Royapuram railway station (station code: RPM) is a railway station at Royapuram, on the Chennai Beach–Walajapet section of the Chennai Suburban Railway network in Chennai, India. It is the second oldest railway station currently operational in India after Howrah railway station situated in Howrah, West Bengal (the original structures of the two older stations, Bombay and , are no longer operational) and the first railway station of South India. The first train of South India started operating in June 1856 from Royapuram railway station. The station also remained the headquarters of the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway till 1922, when the headquarters was shifted to Egmore. Since the original structures of Bombay and Thane stations no longer exist, Royapuram station remains the oldest railway station in the entire subcontinent.

Owing to lack of maintenance, Royapuram railway station building was degraded to a dilapidated condition over the decades. One end of the station, which was formerly used as a military platform, became a playground with most of the area covered with overgrown scrub vegetation. The other end of the station is being used for the transport of goods trains and the platform adjacent the main building is utilised for passenger trains. In 2005, the building was refurbished at an estimated cost of  3.5 million and was re-opened to the public on 2 October 2005 by the then union minister of state for railways, R. Velu. It is the oldest surviving railway station structures of the Indian Railways, as well as the Indian subcontinent.

The Justice Padmanabhan committee, constituted by the Tamil Nadu state government, has identified the station as among the 800 heritage structures. As per the city's list of heritage structures, the station is under the Grade I category.

History

Royapuram railway station is the place from where the laying down of the second railway line of the South Asia commenced in 1853. The idea of a railway in South India long predated any other railway lines in the Indian subcontinent when a railway line for Madras was proposed in 1832. In the early 1840s, about 15 years after Stephenson's steam engine undertook that historic Stockton–Darlington journey with its passenger coach, laying of a railway line in South India was discussed in London. In 1845, the Madras Railway Company was formed and the plan was still under discussion. Four years later, the Great India Peninsula Company was formed in 1849, which built a 21-mile-long route from Bori Bunder (later the Victoria Terminus) in Bombay to Thane, becoming India's first railway line opened for traffic on 16 April 1853. With the Madras Railway Company reconstituting itself in 1849, the plans for a railway line in the south was revived further to the efforts by the mercantile community of Madras Presidency, which lobbied for rail connectivity. Work on the southern line began in 1853 and the railway line was extended from Royapuram (Madras) to Arcot, then titular capital of the Nawab of the Carnatic (the present day Walajapet, near Ranipet in Tamil Nadu). Royapuram was selected as the location for the new station as it was on the edge of a settlement of British traders and natives near Fort St. George. With the opening of the main terminus, the Royapuram station, on 28 June 1856 by the then Governor Lord Harris, the railway line was opened for traffic on 1 July 1856. On the inaugural day, two services—Royapuram to Ambur and Royapuram to Tiruvallur—were operated. The first train, manufactured by Simpson and Company, started its journey with the Governor and 300 European people from Royapuram to Walajapet and a stately dinner was arranged in Ambur. The second train carried Indian invitees to a shorter distance till "Triveloor" (the present day Thiruvallur). However, it is not known whether dinner was arranged for the people in the second train.

On 6 September 1856, The Illustrated London News depicted the regal inauguration of the palatial railway station in Madras, in which the journal also described the second railway line in India:

William Adelpi Tracey designed the heritage building of the  Royapuram Railway station.  According to the journal, Captain Barnett Fort described the rooms in the Royapuram station as being "very elegant and most superbly furnished with handsome punkahs & c." Governor Lord Harris, in his speech, congratulated the Madras Railway company, its manager Major Jenkins and all who had worked on the railway and said that the cost of £5,500 a mile was well worth the investment and looked forward to equally expeditious completion of the additional 450 miles of track to the west coast, a little south of Calicut.

Since then, Royapuram was the only railway station in the city for about 17 years till Madras Central Station became functional in 1873. From 1873, trains towards the northern regions of the country were operated from Chennai Central and those towards the southern regions of the state were operated from Royapuram station.

With the development of the Chennai Port, the cargoes from the port were transported via Royapuram station. This resulted in Egmore railway station becoming the terminus for southbound trains in 1907. On 9 August 1979, the lines at the station were electrified with the electrification of the Chennai Beach–Basin Bridge section. The lines from Royapuram to Korukkupet were electrified on 26 September 1987. With the Korukkupet railway station becoming functional as the container terminus, the Royapuram station started functioning as one of the suburban stations in the Chennai Beach-Arokkonam section of the Chennai Suburban Railway network. A building adjacent to the station built around the same time as that of the station, which was functioning as the headquarters of the Madras Railway Company, was demolished a few years ago.

Layout
Royapuram railway station ranks second in India in terms of space availability with 246,000 sq m, next to the Howrah station in Kolkata. The station, with an elevation of 7 m above sea level, is 1,015 m long and 420 m wide and covers about 72 acres. Located at about 2 km from Chennai Central station, the station has about 28 tracks. An island platform serves the suburban traffic in the station. The station building, marked by arches, ionic pillars and high-rise ceilings, is a heritage building. However, the station has only 450 m track length, against the 1,000 m needed for a terminal.
The station has a goods shed attached to it.

Developments

In 2006, the Southern Railway planned to lease a portion of the terminus to the corporate sector for developing cement and fertilizer depots. When this move was opposed, the railway allotted  155.5 million for locomotive maintenance shed in 2007. The foundation stone for the electric loco shed, which will be the Southern Railway's third one after Arakkonam and Erode, was laid on 25 January 2007. The loco shed was planned with an initial capacity of 50 locos, which would be augmented to 100 and then to 150 in phases with an investment of  450 million, and would have an inspection bay for undertaking scheduled inspections and lifting bay for undertaking both minor and major repairs. A service building for maintenance of various equipments of locos was planned, which will have testing and overhauling facilities. In addition, the loco shed was to have a stores depot for day-to-day maintenance. The plan also included a foot overbridge and a godown facility for grains. The project was targeted for completion by June 2008. However, this project is yet to be materialised.

Southern Railway, which initially planned to make the station a hub for freight operations, has now started a feasibility study to convert the heritage structure into a passenger terminal. The station has large swathes of land spread across 72 acres, in which 16 platforms can be constructed. Parking bays for both public and private transportation can be created in north and south blocks. Presently, 16 long-distance express trains bound for northern, eastern and western parts of the country are passing through the railway station and electric multiple units to Gummidipoondi and Arakkonam are operated from Chennai Beach railway station, along the same line. There are demands from the public to develop the station into the third terminal of the city after Central and Egmore.

See also
Chennai Suburban Railway
Railway stations in Chennai
Heritage structures in Chennai

References

External links

 Heritage of Royapuram Railway Station
  Living History: Will Royapuram Station regain steam? The Hindu, 8 February 2012.
 Loco Roster Database
 Legacy of First Railway Station of South India

Railway stations in Chennai
Stations of Chennai Suburban Railway
Railway stations in India opened in 1856
Chennai railway division
Heritage sites in Chennai

Royapuram railway station


Arthur Wayland Ellison (1899–1994) was an actor and director who worked for the Kansas City Power and Light Company for forty-eight years before becoming a professional actor. Prior to that, he had appeared in scores of amateur stage productions in the Kansas City area. He was born in Potsdam, New York and he died in Kansas City, Missouri. Director Herk Harvey speculated that Art Ellison had acted in more industrial and educational films than any other actor in the US, including some directed by a young Robert Altman. He is best known for his part in the 1962 cult-classic horror film Carnival of Souls.

Filmography

References

External links

American male actors
American directors
People from Potsdam, New York
1899 births
1994 deaths

Art Ellison


Yahoo! Finance is a media property that is part of the Yahoo! network. It provides financial news, data and commentary including stock quotes, press releases, financial reports, and original content.  It also offers some online tools for personal finance management. In addition to posting paid partner content from other web sites, it posts original stories by its team of staff journalists. It is ranked 20th by SimilarWeb on the list of largest news and media websites.

In 2017, Yahoo! Finance added the feature to look at news surrounding cryptocurrency. It lists over 9,000 unique coins including Bitcoin and Ethereum.

Yahoo! Finance video content has been made available via connected TVs and devices, including Apple TV, Samsung TV Plus, Roku, and YouTube.

See also
 Google Finance
 MSN Money

References

External links
 Yahoo! Finance

Economics websites
Finance
Internet properties established in 1997
IOS software
Android (operating system) software

Yahoo! Finance


Miller County was a county that existed from April 1, 1820 to 1838, first as part of Arkansas Territory and later the State of Arkansas. It included much of what is southeastern Oklahoma and the northeastern counties in Texas (Bowie, Red River, Lamar, Fannin, Cass, Morris, Titus, Franklin, Hopkins, Delta and Hunt). It was named for James Miller, the first governor of the Arkansas Territory.

Formation of original county
According to historian Rex W. Strickland, there were three different political entities that had borne the name "Miller County, Arkansas". All have been in the southwestern corner of the state of Arkansas, but covered different areas at different times. The first was created in 1820, before Arkansas became a state. The second existed after Arkansas was required to cede the land that was inside the boundary of Indian Territory. The third was created after Arkansas was required to relinquish its claim to land that was to become part of the Republic of Texas.

Effective April 1, 1820, Miller County was established by the Arkansas Territorial Assembly through a partitioning of Hempstead County. The Act, signed by Territorial Governor James Miller, delineated its borders as follows:
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Territory of Arkansas, That all that portion of the County of Hempstead and bounded as follows, to-wit: Beginning on the north bank of the great Red River, at a point due south of the Cossetat Bayou, a branch of Little River, thence due north to the mouth of the Cossetat Bayou aforesaid, then up said bayou to the head of its main branch, then north to the boundary line of Clark, then due west with said line to the Canadian river, or the Indian boundary line, then with the said line to the great Red river aforesaid, then southeasterly with the Indian or Spanish boundary line to a point due south of the point of beginning, then due north to the beginning, to be laid off and erected into a separate county, to be called and known by the name of the county of Miller.

In modern terms, old Miller County included parts of three states: Arkansas (Little River, Sevier and Polk counties), Oklahoma (LeFlore and Latimer counties, Choctaw, McCurtain and Pushmataha counties) and Texas.

The 1820 territorial census listed 999 residents in Miller County, 82 of them slaves. Initially, the county seat was the Gilliland Settlement.  In August 1821, the county commissioners selected Miller Court House as the county seat.  The Miller Court House community was established at a community previously called Shawneetown,  west of the present town of Idabel, Oklahoma.    The post office was established September 7, 1824.

Removal of area promised to Choctaws
Although settlers continued to move into the area, the Treaty of Doak's Stand (October 18, 1820) was about to change Miller County. After Doak's Stand, Choctaws had already been moving into the area of Arkansas Territory, but a treaty signed January 20, 1825, ceded the land west of a line "one hundred paces east of Fort Smith, and running thence, due south, to Red river" to them in exchange for their land in the East. The residents of Miller County signed petitions, the territorial government pressured Washington, but all to no avail. Finally, on October 17, 1828, the territorial legislature abolished Miller County north of the Red River and added the remnant of that county east of the new boundary line to Sevier County. The residents who remained in the county burned Miller Court House and all the county records on November 5, 1828.

Removal of areas claimed by Texas
The commissioners moved the county seat to Jonesborough plantation south of the Red River on October 23, 1832, and the Miller Court House post office relocated there. However, Miller County south of the Red River was in dispute with the Mexican government. After Texas seceded, they attempted to enforce their claims to the area. In 1838, Texas formed Fannin County, and Washington finally discontinued the Miller Court House post office on December 28, 1838. When Texas joined the Union in 1845 the borders became permanent.

See also
Treaty of Doak's Stand (1820)
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek (1820)
Treaty of Washington City (1825)

Notes

References

Sources
 Conner, Seymour V. "Miller County, Arkansas" Handbook of Texas-Online, s.v. (accessed August 6, 2006).
 Kappler, Charles (Editor). Treaty with the Choctaws, 1820 (Doak's Stand). Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904.
 Kappler, Charles (Editor). Treaty with the Choctaws, 1825. Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904.
 Kent, Caroline."Choctaw Boundary Line." Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture.2013.
 Kappler, Charles (Editor). http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Kappler/vol2/trea
 Strickland, Rex W. "Miller County, Arkansas Territory, The Frontier That Men Forgot", Chronicles of Oklahoma 18:1 (March 1940) 12-34 (accessed August 16, 2006).
 Strickland, Rex W. "Establishment of 'Old' Miller County, Arkansas Territory-Chapter II", Chronicles of Oklahoma 18:2 (June 1940) 154-170 (accessed August 16, 2006).
 Strickland, Rex W. "Miller County, Arkansas Territory: The Frontier That Men Forgot-Chapter III", Chronicles of Oklahoma 19:1 (March 1941) 37-54 (accessed August 16, 2006) (NOTE: Map included)

Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma
Pre-statehood history of Arkansas
Former counties of Texas
Former counties of the United States
Texas border disputes
1820 establishments in Arkansas Territory
Populated places established in 1820
1828 disestablishments

Miller County, Arkansas Territory


Isaak August Dorner (20 June 1809 – 8 July 1884) was a German Lutheran church leader. He was a meditating theologian in nineteenth-century Germany who served as a professor of theology at the University of Berlin and had an international influence.

Life
He was born at Neuhausen ob Eck in Württemberg, where his father was pastor in the Lutheran Church. He was educated at Maulbronn and the University of Tübingen. After assisting his father for two years, he travelled in England and the Netherlands to complete his studies and acquaint himself with different types of Protestantism. He returned to Tübingen in 1834, and in 1837 was appointed professor extraordinarius of theology. As a student at the university, one of his teachers had been Christian Friedrich Schmid, author of the well-known Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testamentes and one of the most vigorous opponents of FC Baur. At Schmid's suggestion, and with his encouragement, Dorner set to work on a history of the development of the doctrine of the person of Christ, Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lehre von der Person Christi. He published the first part of it in 1835, the year in which David Strauss, his colleague, published his Life of Jesus; completed it in 1839, and afterwards considerably enlarged it for a second edition (1845–1856). It was an indirect reply to Strauss, which showed, "profound learning, objectivity of judgment, and fine appreciation of the moving ideas of history" (Otto Pfleiderer).

The author at once became highly regarded as a theologian and historian and in 1839 was invited to Kiel as professor ordinarius. It was there that he produced Das Princip unserer Kirche nach dem innern Verhältniss seiner zwei Seiten betrachtet (1841). In 1843 he moved as professor of theology to Königsberg. From there he was called to Bonn in 1847, and to Göttingen in 1853. Finally in 1862 he settled as a professor at Berlin, where he was a member of the supreme consistorial council of the Evangelical State Church in Prussia. A few years later (1867) he published his valuable Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie (English translation, History of Protestant Theology, 2 volumes; 1871), in which he "developed and elaborated," as Pfleiderer says, "his own convictions by his diligent and loving study of the history of the Church's thought and belief."

The theological positions to which he ultimately attained are best seen in his Christliche Glaubenslehre, published shortly before his death (1879–1881). It is "a work extremely rich in thought and matter. It takes the reader through a mass of historical material by the examination and discussion of ancient and modern teachers, and so leads up to the author's own view, which is mostly one intermediate between the opposite extremes, and appears as a more or less successful synthesis of antagonistic theses" (Pfleiderer). The companion work, System der christlichen Sittenlehre, was published by his son August Dorner in 1886. He also contributed articles to Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie, and was the founder and for many years one of the editors of the Jahrbücher fur deutsche Theologie.

He died at Wiesbaden on 8 July 1884. One of the most noteworthy of the "mediating" theologians, he has been ranked with Friedrich Schleiermacher, August Neander, Karl Nitzsch, Julius Müller and Richard Rothe.

His son, August Dorner, also became a prominent theologian.

References

 Herzog-Hauck:
 Realencyklopädie
 Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1904)
 Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890)
 Frédéric Auguste Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth century (1889)
 Karl Schwarz, Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (1869)

1809 births
1884 deaths
Academic staff of the University of Königsberg
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Academic staff of the University of Bonn
Academic staff of the University of Kiel
German Lutheran theologians
19th-century German Protestant theologians
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century Lutherans

Isaak August Dorner


Mathematical Applications Group, Inc. (a.k.a. MAGI or MAGI/SynthaVision) was an early computer technology company founded in 1966 by Dr. Philip Mittelman and located in Elmsford, New York, where it was evaluating nuclear radiation exposure.

Business
By modeling structures using combinatorial geometry and applying monte carlo radiation ray tracing techniques the mathematicians could estimate exposures at various distances and relative locations in and around fictional structures. In 1972, the graphics group called MAGI/SynthaVision was formed at MAGI by Robert Goldstein.

CGI animation
It was one of four companies hired to create the CGI animation for the movie Tron. MAGI was responsible for most of the CGI animation in the first half of Tron, while Triple-I worked mainly on the second half of the movie. MAGI modeled and animated the light cycles, recognizers and tanks.

1966 establishments in the United States
American technology companies
Companies based in New York (state)

Mathematical Applications Group


Austrophyllolepis is an extinct genus of phyllolepid arthrodire placoderm from Middle to Late Devonian freshwater strata of Australia.  The type species, A. ritchiei is found in Givetian to early Frasnian-aged freshwater strata near what is now Mount Howitt.  A second species, A. dulciensis, is found from Middle Devonian freshwater strata from the Dulcie Sandstone of Georgina Basin, Central Australia.

References
 A New Phyllolepid Placoderm Occurrence (Devonian Fish) from the Dulcie Sandstone, Georgina Basin, Central Australia.

Placoderms of Australia
Phyllolepids
Fossil taxa described in 1984

Austrophyllolepis


A vomitorium is a hallway or alcove found in ancient Roman buildings.  It is called a vomitorium because it can allow many, many people to enter or leave the building at the same time.  The word in Latin means "place from which things spew forth," or "place that things come out of quickly."

Real vomitoria

Romans built vomitoria in theaters and stadiums.   One building could have many vomitoria on each floor.  Some modern theaters and stadiums also have vomitoria.  In the 1980s, the Oregon Shakespeare Festival added vomitoria to its Allen Elizabethan Theatre so they could do more things with entrances and exits.

Myths about vomitoria

Because the name sounds like "vomit" in English, people in the 1800s and 1900s thought a vomitorium was a special room that ancient Romans would go to during feasts.  They would throw up in that room to empty their stomachs so they could return to the feast and eat more.  But this is not true.  Ancient Romans did not build special rooms to vomit in.

Related pages
 Ancient Rome

References

Roman buildings and structures

Vomitorium


Batman: The Killing Joke is a 2016 American adult animated superhero film produced by Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the 27th film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies, based on the graphic novel of the same name by Alan Moore and Brian Bolland. The film is directed by Sam Liu, written by Brian Azzarello and stars the voices of Kevin Conroy, Mark Hamill, Tara Strong, and Ray Wise. Like the novel, the film follows the Joker's undertaking to drive police commissioner James Gordon insane, and Batman's desperate attempts to stop him.

Development of a film adaptation of the novel began in 2009; however, production was stalled due to the under-performance of DC's live-action adaptation of Moore's Watchmen. In 2011, Hamill expressed interest in reprising his role of the Joker for the adaptation, resulting in a fan campaign for its production. In 2015, producer Bruce Timm confirmed that an animated feature based on the book was in development. It is the first Batman film and Warner Bros. Animation film (as well as the first of the DCUAOM) to be rated R by the MPAA.

Batman: The Killing Joke premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 22, 2016. Originally intended to be released directly on home video, due to its popularity, the film was instead released simultaneously in theaters and digitally on July 25, 2016, for a special one-night event, before a DVD and Blu-ray release on August 2, 2016. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with the bulk of the criticism aimed towards the first half of the film. It grossed $4.4 million worldwide and became the 9th highest-grossing R-rated animated film worldwide.

Plot
While out on patrol, Barbara Gordon (Batgirl) fails to stop a robbery, but manages to stop one criminal with help from Batman. Paris Franz, the robbers' leader and the nephew of a powerful mob boss, develops a dangerous obsession with her and starts sending her messages. After Franz tricks her into finding his uncle's dead body, Batman becomes concerned about her safety and takes her off the case, telling her that she will eventually be tempted to kill the criminals she pursues. Outraged, Batgirl attacks Batman physically and verbally, which leads to them having sex. A few nights later, Batgirl tries to apologize to Batman, but he is ambushed by Franz and his men, prompting her to come to his aid. When she arrives and overpowers Franz, he makes her lose control and give him a savage beating, stopping just short of killing him. Realizing Batman was right, she retires from crime-fighting.

Later, Batman investigates a murder scene with Detective Harvey Bullock and concludes that the Joker, currently held at Arkham Asylum, might be behind the crime. He goes to Arkham to talk to him, only to discover that he has escaped and put a decoy in his place. Joker then attacks Barbara and her father, Commissioner James Gordon. He shoots her in the stomach, paralyzing her from the waist down, and takes Gordon to an abandoned amusement park. There, Joker strips him naked and subjects him to torture, including showing him photos he took of Barbara, naked and in pain.

The story is intercut with flashbacks of Joker's origin. It is revealed that he was once a lab technician who quit his job to become a stand-up comedian, only to fail miserably. Desperate to support his pregnant wife Jeannie, he agrees to help two criminals rob his former workplace. The criminals tell him that he has to use the Red Hood's mask and caped costume, secretly intending to frame him. During the planning, the police inform him that Jeannie and their unborn child have died in a household accident. Grief-stricken, he tries to withdraw from the plan, but the criminals strong-arm him into keeping his commitment to them.

At the plant, the criminals and the costumed comedian run into security personnel, and a shootout occurs. The criminals are gunned down and the comedian is confronted by Batman. Terrified, the comedian trips and falls into the chemical plant's waste pond, and is swept through a pipe leading to the outside. As he removes his mask, he sees the chemicals have permanently disfigured his face, giving him a clown-like appearance. His disfigurement, combined with the loss of his family, and what he had experienced in the chemical plant drives him insane and transforms him into the Joker.

In the present, Batman finds and saves Gordon, while the Joker flees. Despite his ordeal, Gordon remains sane and demands that Batman capture the Joker "by the book". Batman follows the Joker as the latter tries to persuade him that the world is just one big joke and that "one bad day" is enough to drive an ordinary man insane. Batman subdues Joker, tells him that Gordon has remained sane, and concludes that Joker is alone in his madness. He then attempts to reach out to him, offering rehabilitation. Joker apologetically declines, saying it is too late for him.

Joker then says that the situation reminds him of a joke about two patients in an insane asylum who try to escape by leaping over to the adjoining building. The first patient makes it across, but the second patient is afraid that he will fall. The first patient gets an idea: "Hey, I got this flashlight with me. I'll just shine it across the gap between the buildings and you can walk across the beam and join me." The second patient questions the idea: "What do you think I am, crazy? You'll just turn it off when I'm halfway across!" Initially stoic, Batman soon joins Joker in having a good laugh at the joke. As the police arrive, the Joker's laugh trails off, but Batman continues to laugh.

In a post-credits scene, a now-wheelchair bound Barbara, having retired as Batgirl due to her past behaviour and paralysis, is shown taking on the mantle of Oracle while preparing to go "back to work".

Cast

 Kevin Conroy as Bruce Wayne / Batman
 Mark Hamill as Joker / Red Hood
 Tara Strong as Barbara Gordon / Batgirl / Oracle
 Ray Wise as Commissioner James Gordon
 Robin Atkin Downes as Det. Harvey Bullock
 John DiMaggio as Carlos Francesco
 Brian George as Alfred Pennyworth
 J.P. Karliak as Reese
 Andrew Kishino as Murray
 Nolan North as Mitch
 Maury Sterling as Parry Francesco / Paris Franz
 Fred Tatasciore as Carnival Owner
 Bruce Timm as Patrolman
 Anna Vocino as Jeannie
 Kari Wahlgren as Call Girl
 Rick D. Wasserman as Sal Maroni

Production
In 2011, during San Diego Comic-Con, actor Mark Hamill, who wanted to quit playing the Joker at that time, stated that he would be willing to voice him for an adaptation of The Killing Joke, encouraging fans to campaign for said adaptation, most notably in a tweet on October 24, 2011. Since then, a Facebook page titled "Petition to get Mark Hamill to play the Joker in animated Killing Joke" was set up by his fans. In 2013, Bruce Timm also expressed a desire to create the project, saying it was only a possibility. On July 10, 2015, during the Justice League: Gods and Monsters panel at San Diego Comic-Con, Timm announced that an animated film based on the novel was in development and slated to be released in 2016. Sam Liu would direct and Timm would executive produce the film. The film features a 15-minute prologue that sets up the story. On July 17, Hamill tweeted that he had his "fingers crossed" in hopes that he would be contacted to reprise his role as the Joker. On July 27, Collider reported that Hamill would voice the Joker in the film and ComicBook.com spoke with Kevin Conroy who stated he would reprise his voice role as Bruce Wayne / Batman "in a heartbeat". On March 14, 2016, it was officially announced that Conroy, Hamill and Tara Strong would reprise their roles as Batman, Joker and Barbara Gordon, and Ray Wise would voice Commissioner Gordon. The rest of the voice cast was revealed on Apple's iTunes digital release of the film.

In January 2016, Timm revealed that the film would be screened at San Diego Comic-Con in July. He added that the team had to "add a lot more story" for the film due to the source novel not being long enough to make a feature-length film. Month later, concept artist Phil Bourassa revealed that in 2009, Timm was slated to produce an R-rated version of The Killing Joke, but development on the film was stalled after two weeks due to the under-performance of Watchmen, while also showcasing concept art of the Joker. In April, Warner Home Video confirmed that The Killing Joke would be the first film in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series and the first Batman film to receive an R rating from the MPAA, with Warner Bros. Animation and Warner Digital Series president Sam Register explaining, "From the start of production, we encouraged producer Bruce Timm and our team at Warner Bros. Animation to remain faithful to the original story—regardless of the eventual MPAA rating... We felt it was our responsibility to present our core audience—the comics-loving community—with an animated film that authentically represented the tale they know all too well."

In terms of animation production, the crew admitted that trying to adapt Bolland's art style was challenging due to the realistic quality; they then sought out another artist with a simpler yet very similar style that would be easier to animate, settling on Kevin Nowlan.

The animation was done by The Answer Studio Co. LTD, an outsourced studio in Japan.

Release
Warner Home Video hosted the world premiere of The Killing Joke during the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con on July 22, 2016. The film was released digitally on July 26, 2016, while the deluxe edition and combo pack Blu-ray of the film was released on August 2, 2016. On June 8, 2016, Fathom Events and Vue cinemas announced they would release the film in select theaters for one night only on July 25, 2016, throughout the US and the UK. On July 18, 2016, Fathom Events announced that the film would receive an additional two showings on July 26 due to "unprecedented demand." It also received a limited release in Australia, New Zealand and Mexico on July 24, 2016.

Batman: The Killing Joke grossed $3.8 million in the United States and Canada and $586,038 in other countries, for a total gross of $4.4 million. In the US, the film grossed $3.2 million on the first night of the Fathom Events screenings and became the biggest theatrical event in Fathom's history. The film earned $2,910,693 from domestic DVD sales and $5,743,188 from domestic Blu-ray sales, bringing its total domestic home video earnings to $8,653,881.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of  based on  reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics' consensus reads: "This stilted retelling of the Joker's origin adds little to its iconic source material, further diminished by some questionable story additions that will have fans demanding justice for Barbara Gordon."

Ben Travers of IndieWire commented that "instead of humanizing her, [the prologue] turns Barbara/Batgirl into a comic book cliché: the female character that feigns complexity, but, when given an expanded role, is only viewed through a sexual lens." Tommy Cook of Collider wrote that the prologue "feels tonally jarring tacked on haphazardly to The Killing Joke."

Many critics and fans agreed the first half of the film felt unnecessary and disconnected to the second half. Jesse Schedeen of IGN wrote, "The creep factor comes from the fact that Batgirl has such a clearly subordinate relationship to Batman. He's the seasoned veteran and mentor. She's the newbie pupil... Worst of all, none of this opening act has any real bearing on the remainder of the film. Batgirl still comes across as a sacrificial lamb in the end. Her insipid romantic drama adds no weight to her eventual trauma."

In response to criticism of the prologue, Azzarello stated, "The thing about this is that it's controversial, so we added more controversy." Bruce Timm further added:

We were aware that it's a little risky. There's definitely some stuff in that first part of the movie that's going to be controversial. Here's where we came down on that specific issue: It was really important to us to show that both of the characters make some pretty big mistakes. I mean, his "parental skills" aren't that great. Maybe never having had any kids of his own, he doesn't realize that if you tell a kid to not do something, they're going to want to do it even more. And then she makes some mistakes and then he kind of overreacts to her mistakes and then she overreacts to his overreaction. So it's very human; it's a very understandable story. It's tricky because it's messy, because relationships are sometimes messy. But to me and to Alan and Brian, it was all very fascinating to us to explore that angle.

Gavia Baker-Whitelaw of The Daily Dot wrote of the art and animation: "Each scene is recreated with painstaking accuracy, but DC's animation style does not measure up to the impact of Brian Bolland's 1980s noir aesthetic."

The film's voice acting and faithfulness to the source material in the second half were received more positively. Nick Bosworth of JoBlo.com wrote that "the best strength of this film however hands down in the voice talent behind it. Kevin Conroy is in top form returning as Bruce Wayne … and of course Mark Hamill as Joker."

References

External links

 Batman: The Killing Joke at The World's Finest

2016 films
Adult animated superhero films
2010s American animated films
2010s animated superhero films
American adult animated films
American mystery films
American crime drama films
Animated action films
Animated Batman films
DC Universe Animated Original Movies
2010s English-language films
Films based on works by Alan Moore
Films produced by Sam Register
Films directed by Sam Liu
Films set in amusement parks
Warner Bros. films
Warner Bros. Animation animated films
Animated films about revenge

Batman: The Killing Joke (film)


Oral hygiene is a practice of maintaining oral hygiene by regularly brushing the teeth and cleaning the mouth to prevent diseases and other problems (such as bad breath).

Salt can kill bacteria and fight against inflammation. Cleaning the mouth with salt is good to the teeth, gums, and mouth. Often use salt to clean the mouth can prevent and treat oral diseases.

Mouth
Hygiene

Oral hygiene


Johann Stadlmayr (or Stadelmayer) (born perhaps around 1580  probably in Freising; died 12 July 1648 in Innsbruck) was a composer and long serving Hofkapellmeister  to the Princes of Tirol.

Stadlmayr joined the Hofkapelle in Salzburg in 1603, rapidly rising to the post of Hofkapellmeister there and being appointed in 1607 Hofkapellmeister at the court of Innsbruck by Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria and later employed by his successor Leopold V. He wrote primarily church music, with 21 publications of masses, motets and music for Vespers issued in Augsburg, Munich, Passau, Vienna, Ravensburg, Antwerp and Innsbruck. His contemporary Michael Praetorius called him a "trefflichen Contrapunctisten und Musicus".

References

External links

 Scores at Musikland-Tirol (uses Sibelius Plug-In Scorch)

German Baroque composers
1648 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Austrian Baroque composers

Johann Stadlmayr


The third season of Teen Wolf, an American supernatural drama created by Jeff Davis and to some extent, based on the 1985 film of the same name, premiered on June 3, 2013. The series was renewed for a third season of 24 episodes on July 12, 2012.

Plot

Part 1
Jackson Whittemore (Colton Haynes) has moved to London. A new teacher, Jennifer Blake (Haley Webb), has joined Beacon Hills High school with a keen eye for Derek. While infiltrating the Alpha Pack who have taken refuge in a bank, they discover that Erica Reyes (Gage Golightly) is dead and Derek's sister Cora Hale (Adelaide Kane) is a prisoner and free them.

Scott McCall (Tyler Posey), Allison Argent (Crystal Reed), Derek Hale (Tyler Hoechlin) and the rest of the gang find themselves up against a new enemy: the lethal Alpha pack that has come to Beacon Hills, who have kidnapped Vernon Boyd (Sinqua Walls). Not only that but a mysterious, threatening, supernatural Druid has been taking categorized people as sacrifices, killing them and absorbing their power to go against the Alpha pack.

Part 2
While Scott (Tyler Posey) struggles to find his place as an Alpha, he, Allison (Crystal Reed) and Stiles (Dylan O'Brien) begin to experience strange side effects as a result of reigniting the power within Beacon Hills. Scott loses his ability to control his werewolf shift, Allison sees visions of her dead aunt, Kate, and Stiles believes he is awake while dreaming and dreaming while awake. They soon discover that the answer to their problems may be found in a new student named Kira Yukimura (Arden Cho), a girl with remarkable powers of her own.

The pack is threatened by the Nogitsune, a spirit which possesses Stiles, forcing him to complete tasks meant to cause chaos and strife, which the Nogitsune feeds off of. Scott struggles to find a way to save Stiles without killing him. They also encounter the Oni, spirits summoned by Kira's mother, Noshiko, to defeat the Nogitsune.

Cast

Main
 Tyler Posey as Scott McCall
 Crystal Reed as Allison Argent
 Dylan O'Brien as Stiles Stilinski
 Tyler Hoechlin as Derek Hale
 Holland Roden as Lydia Martin

Recurring

Episodes

Production
Season 3 was filmed in two parts. Part 1 (or Season 3A) was filmed from December 3, 2012 and wrapped up on May 5, 2013. Part 2 (Season 3B) began filming on July 29, 2013, and wrapped up on December 19, 2013. Unlike the previous two seasons, which were shot in Atlanta, Georgia, this season was shot in Los Angeles, California.

Colton Haynes left the show, taking a role on the CW series Arrow. MTV also released the first page of the first episode from season three, which is set about four months after the end of season two, and Jackson's absence was addressed within the context of the beginning of the season. On October 2, 2012 an open casting call website was set up to cast identical twins to play the identical twin alpha werewolves, Ethan and Aiden.

On November 28, 2012, Teen Wolf announced five new additions to the cast for season 3. Former Desperate Housewives stars Charlie and Max Carver have been cast as twin alpha werewolves Ethan and Aiden. They are described as being "dangerous charmers with brilliant minds". Australian actress Adelaide Kane has been cast as Cora, Derek Hale's younger sister, a mysterious and beautiful young woman toughened by a life on her own after surviving the Hale House fire. Felisha Terrell from Days of Our Lives has been cast as female alpha Kali, while Gideon Emery has been cast as Deucalion, the leader of the Alpha pack. Described as having "an eloquent, cutting intelligence", the new werewolf will set a plan in motion to turn Derek and Scott against each other, ripping the Beacon Hills supernatural community apart at the seams. Brian Patrick Wade has been cast as Ennis, an alpha werewolf who is described as a "force of pure brutality". Haley Webb has been cast as Jennifer Blake, an English teacher at Beacon Hills High School and a new love interest of Derek Hale's.

Teen Wolf announced three new recurring characters for the second half of season 3. Arden Cho has been cast as Kira, an Asian-American character who has been described as a "new student and possible threat to Beacon Hills". Her character is confirmed to be a kitsune. Doug Jones has been cast as Barrow, a mass murderer, who made his appearance in episode "Galvanize". Ryan Kelley will be the newest member of the Beacon County Sheriff's Department in Teen Wolf Season 3 Part 2, he will assist Sheriff Stilinski in uncovering the mysterious supernatural occurrences that plague the murder-prone Northern California town before becoming part of the mystery himself. Additionally, Shelley Hennig was cast, with her role being kept secret until the winter season premiere.

Linden Ashby has stated that for the second part of Season 3, "This is a season of consequence. That every action has a reaction, has a consequence. And it's not always what you think it's gonna be."

During Season 3B production, Crystal Reed decided she "wanted to explore other avenues of film and TV" and move on from the show, and her character Allison Argent was killed off in the penultimate episode.

Reception
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 88% and an average rating of 7.97/10 for the third season, based on 17 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "Beautifully shot and crafted, Teen Wolf delves into intellectual horror themes while staying true to the movie's original mythology."

Awards and nominations

Home media
The third season was released in two parts: 3A was released on December 10, 2013, and 3B was released on June 17, 2014.

References

2013 American television seasons
2014 American television seasons
Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)
Buddhism in fiction
Celtic mythology in popular culture
Druidry in fiction
Internment of Japanese Americans
Japanese mythology in popular culture
Television about mental health
Television shows about spirit possession
Split television seasons
Works about the Yakuza
Yōkai in popular culture
Television about the internment of Japanese Americans

Teen Wolf (season 3)


The Washington Redskins name controversy involved the name and logo previously used by the Washington Commanders, a National Football League (NFL) franchise located in the Washington metropolitan area. In the 1960s, the team's longtime name—the Redskins—and the associated logo began to draw criticism from Native American groups and individuals. The topic, part of the larger Native American mascot controversy, began receiving widespread public attention in the 1990s. In 2020, the team responded to economic pressure in the wake of widespread recognition of systemic racism by retiring the name and logo. The team called itself the "Washington Football Team" before rebranding as the Commanders in 2022.

"Redskin" is a slang term for Native Americans in the United States and First Nations in Canada. The term redskin underwent pejoration through the 19th to early 20th centuries and in contemporary dictionaries of American English it is labeled as offensive, disparaging, or insulting.

For several decades, the team's owners and management, NFL commissioners, and most fans sought to keep the Redskins name, claiming that it honored the achievements and virtues of Native Americans and that it was not intended in a negative manner. Then-team president Bruce Allen noted that three high schools with a Native American-majority student body used the name. Supporters also pointed to a national poll taken in 2004 by the Annenberg Public Policy Center, which found that a majority of Native Americans were not offended by the name. The use of public opinion polling methods to measure the opinions of a small, diverse population was criticized by scholars, in particular the use of self-identification to select the individuals surveyed. The name was opposed by the National Congress of American Indians, which said in 2013 that it represented 1.2 million people in its member tribes.

Name change
In July 2020, amid the removal of many names and images as part of the George Floyd protests, a group of investors worth $620 billion wrote letters to major sponsors Nike, FedEx, and PepsiCo encouraging pressure on the Redskins to change their name. In addition to direct sponsors advocating change in 2020, retailers Amazon, Target and Walmart withdrew Redskins merchandise from their stores and websites. FedEx called on the team to change its name on July 2, 2020. The same day, Nike removed Redskins apparel from its website.

On July 3, the league and the franchise announced that it was "undergoing a thorough review of the team name." On July 7, it was acknowledged that the Redskins were not in contact with a group of Native Americans who petitioned the NFL to force a name change and that Redskins head coach Ron Rivera also stated the team wanted to continue "honoring and supporting Native Americans and our Military." The team initiated a review which resulted in the decision to retire its name and logo, playing as the Washington Football Team pending adoption of a more permanent name.

Team president Jason Wright announced on July 12, 2021, that the new name will not include any ties to Native Americans, including the name "Warriors"; research having shown that anything other than a clean break with the past is a slippery slope. While the team expects fans to continue to wear their jerseys with the former name and logo, Native American inspired headdresses or face paint will not be allowed in the stadium.

In January 2022, the team announced that it would choose between Armada, Presidents, Brigade, Red Hogs, Commanders, RedWolves, Defenders and the then-current "Football Team". The new name, the Washington Commanders, was announced on February 2, 2022. In its press release, the team made no mention of the racial controversy, instead emphasizing the military symbolism of the graphic elements in the redesigned "W" primary logo that goes along with the new name. The design of the new "crest" combines elements of the team's history and its connection to the city of Washington.

Amanda Blackhorse responded that the change is an empty gesture, the team's owner and management having made no substantial effort to acknowledge or repair the effects of decades of insults, nor advocate that other teams with offensive mascots also change.

History

In 1933, the football team that shared both the name and playing field with the Boston Braves baseball team moved to Fenway Park, already home to the Boston Red Sox. Co-owner George Preston Marshall changed the name to the Redskins, more likely to avoid confusion while retaining the Native American imagery of the team than to honor coach William Henry "Lone Star" Dietz, whose identity as a Native American was debated. The logo for the NFL Braves was similar to the Redskins logo, a Native American head in profile with braids and trailing feathers. A redesigned logo introduced in 1972 was proposed by Walter Wetzel, a former Blackfoot tribal chairman and past president of the National Congress of American Indians, and was modeled after the likeness on the Buffalo nickel. Members of the Blackfoot tribe express a range of opinions, from support to indifference to strong opposition to the Redskins name based upon their personal experiences.

Advocates of changing the team's name said that stereotypes of Native Americans had to be understood in the context of a history that includes conquest, forced relocation, and organized efforts by federal and state governments to eradicate native cultures, such as the boarding schools of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
"Since the first Europeans made landfall in North America, native peoples have suffered under a weltering array of stereotypes, misconceptions and caricatures. Whether portrayed as noble savages, ignoble savages, teary-eyed environmentalists or, most recently, simply as casino-rich, native peoples find their efforts to be treated with a measure of respect and integrity undermined by images that flatten complex tribal, historical and personal experience into one-dimensional representations that tells us more about the depicters than about the depicted."

Origin and meaning of redskin

The historical context for the emergence in the Americas of racial identities based upon skin color was the establishment of colonies which developed a plantation economy dependent upon slave labor. Prior to the colonial era, many Europeans identified themselves as Christians rather than white. "At the start of the eighteenth century, Indians and Europeans rarely mentioned the color of each other's skins. By midcentury, remarks about skin color and the categorization of peoples by simple color-coded labels (red, white, black) had become commonplace."

Documents from the colonial period indicate that the use of "red" as an identifier by Native Americans for themselves emerged in the context of Indian-European diplomacy in the southeastern region of North America, before later being adopted by Europeans and becoming a generic label for all Native Americans.  Linguistic evidence indicates that, while some tribes may have used red to refer to themselves during the Pre-Columbian era based upon their origin stories, the general use of the term was in response to meeting people who called themselves "white" and their slaves "black".  The choice of red rather than other colors may have been due to cultural associations, rather than skin color.

In the debate over the meaning of the word "redskin", team supporters frequently cite a paper by Ives Goddard, a Smithsonian Institution senior linguist and curator emeritus, who asserts that the term was a direct translation of words used by Native Americans to refer to themselves and was benign in its original meaning. In an interview Goddard admits that it is impossible to verify if the native words were accurately translated. Darren R. Reid, a history lecturer at Coventry University, contends that Native American usage was generally attributed to them by European writers. Reid states that the team logo works together with the name to reinforce an unrealistic stereotype: "It is not up to non-Indians to define an idealized image of what it is to a Native American." The "positive" stereotypes allow fans and supporters to honestly state that they are honoring Native Americans, but this is "forcing your idea of what it is to honour those people onto them and that, fundamentally, is disrespectful." Sociologist James V. Fenelon makes a more explicit statement that Goddard's article is poor scholarship, given that the conclusion of the origin and usage by Natives as "entirely benign" is divorced from the socio-historical realities of hostility and racism from which it emerged.

Advocates of changing the name emphasize current meanings in dictionaries of American English, which include "usually offensive", "disparaging", "insulting", and "taboo". Such meanings are consistent with the usage found in books in the period between 1875 and 1930, which is after that studied by Goddard.   John McWhorter, an associate professor of linguistics at Columbia University, compares "redskin" becoming a slur to other racial terms, such as "Oriental", which acquired implied meanings associated with contempt.

A controversial etymological claim is that the term emerged from the practice of paying a bounty for Indians, and that "redskin" refers to the bloody scalp of Native Americans. Although official documents do not use the word in this way, a historical association between the use of "redskin" and the paying of bounties can be made.  In 1863, a Winona, Minnesota, newspaper, the Daily Republican, printed an announcement: "The state reward for dead Indians has been increased to $200 for every red-skin sent to Purgatory. This sum is more than the dead bodies of all the Indians east of the Red River are worth." A news story published by the Atchison Daily Champion in Atchison, Kansas, on October 9, 1885, tells of the settlers "hunt for redskins, with a view of obtaining their scalps" valued at $250. For sociologist C. Richard King the lack of direct evidence does not mean that contemporary Native people are wrong to draw an association between a term that emphasizes an identity based upon skin color and a history that commodified Native American body parts.

Trademark cases

The meaning of the term "redskin" was addressed in two cases challenging the trademark registrations held by Pro-Football, Inc., the team's corporate entity. The challenge was based upon a provision of Federal trademark law (the Lanham Act) which prohibited the registration of any mark that "may disparage persons, institutions, beliefs, or national symbols, or bring them into contempt, or disrepute." In both cases, the plaintiffs prevailed at trial, establishing that the name Redskin was disparaging to Native Americans. However, both decisions were overturned due to legal issues other than disparagement.

The first case, filed in 1992 by Suzan Shown Harjo and six other Native American leaders resulted in the cancellation of the federal registrations for the Redskins marks by the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) in 1999. However in 2005 the United States District Court for the District of Columbia reversed the TTAB's decision on the grounds of insufficient evidence of disparagement. Subsequent appeals were also rejected on the basis of laches, that the Native American petitioners had pursued their rights in an untimely manner.

A second case was filed in 2013 by younger plaintiffs not affected by laches, led by Amanda Blackhorse. Once again, the TTAB found Redskins to be disparaging under the Lanham Act. In December 2015, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals struck down the disparagement prohibition in the trademark law in a separate case (Matal v. Tam) involving a denial of trademark registration to the Asian-American band The Slants. On June 19, 2017, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in favor of Tam, stating "The disparagement clause violates the First Amendment's Free Speech Clause. Contrary to the Government's contention, trademarks are private, not government speech." On June 29, 2017, both the Native American petitioners and the Justice Department withdrew from any further litigation now that the Supreme Court has rendered the legal issue moot. While team owner Daniel Snyder expresses the opinion that the court decision is a victory for the team, the executive director of the NCAI asserts that the name remains a slur, and the decision that grants it First Amendment protection does not alter any of the arguments against its continued use.

Use by Native Americans
Supporters of the Redskins name note that three predominantly Native American high schools use the name for their sports teams, suggesting that it can be acceptable. However, in 2013, the principal of one of these, Red Mesa High School in Teec Nos Pos, Arizona, said that use of the word outside American Indian communities should be avoided because it could perpetuate "the legacy of negativity that the term has created". Teec Nos Pos, on the Navajo Nation, is 96.5% Native American. Wellpinit, Washington, a town within a reservation of the Spokane people, is 79.3% Native American. In 2014, Wellpinit High School voted to keep the Redskins name. The third school, Kingston High School in Kingston, Oklahoma is 57.69% Native American.

Native American writer and attorney Gyasi Ross compares Native American use of variations of the word "redskin" with African-American use of variations of the word "nigger"; specifically Natives calling each other "skins" as analogous to "nigga". Ross argues that the use of terms by some members of minority communities does not mean that the same may be used by outsiders; this is generally recognized by white people with regard to black expressions, yet whites feel free to say how Natives should feel about "redskin". Ross also notes that there is no consensus among Natives regarding either opposition to the Washington team's use of the name, or the importance of the issue compared to more immediate concerns. However, in response to the argument that Native Americans ought to focus on social issues larger than a team name, Ross stated that "Native people shouldn't be forced to choose between living or racial discrimination. Those are false binaries."

Controversy

In February 2013 a symposium on the topic was held at the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C. Subsequently, the Oneida Indian Nation of New York sponsored a series of radio ads in each city to coincide with games of the 2013 season, each featuring a targeted message. A broader range of persons spoke in favor of change or open discussion, including local government leaders, members of Congress, and President Barack Obama. Statements in support of a name change by academic, civil rights and religious organizations were added to those that Native American groups have been making for decades.

In 2017, when professional sports dealt with a number of racial issues, from individual acts by players to widespread protests during the National Anthem, some commentators speculated why there had been no action to address the stereotyping of Native Americans, including the decision to have the Washington Redskins host a game on Thanksgiving.

Academic research
The issue is often discussed in the media in terms of offensiveness or political correctness, which reduces it to feelings and opinions, and prevents full understanding of the historical, psychological and sociological context provided by academic research on the negative effects of the use of Native American names and images by sports teams. The effect of stereotyping on high or low expectations, confidence, and academic performance has been well-established. This effect is enhanced due to the invisibility of Native Americans in mainstream society and media, leaving stereotypes as the primary basis for thinking about the abilities and traits associated with Natives, including the roles and opportunities Natives Americans envision for themselves. Furthermore, even when stereotypes are positive (e.g. "Native Americans are spiritual"), they may have a limiting, detrimental effect on individuals. Stereotyping may directly affect the academic performance and self-esteem of Native American youth, whose people face high rates of suicide, unemployment, and poverty. Euro-Americans exposed to mascots may be more likely to believe not only that such stereotypes are true, but that Native Americans have no identity beyond these stereotypes. Research indicates that exposure to any stereotypes increased the likelihood of stereotypical thinking with regard to other minority groups in addition to the target of the stereotype, a "spreading effect".

Native Americans opposed to mascots point to the oversimplification of their culture by fans "playing Indian" with no understanding of the deeper meaning of feathers, face paint, chants, and dancing. Richard Lapchick, director emeritus of Northeastern University's Center for the Study of Sport in Society, wrote: "Could you imagine people mocking African Americans in black face at a game? Yet go to a game where there is a team with an Indian name and you will see fans with war paint on their faces. Is this not the equivalent to black face?"  The unofficial mascot of the Redskins team was Zema Williams (aka Chief Zee), an African American man who attended games for 38 years beginning in 1978 dressed in a red faux "Indian" costume, complete with feathered war bonnet and rubber tomahawk. Other fans dressed in similar costumes for games.

In a report published by the Center for American Progress summarizing the research on "The Real Impact of Native Mascots and Team Names on American Indian and Alaska Native Youth", a case is made that the public debate misses the point, since individual opinions on either side do not matter given the measurable effects on the mental health of Native American young people exposed to such misrepresentations of their ethnic identity, and the often hostile or insulting behavior of non-natives that occur when teams with such names and mascots play. Clinical Psychologist Michael Friedman writes that the use of Native imagery, in particular the use of a dictionary defined slur, is a form of bullying, the negative impact of which is magnified by its being officially sanctioned.

The majority of scholars argue that the use of any stereotype, whether positive or negative, is a hindrance to the advancement of the targeted group. The national organizations representing several academic disciplines, after reviewing the research done on the issue, have passed resolutions calling for the end of all Native American mascots and images in sports. These include the Society of Indian Psychologists (1999), the American Counseling Association (2001), the American Psychological Association (2005), the American Sociological Association (2007). and the American Anthropological Association (2015). The executive board of the nation's leading organization of scholars of U.S. history approved a resolution in April 2015: "The Organization of American Historians hereby adds its voice to the growing demands by Native American organizations, our sister disciplines, and conscientious people of all ethnic backgrounds, to change the name and logo of the Washington 'Redskins'."

Native American advocates of change

In the 1940s the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) created a campaign to eliminate negative stereotyping of Native American people in the media. Over time, the campaign began to focus on Indian names and mascots in sports. The NCAI maintains that teams with mascots such as the Braves and the Redskins perpetuate negative stereotypes of Native American people,  and demean their native traditions and rituals. The NCAI issued a new report in 2013 summarizing opposition to Indian mascots and team names generally, and the Washington Redskins in particular. In the trademark case, the TTAB placed significance on the NCAI opposition, estimating that the organization represented about 30% of the Native American population at the time the trademarks were granted, which met their criteria for a "substantial composite" of Native Americans finding the name disparaging. In its amicus brief filed in the case, the NCAI states that the combined enrollment of its member tribes in 2013 was 1.2 million individuals.

Many tribal councils have passed resolutions or issued statements regarding their opposition to the name of the Washington Redskins, including the Cherokee and Comanche Nations of Oklahoma, the Inter Tribal Council of Arizona, the Inter-Tribal Council of the Five Civilized Tribes, the Oneida Indian Nation (New York), the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe (North Dakota) and the United South and Eastern Tribes (USET). In April 2014, Navajo Nation Council voted in favor of a statement opposing the name of the Washington team, as well as other disparaging references to American Indians by other professional sports franchises. Other Native American groups advocating change include: the Native American Bar Association of DC, the National Caucus of Native American State Legislators, and the Society of American Indian Government Employees.

Civil rights and religious organizations

At its 2013 annual conference, the Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights (LCCHR), which includes the NAACP and the ACLU as members, passed a unanimous resolution of the 85 representatives present that, while recognizing that a business has the First Amendment right to use any name that it chooses, others need not be complicit in the use of a pejorative and insulting name; and calling upon all Federal, state and local government entities "to end any preferential tax, zoning, or policy treatment that could be viewed as supporting the franchise as long as it retains its current team name". The resolution also commended the "current and former government officials, media outlets, and other entities that have encouraged the Washington Redskins franchise to change its team name or that have refused to be complicit in promoting the current team name". In response, the team released a brief statement reiterating their previous position, and quoting two individuals as being both Native American and Redskins fans who do not want the name to change. The LCCHR also issued a press release in 2014 applauding the decision to cancel the trademark protection for the team's name. The NAACP issued their own press release supporting the TTAB decision stating "The NAACP has called specifically for this name change since 1992, and will continue to stand with the Native Indian community until the derogatory moniker has been changed."

The Fritz Pollard Alliance, a non-profit organization closely allied with the NFL on civil rights issues, announced its support of a name change in 2015 after repeated attempts to discuss the issue with the team owner and representatives. An attorney for the Alliance, N. Jeremi Duru, an American University law professor, made a study of the controversy in which he concluded that Native Americans are justified in finding the name offensive.

In 1992, the Central Conference of American Rabbis issued a resolution calling for the end of sports teams names that promote racism, in particular the Atlanta Braves and the Washington Redskins. The Anti-Defamation League was one of the organizations signing a letter to broadcasters urging them to avoid using the name. The Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism also advocates a name change.

In 2013 a group of 61 religious leaders in Washington, D.C., sent a letter to NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell and team owner Dan Snyder stating their moral obligation to join the Change the Mascot movement due to the offensive and inappropriate nature of the name which causes pain whether or not that is intended.

In June 2015, the United Church of Christ General Synod passed a resolution calling for a stop to using images or mascots that could be demeaning to the Native American community.

Protests
Although often assumed to be a debate of recent origins, local Washington, D.C. newspapers published news items on the controversy many times since at least 1971, all in response to Native American individuals or organizations asking for the name to be changed. National protests began in 1988, after the team's Super Bowl XXII victory, prompting numerous Native Americans to write letters to Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke; others boycotted Redskins products and protested, but Cooke rejected the possibility of change. There was a protest of about 2,000 people at the 1992 Super Bowl between the Redskins and the Buffalo Bills; the American Indian Movement's (AIM) Vernon Bellecourt was one of the main organizers of the protest.

From 2013 to 2019, picketing at stadiums occurred occasionally when the Redskins played, particularly in cities with a significant population of Native Americans, such as Dallas, Denver and Minneapolis. The latter protest was supported by several Minnesota politicians and was through documented by two films: Dodging Bullets—Stories from Survivors of Historical Trauma and More Than A Word. Picketing resumed for the 2014 season in Glendale, Arizona, when the team played the Arizona Cardinals, and again the largest rally was in Minneapolis, where estimates of the number of protestors was between 3,500 and 5,000. At a protest in Philadelphia in 2017, Native Americans pointed out the irony of NFL players making a statement opposing racial injustice by "taking a knee" for the National Anthem while one of the teams taking the field continues to use a racially offensive name and logo. Playing in Minnesota for the first time since 2014, hundreds of Native Americans protested against the team name outside of U.S. Bank Stadium during the game on October 24, 2019. On December 8, 2019, members of the Wisconsin Indian Education Association's Indian Mascot and Logo Task Force led a protest at Lambeau Field in Wisconsin. The Oneida Nation sponsored a video shown on the Jumbotron during the game expressing pride in being Native American as the antithesis of the message sent by the Redskins name and logo.

FedEx owns the naming rights to the team's stadium, FedExField, through 2026, and had been the only corporate sponsor officially subject to boycotts by Native Americans: the Osage Nation, the Native American Rights Fund (NARF), and the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes, the largest tribe of Native Alaskan peoples.

Responses to the controversy
Following the February 2013 symposium "Racist Stereotypes and Cultural Appropriation in American Sports" at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, 10 members of Congress sent a letter to the Redskins' owner and the NFL Commissioner requesting that the name be changed since it is offensive to Native Americans. In response, Daniel Snyder told USA Today: "We'll never change the name. ... It's that simple. NEVER—you can use caps." Snyder addressed an open letter to fans that was published in The Washington Post on October 9, 2013; in which he stated that the most important meaning of the name is the association that fans have with memories of their personal history with the team. Snyder also states that the name was chosen in 1933 to honor Native Americans in general and the coach and four players at that time who were Native American; and that in 1971 coach George Allen consulted with the Red Cloud Indian Fund on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation when designing the logo. In 2013, the Red Cloud Athletic Fund sent a letter to the Washington Post stating that "As an organization, Red Cloud Indian School has never—and will never—endorse the use of the name 'Redskins'. Like many Native American organizations across the country, members of our staff and extended community find the name offensive."

In June 2013, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell defended the name by citing its origins, traditions and polls that support its popularity. In February 2018, following the announcement by MLB Commissioner Robert Manfred that the Cleveland Indians would remove their Chief Wahoo logo from the stadium and uniforms, Goodell stated that the Redskins name and logo would remain, primarily citing the 2016 Washington Post opinion poll.

On their website the team stated that a 2014 annual NFL poll showing 71 percent support for the name, "along with the poll taken among Native Americans by the Annenberg Institute, demonstrates continued, widespread and deep opposition to the Redskins changing our name... We respect the point of view of the small number of people who seek a name change, but it is important to recognize very few people agree with the case they are making."

Bruce Allen addressed a letter dated May 23, 2014, to then Senate majority leader Harry Reid repeating the position that the name was originated by Native Americans to refer to themselves, that the logo was also designed and approved by Native American leaders, and that the vast majority of both Native Americans and the public do not find the name offensive.

Conservative columnists George Will and Pat Buchanan stated that opponents of the team name are being oversensitive, although Charles Krauthammer drew a parallel between the evolution of "Negro" and "Redskin" from being in common use to being condescending and insulting.  W. James Antle III, Rich Lowry, and Dennis Prager wrote that outrage over mascots is manufactured by white liberals, rather than being the authentic voice of Native Americans.

Public opinion

From 2013 to 2014, national opinion polls consistently indicated that some majority of the general public opposed changing the name of the team: 79 percent (April 2013), 60 percent (June 2014), and 71 percent (September 2014).
 The latter poll found that 68 percent of respondents thought the name was not disrespectful of Native Americans, 19 percent said it showed "some" disrespect, and 9 percent said it was "a lot" disrespectful. Three polls of adult residents of the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area found that most respondents supported the team name, but 59 percent, 56 percent, and 53 percent also said that the word "redskin" is offensive to Native Americans in at least some contexts.

Opinion polling was also part of the discussion about whether Native Americans found the term redskin insulting. Two national political polls, the first in 2004 by the National Annenberg Election Survey and another in 2016 by The Washington Post. were particularly influential. When a respondent identified themselves as Native American, both polls asked, "The professional football team in Washington calls itself the Washington Redskins. As a Native American, do you find that name offensive or doesn't it bother you?". In both polls, 90% responded that they were not bothered, 9% that they were offended, and 1% gave no response. These polls were widely cited by teams, fans, and mainstream media as evidence that there was no need to change the name of the Washington football team.

In a commentary published soon after the 2004 poll, 15 Native American scholars collaborated on a critique that stated that there were so many flaws in the Annenberg study that rather than being a measure of Native American opinion, it was an expression of white privilege and colonialism. A 2019 poll by University of California, Berkeley surveyed 1,021 Native Americans, twice as many as in any previous polls. 38% of self-identified Native Americans said they were not bothered by the Washington Redskins name. But 49% overall said it was offensive, along with 67% of respondents who were heavily engaged in their native or tribal cultures, 60% of young people, and 52% of those with tribal affiliations.

Native American opinion in support of Redskins name

Three Virginia Indian leaders said in 2013 that they are not offended by the name Redskins but are more concerned about other issues such as the lack of Federal recognition for any Virginia tribe. Robert "Two Eagles" Green, retired chief of the Fredericksburg area Patawomeck Tribe, stated on a radio talk show he would be offended if the team changed its name. In an article in The American Spectator, the chief of the Patawomeck Tribe, John Lightner, said that while he was not offended by the current name, he would support changing the team to the Washington Potomacs.

On November 25, 2013, as part of the NFL's "Salute to Service" month and Native American Heritage month, the Washington Redskins recognized four members of the Navajo Code Talkers Association briefly during a commercial break. One of them, Roy Hawthorne, has stated, "My opinion is that's a name that not only the team should keep, but that's a name that's American." This action was criticized by Amanda Blackhorse, also Navajo, who described it as a publicity stunt. In April 2014, Navajo Nation Council voted in favor of a statement opposing the name of the Washington team, as well as other disparaging references to American Indians by other professional sports franchises. Later that year, members of the Navajo and Zuni Tribes and students from the Red Mesa Redskins High School attended a Redskins vs. Cardinals game as guests of the Washington team.

In 2014, the Redskins released a two-minute video on YouTube entitled "Redskins is a Powerful Name" in which several Native Americans express their support for the team. Of the fourteen individuals, five are members of the Chippewa Cree tribe on the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation in Montana and are associated with the Team Redskins Rodeo club. Two are Mike Wetzel and Don Wetzel, Jr. (Blackfoot), descendants of the logo designer, and the six others are members of diverse tribes and state that they are fans of the team and find nothing wrong with the name, or think it is positive. One of the individuals in the video is Mark One Wolf, who was reported as being born Mark E. Yancey in Washington, D.C., of African-American and Japanese descent.

Political opinion

In July, 2020, the Board of Supervisors of Loudoun County, Virginia, which is the location of the corporate headquarters of the team, sent a letter to the owner urging a change.

In the mid-2010s, the majority of those advocating a name change were Democrats, though there was no indication that the issue is of any real significance in electoral decisions given that Native Americans are such a small percentage of the electorate and are not likely to influence the outcome of any election. There are only eight states where Natives make up greater than 2 percent of the population: Alaska, Arizona, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota and Wyoming. However, polls during that period showed a definite political difference in the opinion of the general public, with only 58% of Democrats opposing a name change versus 89% of Republicans. Statements by political figures have generally been expressions of personal opinion rather than recommendations for government action. There have also been non-binding resolutions advocating name change proposed in New Jersey and passed in Minneapolis, New York State and California.

In November 2015, President Barack Obama, speaking at the White House Tribal Nations Conference, stated "Names and mascots of sports teams like the Washington Redskins perpetuate negative stereotypes of Native Americans" and praised Adidas for a new initiative to help schools change names and mascots by designing new logos and paying for part of the cost of new uniforms. On May 22, 2014, fifty U.S. Senators, forty-eight Democrats and two Independents, sent a letter to NFL Commissioner Goodell asking the league, referencing the Donald Sterling case, to "send the same clear message as the NBA did: that racism and bigotry have no place in professional sports." Five Democratic Senators declined to sign the letter, and Republicans were not invited to do so.  During his 2016 presidential campaign, Donald Trump defended the name.

DC Metro area jurisdictions
The team headquarters is in Ashburn, Virginia and its home stadium, FedExField, is in Landover, Maryland. Much of the local political discussion has been about the location of a stadium, beginning in the 1990s. The mayors of Washington asserted that a return to the District of Columbia was contingent upon a name change, a possibility the team had rejected. In 2018 the NAACP also opposed the return of the team to the District unless the name where changed.

For many years, beginning with the departure of the Baltimore Colts, the Redskins were the only NFL team in a large area from Maryland into the southern states. This is slowly changing as Maryland NFL fans move to the Baltimore Ravens. Virginia fans were the more numerous and dedicated supporters of the Redskins, and the state and local governments used economic incentives to encourage the team's relocation of its facilities there, and maintain that the name is entirely a business decision for the team to make. Several Maryland politicians stated that the name should change, but governor Larry Hogan at that time opposed any change, also citing the desire to keep the stadium in Maryland.

Other teams that use the name Redskins

The number of high schools using the Redskins name has been in steady decline, 40% having had local efforts to change the name. Between 1988 and April 2013, 28 high schools in 18 states had done so. By December 2017, the number of high school "Redskins" had continued to decline from 62 to 49, including four affected by a 2015 California law. Following the Washington NFL decision, changes by high schools have accelerated, with only 36 remaining.

College teams that had been Redskins changed their names voluntarily decades ago, including: the University of Utah became the Utah Utes in 1972; Miami University became the RedHawks in 1997; and the Southern Nazarene University became the Crimson Storm in 1998.

See also
 Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy
 Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy
 Chief Wahoo
 Cleveland Indians name and logo controversy
 Kansas City Chiefs name controversy
 List of sports team names and mascots derived from indigenous peoples
 National Football League controversies
 Native American mascot controversy
 Redwashing § Indigenous redwashing
 Syracuse Orange mascot

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 American Indian Sports Team Mascots
 Redskins Facts
 Rebrand Washington Football

20th-century controversies in the United States
2000s controversies in the United States
2010s controversies in the United States
2020 controversies in the United States
2020 endings
Anti-Indigenous racism in Washington, D.C.
Native American cultural appropriation
National Football League controversies
Native American topics
Native American-related controversies
Sports mascots in the United States
Name controversy
Native Americans in Washington, D.C.

Washington Redskins name controversy


Sir George Manning  (11 February 1887 – 29 December 1976) was Mayor of Christchurch from 1958 to October 1968, when he retired. He served a total of 34 years on the Christchurch City Council.

Biography

Early life and career
Manning was born in Gowerton, Wales, on 11 February 1887. He was the son of Richard Manning (a steel worker) and Sarah Davies. Aged 12 he won a scholarship to attend Gowerton School, but he left after 15 months in order to enter work. At age 14 he became a steel worker like his father. In 1907 he attended his first union meeting at a local pub and joined both the General Labourers' Union and Independent Labour Party. beginning a lifetime association with the labour movement. Together with a friend he emigrated to Christchurch, New Zealand in 1910. He said many years later that the working conditions were hard for contemporary workers to believe and frequently said that if there was one "black spot" on the history of Great Britain it would be the working conditions of the nineteenth century.

His first job upon arrival was at the New Zealand Railways Department shoveling coal. Shortly afterwards he entered the employment of the local drainage board digging ditches. He was then taken on by the Government Life Insurance Office for a three-month probationary period as an insurance officer before being offered a position with the Christchurch Tramway Board in 1911 as a conductor on the Sumner line. He then joined the Tramway Workers' Union.

He married Scottish-born Sarah Edith Willmore at the Trinity Congregational Church, Christchurch Central City, on 11 October 1923. He was involved in a multitude of clubs and community groups including the Cambrian Society, the board of governors of the University of Canterbury, the Adult Cerebral Palsy Society (of which he was a life member and patron) and the Victory Park Board.

Local politics
Manning stood unsuccessfully for Christchurch City Council in 1917 and 1919 as a Labour Party candidate. In 1920, he got offered a position as organising secretary of the Canterbury Workers' Educational Association (WEA) on the condition that he abstained from political office. This restriction was lifted in 1925. He served WEA from February 1921 to 1948, and a room at the WEA building in Gloucester Street is dedicated to Manning. Through WEA classes he took a degree course at University of Canterbury and eventually earned a Master of Arts majoring in economics.

He was elected onto Christchurch City Council in 1927 and served one term until 1929. He was again successful in a 1936 by-election and served a continuous 32 years, first as councillor (until 1958) and then mayor. In 1945, there was an undertaking to widen Burnside Road that connected the city with the aerodrome in Harewood and dedicate it as a memorial to fallen airmen. As Burwood Road was located outside of the city boundary, being the responsibility of Waimairi and Paparua county councils, Manning opposed the city council financing much of the proposal, but the scheme went ahead and the road is today known as Memorial Avenue.

He also served as a member of the Christchurch Transport Board from 1937 to 1951 (including ten years as chairman) and was also a member of the Lyttelton Harbour Board for several terms.

Mayor of Christchurch
Manning served as Deputy Mayor from 1950 to 1958, and was elected as Mayor in 1958. In 1959 he was re-elected as mayor despite not a single Labour councillor being returned alongside him. This was interpreted as a testament to Manning's personal popularity which came to be regarded as above party politics despite a lifelong affiliation with Labour.

In 1966 he led a delegation to bid for the hosting rights for the 1970 Commonwealth Games which, while unsuccessful, laid the groundwork for Christchurch being awarded the 1974 Commonwealth Games. In the 1968 election, he did not stand as a candidate again, but was re-elected to the Lyttelton Harbour Board for one final term before retiring.

In the 1960 Queen's Birthday Honours, Manning was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George, for services to education and local government. He was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 1967 Queen's Birthday Honours, for public services, especially to education and local government.

National politics
Manning stood for the Labour Party in the 1943 election in the Christchurch North electorate, but lost against Sidney Holland. He was also set to stand there in the cancelled 1941 general election. He stood as a candidate for the Labour nomination for the 1947 Avon by-election, but lost to John Mathison. He then contested the St Albans electorate in the 1949 election, but was unsuccessful against Jack Watts.

Later life and death
For his contributions to adult education, the University of Canterbury awarded him an honorary doctorate (LLD) in 1972.

From 1973 onwards Manning was mostly restricted to a private hospital as a result of failing health. He died in Christchurch on 29 December 1976, survived by his wife and their son Penrhy. His wife died in 1998.

References

1887 births
1976 deaths
British emigrants to New Zealand
New Zealand Labour Party politicians
Christchurch City Councillors
Deputy mayors of Christchurch
Mayors of Christchurch
New Zealand Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
New Zealand Knights Bachelor
Burials at Memorial Park Cemetery, Christchurch
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1949 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1943 New Zealand general election
Candidates in the 1941 New Zealand general election
Lyttelton Harbour Board members

George Manning (New Zealand politician)


Mauretania Caesariensis (Latin for "Caesarean Mauretania") was a Roman province located in what is now Algeria (and a small part of Morocco) in the Maghreb. The full name refers to its capital Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell).

The province had been part of the Kingdom of Mauretania and named for the Mauri people who lived there.  Formerly an independent kingdom, and later a client state of Rome, it was annexed into the Empire formally during the reign of Claudius and divided into two provinces about 42 AD.  A third province, named Mauretania Sitifensis, was later split off from the eastern portion during the reign of Diocletian in 293 AD.  During and after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, most of the hinterland area was lost, first to the Vandal Kingdom and later to the Mauro-Roman Kingdom, with Roman administration limited to the capital of Caesarea.  The land was reconquered by Rome during the reign of Justinian.  This province was a part of Praetorian prefecture of Africa, later Exarchate of Africa.  The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb brought an end to Roman rule in Mauretania, permanently this time, which became ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate as part of Medieval Muslim Algeria.

History

In the middle of 1st century AD, Roman emperor Claudius divided the westernmost Roman province in Africa, named Mauretania (land of the Mauri people, hence the word Moors), into Mauretania Caesariensis (named after its capital, one of many cities simply named Caesarea  after the imperial cognomen that had become a title) and Mauretania Tingitana.

Mauretania Caesariensis included eight colonies founded by the Emperor Augustus: Cartennas, Gunugu, Igilgili, Rusguniae, Rusazu, Saldae, Zuccabar, Tubusuctu; two by the Emperor Claudius: Caesarea formerly  the capital of Juba, who gave it this name in honour of his patron Augustus, and Oppidum Novum; one by the Emperor Nerva: Setifis; and in later times, Arsenaria, Bida, Siga, Aquae Calidae, Quiza Xenitana, Rusucurru, Auzia, Gilva, Icosium and Tipasa in all 21 well-known colonies, besides several municipia and oppida Latina.

Under Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform, the easternmost part was broken off from Mauretania Caesariensis as a separate small province, Mauretania Sitifensis, called after its inland capital Sitifis (now Sétif) with a significant port at Saldae (presently Béjaïa).

At the time of Diocletian and Constantine the Great, both Sitifensis and Caesariensis were assigned to the administrative Diocese of Africa, under the Praetorian prefecture of Italy, while Tingitana belonged to the Diocese of Hispania under the Praetorian prefecture of Gaul, so it was an enclave separate from the European territory of Diocese and Prefecture it belonged to.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a Germanic Vandal Kingdom was founded, but the remaining Eastern Empire (now known to historians as the Byzantine Empire) recaptured the area around 533, but most of Mauretania Caesariensis remained under the control of local Moorish rulers such as Mastigas, and it was not until the 560s and 570s that Byzantine control was established inland.

During the reign of Maurice, the empire was reorganized and a number of Exarchates were founded, among them the Exarchate of Africa which included Mauretania, among other territories.  Mauretania Sitifensis was re-merged back into this province, and was granted the name "Mauretania Prima".

The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb for the caliphate under the Umayyad dynasty meant the end of the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa and Late Antique Roman culture there and Mauretania Caesariensis became part of the westernmost Islamic province called Maghreb.

Economy
The principal exports from Caesariensis were purple dyes and valuable woods; and the Amazigh or Mauri were highly regarded by the Romans as soldiers, especially light cavalry. They produced one of Trajan's best generals, Lusius Quietus, and the emperor Macrinus.

Religion

Caesarea was a major center of Judaism before 330, and Sitifis was one of the centres of the soldier cult of Mithraic mysteries. Christianity spread throughout in the 4th and 5th centuries.

Among the ruling class, Trinitarian Christianity was replaced by Arianism under the Germanic kingdom of the Vandals, which was established in 430, when the Vandals crossed the Strait of Gibraltar.

Episcopal sees
Ancient episcopal sees of Mauretania Caesariensis listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
 Ala Miliaria (Beniane)
 Albulae
 Altava (Ouled Mimoun, Hadjar-Er-Roum)
 Amaura (Amourah)
 Ambia (near Hammam-Bou-Hanifia)
 Aquae in Mauretania (Hammam Righa District)
 Aquae Sirenses (ruins at Hammam-Bou-Hanifia)
 Arena (Bou-Saada?)
 Arsennaria (Bou-Râs?)
 Auzia (Aumale, Sour-Khazlam)
 Bacanaria
 Baliana (L'Hillil?)
 Bapara (near the promontory of Ksila?)
 Benepota
 Bida (ruins of Djemâa-Sahridj?)
 'Caesarea in Mauretania (now Cherchell), the Metropolitan Archbishopric
 Caltadria
 Capra
 Caput Cilla (ruins of El-Gouéa?)
 Cartennae
 Castellum Ripae (ruins of Hadjar-Ouaghef?)
 Castellum Tatroportus
 Castellum Tingitii (Al Asnam)
 Castellum Iabar
 Castellum Medianum
 Castellum Minus (Coléa, near Algiers)
 Castra Nova (Mohammadia)
 Castra Severiana (Lalla Marnia? Chanzy, Sidi-Ali-Ben-Joub?)
 Catabum Castra (Saint-Aimé, Djidioua?)
 Catrum
 Catula (Oued Damous?)
 Cenae (Kenais Islands)
 Cissi (Djinet)
 Columnata (Khemisti)
 Corniculana
 Elephantaria in Mauretania (ruins at (El) Harrach)
 Fallaba (Djelfa?)
 Fidoloma
 Flenucleta
 Floriana, Mauritania (Letourneux, Derrag?)
 Flumenzer (Bou Medfa)
 Fronta
 Giru Mons (ruins of Yerroum?)
 Gratianopolis
 Gunugus (Sidi-Brahim)
 Gypsaria (Honeïn)
 Ida in Mauretania
 Igilgilli (in the valley of Bou-Sellam?)
 Iomnium (port at Tzigiri)
 Ita
 Iunca in Mauretania
 Lamdia (Médéa)
 Lari Castellum (Imilaën)
 Maiuca
 Malliana (Khemis Miliana)
 Manaccenser (in the region of Cherchell)
 Masuccaba
 Maturba
 Maura (Douelt-Zerga?)
 Mauriana
 Maxita (in the region of Al-Asnam?)
 Media
 Mina (ruins near Rezilane)
 Muteci (near Aïn-El-Anab?)
 Nabala
 Nasbinca
 Noba
 Novica (ruins of Aïn-Nouïssy?)
 Numida (in the territory of Amoura, cfr supra Amaura)
 Obbi, Mauretania
 Obori (Sidi Fredj)
 Oppidum Novum (Aïn Defla)
 Panatoria
 Pomaria (Tlemcen)
 Rapidum (Masqueray, Sour-Djouab)
 Regiae (Arbal)
 Reperi
 Rusada (Azeffoun)
 Rusguniae (Tamentfoust)
 Rusubbicari (Mers El Hadjadj)
 Rusubisir (in the territory of Tiza)
 Rusuccuru
 Satafi
 Sereddeli

 Sfasferia
 Siccesi (ruins of Takembrit)
 Sinnada in Mauretania (ruins of Kenada?)
 Sita (in the west of the province
 Subbar
 Sufar
 Sufasar (Amourah)
 Summula
 Tabaicara
 Tabla (Tablat?, Tablast?)
 Taborenta (ruins near Saida?)
 Tabunia
 Tamada (Aïn-Tamda near Masqueray?)
 Tamazuca (ruins of Grimidi?)
 Tanaramusa (Mousaïaville, El-Hadjeab? Berrouaghia?)
 Tasaccora (Sigi)
 Tatilti (Souk El Khemis)
 Tigamibena
 Tigava (El-Kherba)
 Tigisis (between Dellys and Taourga)
 Timici (Timsionin?)
 Timidana
 Tingaria (Tiaret?)
 Tipasa in Mauretania
 Tubia (ruins of Henchir-Toubia?)
 Tubunae in Mauretania
 Turris in Mauretania
 Tuscamia
 Ubaba
 Usinaza (Seneg)
 Vagal, Mauritania (near the ruins of Sidi-Ben-Thiour)
 Vanariona (ruins of Ksar-Tyr?)
 Vannida
 Vardimissa (near Medjana)
 Villa Nova, Mauritania
 Vissalsa (on the Oued-Melah river?)
 Voncaria (ruins of Boghar?)
 Voncariana (near the ruins of Boghasi?)
 Vulturia (ruins at the Falco promontory?)
 Zucchabar
}}

 See also
 Notitia Dignitatum

 References

 Sources
 Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgschichte'' (in German)

Roman provinces in Africa
Ancient Algeria
Late Roman provinces
Provinces of the Byzantine Empire
States and territories established in the 40s
40s establishments in the Roman Empire
7th-century disestablishments in the Exarchate of Africa

Mauretania Caesariensis


Christine Clayburg (born May 26, 1973, in Paso Robles, California) is an American television meteorologist who also has done some acting, directing and screenwriting.

Beginning as a Geology major at Sacramento State University, she became known as the morning meteorologist on the Minneapolis television station WCCO-TV. She has worked as a meteorologist and science reporter for KABC-TV in Los Angeles,  WHDH-TV in Boston, KHQ-TV in Spokane, KPAX-TV in Missoula and KMSP-TV (also in Minneapolis). She has appeared nationally for Fox News and The Weather Channel. In 2003, she was nominated for an Emmy Award in the Best Weather Anchor category.

As an actor, she has appeared in top rated television shows and independent films.  She played the lead role in the 2005 short film Minneapolis which she also co-wrote.

From 2006 to 2012, she had a recurring role as a news reporter on Desperate Housewives. She has appeared in other roles for  The Mindy Project, 90210, The Closer, Hallmark and Lifetime, always as a newscaster.

Christine also flies with the Minnesota Air National Guard as a loadmaster on the C-130 Hercules and has deployed to Afghanistan and Kuwait in support of Operation Enduring Freedom.

References

External links

1973 births
21st-century American actresses
Living people
People from Paso Robles, California
People from Hennepin County, Minnesota
Actresses from Minneapolis
American television meteorologists
American television actresses
Screenwriters from California
American film actresses
Actresses from California
Television personalities from California
American women screenwriters
California State University, Sacramento alumni
Minnesota National Guard personnel
Women in the United States Air Force
Women in the Iraq War
Screenwriters from Minnesota

Christine Clayburg