(953–1025) was a Japanese samurai, a companion in arms of Minamoto no Yorimitsu (also known as Raikō), one of the earliest samurai to be famed for his military exploits in a number of tales and legends.

Watanabe no Tsuna was the first person to take the surname Watanabe, and Watanabe is the fifth most common surname in Japan, with approximately 1.08 million people as of 2017.

Because Watanabe no Tsuna  is associated with the legend that he vanquished oni historically considered to be the strongest, such as Shuten-doji and Ibaraki-doji, there is a tradition that oni stay away from people named Watanabe and their houses. For this reason, some families with the surname Watanabe have not practiced the custom of throwing beans on Setsubun for generations.

Origin
Watanabe no Tsuna was a samurai of the Saga Genji branch of the Minamoto clan, and his official name was Minamoto no Tsuna. He was the son of Minamoto no Atsuru (933-953) married to a daughter of Minamoto no Mitsunaka, grandson of Minamoto no Mototsuko (891-942), great-grandson of Minamoto no Noboru (848-918), and great-great-grandson of Minamoto no Tōru (822-895), son of the Emperor Saga (786-842), the 52nd Emperor of Japan. Tsuna established the Watanabe branch of the Minamoto clan, taking the name from his stronghold at Watanabe, in Settsu Province, and in 1020 he was appointed 'Tango no kami' (Governor of Tango Province). He was the stepgrandson of the Seiwa Genji and Chinjufu-shōgun Minamoto no Mitsunaka (912-997), and was companion in arms to his step uncle Minamoto no Yorimitsu (944–1021).

In legend

Tsuna features in many of Yorimitsu's legendary adventures, and aids him in fighting many monsters, beasts and demons.

In one such tale, Tsuna accompanies Raikō to the hut of Yamamba, a man-eating hag. There they find a boy known as Kintarō, who had been brought up among animals and endowed with superhuman strength. The boy requests that Raikō allow him to become one of his retainers, and Raikō accepts,  giving the boy the name Sakata no Kintoki, often shortened to Kintoki.

Some of Watanabe no Tsuna's other comrades are Urabe no Suetake and Usui Sadamitsu. Together, the four are collectively known as the Four Guardian Kings, an allusion to the Buddhist Shitennō. Watanabe is also said to have assisted Raikō in slaying a tsuchigumo.

His most famous feat is the defeat of the oni Ibaraki-doji, the principal follower of Shuten-doji. He fought Ibaraki-doji single-handedly at the Rashomon gate at the southern end of Suzaku-oji, the central North-South street in the old capital Heian-kyō (now Kyoto). In the battle, Tsuna amputated Ibaraki-doji's arm with a tachi (Japanese long sword), nicknamed the 'Higekiri'. This sword was forged at the same time as the 'Hizamaru' used by Minamoto no Yorimitsu to repel tsuchigumo. At present, Kitano Tenmangū Shrine owns the tachi 'Onikirimaru' which has been handed down as a 'Higekiri', and  Daikaku-ji Temple, Hakone Shrine and an individual, own the tachi which has been handed down as a 'Hizamaru'. 'Higekiri and Hizamaru' have other names based on various legends. 'Higekiri' is also called 'Onikiri' ('Onikirimaru', 'Onimaru'), 'Shishinoko' or 'Tomokiri', and 'Hizamaru' is also called 'Kumokiri', 'Hoemaru' or 'Usumidori'.

Tsuna and the Ibaraki-doji

According to legend in the late 10th century of Heian Period Japan, Ibaraki-doji, a notorious Oni, resided at Rashomon Gate in Kyoto. Ibaraki-doji harassed people who tried to pass through the gate until a heroic samurai named Watanabe no Tsuna, a loyal retainer of Minamoto no Raiko, went to subdue the creature. When Tsuna arrived at Rashomon Gate he was attacked by Ibaraki-doji. However, Tsuna was a strong and valiant swordsman who was able to defend himself against the ferocious attack. The battle raged on until Tsuna drew his katana and severed the arm of the demon. Screaming in pain Ibaraki-doji ran away from Tsuna, leaving the severed arm behind. Tsuna swept up Ibaraki-doji's arm as a trophy. When he arrived home at his mansion he wrapped up the severed arm and locked it away in a chest (唐櫃).

A few days later, an elderly woman claiming to be Tsuna's aunt, Mashiba, came to visit him. During the conversation, the aunt asked her nephew to recount how he fought with the oni, and when Tsuna mentioned that he had the severed arm in his possession, his aunt was curious and asked to see it. The unsuspecting Tsuna brought out the chest with Ibaraki-doji's arm inside and when he removed the arm, his aunt revealed herself as being Ibaraki-doji in disguise. She grabbed the arm and escaped from Tsuna's mansion. Tsuna was astonished that Ibaraki-doji had posed as his elderly aunt and did not give chase. However, even after retrieving the arm, Ibaraki-doji never returned to dwell at Rashomon Gate again.

Tsuna and Hashihime

The Kibune Shrine became strongly associated with the ox hour curse following the fame of the medieval legend of the Hashihime of Uji ("The Princess of the Bridge of Uji [ja]"). The legend is considered the prime source of the later conception Ushi no toki mairi curse ritual.[15][16] According to legend, Hashihime in mortal life was the daughter of a certain nobleman, but consumed by jealousy, made a wish to become a kijin (an oni demon) capable of destroying her love rival. After 7 days at Kifune Shrine, she was finally given revelation by the resident deity "to bathe for thirty seven days in the rapids of the Uji River."[17] Note that even though Kibune has later been seen as a mecca for the ritual, Hashihime only learned the recipe here, and enacted it miles away (Kifune is in the north of Kyoto, the Uji River is to the south).

The earliest written text of the legend occurs in a late Kamakura-period variant text (Yashirobon codex[18]) of The Tale of Heike, under the Tsurugi no maki ("Book of the Sword") chapter.[19] According to it, Hashihime was originally a mortal during the reign of Emperor Saga (809 to 823),[17] but after turning demon and killing her rival, her man's kinsmen, then indiscriminately other innocent parties, she lived on beyond the normal human life span, to prey on the samurai Watanabe no Tsuna at the Ichijo Modoribashi (一条戻橋) "Turning Back bridge at the street crossing of Ichijō and Horikawa" bridge, only to have her arm severed by the sword Higekiri (髭切).[19] Tsuna kept the demon's arm, whose power was contained by the Yinyang master (陰陽師, onmyōji) Abe no Seimei, via chanting the Ninnō-kyō sutra.

Tsuna's Meitō, the Oni Slayer
Watanabe-no-Tsuna was armed with one of the most famous swords in early samurai History, a Tachi called Sun-Nashi (Missing Sun) of a length of 2 shaku & 7 sun (roughly 81,8 cm), forged by the great Munechika, with the help of Hachiman Daimyōjin, or so the legend says. One of the two earliest recorded swords used to perform Tameshigiri, it has changed nicknames and owners multiple times.

Among the nicknames of this sword were : Sun-Nashi, Tomokiri, Higekiri, Onikiri, Shishi no ko and Tomokiri (again).

Tomokiri (the Friend Slayer, or Equal Cutter), for having cut, by its own will, through the steel of another sword of great quality, Hizamaru, who had been made at the request of the Emperor of Japan, by a smith rival of Sun-Nashi's maker. Higekiri (beard cutter) was earned when the blade beheaded a criminal, the earliest Tameshigiri recorded, attempted in the hands of Minamoto no Mitsunaka (Raiko's father)... the victim had a long beard, who was cut smoothly along the neck. Onikiri (Oni Slayer), come from the incident of Ibaraki Dōji's severed arm. Shishi no ko (lion's cub) came from a legend where it made noise like a roaring lion at night, as if possessed by some Yōkai. And Tomokiri (again), after having by its own will (again), cut through a copy of its blade and shortened it in order to make it the same size. A similar story exist for Onimaru Kunitsuna, one of the Tenka Goken.

Heirloom of the Seiwa Genji bloodline of the Minamoto Clan, treasured and used in combat by famous heroes, such as Raiko, Tsuna, Minamoto no Yoshiie and his grandson Tameyoshi. It was Raiko who gave Higekiri to Watanabe-no-Tsuna, trusted friend and general. Latter it was inherited by Raiko's nephew and passed on in the Seiwa Genji family.

Onikiri is to be displayed at the Edo Tokyo Museum from November 23, 2016 to January 29, 2017.

In popular culture
The 1985 historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari by folklore researcher Hiroshi Aramata features a climactic scene which is a direct homage to Watanabe no Tsuna's encounter at Modoribashi bridge.  In the story, Meiji era writer Koda Rohan makes a dash to stop the oni Yasunori Kato from flying away with an innocent young maiden.  He grabs Kato by the legs, but is lifted up into the air with him.  Desperate to free himself, Rohan slashes at Kato with his short sword and drops to the ground holding Kato's severed arm.  In the first film adaptation of the novel, there is a scene at the beginning where an artist at a local festival is describing the story of Watanabe no Tsuna to an audience, foreshadowing Koda's encounter with Kato.  Also in the corresponding scene of this adaptation, before Kato disappears into the air, his face turns into a demonic countenance revealing his true nature.
Watanabe no Tsuna, is a character in the anime Otogi Zoshi. Minor historical error, Tsuna's sword his already nicknamed Onikiri way before his encounter with Ibaraki Dōji.
 He is a character in the anime Kai Doh Maru, where he fights the albino warrior Ibaragi, a lieutenant of the sorcerer known as Shuten Doji. In their first fight he cuts off Ibaragi's right arm; in the second, Ibaragi – who shouts he's come to take back his arm – cuts off Tsuna's right arm and would have beheaded him had he not been mortally shot by Minamoto no Raiko; he has life enough left to detonate himself before dying, killing Tsuna in the process.
Watanabe, along with Raikō, Usui Sadamitsu, Sakata no Kintoki, Urabe no Suetake, Abe no Seimei, and several other well known figures in Japanese history, is featured in the Xbox video game, Otogi 2: Immortal Warriors. In the game, he has a wolf-like appearance and wields a dual-sided curved sword.
The main character of Ogre Slayer, a manga by Kei Kusunoki, is believed to be Watanabe no Tsuna.
He is a summonable character in the popular mobile game, Fate/Grand Order as a Saber Class Servant.
He appears in the video game Nioh 2 as a close friend to Raiko.
He appears in the 2021 yokai film The Great Yokai War: Guardians as the ancestor of the main human protagonist, Kei Watanabe.

In netsuke

Exciting myth about Watanabe no Tsuna was perpetuated not only in written works, but in art and sculpture. The image of Watanabe no Tsuna taking his sword to beat demon's attack off became iconographical.

There is the netsuke, made of famous carver of the 19th century Otoman – Watanabe no Tsuna and Demon of Rashomon. This work is based on a little-known legend about the struggle of the famous samurai with a demon that turned into a young girl.

One day the chief sent samurai Watanabe no Tsuna to a village with a task. Upon fulfilling the task, Tsuna decided to return to the city as soon as possible. It was already getting dark when he approached the bridge and saw a pretty girl who asked the gallant samurai to take her home at such a late hour. He put the girl on his back and was about to move on. Suddenly the girl became a terrible devil, who grabbed Tsuna's hair and whispered: 'My house is located on Mount Atago'. The Samurai did not lose his courage, he quickly drew his sword and cut off the devil's paw. The monster disappeared in the darkness, wailing. Tsuna picked up the trophy, but lost it on his way back home.

The carver skillfully reflected this subject in presented netsuke. The sudden devil's attack did not take the brave warrior unexpected. With his one hand he is firmly holding the devil's wrist, and with the other hand he is pulling his sword from its sheath. The temptress's face and body has changed beyond recognition, and only flirtatious gesture-holding to the edge of the cloak-speaks about its feminine essence.

The presented work is really unique. This is the only netsuke in the world that has master's signature with kakihan. The story of this figure's appearance at antique market is very interesting. In 1983 German collector Klauss Reiss purchased this netsuke as okimono for 2500 Deutsche Marks in antique saloon of Munich. The seller said that he exchanged this okimono for bronze Japanese statues. Coming home Klauss Reiss unexpectedly discovered that support of the purchased okimono could be separated from the figure. After tearing it off the collector discovered himotoshi and Otomon's signature!

When another collector Barry Davis saw this netsuke he proposed Klauss a good sum of money. The sum of the deal is not disclosed. Later the figure changed its owners several times before it got to the Ukrainian collector Borys Filatov. As of 2009 this work is the most expensive netsuke at world antique market.

Notes

References

External links

Legend and History of Shutendoji
International Netsuke Society, official website
Boris Filatov's Private Collection of Netsuke

953 births
1025 deaths
Samurai
People from Kyoto
Minamoto clan
Deified Japanese people

Watanabe no Tsuna


Cambridge Judge Business School is the business school of the University of Cambridge. The School is a provider of management education. It is named after Sir Paul Judge, a founding benefactor of the school.

The School is considered to be particularly strong in entrepreneurship and innovation management, thanks to its embeddedness in the high tech cluster called the Silicon Fen, with its own accelerator and close ties with Cambridge Enterprise, the university's technology transfer office.

The School is situated on the site of the Old Addenbrooke's Site on Trumpington Street, near the Fitzwilliam Museum.

Administration and governance

The School is a department of the university's School of Technology administrative group.

History

Founding and early years
The School was established in 1990 as the Judge Institute for Management Studies. In 1991, donations from Sir Paul and Lady Judge, together with the Monument Trust, provided the funds for the construction of a building for the newly formed business school. Architect John Outram was appointed to the project, which was completed in August 1995 and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II.

Prior to the founding of the business school, management studies had been taught at the university since 1954.

Name changes
In September 2005, the Judge Institute of Management Studies was renamed as the Judge Business School. It then adopted the title Cambridge Judge Business School during 2010, and revised its logo to read "University of Cambridge Judge Business School" rather than "Cambridge Judge Business School" in November 2010.

Benefactor Sir Paul Judge died in 2017.

Architecture
John Outram converted the listed ward blocks and arcades of the old hospital building, and rebuilt the central block into a space that now contains a library, common room, seminar and teaching rooms, floating staircases and balconies, break-out boxes and the main hall. He also added three new buildings:
 The Ark, containing rooms for faculty, research graduates, and administrative staff.
 The Castle, containing two key lecture theatres and MBA teaching spaces and room.
 The Gallery, an 80 feet (24.5m) high space containing seminar rooms, multi-level circulation routes, and part of the hall.

Programmes

PhD and Research Masters
CJBS provides Ph.D. and advanced master's degrees, such as an MPhil in Innovation Strategy and Organisation and an MPhil Strategy, Marketing and Operations. These courses have the highest entry requirements within the Judge Business School with the lowest acceptance rates of less than 10%. All students on the research programs have received either first class honours or a 4.0 GPA for their undergraduate studies.

Business Doctorate
The Business Doctorate (BusD) is a four-year full-time research-based doctorate for senior business leaders with at least 20 years of professional experience. To date, only five persons have enrolled or graduated from the program, including Lord Karan Bilimoria. The degree costs £230,000 in tuition in its entirety, making it one of the most expensive degree programs in the world.

MBA
The full-time Cambridge MBA is the flagship MBA programme of the university. , there are 210 students attending the 12-month programme, of which 96% come from outside of the UK, and 47% of students are women. Admissions standards are high, with an average Graduate Management Admission Test score of 680. The average age of students on the full-time MBA is 29 and generally students come with extensive work experience. MBA students from Cambridge Judge Business School and Oxford's Saïd Business School maintain a friendly rivalry and have numerous opportunities throughout the year to meet for athletic events and business conferences.

Master of Accounting
The Cambridge Master of Accounting is a part-time, two-year degree programme in accounting and related fields. The curriculum is designed to help students learn to make complex decisions in the face of ambiguity relying on knowledge of accounting standards, judgment, and discretion; formulate questions, gather data, apply statistical techniques, and persuasively communicate inferences; and to anticipate and incorporate innovation.

The programme is oriented towards leadership and change management, not technical professional certification. Core courses include data and descriptive analytics, policy discussion regarding audit practice, financial reporting, and sustainability reporting, and courses in change management and interpersonal dynamics. The Cambridge MAcc is designed to accelerate students for leadership roles within current employment or help students transition to roles such as accounting firm partnership, CFO, Controller, financial leadership, market regulator, climate-related or social-related disclosure, and finance or accounting public policy.

Master of Studies in Entrepreneurship
The MSt in Entrepreneurship is an academic programme focussed on developing impactful entrepreneurs.

Executive MBA
The School also offers the "Cambridge Executive MBA" for those who have already reached a senior level in their organisations or professions, and are seeking to study part-time while maintaining their current role. As of 2017, the average age of students is 38, with around 14 years of working experience, who from a wide range of professional backgrounds.

Master of Finance
The Master of Finance is a one-year specialist finance course designed for people with at least two years' experience in the finance and banking world who wish to accelerate their career in finance. The course is designed to give students a rigorous grounding in the theory and practice of finance. It combines a set of core courses that provide the theoretical and statistical foundations for a range of electives that cover the main areas of applied finance. There are three compulsory projects and one optional one, which help students to integrate theory and practice.

MPhil Management
The Master in Management is a one-year full-time, pre-experience postgraduate programme designed for students who have not previously studied business or management and who wish to pursue a professional career in business. This programme aims to admit and educate outstanding students, both academically and in terms of personality and maturity, who are likely to become leaders in their chosen fields. The core of the MPhil in Management covers quantitative methods, accounting, organisational behaviour and analysis and marketing (foundation); business economics, finance and strategy (consolidation), operations management and the Management Consulting Project (implementation). This is complemented by a range of electives aligned to potential careers in management.

MPhil Finance
The MPhil Finance is a one-year postgraduate course in finance designed for people with no prior work experience. The programme combines advanced study and research and is especially suitable for students intending to continue to a Ph.D. although the majority of graduates decides to work in the financial industry. Based on the number of applications, the MPhil Finance programme is the most competitive degree offered by the whole of the University of Cambridge; applicants need the equivalent to a first class degree to even be considered. Students on the MPhil Finance programme can choose from a variety of modules offered by the business school, the Faculty of Economics and the Maths Faculty.

MPhil Technology Policy

The MPhil in Technology Policy is an intensive, nine-month masters programme designed for people with a background in science or engineering who are interested in developing the skills needed to meet the challenges of: integrating technology, management, economics and policy.

MSt Social Innovation

The Master of Studies in Social Innovation is a part-time postgraduate programme for practitioners in the business, public and social sectors.

Executive Education open and custom programmes

The Executive Education portfolio consists of over 20 open enrollment programmes, typically two-day to three-week programmes covering fundamental business management topics such as: finance, marketing, general management and strategy. These programmes are taught by Cambridge Judge Business School faculty and academic staff from the wider University of Cambridge community.

Cambridge Judge Business School also offers custom programmes which are tailored to the specific learning and development requirements of an organisation. Programmes are delivered internationally in areas such as leadership, strategy and finance.

Other
 Professional Practice Masters and Diplomas
 Programmes for members of the University of Cambridge
 The Digital Business Academy
 DisruptEd Venture Creation Weekend: An annual intensive mentoring weekend to encourage and support new edtech start-ups.
 The Judge Business School collaborates with the Cambridge Centre for Development Studies for the MPhil in Development Studies.

Research centres

 Alternative Finance
 Business Research
 Chinese Management
 Circular Economy
 Endowment Asset Management
 Experimental & Behavioural Economics
 Finance
 Financial Reporting & Accountability
 Health & Leadership Enterprise
 India & Global Business
 International Human Resource Management
 Process Excellence & Innovation
 Psychometrics
 Risk Studies
 Social Innovation
 Wo+Men's Leadership Centre

Research Excellence Framework
In the most recent Research Excellence Framework conducted in 2021, the Judge Business School was ranked the number one research department in the UK for business and management studies.

Directors of the School (Deans)
 Prof Stephen Watson, 1990 to 1994
 Dame Sandra Dawson, 1995 to 2006
 Prof Arnoud De Meyer, 2006 to August 2010
 Prof Geoff Meeks, acting director, September 2010 to August 2011
 Prof Christoph Loch, 2011 to 2021
 Prof Mauro Guillen September 2021 to June 2023
 Prof Gishan Dissanaike Interim Dean, July 2023 onwards

Notable alumni
 Diezani Alison-Madueke, politician and former President of OPEC
 Ben Barry, author and entrepreneur
 Semaan Bassil, Chairman & General Manager of Byblos Bank S.A.L.
 Alison Brittain, CEO of Whitbread, Former head of Lloyds Banking Group
 Badr Jafar, CEO of Crescent Enterprises
 Maggie O'Carroll, co-founder of The Women's Organisation
 Ollie Phillips (rugby union), former Captain of England Sevens and '7s World Rugby Player of the Year'
 Tom Ransley, British rower and Olympic gold medalist
 Eben Upton, co-founder of the Raspberry Pi Foundation
 Zhang Zetian, chief fashion adviser at JD.com

Notable faculty
 Dame Sandra Dawson (academic), KPMG Professor of Management Studies from 1995 to 2013, and Director of the School from 1995 to 2006, Fellow of Sidney Sussex
 Prof Christoph Loch, Professor of Management Studies and Former Director of the School (2011 to 2021), Fellow of Pembroke College
 Prof Gishan Dissanaike, Adam Smith Professor of Corporate Governance, Fellow of Hughes Hall
 Prof Mark de Rond, Professor of Organisational Ethnography, Fellow of Darwin College
 Prof Sucheta Nadkarni, until October 2019, Sinyi Professor of Chinese Management, Fellow of Newnham College
 Prof Jaideep Prabhu, Nehru Professor of Indian Enterprise, Fellow of Clare College
Prof Christopher Marquis, Sinyi Professor of Chinese Management, Fellow of Jesus College

References

Business schools in England
Cambridge Judge Business School
Business School, Judge
1990 establishments in England

Cambridge Judge Business School


DeepMind Technologies Limited, doing business as Google DeepMind, is a British-American artificial intelligence research laboratory which serves as a subsidiary of Google. Founded in the UK in 2010, it was acquired by Google in 2014, The company is based in London, with research centres in Canada, France, Germany and the United States.

Google DeepMind has created neural network models that learn how to play video games in a fashion similar to that of humans, as well as Neural Turing machines (neural networks that can access external memory like a conventional Turing machine),, resulting in a computer that loosely resembles short-term memory in the human brain.

DeepMind made headlines in 2016 after its AlphaGo program beat a human professional Go player Lee Sedol, a world champion, in a five-game match, which was the subject of a documentary film. A more general program, AlphaZero, beat the most powerful programs playing go, chess and shogi (Japanese chess) after a few days of play against itself using reinforcement learning. In 2020, DeepMind made significant advances in the problem of protein folding with AlphaFold. In July 2022, it was announced that over 200 million predicted protein structures, representing virtually all known proteins, would be released on the AlphaFold database.

DeepMind posted a blog post on 28 April 2022 on a single visual language model (VLM) named Flamingo that can accurately describe a picture of something with just a few training images. In July 2022, DeepMind announced the development of DeepNash, a model-free multi-agent reinforcement learning system capable of playing the board game Stratego at the level of a human expert. The company merged with Google AI's Google Brain division to become Google DeepMind in April 2023.

History

The start-up was founded by Demis Hassabis, Shane Legg and Mustafa Suleyman in September 2010. Hassabis and Legg first met at the Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit at University College London (UCL).

Demis Hassabis has said that the start-up began working on artificial intelligence technology by teaching it how to play old games from the seventies and eighties, which are relatively primitive compared to the ones that are available today. Some of those games included Breakout, Pong and Space Invaders.  AI was introduced to one game at a time, without any prior knowledge of its rules. After spending some time on learning the game, AI would eventually become an expert in it. "The cognitive processes which the AI goes through are said to be very like those of a human who had never seen the game would use to understand and attempt to master it." The goal of the founders is to create a general-purpose AI that can be useful and effective for almost anything.

Major venture capital firms Horizons Ventures and Founders Fund invested in the company, as well as entrepreneurs Scott Banister, Peter Thiel, and Elon Musk. Jaan Tallinn was an early investor and an adviser to the company. On January 26, 2014, Google confirmed its acquisition of DeepMind for a price reportedly ranging between $400 million and $650 million. and that it had agreed to take over DeepMind Technologies. The sale to Google took place after Facebook reportedly ended negotiations with DeepMind Technologies in 2013. The company was afterwards renamed Google DeepMind and kept that name for about two years.

In 2014, DeepMind received the "Company of the Year" award from Cambridge Computer Laboratory.

In September 2015, DeepMind and the Royal Free NHS Trust signed their initial Information Sharing Agreement (ISA) to co-develop a clinical task management app, Streams.

After Google's acquisition the company established an artificial intelligence ethics board. The ethics board for AI research remains a mystery, with both Google and DeepMind declining to reveal who sits on the board. DeepMind has opened a new unit called DeepMind Ethics and Society and focused on the ethical and societal questions raised by artificial intelligence featuring prominent philosopher Nick Bostrom as advisor. In October 2017, DeepMind launched a new research team to investigate AI ethics.

In December 2019, co-founder Suleyman announced he would be leaving DeepMind to join Google, working in a policy role.

In April 2023, DeepMind merged with Google AI's Google Brain division to form Google DeepMind, as part of the company's continued efforts to accelerate work on AI in response to OpenAI's ChatGPT. This marked the end of a years-long struggle from DeepMind executives to secure greater autonomy from Google.

Products and technologies

According to the company's website, DeepMind Technologies' goal is to combine "the best techniques from machine learning and systems neuroscience to build powerful general-purpose learning algorithms".

Google Research released a paper in 2016 regarding AI safety and avoiding undesirable behaviour during the AI learning process. Deepmind has also released several publications via its website. In 2017 DeepMind released GridWorld, an open-source testbed for evaluating whether an algorithm learns to disable its kill switch or otherwise exhibits certain undesirable behaviours.

In July 2018, researchers from DeepMind trained one of its systems to play the computer game Quake III Arena.

As of 2020, DeepMind has published over a thousand papers, including thirteen papers that were accepted by Nature or Science. DeepMind received media attention during the AlphaGo period; according to a LexisNexis search, 1842 published news stories mentioned DeepMind in 2016, declining to 1363 in 2019.

Deep reinforcement learning
As opposed to other AIs, such as IBM's Deep Blue or Watson, which were developed for a pre-defined purpose and only function within that scope, DeepMind claims that its system is not pre-programmed: it learns from experience, using only raw pixels as data input. Technically it uses deep learning on a convolutional neural network, with a novel form of Q-learning, a form of model-free reinforcement learning.  They test the system on video games, notably early arcade games, such as Space Invaders or Breakout. Without altering the code, the AI begins to understand how to play the game, and after some time plays, for a few games (most notably Breakout), a more efficient game than any human ever could.

In 2013, DeepMind published research on an AI system that could surpass human abilities in games such as Pong, Breakout and Enduro, while surpassing state of the art performance on Seaquest, Beamrider, and Q*bert. This work reportedly led to the company's acquisition by Google. DeepMind's AI had been applied to video games made in the 1970s and 1980s; work was ongoing for more complex 3D games such as Quake, which first appeared in the 1990s.

In 2020, DeepMind published Agent57, an AI Agent which surpasses human level performance on all 57 games of the Atari2600 suite.

AlphaGo and successors

In 2014, the company published research on computer systems that are able to play Go.

In October 2015, a computer Go program called AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, beat the European Go champion Fan Hui, a 2 dan (out of 9 dan possible) professional, five to zero. This was the first time an artificial intelligence (AI) defeated a professional Go player. Previously, computers were only known to have played Go at "amateur" level. Go is considered much more difficult for computers to win compared to other games like chess, due to the much larger number of possibilities, making it prohibitively difficult for traditional AI methods such as brute-force.

In March 2016 it beat Lee Sedol—a 9th dan Go player and one of the highest ranked players in the world—with a score of 4–1 in a five-game match.

In the 2017 Future of Go Summit, AlphaGo won a three-game match with Ke Jie, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. It used a supervised learning protocol, studying large numbers of games played by humans against each other.

In 2017, an improved version, AlphaGo Zero, defeated AlphaGo 100 games to 0. AlphaGo Zero's strategies were self-taught. AlphaGo Zero was able to beat its predecessor after just three days with less processing power than AlphaGo; in comparison, the original AlphaGo needed months to learn how to play.

Later that year, AlphaZero, a modified version of AlphaGo Zero but for handling any two-player game of perfect information, gained superhuman abilities at chess and shogi. Like AlphaGo Zero, AlphaZero learned solely through self-play.

DeepMind researchers published a new model named MuZero that mastered the domains of Go, chess, shogi, and Atari 2600 games without human data, domain knowledge, or known rules.

Researchers applied MuZero to solve the real world challenge of video compression with a set number of bits with respect to Internet traffic on sites such as YouTube, Twitch, and Google Meet. The goal of MuZero is to optimally compress the video so the quality of the video is maintained with a reduction in data. The final result using MuZero was a 6.28% average reduction in bitrate.

In October 2022, DeepMind unveiled a new version of AlphaZero, called AlphaTensor, in a paper published in Nature. The version discovered a faster way to perform matrix multiplicationone of the most fundamental tasks in computingusing reinforcement learning. For example, AlphaTensor figured out how to multiply two mod-2 4x4 matrices in only 47 multiplications, unexpectedly beating the 1969 Strassen algorithm record of 49 multiplications.

Technology
AlphaGo technology was developed based on the deep reinforcement learning approach. This makes AlphaGo different from the rest of AI technologies on the market. With that said, AlphaGo's 'brain' was introduced to various moves based on historical tournament data. The number of moves was increased gradually until it eventually processed over 30 million of them. The aim was to have the system mimic the human player and eventually become better. It played against itself and learned not only from its own defeats but wins as well; thus, it learned to improve itself over the time and increased its winning rate as a result.

AlphaGo used two deep neural networks: a policy network to evaluate move probabilities and a value network to assess positions. The policy network trained via supervised learning, and was subsequently refined by policy-gradient reinforcement learning. The value network learned to predict winners of games played by the policy network against itself. After training, these networks employed a lookahead Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS), using the policy network to identify candidate high-probability moves, while the value network (in conjunction with Monte Carlo rollouts using a fast rollout policy) evaluated tree positions.

AlphaGo Zero was trained using reinforcement learning in which the system played millions of games against itself. Its only guide was to increase its win rate. It did so without learning from games played by humans. Its only input features are the black and white stones from the board. It uses a single neural network, rather than separate policy and value networks. Its simplified tree search relies upon this neural network to evaluate positions and sample moves. A new reinforcement learning algorithm incorporates lookahead search inside the training loop. AlphaGo Zero employed around 15 people and millions in computing resources. Ultimately, it needed much less computing power than AlphaGo, running on four specialized AI processors (Google TPUs), instead of AlphaGo's 48.

AlphaFold

In 2016, DeepMind turned its artificial intelligence to protein folding, a long-standing problem in molecular biology. In December 2018, DeepMind's AlphaFold won the 13th Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) by successfully predicting the most accurate structure for 25 out of 43 proteins. "This is a lighthouse project, our first major investment in terms of people and resources into a fundamental, very important, real-world scientific problem," Hassabis said to The Guardian. In 2020, in the 14th CASP, AlphaFold's predictions achieved an accuracy score regarded as comparable with lab techniques. Dr Andriy Kryshtafovych, one of the panel of scientific adjudicators, described the achievement as "truly remarkable", and said the problem of predicting how proteins fold had been "largely solved".

In July 2021, the open-source RoseTTAFold and AlphaFold2 were released to allow scientists to run their own versions of the tools. A week later DeepMind announced that AlphaFold had completed its prediction of nearly all human proteins as well as the entire proteomes of 20 other widely studied organisms. The structures were released on the AlphaFold Protein Structure Database. In July 2022, it was announced that the predictions of over 200 million proteins, representing virtually all known proteins, would be released on the AlphaFold database.

WaveNet and WaveRNN

In 2016, DeepMind introduced WaveNet, a text-to-speech system. It was originally too computationally intensive for use in consumer products, but in late 2017 it became ready for use in consumer applications such as Google Assistant. In 2018 Google launched a commercial text-to-speech product, Cloud Text-to-Speech, based on WaveNet.

In 2018, DeepMind introduced a more efficient model called WaveRNN co-developed with Google AI. In 2020 WaveNetEQ, a packet loss concealment method based on a WaveRNN architecture, was presented.  In 2019, Google started to roll WaveRNN with WavenetEQ out to Google Duo users.

AlphaStar

In 2016, Hassabis discussed the game StarCraft as a future challenge, since it requires strategic thinking and handling imperfect information.

In January 2019, DeepMind introduced AlphaStar, a program playing the real-time strategy game StarCraft II. AlphaStar used reinforcement learning based on replays from human players, and then played against itself to enhance its skills. At the time of the presentation, AlphaStar had knowledge equivalent to 200 years of playing time. It won 10 consecutive matches against two professional players, although it had the unfair advantage of being able to see the entire field, unlike a human player who has to move the camera manually. A preliminary version in which that advantage was fixed lost a subsequent match.

In July 2019, AlphaStar began playing against random humans on the public 1v1 European multiplayer ladder. Unlike the first iteration of AlphaStar, which played only Protoss v. Protoss, this one played as all of the game's races, and had earlier unfair advantages fixed. By October 2019, AlphaStar had reached Grandmaster level on the StarCraft II ladder on all three StarCraft races, becoming the first AI to reach the top league of a widely popular esport without any game restrictions.

AlphaCode
In 2022, DeepMind unveiled AlphaCode, an AI-powered coding engine that creates computer programs at a rate comparable to that of an average programmer, with the company testing the system against coding challenges created by Codeforces utilized in human competitive programming competitions. AlphaCode earned a rank equivalent to 54% of the median score on Codeforces after being trained on GitHub data and Codeforce problems and solutions. The program was required to come up with a unique solution and stopped from duplicating answers.

Gato

Gato is a "generalist agent" that learns multiple tasks simultaneously.

RoboCat

Miscellaneous contributions to Google
Google has stated that DeepMind algorithms have greatly increased the efficiency of cooling its data centers. In addition, DeepMind (alongside other Alphabet AI researchers) assists Google Play's personalized app recommendations. DeepMind has also collaborated with the Android team at Google for the creation of two new features which were made available to people with devices running Android Pie, the ninth installment of Google's mobile operating system. These features, Adaptive Battery and Adaptive Brightness, use machine learning to conserve energy and make devices running the operating system easier to use. It is the first time DeepMind has used these techniques on such a small scale, with typical machine learning applications requiring orders of magnitude more computing power.

Sports
DeepMind researchers have applied machine learning models to the sport of football, often referred to as soccer in North America, modelling the behaviour of football players, including the goalkeeper, defenders, and strikers during different scenarios such as penalty kicks. The researchers used heat maps and cluster analysis to organize players based on their tendency to behave a certain way during the game when confronted with a decision on how to score or prevent the other team from scoring.

The researchers mention that machine learning models could be used to democratize the football industry by automatically selecting interesting video clips of the game that serve as highlights. This can be done by searching videos for certain events, which is possible because video analysis is an established field of machine learning. This is also possible because of extensive sports analytics based on data including annotated passes or shots, sensors that capture data about the players movements many times over the course of a game, and game theory models.

Archaeology
Google has unveiled a new archaeology document program named Ithaca after the home island of mythical hero Odysseus. The deep neural network helps researchers restore the empty text of damaged documents, identify the place they originated from, and give them a definite accurate date. The work builds on another text analysis network named Pythia. Ithaca achieves 62% accuracy in restoring damaged texts and 71% location accuracy, and has a dating precision of 30 years. The tool has already been used by historians and ancient Greek archaeologists to make new discoveries in ancient Greek history. The team is working on extending the model to other ancient languages, including Demotic, Akkadian, Hebrew, and Mayan.

Sparrow
Sparrow is an artificial intelligence-powered chatbot developed by DeepMind to build safer machine learning systems by using a mix of human feedback and Google search suggestions.

Chinchilla AI
Chinchilla AI is a language model developed by DeepMind.

DeepMind Health
In July 2016, a collaboration between DeepMind and Moorfields Eye Hospital was announced to develop AI applications for healthcare. DeepMind would be applied to the analysis of anonymised eye scans, searching for early signs of diseases leading to blindness.

In August 2016, a research programme with University College London Hospital was announced with the aim of developing an algorithm that can automatically differentiate between healthy and cancerous tissues in head and neck areas.

There are also projects with the Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust and Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust to develop new clinical mobile apps linked to electronic patient records.  Staff at the Royal Free Hospital were reported as saying in December 2017 that access to patient data through the app had saved a 'huge amount of time' and made a 'phenomenal' difference to the management of patients with acute kidney injury.  Test result data is sent to staff's mobile phones and alerts them to changes in the patient's condition.  It also enables staff to see if someone else has responded, and to show patients their results in visual form.

In November 2017, DeepMind announced a research partnership with the Cancer Research UK Centre at Imperial College London with the goal of improving breast cancer detection by applying machine learning to mammography. Additionally, in February 2018, DeepMind announced it was working with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs in an attempt to use machine learning to predict the onset of acute kidney injury in patients, and also more broadly the general deterioration of patients during a hospital stay so that doctors and nurses can more quickly treat patients in need.

DeepMind developed an app called Streams, which sends alerts to doctors about patients at risk of acute kidney injury. On 13 November 2018, DeepMind announced that its health division and the Streams app would be absorbed into Google Health. Privacy advocates said the announcement betrayed patient trust and appeared to contradict previous statements by DeepMind that patient data would not be connected to Google accounts or services. A spokesman for DeepMind said that patient data would still be kept separate from Google services or projects.

NHS data-sharing controversy
In April 2016, New Scientist obtained a copy of a data sharing agreement between DeepMind and the Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust.  The latter operates three London hospitals where an estimated 1.6 million patients are treated annually. The agreement shows DeepMind Health had access to admissions, discharge and transfer data, accident and emergency, pathology and radiology, and critical care at these hospitals. This included personal details such as whether patients had been diagnosed with HIV, suffered from depression or had ever undergone an abortion in order to conduct research to seek better outcomes in various health conditions.

A complaint was filed to the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO), arguing that the data should be pseudonymised and encrypted. In May 2016, New Scientist published a further article claiming that the project had failed to secure approval from the Confidentiality Advisory Group of the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.

In 2017, the ICO concluded a year-long investigation that focused on how the Royal Free NHS Foundation Trust tested the app, Streams, in late 2015 and 2016. The ICO found that the Royal Free failed to comply with the Data Protection Act when it provided patient details to DeepMind, and found several shortcomings in how the data was handled, including that patients were not adequately informed that their data would be used as part of the test. DeepMind published its thoughts on the investigation in July 2017, saying "we need to do better" and highlighting several activities and initiatives they had initiated for transparency, oversight and engagement. This included developing a patient and public involvement strategy and being transparent in its partnerships.

In May 2017, Sky News published a leaked letter from the National Data Guardian, Dame Fiona Caldicott, revealing that in her "considered opinion" the data-sharing agreement between DeepMind and the Royal Free took place on an "inappropriate legal basis". The Information Commissioner's Office ruled in July 2017 that the Royal Free hospital failed to comply with the Data Protection Act when it handed over personal data of 1.6 million patients to DeepMind.

DeepMind Ethics and Society
In October 2017, DeepMind  announced a new research unit, DeepMind Ethics & Society. Their goal is to fund external research of the following themes: privacy, transparency, and fairness; economic impacts; governance and accountability; managing AI risk; AI morality and values; and how AI can address the world's challenges. As a result, the team hopes to further understand the ethical implications of AI and aid society to seeing AI can be beneficial.

This new subdivision of DeepMind is a completely separate unit from the partnership of leading companies using AI, academia, civil society organizations and nonprofits of the name Partnership on Artificial Intelligence to Benefit People and Society of which DeepMind is also a part. The DeepMind Ethics and Society board is also distinct from the mooted AI Ethics Board that Google originally agreed to form when acquiring DeepMind.

DeepMind Professors of machine learning
DeepMind sponsors three chairs of machine learning:

 At the University of Cambridge, held by Neil Lawrence, in the Department of Computer Science and Technology,
 At the University of Oxford, held by Michael Bronstein, in the Department of Computer Science, and
 At the University College London, held by Marc Deisenroth, in the Department of Computer Science.

See also
 Anthropic
 Cohere
 Glossary of artificial intelligence
 OpenAI

References

External links

 GitHub Repositories

2010 establishments in England
Artificial intelligence laboratories
British companies established in 2010
Deep learning
Game artificial intelligence
Google acquisitions
Applied machine learning
Alphabet Inc.
Alphabet Inc. subsidiaries
2014 mergers and acquisitions

Google DeepMind


Chișinău is the capital of Moldova. This article gives an overview of street names in the city that refer to famous persons, cities or historic events.

A large number of streets have been named after persons that played an important role in Moldovan history:
 Vasile Alecsandri, Romanian writer
 Nicolae Anestiade
 Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni, metropolitan of Romanian orthodox church
 Alexandru cel Bun, Moldavian voivode between 1400 and 1432
 Dimitrie Cantemir, Moldavian voivode
 George Coșbuc, Romanian writer, 1866 - 1918
 Decebal, Dacian king,  87 - 106
 Dosoftei, Moldavian metropolitan
 Mihai Eminescu, Romanian writer
 Yuri Gagarin, first man in space
 Octavian Goga, Romanian poet and politician, 1881 - 1938
 Pan Halippa
 Alexandru Lăpușneanu, prince of Moldavia, 1552 - 1568
 Titu Maiorescu, Romanian writer
 Stefan cel Mare, prince of Moldova between 1457 and 1504
 Alexei Mateevici, Moldavian Romanian poet, 1888 - 1917
 Veronica Micle, Romanian writer
 Petru Movila, metropolitan of Kiev, 1633 - 1646
 Constantin Negruzzi, Romanian writer
 Anton Pann, Wallachian poet and composer, 1790s - 1854
 Vlaicu Pircalab
 Alexander Pushkin, Russian writer
 Alexey Shchusev
 Varlaam, Moldovan metropolitan
 Mihai Viteazul, prince of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania in 1600

Other streets are named after cities in Moldova or elsewhere
 București, capital of neighbouring Romania
 Hîncești, town in Moldova
 Ismail, town in southern Ukraine
 Tighina (or Bender)
 Tiraspol, second largest city in the country, capital of the disputed republic of Transnistria

Some other references:
 Sfatul Țării, the national council that declared the Moldavian Democratic Republic on January 24, 1918

Chișinău
Roads in Moldova
Chisinau

Street names in Chișinău


Narita-san (成田山 "Narita mountain") Shinshō-ji (新勝寺 "New victory temple") is a Shingon Buddhist temple located in central Narita, Chiba, Japan. It was founded in 940 by Kanchō Daisōjō, a disciple of Kōbō Daishi. It is a lead temple in the Chisan branch (Chisan-ha 智山派) of New Shingon (Shingi Shingon 新義真言宗), includes a large complex of buildings and grounds, and is one of the best-known temples in the Kantō region. It is dedicated to Ācala (Japanese: Fudō myōō ("Unmovable Wisdom King")) who is usually depicted holding a sword and rope and surrounded by flames. Often called a fire god, he is associated with fire rituals.

Founding
The temple was established in 940 to commemorate the victory of the forces dispatched from the Heian capital to suppress a revolt by the powerful Kantō region samurai, Taira no Masakado. The Shingon priest Kanchō accompanied the force, bringing with him an image of Acala from the Gomadō (Fire Offering Hall) of Takao-san Jingo-ji in Kyōtō. Shingon founder Kōbō Daishi himself was said to have carved the image and used it in Goma sacred fire rituals that helped stop a rebellion during his era. The rebellion in 940 also came to an end just as Kanchō completed a three-week Goma ritual with the same image.

According to legend, the image of Acala became too heavy after the victory to move back to its home base, so a new temple on Narita-san, named Shinshō-ji (New Victory Temple), was built to enshrine it on the spot. The temple maintains that the original image is enshrined in the Main Hall, where it is displayed on special occasions, but art historians date the current image to no earlier than the 13th century.

Expansion
For over 600 years, Narita-san remained a remote, humble, provincial temple—until Tokugawa Ieyasu moved his capital to Edo in 1603. Ieyasu himself credited its abbot with converting him to Buddhism, and assigned the local Sakura Domain daimyō to be responsible for its upkeep. The military and political success associated with the temple may also have appealed to him, and the location of the temple, protecting the unlucky northeast approach to his new capital, corresponded to the position of the head temple of the Tendai sect, Enryaku-ji, relative to the old Heian capital of Kyoto. However, the shogunate did little to support the temple until Tokugawa Ietsuna reconstructed its Main Hall in 1655. That building now serves as a calligraphy classroom. Shingon founder Kōbō Daishi (Kūkai) was famous for his Japanese calligraphy.

But the person most responsible for promoting and enriching Narita-san was Ichikawa Danjūrō I (1660–1704), one of the most influential actors of the golden age of kabuki. Born into a wealthy merchant family with ties to the Narita area, Danjūrō relished his family's former samurai status by playing heroic characters doing noble deeds, developing in the process a rough, manly style known as aragoto. He was also a devout Buddhist with a particular devotion to Fudō myōō, to whom he gave credit for the safe birth of his son Kuzō, who went on to become Ichikawa Danjūrō II (1688–1758). Kuzō played such a ferocious and convincing Fudō in his stage debut in 1697 that the audience responded with prayers and offerings as if they were before a temple deity. In 1703, Danjūrō I wrote and starred in another play specifically about the Fudō at Shinshō-ji, The Avatars of the Fudō of Narita Temple, whose opening was timed to coincide with the traveling exhibit (出開帳 degaichō) of sacred images from Narita-san in Edo. Danjūrō's immense popularity and his attachment to Fudō myōō at Shinshō-ji prompted many commoners of all classes to make regular pilgrimages from Edo to Narita-san.

Important buildings
Several of the structures at Narita-san temple have been designated National Important Cultural Properties: the Kōmyō-dō, built in 1701 and dedicated to the Dainichi Nyorai Buddha (Vairocana), the principal image of Shingon Buddhism; the three-storied, 25-meter high pagoda built in 1712; the Niōmon main gate, built in 1830; the Shaka-dō (Shakyamuni Hall), built in 1858; and the Gaku-dō (Votive Tablet Hall), built in 1861. The Kaizan-dō (Open Mountain Hall) shrine to Kanchō Daisōjō was built in 1938, in time for the temple's 1000th anniversary. Narita-san Park (16.5 hectares) opened in 1928, the current Great Main Hall dates from 1968, a 58-meter high Great Pagoda (Daitō) was added in 1984, and a hall dedicated to Prince Shōtoku, regarded as the father of Japanese Buddhism, was erected in 1992.

Regular events
Large crowds attend the major annual events at Narita-san: Oshogatsu in January, Setsubun in February, the taiko drum festival in April, firelight performances of Noh plays in May, the Gion Festival in July, Obon in August; Shichigosan in November; and the annual burning of amulets in late December. People come to Narita-san Park to view ume blossoms in the early spring and autumn leaves in the late fall. In addition, there are chantings of the Sutra of Great Wisdom (Daihannya-e) in January, May, and September; and temple fairs are held on the 1st, 15th, and 28th day of each month. Several times a day, wooden amulets are ceremonially burned in Goma rituals.

Tourism
Narita-san has been a favorite site for excursions and pilgrimages by citizens of the nearby metropolitan area ever since the Tokugawa shōguns moved the national capital to Edo in 1603. After nearby Narita International Airport became the primary international hub for Japanese air traffic in the late 1970s, Narita-san also began to attract increasing numbers of foreign tourists, especially those who have a long layovers in transit. The airport is just a short train ride from either JR East Narita Station or Keisei Narita Station. From each station, it is just a short walk to the temple, along picturesque streets with many small shops selling snacks and other foodstuffs, as well as good-luck charms and other souvenirs, such as Daruma dolls.

Gallery

References

 Graham, Patricia J. (2007) Faith and Power in Japanese Buddhist Art (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press) .

External links
Official web site in English
Naritasan Shinsyoji Temple in English
Narita Airport area guide in English

Buddhist temples in Chiba Prefecture
Shingon Buddhism
Tourist attractions in Chiba Prefecture
Narita, Chiba
10th-century establishments in Japan
Religious buildings and structures completed in 940
10th-century Buddhist temples
Temples of Fudō Myōō
Temples of Shingon-shū Chisan-ha
History of Narita City

Narita-san


Gun control is the attempt, usually by a government, to restrain or stop people from owning or using guns.  Gun control may also regulate the making, moving, and selling of guns.  People want gun control because guns are very dangerous.  Gun control is very controversial in some countries, such as in the United States.  Some countries such as the United States, Switzerland, and Israel allow people to own guns to defend themselves, but most countries do not.

Gun Control in the United States
There is a strong "gun lobby" in the United States.  It is led by the National Rifle Association of America (NRA), which supports the right to own guns.  They want it to be fairly easy to get a gun.  Other groups, such as the Brady Campaign, want guns to be hard to get because they believe that guns cause violence, injury and death.  Some states have very strict gun laws, but others, such as Arizona, Utah, Idaho and Mississippi, do not.

In the 70's Gun Control gained more national attention.  In 1977 Guns Rights Activists changed the NRA's focus from sports to gun rights. They started running ads marketing self defense primarily towards women.  In the 80's the NRA ran ads about concealed carry.

The 2nd Amendment to the United States Constitution Amendment says, "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."  This is taken to mean, every American citizen has the right to "keep and bear arms".  Originally, it was thought that the federal government could not ban guns, but states and cities could.  However, in 2010, the Supreme Court said that states and cities could not ban handguns.  Although banning all guns is not allowed anymore, states and cities can still stop the sale and use of certain kinds of guns, such as automatic rifles that fire many bullets very quickly.  They can also say that certain people, such as criminals, cannot own guns.

References
Firearms
Politics of the United States

Gun control


The Revolutionary Left Movement (in Spanish: Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria) was a Marxist–Leninist group founded in Peru in 1962 by Luis de la Puente Uceda and his group APRA Rebelde, a splinter group from the APRA which had rallied the government in the 1950s and 1960s. Inspired by the Cuban Revolution and close to a non-aligned position which opposed itself to the Communist Party of Peru, the Soviet Union and China, the group initiated guerrilla actions against the government in 1965. After its leader's death at the end of 1965, the MIR split into three different factions. One of them, the MIR-EM, merged with the Revolutionary Socialist Party (Marxist-Leninist) in 1982 to create the Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA). The two others factions, MIR-VR and MIR-IV, joined the parliamentary left-wing coalition Izquierda Unida in the early 1980s.

Origins
The MIR was born out of a split with the APRA, a formerly leftist group which increasingly began to collaborate with the government in the 1950s-60s. Luis de la Puente Uceda's faction created the APRA Rebelde at the end of the 1950s, which became the MIR in 1962. The MIR was part of the "New Left", as was the group Vanguardia Revolucionaria, characterized by its criticisms against both the APRA and the Communist Party, and its independence towards China and the Soviet Union. Instead, it turned itself toward the contemporary Guevarist foco strategy.

Following the 1963 election to the presidency of Fernando Belaunde Terry, and his failure to implement social reforms, the situation in the impoverished countryside became more critical. The first guerrilla movement, the ELN (National Liberation Army), appeared, but was quickly defeated by the military. 1964 was marked by the continuing failure of governmental reforms and clashes during land occupations by landless peasants, and the MIR launched its armed struggle the following year.

Creation

Luis Felipe de La Puente Uceda divided the country into three zones of influence, with the intent of creating various focos. Manco Cápac in the North led by Gonzalo Fernández Gasca, Pachacutec in the South headed by Rubén Tupayachi Solórzano, and Túpac Amaru in the Center directed by Guillermo Lobatón.

However, the MIR did not manage to find sufficient popular support, while the divisions between rival revolutionary groups, such as the ELN, the Revolutionary Left Front (Frente de Izquierda Revolucionaria) headed by Hugo Blanco or the MIR prevented any concerted action. Confined in the jungles, the MIR unsuccessfully battled against the military forces, assisted by the CIA who, according to former CIA official Victor Marchetti, created a "miniature Fort Bragg" in the jungle. The MIR leader Luis Felipe de la Puente Uceda died on October 23, 1965, in an armed confrontation. A few months later, the movement was all but annihilated.

Splits

Two years after Luis Felipe de la Puente Uceda's death in 1965, the MIR split into rival factions, including MIR El Militante (MIR-EM), MIR Voz Rebelde (MIR-VR) and MIR IV Etapa (MIR-IV), each claiming political orthodoxy.

During the elections for a Constituent Assembly, the MIR-VR and the MIR-IV participated to the left-wing Unidad Democrática Popular (UDP) coalition, thus merging with the legalist left, and then to the Izquierda Unida coalition in the 1980s. On the other hand, the MIR-EM continued armed struggle, merging in 1982 with the Partido Socialista Revolucionario – Marxista Leninista (PSR-ML) to create the Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA).

See also
Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement

References

External links

RÉNIQUE, José Luis. De la traición aprista al gesto heroico – Luis de la Puente y la guerrilla del MIR en Estudios Interdisciplinarios de América Latina y el Caribe. Vol. 5, Nº 1. Universidad de Tel Aviv. ene-jun 2004
Instituto de Estudios Luis Felipe de la Puente Uceda
Luis de la Puente on Marxist Archives

Rebel groups in Peru
Communist parties in Peru
Defunct political parties in Peru
Guerrilla movements in Latin America
Political parties established in 1962
Marxist parties

Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru)


Gaudi Afternoon is a 2001 American-Spanish comedy film starring Judy Davis, Marcia Gay Harden, Lili Taylor, Juliette Lewis, Christopher Bowen and Courtney Jines. The film is based on Barbara Wilson's detective novel and directed by Susan Seidelman.

Plot
Cassandra, an expatriate American book translator (Judy Davis) living in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, who is hired by a mysterious woman, Frankie (Marcia Gay Harden), to locate her missing husband so he can sign some important papers. Nothing Frankie says is true: the husband turns out to be a woman, the issue isn't legal papers but a child's custody, and even Frankie's most obvious identity, in red cape and red pumps, is a false front. But Cassandra keeps at it, at first to earn her promised fee, and then to help Frankie, then Frankie's ex, then the child. Along the way, this solitary and somewhat disconnected and bewildered writer frees herself to finish a novel and re-establish a broken relationship with her own past.

Barbara Wilson's novel is the winner of a British Crime Writers' Award for Best Mystery Based in Europe and a Lambda Literary Award. The story is a high-spirited comic adventure that works issues of sexual politics into a madcap plot. The city of Barcelona is a lively party to the film and book's action.

Release
Gaudi Afternoon was the opening night screening at the 25th San Francisco International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival. It was selected as the closing night film for the New York LGBT Film Festival, the Western and Southern Australian Gay and Lesbian Film Festival, the Miami International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival and the Sydney Women of the World International Film Festival.  It also played at Outfest, Seattle International Film Festival and the Mar del Plata International Film Festival, among many other venues.

In 2002, the film had a theatrical release in Europe, South Africa, Australia and Japan.  After a short run in New York City, it played on TV and DVD in the US.

References

External links

2001 films
2000s mystery comedy-drama films
English-language Spanish films
Films directed by Susan Seidelman
Lesbian-related films
2001 comedy films
2001 drama films
Spanish comedy-drama films
Spanish mystery films
2000s English-language films

Gaudi Afternoon


Anglia, subtitled Zeitschrift für Englische Philologie, is a German quarterly academic journal on English linguistics, published by de Gruyter. It was established in 1878 by Moritz Trautmann and Richard Paul Wülker, then based at the University of Leipzig. Between 1888 and 1892 Ewald Flügel, also at Leipzig, acted as editor in conjunction with Gustav Schirmer. Although a German publication, it is the longest-established journal for the study of the English language in the world, having been published continuously since 1878. Anglia publishes articles on the English language and its history, and English literature from the Middle Ages through to modern times. It also covers American literature and English-language literature from around the world. Its scope extends to general and theoretical studies of comparative literature and culture.

References

External links

Linguistics journals
Publications established in 1878
Multilingual journals
Quarterly journals
De Gruyter academic journals

Anglia (journal)


The Berlin Police (; formerly Der Polizeipräsident in Berlin, ) is the Landespolizei force for the city-state of Berlin, Germany. Law enforcement in Germany is divided between federal and state (Land) agencies.

The Berlin Police is headed by the Polizeipräsident (Chief of Police), Dr. Barbara Slowik. Her deputy is Police Vice-Chief Marco Langner. They are supported in the management of the force by the Staff Office of the Police Chief, the commanders of the five Local Divisions, the Division for Central Tasks, the Criminal Investigation Department, and the Central Services Division and the Academy of Police.

History

The Royal Prussian Police of Berlin was founded on 25 March 1809, with Justus Gruner as the first chief of police.

In March 1848, Berlin was one of the places where the Revolution of 1848 took place (also called the March Revolution). At this time, just a small number of police officers (approx. 200 officers for 400,000 citizens) with limited authority, the so-called Revierpolizei (literally "police station police"), existed. To fight the revolution, the chief of police, police commissioner Dr. Julius Freiherr von Minutoli, asked the Prussian Army for help. They sent two guard cavalry regiments (the Regiment Gardes du Corps cuirassiers, and the 1. Garde-Dragoner Regiment Königin Victoria von Großbritannien und Irland dragoons), and three guard infantry regiments (the 1. und 2. Garderegiment zu Fuss, and the Kaiser Alexander Garde-Grenadier-Regiment Nr.1). Approximately 230 citizens were shot or killed by sabers, because the guard troops had orders to immer feste druff ("strike them hard"). After a couple of days, the troops withdrew and a militia (Bürgerwehr) with a strength of 20,000 men was founded. In short, the militia was worthless.

Shortly after the revolution, King Frederick William IV of Prussia founded the Königliche Schutzmannschaft zu Berlin in June 1848. It was the first modern police force in Germany from the viewpoint of then and today. It consisted of 1 Oberst (colonel), 5 Hauptleuten (captains), 200 Wachtmeister (sergeants) and 1,800 Schutzleute (officers), 40 of them mounted.

After the German Revolution of 1918-19 at the end of World War I, the police fell under the control of the far-left USPD politician Emil Eichhorn. However, the government of the Free State of Prussia voted to replace him with the Majority Social Democrat Eugen Ernst, an event which led to the Spartacist uprising of 1919. Under the Weimar Republic, the Berlin Police was often more willing to suppress far-left paramilitary groups such as the Communist Party of Germany's Roter Frontkämpferbund than right-wing ones such as the NSDAP's Sturmabteilung or the German National People's Party's Der Stahlhelm. In May 1929, the Berlin Police suppressed a Communist International Workers' Day demonstration in Blutmai. After seizing control of Prussia in the 1932 Preußenschlag, Franz von Papen dismissed Police Chief Albert Grzesinski for his Social Democratic loyalties and replaced him with Kurt Melcher, with the political police section falling under the control of Rudolf Diels.

After Adolf Hitler's rise to power and the beginning of the Gleichschaltung in 1933, political dissidents and Jews were dismissed from the service through the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. Diels' Berlin political police, as well as other the Prussian Secret Police, were merged into the Gestapo under Hermann Göring's command. Göring also issued an order to police forces in Prussia, including Berlin, recognizing right-wing paramilitaries such as the SS, the SA, and Der Stahlhelm as Hilfspolizei with authority to help police arrest and harass political dissidents and imprison them in concentration camps. The Berlin Police were placed under the authority of Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorff, a fanatical former SA-Obergruppenführer. The Nazi regime won the support of the Berlin Police by praising police in official propaganda.

In 1936, the Berlin police force was dissolved, like all other German police forces, and absorbed into the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo). The Orpo was established as a centralized organisation uniting the municipal, city, and rural uniformed forces that had been organised on a state-by-state basis. Eventually, the Orpo absorbed virtually all of the Third Reich's law enforcement and emergency response organisations, including fire brigades, coast guard, civil defense, and even night watchmen. It was under the overall command of Heinrich Himmler. In Berlin after the passage of Nuremberg Laws, the Berlin Orpo helped segregate Jews through heavy-handed enforcement of traffic laws. They also assisted the SA in the Kristallnacht pogrom.

During the Allied occupation of Berlin, the Soviet Union and the Communist Socialist Unity Party of Germany took control of the Berlin Police, and the politicization of the police led to three-quarters of the police to switch to a new authority in West Berlin. Police brutality by East Berlin Police against the Berlin city council and anti-Communist demonstrators in East Berlin led to the formal partition of the city. After the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and the reunification of Germany (1990), the West Berlin police, with 20,000 employees, and the East Berlin police, with 12,000 employees, were merged under the direction of the West Berlin chief Georg Schertz. Approximately 2,300 officers changed assignments from the West to the East, and approximately 2,700 from the East to the West. About 9,600 East Berlin officers were checked for being possible collaborators of the MfS (Stasi). 8,544 of them were cleared, while 1,056 were not. Approximately 2,000 were retired or resigned on their own.

The law on the Freiwillige Polizei-Reserve Berlin (volunteer police reserve) of 25 May 1961 in West Berlin created a paramilitary organisation to protect important infrastructure like power plants and drinking water supplies. Since the 1980s, it became more of a branch in which citizens were able to voluntarily support the Schupo in daily service. It was disbanded in 2002.

Police chiefs
List of police chiefs since 1809:

1809–1920

Greater Berlin: 1920–1948

Divided Berlin: 1948–1990

Since 1990

Organisation

Berlin Police is headed by the Police President and divided into 4 main directorates:
Berlin Police Directorate
Criminal Investigation Department
Police Academy
Central Services Directorate

Berlin Police Directorate
Berlin Police Directorate is divided into 5 local directorates (Direktion), one Division Operations/Traffic Management and one Division Central Special Services.

Local directorates
Each local directorate is responsible for one to three Berliner districts:
Direktion 1: Reinickendorf, Pankow
Direktion 2: Spandau, Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Mitte West
Direktion 3: Marzahn-Hellersdorf, Treptow-Köpenick, Lichtenberg
Direktion 4: Tempelhof-Schöneberg, Steglitz-Zehlendorf, Neukölln
Direktion 5: Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg, Neukölln, Mitte East

Each Direktion had several police stations ("Abschnitte", all in all 38) where the patrol car staff (Schutzpolizei/Schupo) is located. Other sub departments of a Direktion are (not all listed):
Referat Verbrechensbekämpfung - detective branch (Kriminalpolizei/Kripo) and plainclothes units of the Schupo.
Referat Zentrale Aufgaben - central services:
Verkehrsdienst - traffic police
Direktionshundertschaft - a company of special police
Diensthundführer - K9

Other divisions
The Division Operations/Traffic Management has the following subbranches:
Bereitschaftspolizei (BePo) – Uniformed units (two battalions, each with 4 companies and an engineer unit) that provide additional manpower for the Schupo, natural disasters, sporting events, traffic control or demonstrations (riot/crowd control).
Wasserschutzpolizei (WSP) – The river police for patrolling rivers, lakes, and harbours.
Zentraler Verkehrsdienst – The traffic police with many sub departments for (just examples): Honor escorts during state visits, Autobahnpolizei (highway police), tracing of vehicles without insurance or known drivers without a license, specialized units for the controlling of vehicles with hazardous materials,
Diensthundführer – K9
Polizeihubschrauberstaffel Berlin (PHuSt BE) – The Berlin Police run a Eurocopter EC135 helicopter together with the Bundespolizeipräsidium Berlin.

The Division Central Special Services has the following subbranches:
Objektschutz – The Berlin Police has a special branch for the guarding of buildings, especially embassies or watch over and transport convicts. These non-sworn officers are employees with limited police authority. They are armed and wear the same uniform as the Schupo but different rank insignia.
Gefangenenwesen – Custody

Criminal Investigation Department
The Criminal Investigation Department (Landeskriminalamt - LKA) is responsible for investigating the most serious crimes (exclusive tasks of the LKA like crimes against the constitution, organised crime, youth gangs or political motivated crime) and works closely with the six local directorates. The LKA supervises police operations aimed at preventing and investigating criminal offences, and coordinates investigations involving more than one Direktion.

Dedicated to the LKA:
Spezialeinsatzkommando (SEK) - The SWAT teams of the German state police.
Mobiles Einsatzkommando (MEK) - The MEKs are plainclothes teams of the LKA with special tasks like mentioned above and special manhunt units
Personenschutzkommando – Personal security plainclothes unit, protecting politicians and VIPs

Police Academy
The general education and training are in charge through the police academy in Berlin.

Central Services Directorate
The Central Services Directorate is responsible for all administrative and logistical support, like financial services, HR, facility management or ICT.

Workforce

 17,041 police officers in uniform and plain clothes (2017)
 2,526 security guards, prison-officers and staff in other law-enforcement related areas (2017)
 2,778 administrative staff, including management and clerical staff, technical staff and scientists of various disciplines (2017)
 2,808 apprentices and trainees (2017)
 2,500 vehicles (2017)
 1.545 Billion Euro annual budget (2019)

See also

 Babylon Berlin
Politics in Berlin
List of law enforcement agencies in Germany
Law enforcement in Germany
Landespolizei (German state police forces)
Stadtpolizei (German municipal police forces)

References

External links

 Berlin Police official website
Berlin Police logo (from De.wiki)
Berlin: Metropolis of crime 1918 - 1933 Part 1 , Part 2  (warning: graphic depiction of murder and other violence), a Deutsche Welle English television documentary discussing advances in police methods and forensic technology, corruption in the police force, and selected investigations in Berlin during the early interwar period.

Police
State law enforcement agencies of Germany
1809 establishments in Prussia
Organisations based in Berlin
Organizations established in 1809

Berlin Police


Aero Portuguesa (AP, sometimes written Aero-Portuguesa, short names for the Sociedade Aero Portuguesa Lda. - Air Portuguese Society, Ltd.) was the first airline of Portugal with scheduled international services. It existed from 1934 to 1953, when its routes were integrated in the TAP service.

AP was created with the main objective of providing a regular air connection between Portugal, Morocco and Brazil. Flights from Lisbon to Casablanca and Tangier started in 1934, followed by Lisbon-Brazil service in 1936. There were also plans to establish routes between Lisbon, Madrid and Paris, between the Portuguese colonies of Guinea and Cape Verde and between the French Congo and the Portuguese colony of Angola, but the start of World War II didn't allow this.

During World War II, AP gained the importance of being the only company of a neutral country authorized to fly to a belligerent territory. Because of this, AP become the only way of communication of the allies with North Africa. These flights were used by many refugees from Europe, who were looking for refuge in Tangier. The AP route from Lisbon to Casablanca became world-famous from the movie Casablanca with Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman.

AP was absorbed by TAP in 1953.

Operated aircraft
Wibault 283-T
Junkers Ju 52
Fokker F.VII
Lockheed Lodestar
Farman

References

Defunct airlines of Portugal
Airlines established in 1934
Portuguese companies established in 1934
Airlines disestablished in 1953
1953 disestablishments in Portugal
1953 mergers and acquisitions

Aero Portuguesa


The Synthesis Toolkit (STK) is an open source API for real time audio synthesis with an emphasis on classes to facilitate the development of physical modelling synthesizers.  It is written in C++ and is written and maintained by Perry Cook at Princeton University and Gary Scavone at McGill University.  It contains both low-level synthesis and signal processing classes (oscillators, filters, etc.) and higher-level instrument classes which contain examples of most of the currently available physical modelling algorithms in use today. STK is free software, but a number of its classes, particularly some physical modelling algorithms, are covered by patents held by Stanford University and Yamaha.

The STK is used widely in creating software synthesis applications.  Versions of the STK instrument classes have been integrated into ChucK, Csound, Real-Time Cmix, Max/MSP (as part of PeRColate), SuperCollider and FAUST. It has been ported to SymbianOS and iOS as well.

References

External links
 STK Home Page at CCRMA
 STK in AS3 - ActionScript port of The Synthesis ToolKit in C++
 The STK repository on GitHub
 Tutorial on using the STK on iOS

Audio programming languages

Synthesis Toolkit


The Foucault pendulum, or Foucault's pendulum (named after the French physicist Léon Foucault) was pendulum created as an experiment to show the rotation of the Earth.

The experiment

On  January 3, 1851, Foucault did the following experiment: He mounted a 2 metre long pendulum, and let it swing, in the basement of his house. On the floor, he marked the axis, along which the pendulum was swinging. After some time, he noticed, that the pendulum no longer swung along the axis he had marked on the floor, but on an different axis. When he tried to explain this, he considered, what could have caused the axis to change. He considered gravity. Gravity could not have caused the axis to change, as it only acts vertically. There were no other forces acting on the pendulum. So: according to Newton's laws, the pendulum did not change the axis it was swinging in. So it was the floor (or the earth) that changed this axis, because it rotated.

Vincenzo Viviani (1662-1703) had made similar observations, but he didn't attribute them to the rotation of the earth.

On the 3rd of February 1851, he repeated the experiment, with a 12m pendulum at the Paris observatory. On 26th of March he presented the experiment to the public: At the Panthéon, he used a 67m long pendulum, with a weight of 28kg. At the bottom of the pendulum, there was a tip that left a trace in a sandbox. This was an easy way to show the earth's rotation to common people. The metal ball of this pendulum still exists: Until 1946, it was stored at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers, then it was returned to the Panthéon.

Caspar Garthe repeated the experiment at Cologne Cathedral, Friedrich Magnus Schwerd did in Speyer Cathedral. Their results were deceptive, and not nearly as good as those obtained in Paris. In 1879, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes wrote his thesis on the subject, doing extra calculations on the exact magnitude of the effect. In his thesis, he  also pointing out the problems the people had encountered in Cologne and Speyer.

An exact copy of the original has been operating in the Panthéon since 1995. It takes 31h 50min to do a full rotation (of 360 degrees).

Because a Foucault pendulum is an easy way to show the rotation of the earth, such devices can be found in many science museums around the world today.

References

Pendulums

Foucault pendulum