James Siena (born October 28, 1957) is an American contemporary artist. His art is typically created through a series of self-imposed constraints also sometimes referred to as visual algorithms —rules Siena decides on before sitting down to work.  In most of his work he establishes a basic unit and action and repeats it indefinitely. While originally recognized for his paintings using enamel paints on aluminum plates, Siena has also become known for his drawings, prints, typed works on paper using vintage typewriters, and sculpture. Sculptures have ranged from made with his own hands using common materials such as: toothpicks, bamboo skewers bound with string, and grape vines to his larger sculptures that have been realized in bronze and wood in partnership with the Walla Walla Foundry. He is based in New York City.

Early life and education
James Siena was born in Oceanside, California in 1957  but lived and grew up in Washington D.C. until the age of 12, when his family moved to California in 1969. He moved to New York in 1975 to attend Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. He received his Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.) in 1979 from Cornell University.

Asked to name the teacher who most influenced him, Siena quickly cites Mary Croston, an after-school art instructor who taught him as a teenager. Croston treated her young students as "real" artists, says Siena, introducing them to such tools as charcoal and graphite and coaching them in figure drawing. "She just taught the basics; that was very influential," he says of those classes in the "art hut" behind Croston's house in Stanford, California. Siena also remembers being "very moved" by the late Peter Kahn, who taught the history of techniques at Cornell. According to Siena, "He was a marvelous Renaissance man" who taught his students such skills as determining whether paper is archival quality and making ink out of toast crumbs and saliva.

When Siena opted to move to New York rather than attend graduate school after finishing his B.F.A. degree at Cornell University, he found plenty of mentors in the local art community. He was impressed by the "very independent, visionary spirit" of Alan Saret, who took him to the scrap yard and taught him about working with metal. Chuck Close helped him understand "very obvious stuff" like how to approach a relationship with a gallery (Close likened it to a "conversation") and how to maximize earnings from day jobs to spend more time painting.  Before being able to become an artist full-time Siena supported himself as a frame maker.

Prior to becoming an established and recognized visual artist, James Siena was known for his performance art, which included singing and rapping with his now ex-wife Iris Rose and Chazz Dean.  Most notably he appeared on Cinemax's TV series Dangerous Film Club during the 1987 season of the show.

Early career
Siena started making abstract paintings with an aesthetic that sought inspiration from Artificial Intelligence (AI). For years he has been investigating the imaginary space of programmers' source and patterns through paint. At first glance the images could be labeled as decorative puzzles or labyrinths but there is a logic base for each painting.  Siena's first major solo show was held at the Brooklyn, NY gallery, Pierogi 2000 in 1996.  His first solo museum exhibition took place in 2003 at the San Francisco Art Institute Gallery.  Since then he's had numerous solo shows including at Gorney Bravin + Lee in New York, Daniel Weinberg Gallery in San Francisco and Los Angeles, and The Pace Gallery in New York.

His work has been featured in over 50 group exhibitions, including most notably the Whitney Museum of American Art's 2004 Whitney Biennial.  Siena has had work either reviewed or published in the following publications: Art in America, The New York Times, The New Yorker, ARTnews, The Art Newspaper, The Village Voice, New York Sun, San Francisco Chronicle and Art on Paper.

In Patricia Phillips, chair of the Department of Art, Cornell University; letter of Siena's nomination for the 2009-10 Eissner Artist of the Year Award, she wrote:

"James Siena is one of the most inventive, independent, focused and prolific artists working today. …  Thirty years after he received his B.F.A. from Cornell, Siena has emerged as one of the art world's internationally respected leaders. … [He] balances the traditions of 20th–21st century abstraction with a maverick sensibility to craft salient, if speculative, insights on the contemporary world, and the intricate workings of human perception."

Siena has also played muse for other artists including being a subject for paintings and sculpture by Joe Fig and multiple works of art by Chuck Close.

Siena also appeared on camera in the 2008 documentary film, Herb and Dorothy by Megumi Sasaki. The film is about the long-time New York contemporary art collector couple, Herbert and Dorothy Vogel.

Rare among contemporary artists, Siena uses no assistants in the creation of his paintings and drawings.

In 2017, the James Siena Catalogue Raisonné, was published as a digital catalogue raisonné by Artifex Press, New York. The first volume includes Siena's complete paintings, sculptures, and gouaches from 1989 to the present and a large selection of early works.

Siena also completed several artist-in-residency program, most notably at the Yaddo artist community (located in Saratoga Springs, New York) in 2004, and was elected a Member of the Board at Yaddo in 2008.  He completed a residence in October 2012 as the Arthur L. and Sheila Prensky Island Press Visiting Artist at Washington University in St. Louis.  In the winter of 2009, Siena was selected as the visual artist "Master Artist-in-Residence" at the Atlantic Center for the Arts in Florida.

Siena is also a member of the faculty of the MFA Fine Arts department at the School of Visual Arts, and is listed as a mentor for the Master of Fine Arts(MFA) in Studio Art program at the University of the Arts (Philadelphia).

Siena was elected an Academician at the National Academy of Design in 2011 and to the Board of Governors in 2016, where he currently serves as the Chairman of the Abbey Council.

Siena was appointed critic in painting / printmaking at Yale University in 2015.

Prints
James Siena is known for having a passion for prints and the art of printmaking.  In addition to his paintings and sculpture, Siena has made over 120 prints using a variety of techniques in collaboration with some of the most recognized art presses in the United States and abroad; including Universal Limited Art Editions (ULAE), Tamarind Institute, Harlan & Weaver, Flying Horse Editions, Pace Prints and Polígrafa Obra Gráfica.

In particular, Harlan & Weaver have published several individual prints and two portfolios of nine prints with Siena. The close proximity of their studios has helped to foster an enduring working relationship.  Prints by James Siena have been featured in five New Print Shows by the International Print Center New York (IPCNY) since 2000.

Siena was invited to ULAE by Larissa Goldston in the summer of 2003. Although he had been making prints for years, he came to ULAE specifically to explore stone lithography.

Siena's work is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Whitney Museum of American Art.

Other projects

Books
James Siena has contributed illustrations or accompanying prints for several books. The first, a collection of poems by Geoffrey Young, first published in 1996, "Pockets of Wheat" contains camera reduction images of James Siena's intricate 60" X 40" black-and-white ink drawings, including the cover illustration.  In 2003, Siena also contributed artwork to another book of poems by Geoffrey Young, entitled "Lights Out", published by the small press, The Figures.

Printed in 2005 was a limited edition of 200 copies of "Spring" (an excerpt from a larger work entitled, "The Weather") by Kenneth Goldsmith.  Siena contributed five 2-color wood engravings with each book.  Each book is signed by the author, Kenneth Goldsmith and Siena.  Edition was published by Didymous Press, a moniker used by INC, inc. for their self-published works.

Another book project, published in 2009 by Granary Books, is a limited edition of 50 copies titled, "Oaths? Questions?" in partnership with Marjorie Welish.  This book of poetry by Welish is really a collaboration with Siena's artwork and the words, printed on transparent pages plays off of the artwork.  James Siena commented about the book:

"To summarize an Artist's Book in a statement raises questions as to its very utility. But there were needs to be met in my first collaboration with Marjorie Welish, and they can be verbalized. So: no summary, just a run-down of issues and urges. Among them was the urgent desire to make something quite unlike a print, painting, or drawing. To make a Book in all its Bookness, sequential, teleological, inevitable.  As well as strange, of course. To tell the story of a making of something, to undo it, page by page. So this book takes us apart and puts us back together again, none the worse for wear, but certainly not the same as before. And the words offer hints to the truth (oaths) and doubts about them as well (questions). Their very transparency evidences the debt they owe to the wordless visual." - James Siena

Also in 2009 Siena created "Sequence", published and printed by Flying Horse Editions, a hand-printed, double-sided accordion book that stretches seventeen-feet long. The double-sided book follows a linear, geometric pattern as it coalesces and unwinds through thirty-six pages, black intertwining with red, and in reverse. The abstraction climaxes on two final frames (back and front), where the sequence reaches its full realization and the rule is maximized, having gone through seventeen 'moves.'

Design
The Yaddo Artist Medal, established in 2014, was designed by James Siena and produced by Walla Walla Foundry in Walla Walla, Washington. The process began by creating a 3D model based on designs submitted by Siena. A combination of machining, etching, and hand finishing was used to fabricate the medal to achieve the highest possible level of detail in the finished piece.  The inaugural winner, was the author, Philip Roth.

Siena is a known wine enthusiast and helped design the wine label and logo for the Oregon-based winery, Illahe Vineyards in 2011.  As per the winery's website:

"Our label was designed by artist James Siena and letterpress artist Ruth Lingen who worked together to create a classic look with American fonts from the early 1900s... All thanks to our friend Dan Schmidt, also a New York artist, a few bottles of the earliest Illahe products showed up at James's  studio lunch table on Canal Street. Now, James is a huge fan of Burgundy and Bordeaux, but it was the viognier that he enjoyed so much that he offered to design a label for us.  He worked with Ruth Lingen at Pace Prints (Pace Gallery represents James), and they came up with a label, now our reserve label, that incorporates letterpress fonts from the 19th century and a 'necker' with the vintage... Best of all, James redesigned our logo based on the word Illahe from the Duployan script that Merry Young found for the winery."

Rugs
The art gallery BravinLee has also issued two series of hand-knotted wool rugs based on James Siena designs.  The rugs are similar to artworks in that they are made in limited numbered quantities along with artists proofs and each is signed by the artist.  The two designs are entitled Global Key, 2009 (Edition of 15 + 2 APs) and Nine Constant Windows, Second Version, 2009 (Edition of 18 + 2 APs).

Gallery

James Siena also runs a small project gallery called: Sometimes (Works of Art) located on Canal Street.  When asked when and why he decided to open an art gallery, Siena responded, "It was in the fall of 2009, as the art world was at its nadir; galleries were closing, artists weren't selling, pessimism abounded. I decided the time was ripe for and artist-driven response to all this, and to make something happen outside the gallery system. Shows would be longer; there would be music or performances at the openings; events during the run of the show would be encouraged (readings, music, discussion), and the artist, if possible, would sit the gallery on the one day per week it would be open. That way, viewers would meet the person who made the work, thus encouraging a new kind of interaction."

Artists whose work has been shown at the gallery include, David Brody, Tim Maul, Aura Rosenberg, Dan Schmidt, Peter Scott, and Fred Valentine.  As Time Out New York magazine comments, "This tiny, artist-run space has no website but showcases venerable artists established on the New York scene. One example of the proprietor's collection of antique typewriters is on view at all times in the gallery."

Theatre

In 1989 Siena partnered with Conrad Cummings in writing Photo Op, a 60min long contemporary opera.  Siena wrote the words (libretto) and Cummings the music.  In 2012, UrbanArias, a local Washington DC-based company that specializes in small-scale, contemporary, and experimental operas staged a production of Photo Op.  UrbanArias' producer/conductor Robert Wood notes that, although Siena and Cummings wrote Photo Op in 1989, "the immediacy of this opera 20 years later is uncanny." That's because it's so clichéd. Maybe we should blame the politicians more than the librettist; they are, after all, the ones who keep getting caught in their zippers.

Personal life
James Siena is married to artist Katia Santibañez.  They were featured jointly in the Ferrin Gallery's group show, COUPLES from 2010.  Santibañez and Siena also recently partnered on two prints with Shore Publishing where each took turns carving on the same reductive woodcuts.  Siena splits his time between homes in western Massachusetts (the Berkshires) and New York City and maintains a studio on Canal Street.

Siena is also known for his affinity towards, knowledge and collection of vintage typewriters and has commented that he owns over 100 typewriters and enjoys the sometimes novel approaches earlier manufacturers took in solving problems or creating enhancements to their typewriters.

References

1957 births
Living people
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
Abstract expressionist artists
Artists from New York (state)
Painters from California
People from Oceanside, California
20th-century American printmakers
20th-century American male artists

James Siena


Colette L. Samson (born June 28, 1923 – 1991) was the founder of La Maison Revivre, a refuge for the homeless, in Quebec City.

She was born in Lévis, Quebec and studied at the Couvent Marguerite d'Youville there. She joined the Jeunesse Étudiante Chrétienne movement and became local president. Samson was also a member of the Choeur d'Aubigny and was involved in theatre.

She founded the Maison Revivre in 1978.

In 1980, she was named Personality of the Year by the Régionale des Jeunes Chambres de Commerce de Québec. In 1986, she received the Prix Bénévolat-Canada awarded by the Canadian government. Samson was named a Chevalière in the National Order of Quebec in 1987.

Rue Colette-Samson in Quebec City was named in her honour.

References

1923 births
1991 deaths
Knights of the National Order of Quebec
People from Lévis, Quebec
Homelessness activists
French Quebecers

Colette Samson


Galaxy 23 is the name given to the C-band service of the Galaxy 23/EchoStar 9 communications satellite jointly owned by Intelsat and EchoStar located at 121° W longitude, serving the North American market. It was built by Space Systems/Loral, as part of its FS-1300 line. Galaxy 23 was formerly known as Intelsat Americas 13. The "Galaxy 23" portion of the service provides transponders in the C band. The "EchoStar 9" portion broadcasts Ku band, and Ka band transponders.

While the satellite itself is jointly owned through a partnership between Intelsat and Echostar, the Ku band payload is owned and operated by Echostar for international television programming and local television channels. That service is intended for Dish Network customers using a SuperDish system. The C-band payload is owned and operated by Intelsat. The Ka band payload is owned and operated by Echostar for as-yet-undisclosed purposes.

Current clients for Galaxy 23/EchoStar 9 include Dish Network, Direct TV, Genesis Networks, and Playboy.

References

External links

Galaxy 23 on IMS

Intelsat satellites
Communications satellites in geostationary orbit
Satellite television
Satellites using the SSL 1300 bus

Galaxy 23


Lucien Muratore (29 August 1876 – 16 July 1954, in Paris) was a French actor and operatic dramatic tenor, particularly associated with the French repertory.

Life and career
Lucien Muratore was born Marseille to Italian parents from Piedmont. He trained first as a cornist, and later as an actor. He made his debut at the Odéon theatre in Paris, where he played opposite such actresses as Sarah Bernhardt and Réjane. He then studied at the Paris Music Conservatory, and made his operatic debut in 1902, at the Opéra-Comique, creating the King in Reynaldo Hahn's La carmélite.

He made his debut at La Monnaie in 1904, as Werther, and the following year at the Palais Garnier, as Renaud in Lully's Armide.

He created several Massenet operas such as Ariane and Bacchus, at the Opéra, and Roma, in Monte Carlo. He also took part in the creation of La Catalane by Le Borne, Monna Vanna by Henry Février, Déjanire by Camille Saint-Saëns, and Pénélope by Gabriel Fauré.

He became principal French tenor with the Boston Opera Company, the Chicago Grand Opera Company (1913–1914), the Chicago Opera Association (1915–1921), and the Chicago Civic Opera (1922). He also appeared at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires.

Muratore retired from the stage in 1931. He was married first to soprano Marguerite Bériza, and later to soprano Lina Cavalieri, with whom he appeared in a silent movie, Manon Lescaut, in 1914.

In 1944 Muratore was for a few weeks Director of the Opéra-Comique but was removed on the Liberation of Paris.

His art of singing was at times almost overshadowed by his immense talent as an actor and elegance on stage.

His students included Kenneth Neate, to whom he gave some of his own costumes for Don José (Bizet's Carmen).

Selected filmography
 The Shadow of Her Past (1915)
 The Unknown Singer (1931)
 The Faceless Voice (1933)

References

Sources
Roland Mancini and Jean-Jacques Rouveroux,  (orig. H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack, French edition), Guide de l'opéra, Les indispensables de la musique (Fayard, 1995).

External links

 History of the Tenor / Lucien Muratore / Sound Clips and Narration

1876 births
1954 deaths
French operatic tenors
French male film actors
French male silent film actors
French people of Italian descent
20th-century French male actors
Male actors from Marseille
Musicians from Marseille

Lucien Muratore


The Atari XL was a series of 8-bit home computers introduced in 1983. They were an improved version of the Atari 400 and Atari 800 computers from 1979.

Their main CPU was a MOS Technology 6502. There were 3 versions- the 1200XL, the 600XL and the 800XL. All three used a normal television as a display.

Historical computers
Atari hardware

en:Atari 8-bit family

Atari XL


Watson v. United States, 552 U.S. 74 (2007), is a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Court had earlier held in Smith v. United States (1993) that the exchange of a gun for drugs constituted "use" of a firearm for purposes of a federal statute imposing penalties for "use" of a firearm "during and in relation to" a drug trafficking crime; in Watson, the court decided that a transaction in the opposite direction does not violate the same statute (i.e., Smith holds that one "uses" a gun by giving it in exchange for drugs, and Watson holds that one does not "use" a gun by receiving it in exchange for drugs).

Question presented
Whether a person who trades his drugs for a gun "uses" a firearm "during and in relation to... (a) drug trafficking crime" within the meaning of 18 U.S.C. 924(c)(1)(A)?

Ruling
Justice Souter delivered the opinion of the Court saying that Smith held that firearms may be "used" in barter transaction, even with no violent employment and that it addressed the trader only, who swaps his gun for drugs, not the trading partner who ends up with the gun. Bailey v. United States (1995), too, does not help because it ruled that a gun must be made use of actively to satisfy 924(c)(1)(A), as "an operative factor in relation to the predicate offense." The majority of the Court held that a person does not "use" a firearm under 924(c)(1)(A) when he receives it in trade for drugs, the Judgment of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the case was remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

Decision and Rationale
The Fifth Circuit affirmed that receiving a firearm constituted "use" for the purposes. The decision at which the Supreme Court arrived at via unanimous decision was that the momentary possession of the received unloaded semi-automatic pistol was not sufficient to constitute the "use" of the weapon. The rationale behind the Watson situation is that even though there was a firearm present in the transaction, Watson was not carrying it during the transaction. The weapon was unloaded and in his possession for a minimal amount of time. The decision withheld therefore was that Watson's bartering of drugs for the pistol did not constitute the "use" of the weapon due to the fact that the weapon was not loaded, he was not carrying it during the transaction and only had ownership of the firearm for few minutes before being arrested by officials.

Concurrence
Justice Ginsburg delivered the concurrence to the court. She states that she agrees with the opinion of the court but has a different reasoning. Her reasoning is that she defines the word "use" to mean using as a weapon and not in bartering transactions. She also goes on to state that she would overrule Smith, 508 U.S., at 241, and make the precedent both "coherent and consistent with normal usage."

See also
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 389
 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928)
 United States v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972)

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
2007 in United States case law
United States federal firearms case law

Watson v. United States


Ludovico Tommasi (1866 in Livorno – 1941 in Florence) was an Italian painter.

Biography
Inspired by the example of his elder brother Angiolo and his cousin Adolfo, Ludovico Tommasi devoted himself to painting, developing his art in close contact with Silvestro Lega, a frequent visitor to the Tommasi family villa at Bellariva. After his military service in Milan between 1888 and 1891, Tommasi and his brother Angiolo frequented the cultural circle that gravitated around Giacomo Puccini at Torre del Lago, and it was here that he came into contact with several exponents of the Tuscan artistic avant-garde, including Galileo Chini and Oscar Ghiglia. Towards the end of the 19th century he became interested in the Divisionist research carried out in that period by his friend Plinio Nomellini. He regularly participated in the principal artistic events in Italy and abroad. In 1913 he was among the participants in the Rome breakaway faction of the Giovane Etruria group that returned to the Tuscan naturalistic tradition, leading to the revival of more classic forms in the years following the First World War. In his maturity he devoted himself to engraving, and in 1912 he opened a school of etching in Florence.

In 1884, he displays Studio al Vero at the Promotrice. In 1886 participated at the First Exposition of Fine Arts of Livorno with "Bellariva sull'Arno a Florence". He continued to exhibit at the Florentine Promotrici. After serving in the military, he exhibits Inverno at the 1894 Florentine Promotrice, and  "Notti Umane" at the first Venice Biennale. He joined a group later known as the  "Giovane Etruria" (Young Etruria), that in 1913 exhibited their works at the Secessione Romana del 1913. In the 1930s, he painted folk subjects in a ''severe and monumental" style, preferred by the fascists. "Vita semplice", a large canvas was exhibited at the 1930 Venice Biennale.

References

 Elena Lissoni, Ludovico Tommasi, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

Other projects

19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
20th-century Italian painters
Italian genre painters
Painters from Livorno
1866 births
1941 deaths
19th-century Italian male artists
20th-century Italian male artists

Ludovico Tommasi


Bunn is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

Alfred Bunn (1796–1860), English theatrical manager
Bennie M. Bunn (1907–1943), American Marine officer killed in World War II
Beverly Atlee Bunn, birth name of American author Beverly Cleary
Fru T. Bunn, fictional character from Viz
George Bunn (disambiguation)
Jim Bunn (b. 1956), former U.S. Congressman from Oregon
John Bunn (basketball), American basketball coach
John Whitfield Bunn and Jacob Bunn, American financiers, industrialists, and friends of Abraham Lincoln
Leon Bunn (b. 1992), German professional boxer
Olivia Bunn (b. 1979), Australian equestrian
Romanzo Bunn, United States federal judge
Stan Bunn (b. 1946), American state legislator in Oregon
Tom Bunn, American state legislator in Oregon
William M. Bunn, American politician

See also
Bunn-O-Matic Corporation, Illinois-based manufacturer of coffee equipment founded by George R. Bunn Jr. and owner of the BUNN brand
Bunn, North Carolina
Justice Bunn (disambiguation)

Bunn


The Multi Phase Topology Optimisation is a simulation technique based on the principle of the finite element method which is able to determine the optimal distribution of two or more different materials in combination under thermal and mechanical loads.

The objective of optimization is to minimize the component's elastic energy. Conventional topology optimisation methods which simulate adaptive bone mineralization have the disadvantage that there is a continuous change of mass by the growth process.  However, MPTO keeps all initial material concentrations and uses methods adapted for molecular dynamics to find energy minimum. Applying MPTO to Mechanically loaded components with a high number of different material densities, the optimization results show graded and sometimes anisotropic porosity distributions which are very similar to natural bone structures.  This allows the macro- and microstructure of a mechanical component in one step. This method uses the Rapid Prototyping techniques, 3D printing and selective laser sintering to produce very stiff, light weight components with graded porosities calculated by MPTO.

References

Finite element method
Structural analysis

Multiphase topology optimisation


Gmina Konopnica is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Lublin County, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland. Its seat is the village of Konopnica, which lies approximately  west of the regional capital Lublin.

The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2019 its total population is 13,963 (12,790 in 2013).

Konopnica is a suburban borough of Lublin, some 10 km to the south west of the town. When driving from the town you can see the changes on the landscape from an urban agglomeration, through estates of single-family houses and, finally, to the typically Polish countryside of golden fields and green meadows.

The borough of Konopnica is made up of 20 villages and hamlets in which, within an area of 92.75 km2, live over 10,000 people. Half of the inhabitants live off farming almost three-guarters of the land in the borough is agricultural. Mainly cereals and sugar beet are grown. Fruit growing is rapidly. The location provides good conditions for development of trade and services. A good road network ensures good communications with Lublin. The Lublin-Warsaw railway line, which runs through the borough, increases the transportation possibilities.

The railway runs along the border between two distinct geographical areas. The area to the north of railway line on the Nałęczowski Plateau which is characterised by a richly sculpted terrain.
In this part of the borough can be found the highest point in the Lublin, at a height of 252 m above sea level, and a network of picturesque loess ravines.
Stretching away on the other side of the railway line is the Bełżycka Plain. The flat quiet scenery of large fields and meadows reveals the most distant corners of the borough.

There are two large forests in the borough at Radawiec Duży and Tereszyn, as well as some smaller woods with a total area of over 5 km2.

History

Slav settlements existed in this area in the early Middle Ages. Archaeological digs carried out in the 1980s confirm this.

During the first half of the 14th century Motycz was one of the more important places in the Lublin area, lying on the main trading route to Russia, while during the second half of the 14th century, that role was being fulfilled by Konopnica. The first reports about the place are from 1342 - Konopnica was at that time a royal village and its today is reflected in the borough's coat of arms.

In 1400 the chronicles of Jan Długosz mention the church at "Conopnicza" it was a wooden temple dedicated to St. Katarzyna. Today in its place stants a brick-built church dating back the beginning of the 20th century.

The rich history of the borough is also reflected by places such as the Swedish military cemetery in Motycz Leśny; "Castle Hill" in Motycz or the lime tree under which Napoleon rested during his march on Russia. The place and the park in Motycz have also been preserved, as well as a fragment of the place park in Radawiec. The railway station in Motycz, which is over 100 years old, is listed in the register of historic buildings.

Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Konopnica is bordered by the city of Lublin and by the gminas of Bełżyce, Jastków, Niedrzwica Duża and Wojciechów.

References

Konopnica
Lublin County

Gmina Konopnica, Lublin Voivodeship


Portsmouth Museum (aka Portsmouth City Museum) is a local museum in Museum Road in the city of Portsmouth, southern England. It is one of six museums run by Portsmouth Museums, part of Portsmouth City Council. The museum is housed in a Grade II listed building.

History
The building dates from the 1890s and was previously part of the Clarence and Victoria Barracks complex, which apart from the museum block, were demolished in 1967. It became the museum in 1972.

The museum includes a display on the author Arthur Conan Doyle and his fictional creation, the detective Sherlock Holmes. Richard Lancelyn Green's Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Collection is one of the most wide-ranging in the world. It includes first editions of books, related letters, film and television memorabilia.

The story of Portsmouth is the name of those galleries which deal with the topic of what it was and is like to live in Portsmouth. These galleries are on the first floor and include 'Living in Portsmouth,' 'No Place Like Pompey' and 'Portsmouth at Play.' The first section looks back at life in the home, with reconstructions of rooms typical of specific people at different periods in history.
 The Football in the City display includes memorability form the 1939 and 2008 FA Cup Finals.

Fine and decorative arts are on display throughout Portsmouth Museum. Displays change but there is always a mixture of works on display drawn from the permanent collections. There are a selection of paintings, prints, sculpture, ceramics, furniture, glass and textiles, relating to Portsmouth from the 17th century to the 1950s.

Architecture

The red brick building has stone dressings and tile roofs. The front of the four-storey building is of 17-bays. On each side are projecting towers.

See also
 List of museums in Hampshire

References

External links
 Museum website

Art museums and galleries in Hampshire
City museums in the United Kingdom
Museums in Portsmouth
1972 establishments in England
Museums established in 1972

Portsmouth City Museum


Harry Walter Perkowski (September 6, 1922 – April 20, 2016) was a pitcher in Major League Baseball who played between 1947 and 1955 for the Cincinnati Reds / Redlegs (1947, 1949–54) and Chicago Cubs (1955). Listed at , , he batted and threw left-handed.

Career
A native of Dante, Virginia, Perkowski started his baseball career playing semi-pro ball in the coal fields around his hometown. He later pitched briefly for the Natchez Giants of the Evangeline League before getting drafted and joining the U.S. Navy in 1943.

Perkowski joined the amphibious force during World War II, helping escort troops and tanks into hot spots on Landing Craft Tanks. He served 19 months in the Atlantic and 11 months in the Pacific, including four invasions during the war in Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Normandy. "I was all over the place just about", he later recalled.

Following his discharge from military service in 1946, Perkowski signed with the Cincinnati Reds and enjoyed an outstanding year in the Pioneer League for the Ogden Reds, posting a 23–6 record with 209 strikeouts and a 2.09 ERA in 247 innings pitched. He led the league with his 23 wins and his six shutouts tied for the league lead.

In 1947, Perkowski gained a promotion to the Columbia team of the South Atlantic League, where he finished 17–12 with 133 strikeouts and a 3.57 ERA in 247 innings before joining the Reds in late September. He posted a 3.68 ERA in three games (one start) before the season ended, but Cincinnati felt he was not quite ready for the major leagues at this point.

Perkowski spent 1948 with the Tulsa Oilers of the Texas League, hurling his second 20-victory season in the minors. He finished 22–10 with 163 strikeouts and a 2.98 ERA in 263 innings, leading the league in wins and hurled a remarkable 21 complete games to lead his team to a 91–63 record. In 1949, he went to the Syracuse Chiefs of the International League and posted a 14–12 record with 138 strikeouts and a 3.70 ERA in 209 innings.

After that, Perkowski joined the Reds again in 1950 and remained with the team for the next five years. His most productive season came in 1952, when he went 12–10 with career-highs in innings pitched (194), strikeouts (86) and ERA (3.80). He finished 12–11 with a 4.52 ERA in 1953. On July 19 of that year, he pitched a 12-inning, three-hit, 1–0 shutout against the New York Giants at Crosley Field. Battery teammate Hobie Landrith provided the difference with a walk-off home run in the bottom of the 12th.

At the end of 1954, Cincinnati traded Perkowski along with Jim Bolger and Ted Tappe to the Chicago Cubs in exchange for Johnny Klippstein and Jim Willis. He made 25 appearances for the Cubs in 1955, then returned to the minors in 1956 where he continued pitching until 1960, spending time with Los Angeles, Tulsa, Memphis, Fort Worth and Denver clubs.

In an eight-season majors career, Perkowski posted a 33–40 record with a 4.37 ERA in 184 appearances, including 76 starts, 24 complete games, four shutouts, five saves, and 697 innings of work.

Arm troubles soon caught up with Perkowski, though. He possessed a hard fastball and a devastating curve, but his delivery was bothered by control problems for most of his career as shown by his 0.91 strikeout-to-walk ratio (296-to-324). A good-hitting pitcher, he eventually was used in pinch-hitting duties. In 197 games, he posted a .180 average (43-for-239) with 13 RBI and nine extra bases, including one home run. A fine fielder as well, he committed only two errors in 171 total chances for a .988 fielding percentage.

Later life and death
Following baseball Perkowski served in local law enforcement, ambulance and school bus driver, and with the West Virginia Department of Highways. He died in Beckley, West Virginia on April 20, 2016, aged 93.

References

External links
 or Retrosheet
Baseball in Wartime
Harry Perskowski - Baseballbiography.com
Baseball Todds Dugout

1922 births
2016 deaths
Major League Baseball pitchers
Chicago Cubs players
Cincinnati Redlegs players
Cincinnati Reds players
Bluefield Blue-Grays players
Columbia Reds players
Denver Bears players
Fort Worth Cats players
Los Angeles Angels (minor league) players
Memphis Chickasaws players
Natchez Giants players
Ogden Reds players
Syracuse Chiefs players
Tulsa Oilers (baseball) players
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Baseball players from Virginia
People from Russell County, Virginia

Harry Perkowski


The Bamberg witch trials of 1627–1632, which took place in the self-governing Catholic Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg in the Holy Roman Empire in present-day Germany, is one of the biggest mass trials and mass executions ever seen in Europe, and one of the biggest witch trials in history.

Over an extended period around 1,000 people were executed after being accused of witchcraft in Bamberg, about 900 of whom were executed in 1626–1632. People of all ages, sexes and classes, all of whom were burned at the stake, sometimes after having been beheaded, sometimes alive. The witch trials took place during the ongoing religious Thirty Years' War between Protestants and Catholics, in an area on the religious border between Catholic and Protestant territories, and were conducted by a Catholic Prince Bishop intent on introducing the Counter-Reformation in his territory.

The Bamberg witch trials are among the largest Witch trials in the Early Modern period: it was one of the four largest witch trials in Germany alongside the Trier witch trials, the Fulda witch trials, and the contemporary Würzburg witch trials.

Background
From about 1300 to 1850, the Holy Roman Empire experienced a Little Ice Age that in some locations at various times likely resulted in crop failures. One theory first put forward in the 20th century is that this caused common poor and rural people to blame "witches" although it is not clear why the previous or later episodes of bad weather failed to bring about similar deadly trials as those that occurred near the end of the 16th century.

Prince-Bishop of Bamberg Neytard von Thüngen (d. 1598) was the first to allow witch trials in his diocese. However, he was mostly occupied with fighting the Reformation. Under his successor, Johann Philipp von Gebsattel (d. 1609) no one was executed for witchcraft. Only under Johann Gottfried von Aschhausen (d. 1622), did prosecutions take off. Supported by the theologian , the bishop allowed a trial to go ahead that grew out of a family quarrel. In its course, several other people were charged with witchcraft and within one year 15 had been executed. A bigger round of prosecutions came in 1616 after a series of crop failures. Through 1622 a total of 159 trials were registered, most resulting in deaths. The trials stopped in 1622, partially through the efforts of councillor Georg Haan, who successfully pointed out that the city funds were needed to protect the city during the Thirty years' war.

Witch trials of 1626-1632

Outbreak

The Bamberg witch trials of 1626-1631 were initiated by the Reform Catholic and Counter-Reformation Catholic Prince Bishop Johann Georg Fuchs von Dornheim, Prince Bishop of Bamberg in 1623–1633. The territory was close to the Catholic-Protestant religious border, and the goal of the new Prince Bishop was to create a "Godly state" in accordance with the ideals of the Counter-Reformation, and to make the population obedient, devout and conformally Catholic. The Prince-Bishop was adied in this religious cleansing by his assisting Bishop, the theologian , whose theological work The Splendind Armour of God was recommended in the sermons of the Bamberg churches and who portrayed the souls of humanity caught in the struggle between Good and Evil; Förner believed that Bamberg was not religiously pure, and that the public trusted folk healers such as "cunning women and litte women-witches" more than the church.

The exact cause of the witch trials of 1626-1631 is not entirely clear due to incomplete documentation.  In May 1626, frost destroyed the harvest in the entire region.
Johann Langhans, Mayor of Zeil outside of Bamberg (who would himself later be executed), noted in his diary:
"the 27th of May [1626], the grapevines all over Franconia, in both Bishoprics [of] Bamberg and Würzburg, were destroyed by frost, as well as the dear corn, which had faded already... everywhere around Zeil, everything was destroyed by frost, which had never happened in people's memory, and caused substantial princes to rise...Whereupon an intense pleading and begging started among the common rabble [asking], why the authorities went on tolerating that the sorcerers and witches are damaging even the crops. Therefore, His Princely Highness [Johann Georg II] was alerted to punish such evil, and therefore the witch persecutions started this year."
Maria Anna Junius, a nun in a convent in Bamberg (whose father would later be executed), wrote in her chronicle that: "a loud cry went up in the city...people where frighetened to death as they awoke to find that an unnatural night frost had killed off all the fruit trees, rendered the ground as hard as stone and put pain to the grain harvest. Our Prince [the Prince Bishop] was furious".

Citizens started to send petitions to the authorities demanding to know why witches and wizards had caused the frost, and the Prince Bishop issued an investigation.   A local woman named Katharina Merckhlerin was arrested, and in November 1626 she confessed to having caused the frost by use of witchcraft.

Legal process

A special Witch Commission was organized with the task of handling all cases of witchcraft and used special prosecutors, such as the famed doctor Schwarzkonz of Eichstätt.  A ban was issued prohibiting all criticism of the trials by use of whipping and banishment.  The Prince-Bishop was supported in his persecutions by his assisting Bishop, the theologian , who had assisted the preceding Bishops in their witch trials.

The Witch Commission used torture without any of the restrictions regulated by the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina.
The accused were tortured to confess maleficia (harmful magic); flying; participating in a Witches' Sabbath (in Bamberg often called "witches' dance"); sexual intercourse with Satan or with a lower ranked male or female demon; and having desecrated a sacred object.  When the accused had confessed their own guilt, torture was applied to make them name their accomplices or other people they had seen attending the Witches' Sabbath.

Those who had been named as accomplices were arrested in turn and tortured to name new accomplices, which caused the witch trial to expand rapidly in the number of arrests and executions, especially since the Witch Commission did not discriminate as to which names to accept but arrested men and women of all ages and classes indiscriminately.  In 1627, the prisoners had reached such numbers that the Prince-Bishop constructed a special witches prison, Malefizhaus or Drudenhaus, to house them all.

Cases and accused

Typical for both the Bamberg witch trials as well as the parallel witch trials in Würzburg, members of the elite were arrested after having been named by working-class people under torture, a phenomenon which would normally not have happened in early modern society had the process been about a different crime. Würzburg and Bamberg differed in that, in Würzburg, many members of the clerical elite were arrested, and a large number of children were among the accused, while Bamberg focused on secular adult elites. Many of the accused came from the class Bamberg officials and public servants, who would not normally have been arrested after having been accused by members of the working class.

The most famous cases during the Bamberg witch trials were those of the official Georg Haan and his wife Katarina Haan, daughter Maria Ursula Haan and son Adam Haan, who were all executed, and that of the official Johannes Junius, whose testimony of the torture he underwent become famous, was another, as was his wife. Georg Haan was in a difficult situation when the persecutions began in 1626, because he was known for his opposition to witch craft persecutions, having stopped the previous persecutions of 1622.
When the wife and daughter of Georg Haan were arrested in 1627, he left the city with his son Adam Haan and issued a complaint of the arrest of his wife and daughter to the Emperor, who ordered that the wife and daughter of Haan should be released. But when Georg and his son returned to Bamberg in 1628, his wife and daughter had already been  executed after having named George and Adam as their accomplices. Georg and Adam Haan were then arrested. The Emperor protested, but the ongoing Thirty Years' War prevented an intervention in Bamberg, and the Prince-Bishop ignored the Imperial orders.
One of the people Georg Haan named (while he was being tortured) as an accomplice was Johannes Junius, who is famous because of the letter he wrote to his daughter Veronica from prison in June 1628, in which he declared his innocence but had been tortured to confess his guilt and name accomplices. In May 1629, Barthol Braun, who had participated in the witch trials as a prosecutor, was himself arrested.

The number of executions is unknown as only some were documented. Of the confirmed numbers, 15 men and women were charged with witchcraft in the year 1626; 85 are noted for the year 1627, 137 for 1628, and 167 for 1629, which was the peak year of the witch trials, followed by 54 in 1630, and a lesser number in 1631, but these are only the confirmed cases and are not complete. All of the accused were executed by burning: sometimes the condemned could be decapitated beforehand, but the majority appear to have been burned alive. To conserve fire wood, a large crematorium was built at Zeil am Main, the centre of the executions.

The end

The ongoing mass process in Bamberg attracted a lot of attention.  The fact that the Witch Commission accepted the names of accomplices given by accused witches under torture indiscriminately regardless of class, had resulted in many people arrested had influential relatives, family members and friends of the upper classes, with sufficient resources and knowledge to escape the territory and to issue complaints against the Prince Bishop and his witch trials to his superiors, such as the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope.

A turning point was the case against Dorothea Flock, a member of a well-off merchant family from Nuremberg, whose spouse fled to a colony of Bamberg refugees in Nuremberg and issued a complaint of her arrest to the Emperor.   In April 1630, the Emperor called upon the Prince-Bishop to defend himself against the accusation made against him and to put an immediate stop to the case against Dorothea Flock.  The Prince-Bishop defied the Emperor and resumed the case against Flock on 28 April, which resulted in a new protest from the Emperor on 11 May, and the Pope was asked to intervene.  An Imperial edict was issued by the Hofrat, but the witch hunters learned about its imminent delivery and executed Dorothea shortly before its arrival.  When Dorothea Flock was executed on 17 May, the problem of the ongoing Bamberg witch trials was placed on the agenda of the Imperial Diet of Regensburg on 20 September 1630.  This caused outrage among the leadership of the Catholic church in Germany, who held the bishop responsible.  An investigation by the Hofrat prevented any further trials from being launched.  In parallel, Germany was devastated by the Swedish army under king Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who commented that he was willing to intervene against the witch trials of Bamberg.

In Bamberg, the assisting Bishop and theologian , who was a leading figure in the witch trials, died this year.  Support among the population began to fade as people increasingly realized that everybody was at risk of ending up on the pyre.  Peasants refused to supply wood for the burnings.   Under pressure, the Prince-Bishop stopped the Witch Commission from making new arrests.   This did not mean that the witch trials ended, however, since those already arrested were still kept in prison.

In July 1631, the Emperor had Anton Winter, known for his opposition to witch hunts, appointed to become the new head of the Prince-Bishop's Witch Commission in Bamberg.   When Anton Winter arrived in Bamberg, the Prince-Bishop fled the city. The bishop fled to Austria.  The Witch Commission under Anton Winter released all the prisoners of the witch prison.  They ended for good when the Protestant Swedish troops approached Bamberg in 1632.

Legacy and aftermath

Several smaller witch trials followed until the last one in 1680.  By that time, a total of around 1,000 people had been killed in the Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg.  In contemporary Germany, the gigantic, parallel mass witch trials of Würzburg and Bamberg were seen as role models by other states and cities interested in investigating witchcraft, notably Wertheim and Mergentheim.

References

Sources
 Hugh Trevor-Roper: The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. The European Witch-craze of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (1967)

1626 in law
1631 in law
17th century in Bavaria
1620s in the Holy Roman Empire
1626 in the Holy Roman Empire
Bamberg witch trials

Bamberg witch trials


Samy A. Azer is an Egyptian-born Australian physician author and medical educator. He was honoured to contribute to medical education in several countries, including the University of Sydney and the University of Melbourne in Australia, the University of Toyama in Japan, the Universiti Teknologi MARA in Malaysia, and King Saud University in Saudi Arabia.

Career
He graduated in medicine and completed his training in gastroenterology. He obtained his PhD from the University of Sydney and a Master in Education from the University of New South Wales, in Australia. He is a fellow of the American College of Gastroenterology and a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine. He was a Senior Lecturer at the University of Sydney and the University of Melbourne. He is a visiting professor at the University of Toyama, Japan and was a professor of Medical Education at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. Professor Azer was a consultant to the Victorian Postgraduate Medical Foundation (VMPF), Australia. He has been invited as keynote speaker to South East Asia, Sweden, Turkey, the Middle East countries and the United States. He has over 100 original articles published in scientific journals. He is Editor at PLOS ONE, Editor at MEDICINE, and on the World Journal of Gastroenterology and BMC Medical Education.

Living people
University of Sydney alumni

Samy Azer


Hassall–Henle bodies are small transparent growths on the posterior surface of Descemet's membrane at the periphery of the cornea. These bodies contain collagenous matter in which numerous cracks and fissures are filled with extrusions of the corneal endothelium. The condition is usually associated with the aging process.

Hassall–Henle bodies are named after British physician Arthur Hill Hassall (1817–1894) and German anatomist Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (1809–1885). They are sometimes referred to as Hassall–Henle warts or Henle's warts.

References

Ophthalmology

Hassall–Henle bodies


Nancy Lynn Snyderman (born March 26, 1952) is an American physician, author, and former broadcast journalist. She served as a medical correspondent for ABC News for 15 years, and was the chief medical editor for NBC News from 2006 to 2015, frequently appearing on the Today show, NBC Nightly News and MSNBC to discuss medical-related issues. Snyderman is also on the staff of the otolaryngology-head and neck surgery department at the University of Pennsylvania, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

In 2013, Snyderman launched her own website, where she answers health and medical questions. She is a co-founder of CarePlanners, a service that helps people navigate the healthcare system.

Snyderman's medical work has been widely published, and she has authored five books. She has received numerous awards for her medical broadcast reporting, and has been the recipient of many research grants.

In 2015, Snyderman left NBC News following a high-profile controversy over violating an Ebola quarantine.

Early life, education, and family
Snyderman was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the daughter of Joy Snyderman, a housewife, and Sanford Snyderman, a physician.  She has a younger brother who is a physician as well.  She grew up in Ft. Wayne, Indiana, where she graduated from South Side High School in 1970.  She attended Indiana University Bloomington, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in microbiology.  Snyderman went on to attend medical school at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, located in Omaha, Nebraska, earning a Doctor of Medicine degree from its College of Medicine in 1977.  She presently lives in Princeton, New Jersey  with her husband, Doug.  She has three children, Kate, Rachel, and Charlie.

Snyderman states that she knew already in the third grade that she wanted to be a physician when her father brought her with him on his Sunday hospital rounds. She counts her father and mother and one of her instructors, Eugene Nicholas Myers, the chief of surgery in Pittsburgh, as her mentors. She says that Myers "taught me how to be a really good surgeon. He invested time in me; and it's a lot for him that I vowed no matter what my other careers were, I would never give up medicine."

In 2011, while appearing as a panel member discussing rape on the NBC Today show, Snyderman disclosed that she was raped at gunpoint when she was a sophomore in college.  Snyderman stated, "I was attacked in 1970 as a college girl and I did everything wrong. I didn't come forward. I waited too long. And by the time I would have come forward a [defense attorney] could have skewered me with questions. So I have great sensitivity for young women who have been raped."  She suggested to women:  "If you are an adult and you want to take the shame off of rape, one of the bravest things you can do as a woman is to come forward and say I accuse you - and I'm going to do it publicly."

Career
Snyderman followed up her training with residency in both pediatrics and otolaryngology at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center in Pennsylvania. She moved to Little Rock, Arkansas, joining the surgical staff at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences in 1983, specializing in throat and neck cancers.

She began her broadcasting career in 1984 at KATV, the ABC affiliate in Little Rock.  She served as a medical correspondent for ABC News for 15 years, and was a contributor to 20/20, Primetime, and Good Morning America. Before leaving ABC News, she was a frequent substitute co-host on Good Morning America.

Snyderman also served as vice president of consumer education for the health care corporation Johnson & Johnson, where she headed "Understanding Health", an educational initiative which focused on public education about health and medicine.

In 1988, she moved to San Francisco, California, where she practiced head and neck surgery at the University of California San Francisco and California Pacific Medical Center. In the 1990s, Snydermann served as a medical correspondent for KPIX-TV in San Francisco.

Snyderman joined NBC News as its chief medical editor in September 2006.  Her reports have appeared on Today, NBC Nightly News with Brian Williams, Dateline NBC, MSNBC and MSNBC.com. She hosted the MSNBC program Dr. Nancy, in 2009. She served as a sports desk reporter for NBC Sports coverage of both the 2008 Summer Olympics. and the 2014 Winter Olympics.  She has reported on wide-ranging medical topics affecting both men and women, and has traveled the world extensively, reporting from many of the world's most-troubled areas.

In 2013, Snyderman launched her own website where she answers health and medical questions, takes suggestions for upcoming story ideas for NBC, and contributes a daily video and written blog.  In 2016, she was named to the board of directors of the pharmaceutical company Alkermes.

Snyderman is a co-founder of CarePlanners, a service that helps people navigate the healthcare system. She states that she understood the need for a service like CarePlanners after she became responsible for her parents' care in 2005.

Recognition
Snyderman has received numerous awards for her medical broadcast reporting, including several Emmy Awards, Edward R. Murrow Award, an Alfred I. duPont Award, and a Gracie Awards.  In 1986 she received an award for in-depth reporting from KARK-TV, and an Associated Press award for "best documentary" for her work on sex education in Arkansas in 1987. She received the "Distinguished Service Award" from the American Academy of Otolaryngology's Head and Neck Surgery Foundation in 1998. Among many recent honors, in 2001 she received the Athena Award from the Partnership for Women's Health at Columbia University for her work in the field of women's health. Also in 2001, she earned the Trailblazer Award from the American Women in Radio and Television for furthering the knowledge of women's health on a national level. South Side High School Distinguished Alumni Award 1996.

Selective abortion advocacy
Snyderman has stated that she supports selective abortion as a result of the detection of the presence of congenital disorders in the fetus before birth, proclaiming it to be "the science of today" and "I believe that this is a great way to prevent diseases."

Ebola quarantine
In 2014, after returning from Liberia, where she was in contact with a freelance cameraman who contracted Ebola, Snyderman and the remainder of her crew were asked to observe a voluntary 21-day quarantine to minimize the risk of further outbreak. After Snyderman was then seen inside a car, outside a local restaurant, in violation of the quarantine, the state of New Jersey issued a mandatory 21-day quarantine for Snyderman and her crew.

On March 12, 2015, Snyderman announced she had resigned her position as NBC's Chief Medical Editor due to the controversy over her breaking the quarantine.

Books
 Snyderman, Nancy L.; Blackstone, Margaret (1996).  Dr. Nancy Snyderman's Guide to Good HealthWhat Every Forty-Plus Woman Should Know about Her Changing Body.  New York City: William Morrow and Company.  .
 Snyderman, Nancy L.; Streep, Peg (2000).  Necessary JourneysLetting Ourselves Learn from Life.  New York City: Hyperion Books. .
 Snyderman, Nancy L.; Streep, Peg (2002).  Girl in the MirrorMothers and Daughters in the Years of Adolescence.  New York City: Hyperion Books. .
 Snyderman, Nancy L. (2008).  Medical Myths That Can Kill YouAnd the 101 Truths That Will Save, Extend, and Improve Your Life.  New York City: Crown Publishers.  .
 Snyderman, Nancy L. (2009).  Diet Myths That Keep Us FatAnd the 101 Truths That Will Save Your WaistlineAnd Maybe Even Your Life.  New York City: Crown Publishers.  .

References

External links

 Biography of Nancy Snyderman at MSNBC.com

1952 births
20th-century American physicians
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American physicians
21st-century American women writers
ABC News personalities
American broadcast news analysts
American columnists
American medical writers
Women medical writers
American television hosts
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
Johnson & Johnson people
Living people
MSNBC people
NBC News people
American otolaryngologists
People from Princeton, New Jersey
Journalists from St. Louis
Physicians from Missouri
University of Arkansas at Little Rock people
University of Nebraska Medical Center alumni
University of Pennsylvania staff
Writers from Missouri
American women television journalists
American women columnists
Celebrity doctors
21st-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American women physicians
21st-century American women physicians
American women television presenters

Nancy Snyderman


Nanny - a person that is hired to take care of children.
The Nanny - a 1993 television comedy.
A grandmother (see grandmother, grandparent)
A female goat

The Nanny may mean:
The Nanny, a 1993–99 American television program starring Fran Drescher
The Nanny, a 1964 novel by Merriam Modell
The Nanny, a 1965 British movie starring Bette Davis
The Nanny, a 1999 Italian movie
Nanny (comics), a Marvel Comics super villain

Nanny (disambiguation)


Kirkby Moor is a poorly defined moorland area in southern Cumbria, England, named after the village of Kirkby-in-Furness, but stretching both sides of the A5092 road, and thus spanning the border of the Lake District National Park. The highest area, to the south of the road, and therefore outside the national park, is named Lowick High Common on Ordnance Survey maps, but "Kirkby Moor" is more commonly but incorrectly used. Lowick High common is the first UK SOTA summit to be activated 100 times.

The highest point of Lowick High Common and of Kirkby Moor is 333 m above sea level. The major man-made features are a slate quarry operated by Burlington Slate Ltd and a wind farm consisting of 12 400 kW turbines which is operated by RWE Innogy.

The fell is crossed by several public footpaths, as well as the Kirkby Slate Road, which has a right of access. There are also numerous tracks built across the fell in association with the wind turbines; although notices request walkers to stick to the public rights of way, in practice there is no issue with using the newer tracks, and from 28 May 2005 the land is access land under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.

The wide range of paths allows for many start points and routes to explore the heather-covered moor.

Marilyns of England
Fells of the Lake District
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Cumbria
Furness
Wind farms in England
Moorlands of England

Kirkby Moor


Auguste Georges Vachon,  is a Canadian officer of arms.  He held the post of Saint-Laurent Herald of Arms in Ordinary at the Canadian Heraldic Authority from its foundation in 1988 until his retirement in 2000.  Since then, he has served as Outaouais Herald of Arms Emeritus.

Auguste Vachon holds a master's degree in history from the University of Ottawa. He joined the National Archives of Canada in 1967 as keeper of heraldic collections. With the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 1988, he was appointed Saint-Laurent Herald and Registrar, a post he held until his retirement in 2000. The governor general of Canada then named him Outaouais Herald Emeritus. He has advanced the knowledge of Canadian emblems by numerous publications in Canada and abroad, as a speaker at several international congresses and by doing research for exhibitions in the field. The Canadian Museum of History has acquired the large collection of heraldic ceramics (more than 1100 pieces) assembled by him and his wife, Paula Gornescu-Vachon, a gift that the Canadian government declared to be of national importance.

Coat of arms
Auguste Vachon was granted arms by the Canadian Heraldic Authority on May 28, 1992. The
arms are blazoned:Sable a triple-towered Castle Or windows Gules portcullis shut Sable flaming Gules in chief two Suns Or, and for the crest Above a helmet mantled Sable doubled Or wreathed of these colours a demi bull Gules accorné unguled ringed gorged of oak leaves and belled all Or holding in its dexter hoof a magnifying glass proper rim and handle Sable.

On April 3, 2001 Vachon was granted supporters as an honourable augmentation to his arms in recognition of his distinguished service to Canadian heraldry: Upon a grassy mound set with gloriosa Daisies (Rudbeckia hirta) Or two Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) proper.

References

Canadian Heraldic Authority
Entry in the Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada for the grant of supporters
Entry in the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada Armorial

External links
Heraldic Science Héraldique - website of Auguste & Paula Vachon (in French and English)

Living people
Canadian officers of arms
Canadian Heraldic Authority
Fellows of the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada
Year of birth missing (living people)

Auguste Vachon


St. George's Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Georgetown, Guyana. The wooden church reaches a height of . It is the seat of the Bishop of Guyana.

St. George's was designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield and opened on 24 August 1892. The building was completed in 1899. It is located on Church Street in Georgetown and has been designated a national monument.

History

The history of the Anglican Church in Guyana can be traced as far back as 1781, when the Reverend William Baggs, chaplain to Sir George Rodney, came to Guyana. However, his stay was short-lived and it was not until 1796 that the impact of Anglicanism was felt, when the Reverend Francis MacMahon began holding services in a room on the ground floor of a building that was on the site of the present Parliament Buildings.

The first church dates back to 1810 and was erected on the site that now houses St. George's School. This church soon became too small for its increasing membership. In 1839 the foundation stone for a larger church was laid and the small church was relocated at St. Matthew's Parish, East Bank Demerara.

The second church was completed in 1842 and became the first cathedral, as Bishop (William Piercy Austin) was consecrated and the Diocese of Guiana created on 24 August 1842. However, because of a fault in the structure of the building, it began cracking in several places and soon became unsuitable for habitation. It was subsequently dismantled.

In 1877, a temporary pro-cathedral was erected in the grounds of the deanery at a cost of G$10,000. Arthur Blomfield then produced the first plans for the new cathedral - for a building in stone with a central tower and two western towers; but these were rejected because of the weight and the expense. His subsequent plans for a wooden cathedral were accepted, a design that kept many of the salient features of his first plan, such as the central tower and the Latin cross formation of nave and transepts. It was in the Gothic style of architecture, complete with flying buttresses, but it also had a tropical flavour, ensuring light and air. However, it was to be in timber and the committee emphasised that "woods of the country and no others were to be used", although in fact pitchpine was imported from North America for the ceiling.

The foundation stone for the present St. George's Cathedral, built mainly of Greenheart, was laid on 21 November 1889, and the cathedral was consecrated on 8 November 1894 and dedicated by Bishop Proctor Swaby.

Interior
St. George's Cathedral is characterised mainly by Gothic arches, clustered columns and flying buttresses.

There is a small Gothic shrine of carved oak in the northern aisle that commemorates Bishop Coleridge, first Bishop of Barbados, who was responsible for British Guiana from 1826 to 1842. The brass lectern, near the central altar, was given by the Diocese of Barbados when the present cathedral was opened in 1892. The sedilia was donated by Chinese Christians.

The decorative stained glass windows reflect myriad colours in the sunlight. These windows depict scenes from the Crucifixion and the Ascension, among others. Consisting of two rows of six windows, the east window was donated by the McConnell family. The upper windows depict scenes from the Book of Revelation. The intricate ironwork depicts pictures of birds and flowers.

A large chandelier, a gift from Queen Victoria, hangs prominently within the cathedral. The wooden Centenary Cross in front of the high altar marks the 100th anniversary of the Province of the West Indies, founded in 1883. The cross was carried around the diocese in 1983, marking the centenary. The pulpit, donated in memory of the Jones family of Plantation Houston dates from 1866.

See also
Tōdai-ji Temple, wooden house of worship in Japan
Pagoda of Fogong Temple, wooden pagoda in China
 Religion in Guyana
 :Category:Deans of St George's Cathedral, Georgetown
List of tallest wooden buildings

References

External links

 St. George's Anglican Cathedral
 The Mittelholzer Foundation
 A Short History of St. George's, Georgetown, Guyana

19th-century Anglican church buildings in the Caribbean
Anglican cathedrals in South America
Guyana
Arthur Blomfield church buildings
Cathedrals in Guyana
Churches completed in 1894
Buildings and structures in Georgetown, Guyana
National Monuments in Guyana
Wooden buildings and structures in Guyana
Wooden churches

St. George's Cathedral, Georgetown


Jürgen Moltmann (born 8 April 1926) is a German Reformed theologian. He was born in Hamburg, Germany. He is Professor Emeritus of Systematic Theology at the University of Tübingen.

Moltmann has worked to a number of areas of Christian theology, including systematic theology, eschatology, ecclesiology, political theology, Christology, pneumatology, and the theology of creation.

He was the recipient of the 2000 University of Louisville and Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary Grawemeyer Award in Religion, and was also selected to deliver the prestigious Gifford Lectures in 1984–85.

References

Other websites
Jürgen Moltmann Reading Room: Extensive primary and secondary sources on-line (Tyndale Seminary)
English Language Bibliography of Moltmann's Works: Non-exhaustive, up to 1996
Article on Moltmann at The Boston Collaborative Encyclopedia of Modern Western Theology

1926 births
Living people
German theologians
German Protestants
People from Hamburg
German academics

Jürgen Moltmann


The Constitution of India provides the right to freedom, given in article 19 with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the freedom of speech and expression, as one of its six freedoms.

History
The law in the current form finds its root in the Hate Speech Law Section 295(A) enacted by the British Administration in India. This act was brought about in the backdrop of a series of murders of Arya Samaj leaders who polemicized against Islam. This started in 1897 with the murder of Pandit Lekhram by a Muslim because he had written a book criticizing Islam. Koenraad Elst argues that "Section 295b was not instituted by Hindu society, but against it. It was imposed by the British on the Hindus in order to shield Islam from criticism". The murder series caught lime-light in December, 1926 after the murder of Swami Shraddhananda for the protection he gave to a family of converts from Islam to Hinduism in addition to writing Hindu Sangathan, Saviour of the Dying Race in 1926.

Precedence to this law started even before this as in a case against Arya Samaj preacher Dharm Bir in 1915, ten Muslims were sentenced for rioting, but Dharm Bir was also charged under section 298 for "using offensive phrases and gestures (…) with the deliberate intention of wounding the religious feelings" of another community; and under Section 153, for "wantonly provoking the riot which subsequently occurred" and "a judge was brought in who could assure conviction".

Constitutional antecedents
The Constitution of India 1950 was drafted by the Constituent Assembly from 1946 to 1950. However, this Constitution drew on a longer history of antecedents documents drafted either as legislation governing British India or aspirational political documents.

The Constitution of India Bill 1895, widely considered to be the first Indian articulation of a constitutional vision, contained the following provision related to freedom of speech and expression - 'Every citizen may express his thoughts by words or writings, and publish them in print without liability to censure, but they shall be answerable to abuses, which they may commit in the exercise of this right, in the cases and in the mode the Parliament shall determine.'

Other constitutional antecedent documents too contained provisions on freedom of speech and expression. These included: Commonwealth of India Bill 1925, Nehru Report 1928, and States and Minorities 1945. In most cases, the provisions contained some form of restrictions on freedom of speech and expression.

The Debate in the Constituent Assembly
The Constituent Assembly of India debated on freedom of speech and expression (Article 19(1) of the Draft Constitution,1948) on 1 December 1948, 2 December 1948 and 17 October 1949. The draft article read:

'Subject to the other provisions of this article, all citizens shall have the right – (a) to freedom of speech and expression; …

Proviso: Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) of this article shall affect the operation of any existing law, or prevent the State from making any law, relating to libel, slander, defamation, sedition or any other matter which offends against decency or morality or undermines the security of, or tends to overthrow, the State.'''

Most members of the Constituent Assembly welcomed the inclusion of the right. However, conflict emerged around the provision in the Article that placed restrictions on the right: while some members opposed the mention of restrictions on the right, others supported it. Members who opposed the restrictions argued that 1. There is no point in having a right to freedom of speech and expression in the presence of restrictions. 2. Putting restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression was a British practice.

Members who supported the restrictions argued that

 Restrictions were fine as the government was no longer a colonial one.
 The right to free speech was not absolute anywhere in the world.
 The law, order and security of the state could not be compromised.

In the end, the Constituent Assembly voted on the Article and included a "Right to freedom of speech and expression" in the Constitution of India, 1950 with restrictions similar to the ones mentioned in the Draft Constitution, 1948.

Constitutional law

In a landmark judgment of the case Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the freedom of speech and expression has no geographical limitation and it carries with it the right of a citizen to gather information and to exchange thought with others not only in India but abroad also.

The constitution of India does not specifically mention the freedom of press. Freedom of press is implied from the Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution. Thus the press is subject to the restrictions that are provided under the Article 19(2) of the Constitution. Before Independence, there was no constitutional or statutory provision to protect the freedom of press. As observed by the Privy Council in Channing Arnold v. King Emperor: "The freedom of the journalist is an ordinary part of the freedom of the subject and to whatever length, the subject in general may go, so also may the journalist, but apart from statute his privilege is no other and no higher. The range of his assertions, his criticisms or his comments is as wide as, and no wider than that of any other subject". The Preamble of the Indian Constitution ensures to all its citizens the liberty of expression. Freedom of the press has been included as part of freedom of speech and expression under the Article 19 of the UDHR. The heart of the Article 19 says: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers."

In Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras, Patanjali Shastri, Chief Justice observed: "Freedom of speech and of the press lay at the foundation of all democratic organisations, for without free political discussion no public education, so essential for the proper functioning of the process of popular government, is possible."

The Supreme Court observed in Union of India v. Assn. for Democratic Reforms: "Onesided information, disinformation, misinformation and non-information, all equally create an uninformed citizenry which makes democracy a farce. Freedom of speech and expression includes right to impart and receive information which includes freedom to hold opinions".

In Indian Express v. Union of India, it has been held that the press plays a very significant role in the democratic machinery. The courts have duty to uphold the freedom of press and invalidate all laws and administrative actions that abridge that freedom. Freedom of press has three essential elements. They are:
 freedom of access to all sources of information,
 freedom of publication, and
 freedom of circulation.

In India, the press has not been able to practise its freedom to express the popular views. In Sakal Papers Ltd. v. Union of India, the Daily Newspapers (Price and Page) Order, 1960, which fixed the number of pages and size which a newspaper could publish at a price was held to be violative of freedom of press and not a reasonable restriction under the Article 19(2). Similarly, in Bennett Coleman and Co. v. Union of India, the validity of the Newsprint Control Order, which fixed the maximum number of pages, was struck down by the Supreme Court of India holding it to be violative of provision of Article 19(1)(a) and not to be reasonable restriction under Article 19(2). The Court struck down the rebuttal of the Government that it would help small newspapers to grow.

In Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras (1950), entry and circulation of the English journal "Cross Road", printed and published in Bombay, was banned by the Government of Madras. The same was held to be violative of the freedom of speech and expression, as "without liberty of circulation, publication would be of little value". In Prabha Dutt v. Union of India (1982), the Supreme Court directed the Superintendent of Tihar Jail to allow representatives of a few newspapers to interview Ranga and Billa, the death sentence convicts, as they wanted to be interviewed.

There are instances when the freedom of press has been suppressed by the legislature. The authority of the government, in such circumstances, has been under the scanner of judiciary. In the case of Brij Bhushan v. State of Delhi (AIR 1950 SC 129), the validity of censorship previous to the publication of an English Weekly of Delhi, the Organiser was questioned. The court struck down the Section 7 of the East Punjab Safety Act, 1949, which directed the editor and publisher of a newspaper "to submit for scrutiny, in duplicate, before the publication, till the further orders , all communal matters all the matters and news and views about Pakistan, including photographs, and cartoons", on the ground that it was a restriction on the liberty of the press. Similarly, prohibiting newspaper from publishing its own views or views of correspondents about a topic has been held to be a serious encroachment on the freedom of speech and expression.

Restrictions

Under Indian law, the freedom of speech and of the press do not confer an absolute right to express one's thoughts freely. Clause (2) of Article 19 of the Indian constitution enables the legislature to impose certain restrictions on free speech under following heads:
 I. security of the State,
 II. friendly relations with foreign States,
 III. public order,
 IV. decency and morality,
 V. contempt of court,
 VI. defamation,
 VII. incitement to an offence, and
 VIII. sovereignty and integrity of India.

Reasonable restrictions on these grounds can be imposed only by a duly enacted law and not by executive action.

 Security of the State
Reasonable restrictions can be imposed on the freedom of speech and expression, in the interest of the security of the State. All the utterances intended to endanger the security of the State by crimes of violence intended to overthrow the government, waging of war and rebellion against the government, external aggression or war, etc., may be restrained in the interest of the security of the State. It does not refer to the ordinary breaches of public order which do not involve any danger to the State.

 Friendly relations with foreign States
This ground was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act of 1951. The State can impose reasonable restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression, if it tends to jeopardise the friendly relations of India with other States.

 Public order
This ground was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 in order to meet the situation arising from the Supreme Court's decision in Romesh Thapar's case (AIR 1950 SC 124). The expression 'public order' connotes the sense of public peace, safety and tranquillity.

In Kishori Mohan v. State of West Bengal, the Supreme Court explained the differences between three concepts: law and order, public order, security of State. Anything that disturbs public peace or public tranquillity disturbs public order. But mere criticism of the government does not necessarily disturb public order. A law punishing the utterances deliberately tending to hurt the religious feelings of any class has been held to be valid as it is a reasonable restriction aimed to maintaining the public order.

It is also necessary that there must be a reasonable nexus between the restriction imposed and the achievement of public order. In Superintendent, Central Prison v. Ram Manohar Lohiya (AIR 1960 SC 633), the Court held the Section 3 of U.P. Special Powers Act, 1932, which punished a person if he incited a single person not to pay or defer the payment of Government dues, as there was no reasonable nexus between the speech and public order. Similarly, the court upheld the validity of the provision empowering a Magistrate to issue directions to protect the public order or tranquillity.

 Decency and morality
The word 'obscenity' is identical with the word 'indecency' of the Indian Constitution. In an English case of R. v. Hicklin, the test was laid down according to which it is seen 'whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscene tend to deprave and corrupt the minds which are open to such immoral influences'. This test was upheld by the Supreme Court in Ranjit D. Udeshi v. State of Maharashtra (AIR 1965 SC 881). In this case the Court upheld the conviction of a book seller who was prosecuted under Section 292, I.P.C., for selling and keeping the book Lady Chatterley's Lover. The standard of morality varies from time to time and from place to place.

 Contempt of court
The constitutional right to freedom of speech would not allow a person to contempt the courts. The expression Contempt of Court has been defined Section 2 of the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971. The term contempt of court refers to civil contempt or criminal contempt under the Act. But judges do not have any general immunity from criticism of their judicial conduct, provided that it is made in good faith and is genuine criticism, and not any attempt to impair the administration of justice. In In re Arundhati Roy ((2002) 3 SCC 343), the Supreme Court of India followed the view taken in the American Supreme Court (Frankfurter, J.) in Pennekamp v. Florida (328 US 331 : 90 L Ed 1295 (1946)) in which the United States Supreme Court observed: "If men, including judges and journalists, were angels, there would be no problem of contempt of court. Angelic judges would be undisturbed by extraneous influences and angelic journalists would not seek to influence them. The power to punish for contempt, as a means of safeguarding judges in deciding on behalf of the community as impartially as is given to the lot of men to decide, is not a privilege accorded to judges. The power to punish for contempt of court is a safeguard not for judges as persons but for the function which they exercise". In E.M.S. Namboodripad v. T.N. Nambiar ((1970) 2 SCC 325; AIR 1970 SC 2015), the Supreme Court confirmed the decision of the High Court, holding Mr. Namboodripad guilty of contempt of court. In M.R. Parashar v. Farooq Abdullah ((1984) 2 SCC 343; AIR 1984 SC 615.), contempt proceedings were initiated against the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. But the Court dismissed the petition for want of proof.

 Defamation
The clause (2) of Article 19 prevents any person from making any statement that injures the reputation of another. With the same view, defamation has been criminalised in India by inserting it into Section 499 of the I.P.C. Where defamation is concerned, in case of a criminal defamation suit as laid down in Sections 499 and Section 500 of the Indian Penal Code, the issue - in question - being the truth isn't considered a defence. Even if a person has spoken the truth, he can be prosecuted for defamation. Under the first exception to Section 499, truth will only be a defence if the statement was made 'for the public good.' And that, is a question of fact to be assessed by the judiciary. The erstwhile Economic & Political Weekly (EPW) Editor Paranjoy Guha Thakurta's resignation following a legal notice by the lawyers for Adani Power Limited (APL) to the owners – the trustees of Sameeksha Trust, which owns and runs the Journal, Editor and authors of an article later withdrawn for "failing to meet editorial standards," brought the reach of IPC's Section 499 back into limelight.

 Incitement to an offense
This ground was also added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. The Constitution also prohibits a person from making any statement that incites people to commit offense.

 Sovereignty and integrity of India
This ground was also added subsequently by the Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963. This is aimed to prohibit anyone from making statements that challenge the integrity and sovereignty of India.

Freedom of the press

The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press", provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression" (Article 19(1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions under sub clause, whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt, court, defamation, or incitement to an offense". Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act
(PoTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under PoTA, person could be detained for up to six months for being in contact with a terrorist or terrorist group. PoTA was repealed in 2006, but the Official Secrets Act 1923 continues.

For the first half-century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom.
Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ..."
With the liberalization starting in the 1990s, private control of media has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government.

It ranks poorly at 138th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Analytically India's press freedom, as could be deduced by the Press Freedom Index, has constantly reduced since 2002, when it culminated in terms of apparent freedom, achieving a rank of 80 among the reported countries. In 2018, India's freedom of press ranking declined two placed to 138. In explaining the decline, RWB cited growing intolerance from Hindu nationalist supporters of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and the murders of journalists such as Gauri Lankesh.

In August 2022, more than 100 international writers and artists expressed concern over the attacks on freedom of expression in India. These writers joined the writers' organisations - PEN America and PEN International - to sign a letter addressed to President of India Droupadi Murmu and urged her to support democratic principles.

 Practical constraints and curtailments
Hate speech laws in India are regularly abused by political organisations and other influential people. Although these cases rarely result in a conviction, it is used as a form of intimidation which leads to wide spread self-censorship by the people. Apart from hate speech laws there are many other sections in the Indian Penal Code that curtails free speech. Books about history and religion are often targeted due to their very nature of promoting historical criticism.

The vague phrase "decency or morality" used in article 19(2) of the constitution has long enabled the state to engage in wide spread moral policing of mass media and the film and entertainment industry as religious groups often object to liberal ideas and deem all progressive values as indecent.

Freedom of speech and expression, which enable an individual to participate in public activities. The phrase, "freedom of press" has not been used in Article 19, though freedom activists, as well as most scholars and industrialised jurisdictions throughout the world recognise that freedom of expression includes freedom of press. Reasonable restrictions can be imposed in the interest of public order, security of State, decency or morality.

According to the estimates of Reporters Without Borders, India ranks 138th worldwide in press freedom index ( The press freedom index for India is 43.24 for 2018). The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press", provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression" (Article 19(1) a).  However this right is subject to restrictions under subclause (2), whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence".  Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorism Act(POTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under POTA, person could be detained for up to six months before the police were required to bring charges on allegations for terrorism-related offences. POTA was repealed in 2004, but was replaced by amendments to UAPA. The Official Secrets Act 1923 remains in effect.

For the first half-century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom. Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ..." On 26 June 1975, the day after the so-called emergency was declared in violation of the natural rights of Indian citizens, the Mumbai edition of The Times of India'' in its obituary column carried an entry that read "D.E.M O'Cracy beloved husband of T.Ruth, father of L.I.Bertie, brother of Faith, Hope and Justica expired on 26 June".
With the liberalisation starting in the 1990s, private control of media has increased, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government.

Organisations like Tehelka and NDTV have been particularly influential, e.g. in bringing about the resignation of powerful Haryana minister Venod Sharma. In addition, laws like Prasar Bharati act passed in recent years contribute significantly to reducing the control of the press by the government. In recent times, the Indian government has been accused of trying to curtail this freedom through various means.

Sedition

According to the English Law, sedition embraces all the practices whether by word or writing which are calculated to disturb the tranquillity of the State and lead an ignorant person to subvert the Government. Basic criticism of the government is not seen as sedition unless the Government believes that it was calculated to undermine the respect for the government in such a way so as to make people cease to obey it. Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code defines the offence of sedition as follows: "Sedition. Whoever by words, either spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or otherwise, brings or attempts to bring into hatred or contempt, or excites or attempts to excite disaffection towards, the Government established by law in India, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, to which fine may be added, or with imprisonment which may extend to three years, to which fine may be added, or with fine". But Explanation 3 says "Comments expressing disapprobation of the administrative or other action of the Government without exciting or attempting to excite hatred, contempt or disaffection, do not constitute an offence under this section". In Kedar Nath v. State of Bihar (AIR 1962 SC 955), the court upheld the constitutional validity of the Section 124A of I.P.C and also upheld the view taken in Niharendu's case.
 National security Act. and Unlawful Activities Prevention act.
National Security Act (NSA) introduced in 1980.
Unlawful Activities Prevention Act where the conviction rate is 2% enacted in 1967.

The sedition laws have empowered the executive branch of the government to use the ambiguously defined provision as an instrument to regulate public opinion and indiscriminately wield power.

See also

 Internet censorship in India
 Politics of India

References

Further reading
 Callamard, Dr. Agnes, Freedom of Speech and Offence: Why Blasphemy Laws Are not the Appropriate Response, (18 June 2006), www.google.com (as a pdf)
 Chopra, Chandmal, and Sita Ram Goel. 1987. The Calcutta Quran Petition. New Delhi: Voice of India.
 Cohen, Henry, C.R.S. Report for Congress: Freedom of Speech and Press: Exceptions to the First Amendment, (27 August 2003), www.google.com ( as a pdf ).
 Elst, Koenraad. 2014. Negationism in India: concealing the record of Islam.
 Liang, Lawrence, Reasonable Restrictions and Unreasonable Speech, (2004), www.google.com ( as a pdf ).
 Pandey, J. N., Constitutional Law of India, 42nd ed. (2005), Central Law Agency, Allahabad.
 Singh, M. P., Constitution of India, 10th ed. (2001), Eastern Book Co., Lko.
 Arun Shourie, Ram Swarup, and Goel, Sita Ram. 1998. Freedom of expression: secular theocracy versus liberal democracy.
 Tiwari, Dr. Mahendra, Freedom of press in India: Constitutional Perspectives, (2006), www.supremecourtcases.com.
 Rajak, Brajesh, Pornography Law; XXX Must not be Tolerated, (2011) Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

Law of India

Freedom of expression in India