2010s American films

Cinema Is Everywhere


Illuminations Candles is an American-based candle brand.

History
Illuminations was founded by Wally Arnold, who launched the first retail store in 1996. In 2006, the brand was acquired by Yankee Candle. Faced with recession pressures, Yankee shuttered the Illuminations  stores, and in 2009, the final Illuminations candles were sold. In 2019, one of Illumination's former customers, Mitch Davis, acquired rights to the Illuminations trademark and liaised with product expert Pamela Donnellan to re-launch the brand with "Illuminations Candles, Inc." as its new registered name.

References

Candles
Manufacturing companies established in 1996
American brands

Illuminations Candles


Dettmar Cramer (4 April 1925 – 17 September 2015) was a German football player and coach who led Bayern Munich to the 1975 and 1976 European Cups. He was born in Dortmund. Cramer is commonly considered to be the father of modern football in Japan and is a member of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 3rd Class. He also briefly coached the United States men's national soccer team.

Career
Known as the "Football Professor", because of his attention to detail and also as "Napoleon" because of his diminutive 1.61 meter stature, Cramer began his career at Viktoria Dortmund and Germania Wiesbaden. The beginning of his managerial career lead him to clubs such as Teutonia Lippstadt, VfL Geseke, FC Paderborn, and TuS Eving-Lindenhorst. At the turn of the year 1948–49, Cramer found himself in the service of the German Football Association (DFB) for the first time. Until 1963 he served with the designation as Head Coach for Western Germany under the DFB in Duisburg.

Little known, Cramer attempted to make the jump into a career in journalism at this point. He became lead editor for sports for German television station ZDF. Feeling largely isolated from the football world, Cramer decided to call it quits after only six months on the job. Afterward he was sent by the DFB to Japan to serve as a football instructor.

In order to strengthen its national team ahead of the Tokyo Olympic Games four years later, the Japan Football Association had the idea in 1960 of bringing in a foreign professional coach. Cramer was ultimately selected for this role. Through Cramer's coaching and leadership, and the efforts of his players, the Japanese national team achieved a surprise upset of Argentina at the Tokyo Olympics. The significance of this result was not lost on Cramer who saw it as a confirmation that Japanese football was vastly improving. Cramer's efforts were not limited to the national team, as he also formulated and implemented policies for general development. The foundation of a first national league, the training of other coaches, and the strengthening of the national team would all contribute to Japan's success at the Mexico City Olympics four years later, where Japan would take home the bronze medal.

On 1 January 1964 Cramer returned to Germany to take up a position as an assistant to German national coach Helmut Schön. In this capacity he was a part of the coaching staff at the World Cup in 1966, where West Germany lost in the final to England. His talents were highly regarded by FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association), which contracted him as a coach from 1967 to 1974 and sent him on a tour of the globe, but during this time, Cramer also ran the 1st FIFA Coaching Course in Japan in 1969, and sowed the seeds for a coach training structure in Japan. Additionally, on 1 August 1974, Cramer was selected by the United States Soccer Federation to become the head coach of the United States men's national football team.

During his time in national team service, Cramer received numerous coaching offers from German clubs in the Bundesliga, although he consistently turned them down. Then, on 16 January 1975, he took over the reins as manager of German giants FC Bayern Munich. At the beginning, Cramer faced heavy criticism in Munich, mostly because of his passive management style. With rumors of a sacking swirling around Cramer, he was strongly backed by team captain Franz Beckenbauer, who felt indebted to him because of his insistence that Beckenbauer be allowed to return to the German national team after initially being banned for impregnating a girl out of wedlock.

Cramer led Bayern to victory in the 1975 and 1976 European Champions Cup, in addition to capturing the World Club Cup in 1976. The 1976 Bundesliga season, however, saw Bayern unable to recapture their form and, after a season that saw them fail to defend their domestic title, Cramer was forced to resign his position. Cramer was involved in a trade between Bayern and Eintracht Frankfurt, which saw him take the top spot at Frankfurt, while Frankfurt coach Gyula Lorant made his way to Bayern. Neither club was happy with the trade, as Bayern finished a club worst 12th in the table, while Frankfurt's results were mediocre at best. As a result, the club parted ways with him on 30 June 1978.

Not until the 1982–83 season did Cramer find himself employed in the Bundesliga again, this time with club Bayer Leverkusen. At Leverkusen he managed to lead the club to their first top 9 finish in the league during his second year in charge. Failure to build on that accomplishment led to his dismissal after his third season in charge. Never to coach in the Bundesliga again, Cramer instead found coaching positions with various international clubs and associations around the world. In 2002 Cramer officially announced his retirement from football. In 2005, he was inducted into the Japan Football Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Cramer served in World War II as a Senior Lieutenant with a German paratrooper division.  For his international achievements, Cramer was awarded two honorary doctorates in addition to being presented with the Bundesverdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) in Germany. In 1971, Emperor Hirohito also personally presented him with membership in the Order of the Sacred Treasure for his service to Japan. Furthermore, Cramer was an honorary chieftain in the Native American Sioux and Mohican tribes. Cramer died at the age of 90 on 17 September 2015.

Honours

FC Bayern Munich
European Cup: 1974–75, 1975–76
Intercontinental Cup: 1976

Individual
France Football 40th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019

Career statistics

References

  Verrat vermieden. in: Der Spiegel, Heft 46/1968, 22. Jahrgang, S.122.
  Hermann, Boris: Trainerfuchs Dettmar Cramer – Ein Napoleon auf Weltreise. in: www.spiegel.de, Fassung vom 8. Juli 2005

External links

 Dettmar Cramer at eintracht-archiv.de
 Der 34. Speiltag der Bundesliga 77/78
Japan Football Hall of Fame at Japan Football Association
 Soccer Archive

1925 births
2015 deaths
Sportspeople from Dortmund
German football managers
German expatriate football managers
FC Bayern Munich managers
Eintracht Frankfurt managers
Hertha BSC managers
Bayer 04 Leverkusen managers
Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah) managers
Egypt national football team managers
Japan national football team managers
Aris Thessaloniki F.C. managers
United States men's national soccer team managers
Bundesliga managers
UEFA Champions League winning managers
Expatriate football managers in Japan
Expatriate football managers in Malaysia
Expatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia
Expatriate football managers in South Korea
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 3rd class
1974 African Cup of Nations managers
West German football managers
People from the Province of Westphalia
West German expatriate sportspeople in the United States
West German expatriate football managers
West German expatriate sportspeople in Egypt
West German expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
West German expatriate sportspeople in Greece
West German expatriate sportspeople in Malaysia
German expatriate sportspeople in South Korea
German expatriate sportspeople in Thailand
German expatriate sportspeople in Japan

Dettmar Cramer


Tom Brown is a fictional character created by author Thomas Hughes in his work Tom Brown's School Days (1857) which is set at a real English public school—Rugby School for Boys—in the 1830s when Hughes himself had been a pupil there.  Tom Brown is based on the author's brother, George Hughes, and George Arthur is based on Arthur Penrhyn Stanley.

Tom Brown's Schooldays
In Tom Brown's Schooldays, Tom Brown attends Rugby School after an epidemic means that he is unable to attend his local school in Berkshire. At Rugby, he befriends Harry "Scud" East, a slightly-senior boy, and falls afoul of the school bully, Flashman. Over the course of the novel, Brown changes from a timid boy to a brave young man who has overcome his initial fear of Flashman and his ilk.

In the 2005 television adaption, he was played by Alex Pettyfer.

Tom Brown at Oxford
In the sequel novel, Tom Brown at Oxford, Brown is now attending Oxford University as his adventures continue, albeit without Scud East, who has since joined the army.

Other appearances
Tom Brown later appears in the historical novel Flashman's Lady (1977) by George MacDonald Fraser, in which he is reunited with his former rival, Harry Flashman, and invites him to a cricket game as an act of friendship. Flashman describes Tom's adult form as "...a giant of a man...like some boxer...".

Flashman made some passing references to Brown in earlier novels, referring to him as "East's odious friend" in Flashman at the Charge and during Flashman's recollection of his expulsion in Flashman.

Characters in British novels of the 19th century
Child characters in literature
Literary characters introduced in 1857

Tom Brown (character)


The Ilemi Triangle, sometimes called only Ilemi, is a disputed area in East Africa. Arbitrarily defined, it measures about . Named after Anuak chief Ilemi Akwon, the territory is claimed by South Sudan and Kenya. The territory also borders Ethiopia and, despite use and trespass into the triangle by border tribes from within Ethiopia, the Ethiopian government has not made any official claim on the area, instead agreeing that the land was Sudanese territory in the 1902, 1907, and 1972 treaties.

Kenya now has de facto control of all the territory in the Ilemi Triangle up to the northern 1950 Sudanese Patrol Line. The dispute arose from the 1914 treaty in which a straight parallel line was used to divide territories that were both part of the British Empire. However the Turkana people—nomadic herders continued to move to and from the border and traditionally grazed in the area.

The perceived economic marginality of the land as well as decades of Sudanese conflicts are two factors that have delayed the resolution of the dispute.

Peoples
The nomadic Turkana move in the territory between South Sudan and Kenya and have been vulnerable to attacks from surrounding peoples. The other peoples in this area are the Didinga and Topasa in South Sudan, and the Nyangatom (Inyangatom) who move between South Sudan and Ethiopia, and the Dassanech who live east of the triangle in Ethiopia.

These pastoral people have historically engaged in raids on livestock. While in the past they used traditional weapons, since the nineteenth century onwards the use of firearms has been common.

History

To the southeast of the Ilemi triangle, Ethiopian emperor Menelik laid claim to Lake Turkana and proposed a boundary with the British to run from the southern end of the lake eastward to the Indian Ocean, which was shifted northward when the British and Ethiopian governments signed a treaty in 1907, reaffirmed by a 1970 Ethiopia-Kenya treaty.

The Ethiopia-Sudan boundary, the "Maud Line", was surveyed by Captain Philip Maud of the Royal Engineers in 1902–03.  It was adopted by Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement treaty of December 6, 1907 between Ethiopia and British East Africa.  Though vague on the precise details of where the Kenya-Sudan border was located, it clearly placed the entire Ilemi on the west side of the Ethiopia-Sudan line.

In 1914 the Uganda-Sudan Boundary Commission agreement provided Sudan access to Lake Turkana via the now-dry Sanderson Gulf at the southeast corner of the Ilemi (at the time Lake Turkana was the border between the British territories of Uganda and Kenya). After World War I, the Ethiopians armed the Nyangatom and Dassanech peoples, whereby the traditional raids turned into battles where hundreds died.

1920s
In 1928, Sudan agreed to allow Kenyan military units across the 1914 line to protect the Turkana against the Dassanech and Nyangatom, although it cost £30,000 per year. In 1929, Kenya began subsidising Sudan to occupy the territory, which it did not wish to continue because of the perceived useless nature of it. In 1931, it was Sudan that agreed to subsidise Kenya to occupy the territory.

1930s
In 1931 the Red Line (the Glenday Line) was drawn to represent the northern boundary of Turkana grazing. "In a series of agreements from 1929 to 1934, the Governor-General of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the Governor of Kenya agreed that this Red Line should be accepted as the Turkana grazing boundary."

After Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936, Italy briefly claimed the area of the Ilemi triangle. A joint Kenya-Sudan survey team in 1938 demarcated the "Red Line" or "Wakefield Line", very close to the delimitation a few years earlier of this Red Line, marking the northern limit of grazing of Turkana.

While Egypt and Britain agreed on this, Italy did not. The Dassanetch and Nyangatom had suffered because of the Italian occupation, and wished to recoup their losses by making a raid against the Turkana. Several hundred Turkana people were killed in a raid in July 1939 by the Nyangatom and Dassanech peoples. Italy gave up their claim on the Ilemi subsequently, and allowed the British to respond with a raid on the Inyangatom and Dassanech supported by the Royal Air Force.

1940s
British troops of the King's African Rifles occupied Ilemi in 1941 after the East African Campaign during World War II. The King's African Rifles passed through Ilemi on their way to southwestern Ethiopia. In 1944 Britain's Foreign Office surveyed a "blue line" which was further northwest than the "red line".

1950s
Sudan, in 1950, established their own patrol line even further northwest into Sudan up to the border with Ethiopia, where they prohibited Kenyan and Ethiopian pastoralists from moving north west of it, giving up policing and development to the area south east of it.  However, that Kenya-Sudan agreement specified that this patrol line in no way affected sovereignty; that it was not an international boundary, and money continued to be paid to Kenya to patrol this Sudanese territory.

There was fighting between 1949 and 1953 as Sudan attempted to keep the Nyangatom behind this line. After Sudanese independence in 1956, Sudan has not administered Ilemi or much of the southern part of the country due to the First Sudanese Civil War which began all over southern Sudan.

1960s and 1970s
In 1967 President Jomo Kenyatta's administration had made overtures to the British in order to secure support for the cession of the Triangle to Kenya. The British were unresponsive and the results amounted to little. The matter was sidelined and successive Kenyan administrations have been seemingly willing to accept the territorial status quo and their de facto territorial control, even if the Kenyan influence did diminish after the relocation of the Sudan People's Liberation Army to Sudan in the 1980s–90s.

In 1964 Kenya and Ethiopia reaffirmed their boundary, confirming Kenyan sovereignty to Namuruputh, which is just south of the southeastern point of the triangle. In 1972 a Sudan-Ethiopia boundary alteration did not solve the Ilemi issue because it did not involve Kenya, but did confirm that Ethiopia had no claim to the Ilemi Triangle.

In 1978 Kenya began to publicly, unilaterally regard the Turkana grazing line of 1938 (Wakefield Line) as an international boundary between Kenya and Sudan.

1980s
In 1986, Kenya began to widely circulate a new map which for the first time displayed the Ilemi Triangle as an integral part of its territory (no longer displaying the straight horizontal "Maud line").

1990s to present
In the 1990s, Ethiopia armed the Dassanech with Kalashnikov automatic rifles, perhaps in response to Kenyan government arming in 1978 of the Turkana. Beginning in the 1960s, many Kenyan maps have marked the Red Line as the official boundary of Kenya, rather than a dotted boundary which it had been previously.  More recently, many Kenyan maps depict the 1950 patrol line, the furthest northwest, as the boundary.  There was a question as to whether a secret agreement was broached between Kenya and South Sudan to allow Kenya to administer this territory, in return for support in the Sudanese Civil War.  In recent decades, the countries involved have had other priorities, delaying a resolution to the issue. The recent discovery of oil in the region also complicates resolution.

With the independence of South Sudan in 2011, the Sudanese claim to the Ilemi Triangle was transferred to the new national government in Juba.

See also
 Halaib Triangle
 Al-Fashaga triangle
 Mandera triangle

References

Further reading
 Ilemi Triangle: Unfixed Bandit Frontier Claimed by Sudan, Kenya and Ethiopia; Author: Dr. Nene Mburu

External links
 Scholarly Article about the Triangle by DR Nene Mburu
 Article in the Sudan Tribune suggesting that Kenya's claim is weak
 Ilemi Triangle, Robert O. Collins, University of California

Territorial disputes of Ethiopia
Territorial disputes of Kenya
Territorial disputes of South Sudan
Kenya–South Sudan border
Ethiopia–South Sudan border
Ethiopia–Kenya border
Border tripoints

Ilemi Triangle


Michel Leplay (22 February 1927 – 26 February 2020) was a French Protestant pastor. He was the director of the weekly newspaper Réforme, and was honored with the Amitié judéo-chrétienne de France prize in 2017.

Biography
The son of Norman merchants, Leplay was involved in Scouting throughout his youth, and worked with the Eclaireuses et Eclaireurs Unionistes de France. At age 15, he decided he would become a pastor.

After World War II, Leplay studied at the Protestant Faculty of Theology in Paris and the University of Lausanne. He also completed his military service at the Cavalry School.

Leplay became a pastor at the Reformed Church of France (ERF) in Monoblet, where he stayed for eight years and raised three children with his wife, Laurette. He moved to ERF Amiens and stayed there for ten years. He was President of the Conseil régional d'Île-de-France de l'ERF from 1950 to 1990, and was President of the Commission of Ministers of ERF in 1968.

Leplay was a longtime member of the Amitié judéo-chrétienne de France association, and served as Vice-President from 1992 to 2005. He was director of the weekly newspaper Réforme from 1991 to 1995.

Michel Leplay died on 26 February 2020 at the age of 92.

Awards
Prize of the Amitié judéo-chrétienne de France (2017)

Publications

Books
Foi et vie des protestants (1996)
La religion se porte bien (1996)
Charles Péguy (1998)
Martin Luther (1998)
Le Protestantisme et le pape : quelques explications (1999)
La Racine qui te porte. L'histoire mouvementée de la lecture chrétienne de la Bible juive (1999)
Le Protestantisme et Marie : une belle éclaircie (2000)
La Bible entre le culte et la culture. Vingt siècles de vitalité et de résistance (2002)
Les Protestantismes (2004)
Les Églises protestantes et les Juifs face à l'antisémitisme au vingtième siècle (2006)
La Foi que j'aime le mieux : une histoire de la petite espérance (2009)

Religious texts
Du fond de ma détresse: deux psaumes de pénitence (1998)
L'Église en péril (2000)
Marie: un regard juif sur la mère de Jésus (2001)
Le Chant des profondeurs (2010)
Présence d'une parole (2015)

References

1927 births
2020 deaths
French Calvinist and Reformed ministers

Michel Leplay


Celia Christine Gregory (23 September 1949 – 8 September 2008) was a British stage, film and television actress, who became a faith healer later in life.

Best known for her role as Ruth Anderson in the 1976 BBC television drama Survivors, she also appeared in such television series as Hammer House of Horror, The Professionals, Bergerac, Tales of the Unexpected, The Problem of Thor Bridge and Reilly, Ace of Spies, among many others.

She also worked as a stage actress in London's West End opposite Laurence Olivier, Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay in 1973 in Eduardo De Filippo's play, Saturday, Sunday, Monday. In 1991 she played Calphurnia in Julius Caesar and Lady Capulet in Romeo and Juliet for the Royal Shakespeare Company.

She married Keith Bender and they had two sons. The marriage ended in divorce. She retired in 1993 to spend time with her family. Celia Gregory died in 2008, aged 58, from undisclosed causes.

Filmography

References

External links

 Obituary in The Guardian
 Obituary in The Stage

1949 births
2008 deaths
English film actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
Actresses from London
Place of death missing
20th-century British businesspeople

Celia Gregory