Inugami Gyōbu (隠神刑部) or Gyōbu-danuki (刑部狸) is a bake-danuki (a monster tanuki) told about in legends passed down in Matsuyama, Iyo Province (now Ehime Prefecture). He is known due to appearing in the "Tale of the Matsuyama Disturbance and the Eight Hundred and Eight Tanuki" (松山騒動八百八狸物語, Matsuyama Sōdō Happyakuya-danuki Monogatari), which is considered one of the big three tanuki tales along with the Shojoji no Tanuki-bayashi and Bunbuku Chagama.

Outline
The "Tale of the Matsuyama Disturbance and the Eight Hundred and Eight Tanuki" was based on the historical record "Iyo Nagusa" (伊予名草) that told of the O-Ie Sōdō, which occurred during the Great Gyōhō Famine in 1805, and in the Edo period, and according to the kōshaku storyteller Nanryū Tanabe, it was a ghost story that added elements of tanuki and yōkai to it and became known through kōdan. For this reason, there are several variations depending on which particular kōdan storyteller told it, but the story mainly went as follows.

In Shikoku, there are many folk tales and legends about tanuki, but the tanuki of Matsuyama in particular has a history of them that goes back to the beginning of history in the ages of Emperor Tenji, and as a result of tanuki giving birth to tanuki, there were 808 of them. Its leader was Inugami Gyōbu. He lived in an old cave in Kumayama, and was a bake-danuki that continued to protect the Matsuyama Castle, and from his household of 808 tanuki, was also called "Eight Hundred and Eight Tanuki (八百八狸, Happyakuya-danuki)." He was said to have the greatest divine power in Shikoku.

The part of his name "Gyōbu"(刑部: lit. penal affairs) was a title awarded by an ancestor of the lords of the Matsuyama Castle, and he received faith from the vassals in the castle, and had a deep connection with the local people. In the era of Matsuyama Oki no Kami (松山隠岐守), the O-Ie Sōdō occurred, and Inugami Gyōbu was used by the rebel side, and he gave commands to his follower tanuki to cause strange occurrences to support the insurrection.

However, in the ghost story Inōmono no Roku, the feudal warrior Inō Budayū (稲生武太夫) punished Inugami Gyōbu with a divine rod that he received from Usa Hachiman Dai-bosatsu, and as a result, Inugami Gyōbu and the 808 of his household was sealed in Kumayama. The cave remains even today in Kutaninagumi (久谷中組), Matsuyama city, and is known as Yamaguchi Reishin (山口霊神).

Variation
As stated previously, the "Tale of the Matsuyama Disturbance and the Eight Hundred and Eight Tanuki" has several variations, and because Inugami Gyōbu, who was supposed to have been the protector of the castle, supported the O-Ie Sōdō, there are various tales about the particulars of how Inugami Gyōbu was defeated by Budayū.
As a result of the attempt by young samurai Gotō Kogenta Masanobu (後藤小源太正信) who was on the rebel side, to slay Inugami Gyōbu who he believed was getting in the way, they made a non-aggression pact that "as long as Inugami Gyōbu lends a hand to Kogenta's crises from then on, Kogenta will not kill Inugami Gyōbu," so when the rebels started to make their moves, Inugami Gyōbu had no choice but to causes strange disturbances in order to fulfill the pact. When Budayuu appeared below the castle, Inugami Gyōbu became fearful of Budayū's divine rod, because when although he wanted to avoid confronting Budayuu as an enemy and transformed him, Budayū became angry that he was transformed in this way, and made an enemy of the rebels.
Inugami Gyōbu, who didn't think pleasantly of the castle lord at that time who was neglecting the traditions, became close to Kogenda and formed an alliance with him, and began to act to crush the castle's lord. Budayū, who was given a request to defeat the rebellion, entered Matsuyama and headed towards Inugami Gyōbu to make negotiations, found out that he was working for the rebel side, and defeated him.
The rebel side deceived Inugami Gyōbu and treated him as an ally, but it was actually a trap, and when Inugami Gyōbu started his secret maneuvers, and since it was told to the castle lord that all the bad occurrences in the castle Inugami Gyōbu's deeds, he was made out to be a bad guy, and Budayū, who was called to  help, defeated him.
Budayū did not use a divine rod, but rather a wooden mallet that he received from the head yōkai, Sanmoto Gorōzaemon(山本五郎左衛門).
Just the opposite of Inugami Gyōbu being defeated by Budayuu, there are also stories where Inugami Gyōbu stood with the righteous side, but since he was not able to make a dent to the forces of the rebel side, he called Budayuu for help. There are also other variations, including stories where Budayuu does not play a part.

Notes

References

See also
List of legendary creatures from Japan

Bake-danuki
Japanese folklore

Inugami Gyōbu


Catalina Bárcena (10 December 1888 – 3 August 1978 was a leading Spanish theatre actress during the early decades of the twentieth century.   With her partner, Gregorio Martínez Sierra, she worked on the creation of the pioneering Teatro de arte company at Madrid's Teatro Eslava between 1916 and 1926.   She subsequently starred with several other high-profile theatre companies and also, during the 1930s, built a Hollywood career as a film actress.   In parallel with her acting career she became something of a fashion icon.

Life

Catalina Bárcena was born in Cienfuegos on Cuba, the child of small-scale farmers who had emigrated from Spain.   In 1898, backed by the United States of America, Cuba ceased to be a Spanish colony.   Around 1900 the family returned to their former home village of Santa María (Lebeña) in the mountains of northern Spain.

When she was twenty she moved to Madrid where, helped by family contacts, she embarked on an acting career with the theatre company of María Guerrero, participating in a number of premiers including "El genio alegre" ("The cheerful genius" 1906) and "Amores y amoríos" (1908) by the Quintero brothers, as well as "La araña" ("The Spider" 1908) by Àngel Guimerà, "Las hijas del Cid" ("El Cid's daughters" 1908), "Doña María la Brava" (1909) and "En Flandes se ha puesto el sol" ("The sun has gone down in Flanders" 1910) - these last three by Eduardo Marquina.   She was also in the cast for the premier performance of "La fuente amarga" ("The bitter fountain" 1910) by Manuel Linares Rivas.

Soon after that she formed her own theatre company.   More premiers followed, including "La losa de los sueños" (1911) by Jacinto Benavente and "Flor de los pazos" (1912) by Rivas.   From 1916 the scene of her major triumphs was Madrid's  Teatro Eslava where plays that she premiered included "No te ofendas, Beatriz" (1920) and "Chica del gato" (1921), both by Carlos Arniches.

By 1916 Bárcena had teamed up with Gregorio Martínez Sierra, a playwright, publisher and stage director characterised by one source as "an even more unsuitable man".   The partnership was both professional and personal.   Eight years her senior, Martínez Sierra drew respect as a progressive playwright at a time when most of the dramatists writing for the Madrid theatre were unadventurous and conservative.   Martínez Sierra was married to the feminist writer and activist, María Lejárraga, who was understood to help her husband with his plays:  there are suggestions from some quarters that she wrote them.   Lejárraga was disinclined to agree to a divorce, and while Martínez Sierra and Bárcena cohabited openly, his wife took to describing herself, just as openly, as her husband's widow.

Bárcena introduced more works by Martínez Sierra to the Madrid stage, along with pieces by Benito Pérez Galdós and Jacinto Benavente.   One of her lover's contributions to the Spanish stage was as a translator: Bárcena featured in premiers of important foreign plays such as Ibsen's Doll's House (1917) and Shaw's Pygmalion (1920).   The partnership with Martínez Sierra also gave rise to a succession of further premiers of plays by a younger generation of Spanish writers during the 1920s.   One was of "El maleficio de la mariposa" ("The Curse of the Butterfly"), generally identified as the first play by Federico García Lorca, in a production that used memorable costumes designed by Rafael Barradas.   As early as 1916 Bárcena and Martínez Sierra were involving themselves in the newly popular genre of pantomime, blending the traditions of musical theatre and spoken stage works.

In 1922 she gave birth to her daughter, Katia.   The father of the infant was Martínez Sierra.   It was partly to get away from the scandal generated by the illegitimate birth that in 1926 Catalina Bárcena embarked on a tour of South America.   Costume and clothes were important to her, and she was accompanied by her wardrobe mistress, Antonia García.   She was presumably well received by theatre audiences, since the South American tour lasted three years.   By the time she returned to Madrid, commercial theatre was in crisis.   The international cinema industry was undergoing traumas of its own, reflecting the switch from silent movies to "talkies".   Bárcena had always sworn that she would have nothing to do with cinema, but in California the major studios were desperately confronting the reality that many of the top stars of the silent screen lacked the voice projection and other vocal talents appropriate for the new technologies.   In 1927 she signed up with Fox, starring in a succession of Spanish language movies including versions of "Canción de cuna" and "The Merry widow".   However, the Hollywood roles dried up during the later 1930s as younger Spanish-language stars appeared on the scene.

During the Civil War she chose to go into exile, accompanying her sister María Luisa de la Cotera.   Maria Luisa was married to a Catalan ship's captain whose father was Juan Antonio Molinas Soler, President of the Port of Barcelona, of the New Vulcano shipyards and of the "Association of Industrial Engineers" ("Asociación de Ingenieros Industriales").   Through his connections they were able to leave the country, apparently accompanied by Bárcena's lover, Gregorio Martínez Sierra, arriving at Oran and settling in Tétouan in 1936.   Morocco was less brutally disrupted by the fighting than Spain itself.   Nevertheless, Bárcena and Martínez Sierra did not long remain with her sister's family, preferring to make their ways at various stages in Marseilles, Paris and Buenos Aires where they remained for nearly a decade.   The two of them went back to Madrid only in 1947.   By this time Martínez Sierra was ill with cancer and he died a few weeks after their return.

Bárcena was approaching conventional retirement age and there was no return to her pre-war stardom, but she remained actively engaged in the world of theatre.   In 1948 she formed the "Compañía Cómico-Dramática Española" comic theatre company, with herself as its leading actress.   The company had its debut at the Madrid Comedy Theatre ("Teatro de la Comedia") with "Pygmalion", followed in 1949 by another foreign play, "Fifty Years of Happiness".   In 1954 they presented " Leyenda de una vida" ("Story of a life") at the city's Teatro Infanta Isabel.

In 1971 or 1972 she received the National Theatre Prize.   After she died in 1978, one of the most memorable epitaphs was penned by Lorca, by now himself something of a "grand old man" of the theatre, who dedicated a poem to her memory in which he recalled her voice as having "sounded like music and crystal" ("sonaba a música y cristal").

Personal
While working at the company of María Guerrero, Catalina Bárcena was noticed by Guerrero's loose-living husband, the actor Fernando Díaz de Mendoza y Aguado.   She christened their son Fernando.   Fernando Díaz de Mendoza y Aguado had sons by various women:  they were all christened Fernando.    Meanwhile, Catalina hastily married not her boss's husband, but a more junior actor in the company, called Ricardo Vargas.   By 1916 the couple were evidently separated, although they were divorced only in 1932.

References

People from Cienfuegos
Actresses from Madrid
Spanish stage actresses
Spanish film actresses
1888 births
1978 deaths

Catalina Bárcena


Apple Dylan is the original implementation of the programming language Dylan. It was developed by Apple Computer from 1992 to 1995.

Dylan was developed at Apple Cambridge, formerly Coral Software, developers of Macintosh Common Lisp. The original language had much in common with Lisp, including its parenthetical S-expression syntax. For a time, it was developed with the intent of being the primary language of the Apple Newton. When that project was ordered into production earlier than expected, Dylan was not ready for release. A new operating system for the Newton was written in C++.

Dylan was then repositioned as a desktop programming system for the classic Mac OS. This led to a major change in syntax to a more C-like infix notation syntax, apparently at the prompting of a group at Carnegie Mellon University, to make it more appealing to programmers familiar with other languages.  The resulting system was making progress when development was canceled in April 1995. Work continued for another six months to produce the Apple Dylan Technology Release. It was released at the 1996 WWDC show as the first and only official Apple version of the system.

Development environment

Apple Dylan includes a dynamic, integrated development environment inspired by Smalltalk, Macintosh Common Lisp (MCL), and Think C, and originally codenamed Hula. Like Think C, but unlike Smalltalk and Lisp, it draws a clear distinction between the development environment and the program being developed. It does this by linking code, called a stub, into the target program, allowing the integrated development environment (IDE) to communicate with it (to inject code, perform introspection, etc.), without sharing a runtime system environment with the IDE.

The IDE includes Binder (a tool for configuring browsers), a source database, a definition database, incremental compiling, a cross-platform source debugger, profiling tools, and an interface builder.

The basic browser window in the Apple Dylan environment is Binder. A Binder window consists of one or more linked panes. Each pane has an input, an output, an aspect, and a presentation style. A pane's input is the output of another pane: a pane displays information about the selected object(s) in its input pane. Aspects are properties of the input, such as source code, contents, callers, readers, writers, references or compiling warnings. This information can be presented in an outline or a graph. Inputs, aspects and styles can be used to construct replicas of the Smalltalk source browser, or static call graphs, or ad hoc displays such as the callers of readers of variables that the selected function writes. All views are live: recompiling a function updates any displays that include its who-calls information, for example.

The outline view includes visual indicators that display whether a source record has unsaved changes, has changed since it was last compiled, or has compiler-generated messages (warnings and errors).

User interface framework
Apple Dylan includes a graphical user interface (GUI) framework, written in Dylan by Mike Lockwood. The framework is tightly integrated with a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) interface builder code-named Meccano, written by Robin Mair. The interface builder is linked into an application, allowing users to switch between Edit and Run modes while the application is running. Decorators are represented as graphical objects that can be dragged onto a user interface object to modify its behavior or appearance via object composition.

Implementation
The core of Apple Dylan is implemented in Macintosh Common Lisp, upon which the rest is implemented in Dylan. The Apple Cambridge office started as an acquisition of Coral Software, the developers of Macintosh Common Lisp.

When Dylan was retargeted from the ARM processor of the Newton, to the desktop Macintosh, the back end was modified to use APPLEX, a portable assembler designed by Wayne Loofbourrow's team at Apple in Cupertino.

See also
 History of the Dylan programming language

References

External links
 from Oliver Steele
 from Open Dylan
 "Last day at Apple/End of the Dylan project"

Integrated development environments
Compilers
Dylan (programming language)
Common Lisp (programming language) software
Dylan
Classic Mac OS programming tools

Apple Dylan


Nieheim () is a town in Höxter district in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Historical names of Nieheim are: Nihem, Nyem, and Nym. The town covers an area of about 80 km2 and has about 6,250 inhabitants.

Geography
Nieheim lies roughly 10 km northeast of Brakel.

Constituent communities
Nieheim consists of the following 10 centres:
 Entrup
 Eversen
 Erwitzen
 Himmighausen
 Holzhausen
 Merlsheim
 Nieheim
 Oeynhausen
 Schönenberg
 Sommersell mit Kariensiek

History
Nieheim, with its more than 750-year-old history reaches well back into the Middle Ages. From its beginnings as a community, it grew after being granted municipal privileges (lower court rights, market rights and minting rights, among others) in Bishop Bernhard IV's time (1228–1247), into today's town of Nieheim. After quickly developing from a former farming town and Hanseatic member, Nieheim has risen today to be a climatic spa with a function as a minor centre, and a mediaeval town with flair.

Politics

Town council

Town council's 24 seats are apportioned as follows, in accordance with municipal elections held on 26 September 2004:
CDU 13 seats
SPD 7 seats
FDP 1 seat
UWG 3 seats
Note: UWG is a citizens' coalition.

Coat of arms
Nieheim's civic coat of arms might heraldically be described thus: In gules a cross Or, in each quarter an orb Or.

These arms date from 1591 at the latest, and the colours are those borne by the old Prince-Bishopric of Paderborn, among whose many holdings was Nieheim. The orbs stand for Saint Nicholas, the town's patron saint.

The coat of arms was granted on 18 July 1908.

Economy and infrastructure

Transport
Owing to Nieheim's advantageous location on the north–south-running East Westphalia Road (Ostwestfalenstraße), otherwise known as Federal Highway (Bundesstraße) B252, connections to Autobahnen A 2 (Hanover-Ruhr area) and A 44 (Dortmund-Kassel) are right at hand.

Nieheim is also easily reached by public transport. The nearest railway stations are Steinheim, Brakel and Altenbeken.

Education
Nieheim has 3 kindergartens, 3 primary schools, a Hauptschule and a Realschule (Peter-Hille-Realschule).

Culture and sightseeing

Buildings
Among the town's buildings that are worthiest of a look are the Town Hall, built in 1610 in the Weser Renaissance style, the Ratskrug from 1712, a stately half-timbered building, and the Richterhaus ("Judge House"), built in 1701.

The Catholic Parish Church of Saint Nicholas with its artistically relief-decorated baptismal font and late Gothic little sacramental house has parts that were built as early as the 13th century.

The Protestant Church of the Cross (Kreuzkirche) was built in a neo-Gothic style in 1868–1869.

The Gut Holzhausen estate is a biodynamic farm and the venue for a summer festival called Voices.

"Holsterturm" landmark
As Nieheim's landmark, the Holsterturm (tower) on a nearby bank south of the main town, can look back on a 700-year history.

Mediaeval vault system
Unique in Westphalia is the vault system through which runs the Nikolausbach (brook), which rises below the Holsterberg (mountain) and runs through the middle of town in this mediaeval vault system.

Weberhaus Nieheim
The Weberhaus Nieheim, the doctor, poet and politician Friedrich Wilhelm Weber's former abode, today houses a widely known Kolping diocesan training centre and a Heimvolkshochschule, which lends itself well to any form of training work and has at its disposal the best technical equipment.

Also, the Pan-German Education Centre of Youth in Europe (Gesamtdeutsche Bildungsstätte der Deutschen Jugend in Europa) in Nieheim-Himmighausen offers extensive seminars for groups geared towards various ends.

Nieheimer Flechthecke
Typical of countryside scenery around Nieheim is what is called Flechthecke, meaning, roughly, "braided hedge". The hedges themselves are mostly – about 80% – hazelnut growth, all planted in a row. Here and there are found the odd hawthorn and single wild roses. Trimmed willow trees, about 2 m high, serve as living fenceposts to keep the hedges steady. Young withes are taken from these willows to do the braiding. If dairy cows or horses are to be kept in the paddock ringed by one of these braided hedges, blackthorn twigs are also tied onto the inside to thwart any nibbling. A finished hedge has a height of roughly 1.5 m and is braided in three layers.

Telegraph station no. 32
As a relic of an almost forgotten communication technology, a reconstructed optical telegraph station still stands high over the countryside near Oeynhausen. This is run by the Oeynhausen history club (Heimatverein), and guided tours are available to those who wish them.

Culinary specialities
In Nieheim, a kind of cheese is made, Nieheimer Käse (Nieheim cheese), a sour milk cheese nowadays made by only one cheesemaker. It had almost been forgotten, but is now becoming better known thanks to tourism. It is ripened in wooden moulds in a warm place and then seasoned with salt and caraway. Depending on the ripening time, it can be a Handkäse, a cooking cheese or a hard grating cheese.

Regular events

Deutscher Käsemarkt
The "German Cheese Market" is held every other year – in even-numbered years – and draws cheesemakers from all over the world who make their cheeses the old way, by hand, presenting their finished products.

In 2004, the Fourth German Cheese Market drew more than 70,000 visitors to Nieheim. In 2006, the German Cheese Market is to be held on 1–3 September.

Nieheimer Holztage
The "Nieheim Wood Days" are held every other year – in odd-numbered years – and everything at this event revolves around the themes "wood, forest and nature".

Nieheimer Kulturnacht
The "Nieheim Culture Night" is held on the day when the clocks are advanced from standard time to summer time.

Nieheimer Chorfestival
Choirs from all over Germany come to Nieheim for the Choir Festival to train their voices.

Nieheimer Rosenmontagsumzug
Nieheim considers itself a stronghold of East Westphalian carnival custom, and the Rosenmontagsumzug – a colourful parade – is the high point of the season.

Personalities

Sons and daughters of the town
In the ecclesiastical field, Dietrich von Nieheim (1338/48 - 1418), who served three popes and was held in high regard in the Roman Curia, achieved international recognition, if not outright fame. This is also said of Hugo Makibi Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990), a Jesuit priest, a religious philosopher, a meditation teacher and the builder of the Peace Church in Hiroshima born on the Externbrock estate near Nieheim. His life's work is the development of the Japanese Zen practice as a way to a deep belief experience for Christians.

 Wilhelm Hillebrand (1821–1886) was a botanist and a physician.
 Jürgen Jasperneite (born 1964) is an electrical engineer and a professor.

References

External links

 Nieheim
 Eversen
 Erwitzen
 Catholic parish of St. Nikolaus, Nieheim
 Nature holiday park at the Holsterturm
 Westphalian Culinary Museum and Adventure Mile

Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Höxter (district)

Nieheim


PPHU Ekolot is a Polish aircraft manufacturer based in Korczyna, Podkarpackie Voivodeship, with its factory in Krosno. The company was formed in 1995 and its director is Henryk Słowik.

The company specializes in the design and manufacture of ultralight aircraft in the form of kits for amateur construction and ready-to-fly aircraft for the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight and the American light-sport aircraft categories.

Working in composite materials, the company produces the Jerzy Krawczyk-designed Ekolot JK 01A Elf motorglider and two ultralight aircraft, the strut-braced Ekolot JK-05L Junior and the cantilever-wing Ekolot KR-030 Topaz. The Topaz has been accepted by the US Federal Aviation Administration as a light-sport aircraft.

Aircraft

References

External links

Aircraft manufacturers of Poland
Ultralight aircraft
Homebuilt aircraft
Polish brands

Ekolot


Lynne Kositsky (born 1947) is a Canadian author of poetry and young adult historical fiction. Kositsky, who was born in Montreal, Quebec and grew up in London, England, now lives in the Niagara region of Ontario. As of 2010 she has published ten novels, set in such varied historical contexts as Ireland during the Great Famine of the 1840s, Nova Scotia during the early 19th century, Elizabethan London, and the Holocaust.

Her books often have in common the theme of a youthful protagonist (usually, but not always, female) surviving social disruption or ostracism in a world dominated by the mistakes of adults. Her four books in the Our Canadian Girl series issued by Penguin all focus on an African Canadian ex-slave, Rachel, who is forced to relocate with her parents to Nova Scotia after the Revolutionary War.  Like many of Kositsky's other books, the Rachel series received critical acclaim. The first and fourth books of the Rachel series, in the series were both nominated for the prestigious Hackmatack Award, and A Mighty Big Imagining won a White Raven Award, given by the International Youth Library in Munich to books which "contribute to an international understanding of a culture and people."

The Thought of High Windows garnered extensive critical acclaim and won the Canadian Jewish Book Award for Youth in 2006. Reviewers for Kirkus, The Washington Post, Hornbook Magazine, The Center for Children's Books, and the School Library Journal all voiced critical praise for it.

Kositsky's A Question of Will (2000) deals with the Shakespearean authorship question, exploring the Oxfordian perspective, and she has since co-authored with Roger Stritmatter a series of articles for academic journals on the date, sources, and symbolism of Shakespeare's Tempest. A Question of Will was included in the Folger Shakespeare Library's "Golden Lads and Lasses" exhibit (2006).

Books

Candles (Roussan 1998)
Rebecca's Flame  (Roussan 1999)
A Question of Will (Roussan 2000)
A Mighty Big Imagining (Penguin 2001)
The Maybe House (Penguin 2002)
Certificate of Freedom (Penguin 2003)
An Elephant Tree Christmas (Penguin 2004)
The Thought of High Windows (Kids Can 2004)
Claire By Moonlight (Tundra 2005)
Minerva's Voyage (Dundurn 2009)
Our Canadian Girl (Puffin Canada 2010)
With Roger Stritmatter, On the Date, Sources and Design of Shakespeare's The Tempest, McFarland & Company, 2013.
The Plagues of Kondar (Dundurn 2014)
With Fearful Bravery (Dancing Cat Books 2014)

Selected works
 With Roger Stritmatter, "Shakespeare and the Voyagers Revisited" Review of English Studies 58:236 (September 2007): 447-472.
 With Roger Stritmatter, "O Brave New Worlde: The Tempest and Peter Martyr's De Orbe Novo" Critical Survey 21: 2 (Summer 2009): 7-42.
 With Roger Stritmatter, "A Movable Feast: The Tempest as Shrovetide Revelry" The Shakespeare Yearbook (Volume XVII): 365-404.

References

External links

1947 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian poets
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian children's writers
Canadian women novelists
Canadian women poets
Canadian women children's writers
Writers from Montreal
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers

Lynne Kositsky


Cinema of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC; French: Cinéma de la République Démocratique du Congo) originated with educational and propaganda films during the colonial era of the Belgian Congo. Development of a local film industry after the Democratic Republic of the Congo gained its independence from Belgium in 1960, and was handicapped by constant civil war.

Colonial era

During the colonial era before the DRC gained independence as Zaire, administrators of the Belgian Congo did not allow Africans watch foreign films, officially because they said they could not understand the difference between fact and fiction. In reality, authorities feared that the films would cause subversive behavior. The government's Film and Photo Bureau did make films for the local population in the 1940s, with educational and/or propaganda themes. African workers were employed by the bureau and were taught the basic techniques of film production.

Two companies run by Catholic priests also employed Africans in making films about religious values:
The Congolese Center for Catholic Action Cinema (CCCAC, French: Le Centre Congolais d'Action Catholique Cinéma) in Léopoldville
Africa Films in Kivu.
The CCCAC created a series of short films titled Les Palabres de Mboloko (Tales of Mboloko), starring an animated antelope. The government kept firm control over the format and content of the films produced by these two companies.

, founded in 1950 in Brussels by George Fannoy, made documentaries and news items in the DRC.

Post-independence

Following the Congo's independence from Belgium in 1960, the country experienced a series of civil wars that largely destroyed the nascent film industry. Foreign support has allowed some directors to create movies in the DRC, notably from the French ministry of foreign affairs. The DRC government has shown interest in assisting the development of a local film industry. Almost all DRC filmmakers live and work abroad.

Mwezé Ngangura is the best known Congolese director, making his first short film Tamtam électronique (Electronic Tamtam) in 1973 and the first Congolese feature movie, La Vie est Belle in 1987. His Identity Pieces, a musical comedy, won the Stallion de Yennenga at the Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou in 1999.

Raoul Peck, a Haitian who was brought up in Zaire, directed the documentary Lumumba. La mort d'un prophète (1991), about the life of Patrice Lumumba, who led the country into independence. Kibushi N'djate Wooto produced the animated short  in 1992, with French funding.

In 1994 Josef Kumbela made the short Perle noire (Black Pearl), which he followed with a series of other short films. Jose Laplaine's comic drama Macadam Tribu (Macadam Tribe) (1996) made fun of the constant quest for money, status and sex in Africa's urban neighborhoods. Petna Ndaliko is an internationally acclaimed filmmaker and activist who founded and directs the Yole!Africa cultural center and the  (SKIFF). SKIFF, the first film festival in the DRC, brought together over 15,000 people in a span of ten days. The festival screens international and local cinema, and has an open-air concert and numerous dance competitions. In 2014 SKIFF celebrated its 10th anniversity. However, as recorded in Guy Bomanyama-Zandu's 2005 documentary Le Congo, quel cinéma!, local productions today have difficulty making money.
The film follows three Congolese technicians (Claude Mukendi, Pierre Mieko, and Paul Manvidia-Clarr) and Ferdinand Kanza, a director who made films in the 1970s and now works at the National Radio Television of Congo.
Another 2005 documentary by the same director, La Mémoire du Congo en péril (The Momory of Congo in Danger), describes the Congolese Film Library. The library owns thousands of films that form part of the history of Congolese cinema, some dating as far back as 1935. They are in extremely poor condition and in danger of being lost.

In 2009 the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was using the cinema to break taboos on discussing rape, which was commonplace during the civil wars. The documentary Breaking the Silence covers sexual violence and abuse of women, topics that most people are reluctant to discuss. It was made by IF Productions of the Netherlands and is being screened by a mobile cinema operated by Search for Common Ground (SFCG), a US-based NGO. Screenings are often open-air, with power provided by a generator. Nonetheless, in 2015 the DRC government, cancelled scheduled screenings of Thierry Michel's L'homme qui répare les femmes (The Man Who Repairs Women) about Dr Denis Mukwege, a Nobel nominee who treats survivors of rape, torture and mutilation in the violence against women that has been endemic to Congolese civil wars. Lambert Mende, the DRC communications minister, said the film made "unjustified attacks" on soldiers.

Filmmaker Balufu Bakupa-Kanyinda helped organize the first Semaine du film congolais (Sefico) festival in May 2011 at Le Zoo, a cultural center. In July 2001 Balufu Bakupa-Kanyinda announced at the Festival du cinéma africain in Khouribga, Morocco that he intended to acquire four cinemas in Kinshasa. He was looking for partners to help acquire the cinemas to serve Kinshasa, a city with ten million inhabitants but no cinemas at all.
The industry was given a sobriquet of CongoFilmz to help brand Congolese cinema and promote it further worldwide.

See also
List of Democratic Republic of the Congo films
Media of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Cinema of Africa

References


Major General Charles Edward Dutton Budworth,  (3 October 1869 – 15 July 1921) was a British soldier who served as an artillery officer during the Second Boer War and the First World War.

Early life and family
Budworth was the son of Philip John Budworth, of Greensted Hall, Essex. His elder brother Richard Budworth played international rugby union football for England.

Budworth married Winifred Nickalls, daughter of Sir Patteson Nickalls, but was widowed in 1914. He remarried Helen Blewitt, daughter of W. E. Blewitt, in 1918. They had two sons.

Military career
Budworth was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery on 15 February 1889, promoted to lieutenant on 15 February 1892, and to captain on 29 March 1899. In October that year he was appointed Adjutant of the Honourable Artillery Company of London (HAC), and on 12 January 1900 he commissioned as a captain in the HAC company of the City of London Imperial Volunteers (CIV) bound for service in the Second Boer War. He left for South Africa the following month, and returned with most of the corps in October the same year. The CIV was disbanded in December 1900, and he went back to regular service with the Royal Artillery. He received the 1902 King Edward VII Coronation Medal for his service with the HAC during the coronation.

During the First World War, he was General Sir Henry Rawlinson's senior artillery adviser, at IV Corps (October 1915 to March 1916) and at Fourth Army from May 1916 until the Armistice in November 1918. He played a key role in the Allied Hundred Days Offensive at the Battles of Hamel, Amiens, and the final attack on the Hindenburg Line. He was ten times mentioned in despatches.

In 1919 Budworth was appointed to command 59th (2nd North Midland) Division, which trained drafts for service in Egypt and the Black Sea until it was demobilised.

Budworth became Inspector of Royal Artillery in India and was still serving in that role when he died in Simla, British India, on 15 July 1921; he was buried in Simla Old Cemetery.

References

1869 births
1921 deaths
People from Epping Forest District
Burials in India
Military personnel from Essex
British Army major generals
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British Army personnel of World War I
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Members of the Royal Victorian Order
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)

Charles Budworth


The Showgrounds is a football stadium in Coleraine, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland. It is the home ground of Coleraine F.C. The stadium holds approximately 3,500 with the stadium consisting of a mix of terracing and seating.

Between September 1971 and October 1972, Derry City F.C. were forced to use the stadium as their home-ground after the Irish Football Association banned the use of their ground in Derry, the Brandywell, due to security fears emanating from the Trouble and civil unrest in the nearby Bogside area. Derry's use ended in 1972 when, faced with dwindling crowds, travelling to Coleraine to play home-games was no longer financially sustainable.

Milk Cup

The Showgrounds also hosts the Milk Cup finals and main matches. The Milk Cup is an international youth football tournament which features both international teams and league clubs from around the world.

References

External links
 The Ulster Groundhop video tour
IFCP photos from The Coleraine Showgrounds
 Official Site

Association football venues in Northern Ireland
Sports venues in County Londonderry
Sport in Coleraine
Sports venues completed in 1907
1907 establishments in Ireland
Derry City F.C.
Coleraine F.C.

The Showgrounds (Coleraine)


Dr. Kadri Gopalnath (6 December 1949 – 11 October 2019) was an Indian alto saxophonist and composer. He was known for his works towards Carnatic music. He was born in Bantwal taluk, Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka. He composed the score for the 1994 movie Duet.

Gopalnath has participated in the Jazz Festival in Prague, the Berlin Jazz Festival, the International Cervantino Festival in Mexico, the Music Hall Festival in Paris, the BBC Promenade concert in 1994 at London, and has toured all over the world.

Gopalnath died on 11 October 2019 due to cardiac arrest at the age of 69 at a private hospital in Mangalore.

References

1949 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Indian musicians
Saxophonists
Indian composers

Kadri Gopalnath


Christina Birkenhake (born 1961) is a German mathematician specializing in algebraic geometry. She is a lecturer at the University of Erlangen–Nuremberg, in the research group on algebra and geometry.

Education and career
After studying mathematics at the University of Münster beginning in 1982,
Birkenhake earned her doctorate (dr. rer. nat.) in 1989 from the University of Erlangen–Nuremberg. Her dissertation was Heisenberg-Gruppen ampler Geradenbündel auf abelschen Varietäten [Heisenberg groups of ample line bundles on abelian varieties], and her doctoral advisor was Herbert Lange.

She worked as a research assistant at the University Erlangen-Nürnberg, earning her habilitation there in 1994, until in 2001 she was given a chair in complex analysis at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. She returned to Erlangen–Nuremberg as a lecturer in 2003.

Contributions
With Herbert Lange, Birkenhake is the author of the book Complex Abelian Varieties (Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wissenschaften 302, Springer, 1992; 2nd ed., 2004) and of Complex Tori (Progress in Mathematics 177, Birkhäuser, 1999). She is also a  presenter of public lectures on mathematics.

References

External links
Home page

1961 births
20th-century German mathematicians
Women mathematicians
University of Münster alumni
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg alumni
Academic staff of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
Academic staff of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
Living people
21st-century German mathematicians

Christina Birkenhake


Francis Wallace (February 12, 1894 – August 19, 1977) was an American sportswriter, fiction writer, screenwriter, and commentator for both radio and television broadcasts. His papers are housed in the Francis Wallace Collection, University of Notre Dame Archives.

Personal life

Francis Wallace was born in Bellaire, Ohio on February12, 1894, to John Simon Wallace (1848–1917) and Mary Griffin Wallace (1856–1932) who emigrated from Ireland to the United States in the 1870s. Wallace attended St. John Central Grade School and St. John Central High School, both in Bellaire. After graduation, Wallace reportedly worked in area railroad shops, glass factories, and steel mills for approximately seven years. He enlisted as a naval aviator but the armistice bringing World War I to an end was signed before he was deployed.

In 1919, his siblings collectively recognized Wallace's talents, pooled their resources, and helped to send him off to college at the University of Notre Dame. While at Notre Dame, Wallace studied philosophy. Perhaps the greatest influence in Wallace's education, however, came while serving as a press intern for Knute Rockne. Wallace thus traveled with the team and worked with the legendary coach to package stories for the press. He graduated from Notre Dame in 1923.

Wallace married Mary Heath (1902–1992) of Bellaire, Ohio in 1925, and their only child, John Francis Wallace was born in New York City in 1932. While Francis and Mary Wallace would also establish residences in Beverly Hills, California and in the Miami, Florida area over the course of their lives, they returned to Bellaire in the late-1930s and, in many ways, always considered it home. Mary served as a teacher and principal at St. John's Central. Francis had a home office and even dabbled in politics—running as a Republican candidate for the United States House of Representatives from his home district in Ohio. He lost but claims to have received the "intelligent vote".

Wallace died in Cocoa Beach, Florida on August19, 1977. He and Mary are buried next to one another in the Mt. Calvary Cemetery in Bellaire, Ohio.

Professional life

After graduating from Notre Dame, Francis Wallace accepted a position as a night city editor for the Associated Press. He then served as a sportswriter for the New York Post and the New York Daily News. During that time, he authored the story detailing Knute Rockne's "Win One for the Gipper" speech and popularized the Fighting Irish among the press in the Northeast as the mascot for the University of Notre Dame. He was also one of the earliest voices for the reform of college football.

In 1927, he began writing fiction and non-fiction stories for a number of magazines. His first of seventeen books, Huddle!, was published in 1930 by Farrar & Rinehart. Several of those stories and books became the basis for motion picture screen plays. His first of seven motion pictures, Touchdown, was released by Paramount Pictures in 1931. Kid Galahad was released by Warner Bros. in 1937, and was remade by the Mirisch Company in 1962.

In 1937, Wallace launched what would become an industry with the release of an annual college football preview. Between 1937 and 1948, Wallace's predictions ran in The Saturday Evening Post under the title Pigskin Preview.  From 1949 to 1956, Wallace's predictions ran in Collier's under the title Annual Football Preview.  After Collier's ceased publication, Wallace's predictions ran in Playboy and returned to the title of Pigskin Preview. After learning that Playboy also published pornographic photos as part of its content, Wallace terminated the agreement he had struck with Hugh Hefner. By that time, the industry Wallace inspired was in full-swing as many other football predictions were on the market.

Wallace's prominence as a sportswriter led him to serve as a commentator for the CBS TV network and the ABC radio network. Toward the end of his career, however, he labored in a number of ways on behalf of his beloved alma mater. For example, he was elected as president of Notre Dame's alumni association in 1949. His last three books were all non-fiction works that focused on various aspects of the university's history and culture. He served on the Library Council and served as the inaugural chair of the Sports and Games Collection (now known as the Joyce Sports Research Collection). Mary Wallace also served on the Women's Advisory Council for the university.

Work

Books

Books by Wallace:
 Huddle! (Farrar & Rinehart, 1930)
 O'Reilly of Notre Dame (Farrar & Rinehart, 1931)
 Stadium (Farrar & Rinehart, 1931)
 That's My Boy (Farrar & Rinehart, 1932)
 Big Game (Little, Brown and Company, 1936)
 Kid Galahad (Grosset & Dunlap, 1936)
 Autumn Madness (Books, Inc., 1937)
 Razzle-dazzle (Grosset & Dunlap, 1938)
 Little Hercules (M. S. Mill Co., Inc., 1939)
 Explosion (William Morrow and Company, 1943)
 The Notre Dame Story (Rinehart & Company, 1949)
 Big League Rookie (Westminster Press, 1948)
 Dimentia Pigskin (Rinehart & Company, 1951)
 Front Man (Rinehart & Company, 1952)
 Knute Rockne (Doubleday, 1960)
 Notre Dame: From Rockne to Parseghian (David McKay Publications, 1965)
 Notre Dame: Its People and Its Legends (David McKay Publications, 1969)

Movies

 Touchdown (Paramount Pictures, 1931)
 Huddle (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1932)
 That's My Boy (Columbia Pictures, 1932)
 The Big Game (RKO Pictures, 1936)
 Rose Bowl, (Paramount Pictures, 1936)
 Kid Galahad (Warner Bros., 1937)
 The Wagons Roll at Night (Warner Bros., 1941)
 Kid Galahad (Mirisch Company, 1962)

Pigskin Preview Issues

 Saturday Evening Post, 9/25/1937
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/24/1938
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/25/1939
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/21/1940
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/20/1941
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/19/1942
 No Issue in 1943, 1944, 1945 Due to World War II
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/21/1946
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/13/1947
 Saturday Evening Post, 9/18/1948

Annual Football Preview Issues

 Collier's, 9/24/1949
 Collier's, 9/16/1950
 Collier's, 9/15/1951
 Collier's, 8/30/1952
 Collier's, 9/18/1953
 Collier's, 9/17/1954
 Collier's, 9/16/1955
 Collier's, 9/14/1956

Pigskin Preview Issue

 Playboy, September 1957

References

Sportswriters from Ohio
1894 births
1977 deaths
Sports commentators
University of Notre Dame alumni
American male screenwriters
American male non-fiction writers
Screenwriters from Ohio
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters

Francis Wallace (writer)


The Battle of Huamachuco was fought on the 10 July 1883, and it was the last major battle of the War of the Pacific. The Chilean soldiers, led by Colonel Alejandro Gorostiaga, decisively defeated the Peruvian army commanded by General Andrés Avelino Cáceres near the town of Huamachuco. This Chilean victory effectively eliminated Cáceres' , ending any real threat or resistance in the Peruvian Andes. The Peruvian defeat paved the way for the Treaty of Ancón that finally put an end to the war. Also, one of Peru's greatest heroes, Colonel Leoncio Prado, died as a consequence of this battle.

Background

The defeats suffered by the Chilean Army at Marcavalle, Pucará and Concepcion, in addition to the decimation of their troops due to poor sanitation, convinced the Chilean High Command of the need to completely abandon the Central Andes. This retreat was made possible by the Chilean victory at Tarma Tambo on 15 July 1882. By that time, the occupation troops had been reduced to about half their original size. Peruvian General Andrés Cáceres controlled the Mantaro valley and had even briefly possessed the city of Huancayo. He established his command in Tarma and busied himself reorganizing his army. By January 1883, Cáceres had raised his troops to 3,200 well-armed and equipped men, and commanded central Peru.

Faced with this threat to the peace negotiations, Admiral Patricio Lynch, the Chilean Commander-in-Chief, decided to send a new force against General Cáceres. This new army comprised three divisions, under the command of Colonels García, del Canto and Arriagada. The Chilean army was well armed, and had learned the lessons of previous forays into the high Andes. Their plan was to surround and corner the Peruvians to force them into a conventional battle. Soon after they captured the strategic city of Jauja and on May 5 they reunited the forces in the city of Chiqlla. Faced with this grave threat, the Peruvian army retreated north.

On the 30 May the Peruvian army arrived at Cerro de Pasco, with the Chilean divisions under Colonels del Canto and García in close pursuit. Under those circumstances, the Peruvians continued to retreat into the high Andes. By the third week of June the Peruvians were in critical condition as the Chileans had almost cornered them. On June 22 General Cáceres ordered a retreat via the Llankanuku pass, located at an altitude of 3,850 meters and some 200 km (125 mi) north-west of Cerro de Pasco. Thanks to this risky maneuver he managed to evade the main Chilean force.

After many more hardships, on the 5 July the Peruvian army arrived at Tulpo, near Huamachuco, a further 120 km (75 mi) north of the Llankanuku Pass. The distances marched in the time taken—across some of the highest mountains in the world—by the Peruvians were astounding. Unfortunately, at Tulpo, General Cáceres learned that the Chilean Colonel Alejandro Gorostiaga was occupying the town. Whilst the colonel was isolated from the main body of the Chilean army, another Chilean group was advancing from the rear to reinforce him in the town and to help push the Peruvians towards Cajamarca. This second Chilean group carried an ammunition supply for Gorostiaga.

Cáceres decided to try to destroy this reinforcement before it could reach Gorostiaga's division, but Chilean scouts were on the alert and the planned surprise attack failed. At that point, the Peruvian general called a war council and the decision was taken to stop retreating and to try to destroy the Chilean forces occupying the town.

The battle
(This article needs revision and clear sources)

Forces deployment
On the 8 July 1883, the Peruvian forces - about 2,000 soldiers, plus a few hundred Indian guerrillas called montoneras - took positions on Cuyulga hill and on the facing Purrubamba hill, both overlooking the city. The Peruvians were armed with Peabody and Remington rifles, but didn't have much ammunition or bayonets. Originally General Cáceres divided his troops, with half on the Cuyulga hill and the rest on the left of it, to try to cut off the enemy from behind. However, Gorostiaga, as soon as he saw the Peruvians on the top of the hills, immediately gathered all his troops and evacuated the city, taking position in the Sazón hill, a perfect defensive position, with steep slopes and with a very difficult access facing the Cuyulga, a defensive position that in addition sported some Inca ruins that were to be used as parapets.

Engagement
When the Peruvians saw that Gorostiaga had moved out, they moved into the town and took control of it, effectively cutting off the Chilean escape route. Later, on the 8th and all through the 9 July  there were a few artillery exchanges, but the final Peruvian assault was reserved for the early hours of the 10 July. Cáceres' plan was to initiate the attack by destroying his enemy's most vulnerable position, southeast of Sazón hill. As the Chileans observed the threat posed by  the Peruvian advance, they in turn rapidly moved their vanguard down the hill to try to contain the menace, counter-attacking the Peruvian right flank on Cuyulga hill. Two companies of the Chilean Zapadores Regiment managed to get down the Sazón heading for the Peruvian positions on Santa Bárbara hill.

Cáceres responded by sending two companies of his Junín and Jauja regiments. These troops found fierce opposition and became bogged down in the fighting now occurring in the area. To support his infantry, Cáceres also sent forward a few companies of the Cazadores de Concepción and Marcavalle regiments; with this move Cáceres was seeking to surround the Chilean troops who were by then in retreat. Col. Gorostiaga tried to stop this evolving Peruvian movement by sending a company of the Concepción Battalion, under Lieutenant Luis Dell'Orto, to stall the attack of the Peruvian Colonel Luis Germán Astete's division. One after another the Chilean companies entered into battle at the same rate the Peruvian regiments did. For a moment both armies were on equal footing, while the Chilean right wing was defended by one company of the Talca Battalion facing the troops of General Manuel Cáceres.

Outnumbered, the Chilean forces were forced to retreat to their own lines under heavy Peruvian attack. Little by little the Peruvians started to push the Chilean line back up onto the summit of the Sazón hill. The Chilean artillery was silenced and regrouped on the left of the Chilean lines, protected by the cavalry and the Zapadores Regiment, plus troops of the Concepción and Talca units. The Peruvians almost got to the top of the hill.

After four hours of fighting, Cáceres sensed victory. Gorostiaga's forces were reduced to defending themselves on their parapets at the very top of the Sazón. It was at that moment that the Peruvians started to run out of ammunition. Faced with this fact, Cáceres made a fatal mistake: he ordered his artillery to relocate to the valley facing the hill in order to provide the final coup. Gorostiaga saw this tactical error and ordered a cavalry charge by a squadron of the Cazadores a Caballo Cav. Regiment led by Sergeant Major Sofanor Parra. against the Peruvian guns. The defenceless artillery men were either dispersed or killed, the Peruvians losing seven cannons in the process.

Chilean counter-attack
Meanwhile, the Chileans quickly reorganised themselves and launched a massive bayonet counter-attack against the outnumbering Peruvian lines. Cáceres' Peruvians soldiers, who lacked bayonets, and with almost no ammunition by then, could only defend themselves with the butts of their rifles; their montoneras allies at least had spears to defend themselves with. The Chilean downhill counter-attack broke the Peruvian lines. The formations of the Peruvian troops collapsed and the remnants started to flee from the battlefield. With this last attack the Chileans achieved victory. A few moments later, their infantry supported by two cannons, took the Peruvian basecamp at Cuyulga hill, ending the battle.

Aftermath
The Peruvians lost 800 men - almost one third of their forces - including a large number of their officers. Among the dead were General Pedro Silva, Chief of Staff Colonel Manuel Tafur, and the four divisional chiefs: Luis Germán Astete, Manuel Cáceres, Juan Gastó and Máximo Tafur. Many more died or were executed after the battle, among them one of Peru's greatest heroes, Colonel Leoncio Prado, due to failing  to keep his word to stay out of the war. General Cáceres, injured, was able to escape and evade capture. The battle effectively ended all further Peruvian resistance and the Treaty of Ancón, putting an end to the war, was signed just three months later, on October 20, 1883.

Order of battle
Peruvian Army
 Commanding General: General Andres Avelino Cáceres
 Northern Detachment Commander: Colonel Issac Recavarren
 1st Division (Col. Aragones)
 4th Infantry Battalion Pucara
 5th Infantry Battalion Pisagua
 2nd Division (Col. Salazar)
 11th Infantry Battalion Tarma
 12th Infantry Battalion Huallaga
 Army of the Center Commander: Colonel Francisco de Paula Secada
 1st Division (Col. Manuel Cáceres)
 1st Infantry Battalion Tarapaca
 2nd Infantry Battalion Zepita
 2nd Division (Col. Juan Gasto)
 6th Infantry Battalion Marcavalle
 7th Infantry Battalion Concepcion
 3rd Division (Col. Maximo Tafur)
 3rd Infantry Battalion Junin
 9th Infantry Battalion Jauja
 4th Division (Cpt. Luis Germán Astete)
 8th Infantry Battalion Apata
 10th Infantry Battalion San Jeronimo
 Cavalry
 Peruvian Horse Rifles Squadron (Sgt. Maj. Zavala)
 Tarma Escort Squadron (Sgt. Maj. Zapatel)
 Artillery Brigade (Col. of Artillery Rios)

Chilean Army
 Commander in Chief: Colonel Alejandro Gorostiaga
 Concepcion Infantry Battalion (Lt. Col. Herminio Gonzalez)
 Talca Infantry Battalion (Lt. Col. Alejandro Cruz)
 Zapadores Infantry Battalion Companies (Captain Canales)
 Piquete del Victoria Artillery Park (Lt. Col. Garcia)
 Mounted Hunters Squadron (Lt. Col. Novoa)
 Artillery Brigade (Sgt. Major Fontecilla)

Additional information

References

Bibliography

(1883). "A Great Chilian Victory." The New York Times August 14.
Markham, C. R. (1892). A History of Peru. Chicago: Sergel.
Scheina, Robert (2003). Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo. Dulles, VA: Brasseys.
Thurner, Mark (1997). From Two Republics to One Divided. Durham: Duke University Press.

Battles involving Chile
Battles involving Peru
Battles of the War of the Pacific
History of La Libertad Region
Conflicts in 1883
1883 in Chile
1883 in Peru
July 1883 events

Battle of Huamachuco


William Casey Marland (March 26, 1918 – November 26, 1965), a Democrat, was the 24th Governor of West Virginia from 1953 to 1957. He is best known for his early attempts to tax companies that depleted the state's natural resources, especially coal, as well as overseeing implementation of school desegregation during the Civil Rights Movement when other Southern governors opposed it. Near the end of his life, he re-entered the public stage when a reporter found him driving a cab in Chicago. He responded to the negative publicity by making a public statement to the media about his recovery from alcoholism and indicated that his new, relatively humble job helped in that recovery.

Biography
Son of a mining boss, Joseph Wesley and Maude Casey Marland, he was born in Johnston City, Illinois on March 26, 1918. His family moved to the coal town of Glen Rogers in Wyoming County, West Virginia when he was seven. During World War II, he served as a Navy lieutenant in the Pacific theater, completing four tours. He attended the University of Alabama, where he was a star football player, and received a law degree from West Virginia University in 1947. He married Valerie Allen Marland in 1942, and they had four children: William Allen, Susan Lynn, John Wesley, and Casey Dixon.

Marland was appointed law clerk to Federal Judge Ben Moore, and in August 1948, he was appointed Assistant Attorney General. Upon resignation of former Attorney General Ira J. Partlow December 1, 1949, he was appointed Attorney General. In November 1950, he was elected to the office. He announced his resignation on January 30, 1952 to run for election as governor later that year, his resignation taking effect the next day.

He beat former Senator Rush Holt by slightly more than 3% in the 1952 gubernatorial race. As Governor, Marland advocated the desegregation of schools, expansion of the state parks and other recreational facilities, improved unemployment and workers' compensation laws, and an industrial development program.

He ran for the 1956 special election for Senator. He lost the election to former Senator William Chapman Revercomb. In 1958 he ran for the Democratic primary to another special Senate election, losing to Representative Jennings Randolph. After his second Senate loss, Marland worked as an attorney, eventually relocating to the Chicago area.

Later years
The pressures on Marland may have contributed to the development of alcoholism. Accusations that he drank heavily in office or at inappropriate times during the day have been made by Underwood.

In the early 1960s, the ex-governor gave up drinking. But it was not his fate to live out his life as a private individual. A few years after his recovery, he was recognized by a Chicago Daily News reporter, Margery McElheny.  Marland confirmed that he had been working as a taxicab driver since August 1962, and the Daily News published the exclusive story on March 12, 1965, with the wire services following up on March 13, 1965. The story received great attention nationally.

Knowing that the story was about to break and concerned about damage to his family, he called a press conference and spoke candidly about his alcoholism, how he overcame it, and his reasons for driving a taxi: to hold in check a level of ambition that may have contributed to his drinking.

His fortunes dramatically changed for the better. He was soon invited to appear on Jack Paar's television talk show, and was hired to run a West Virginia horse racing concern.

But shortly thereafter, he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. He died of the disease in his Barrington, Illinois home, attended by his wife, children, other relatives, and family friends, on November 26, 1965. His widow followed him in death in 1977.

References

Rod Hoylman. "The Hard Road Home: William Casey Marland." West Virginia Division of Culture and History.

External links
Biography of William C. Marland
Inaugural Address of William C. Marland
Reconstructing Bill: 2009 documentary by West Virginia Public Broadcasting

1918 births
1965 deaths
Democratic Party governors of West Virginia
West Virginia Attorneys General
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
University of Alabama alumni
Alabama Crimson Tide football players
Methodists from West Virginia
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
People from Williamson County, Illinois
People from Wyoming County, West Virginia
West Virginia University College of Law alumni
Military personnel from West Virginia
American taxi drivers
20th-century American politicians

William C. Marland


Louisiana (, ), or the Province of Louisiana (), was a province of New Spain from 1762 to 1801 primarily located in the center of North America encompassing the western basin of the Mississippi River plus New Orleans. The area had originally been claimed and controlled by France, which had named it La Louisiane in honor of King Louis XIV in 1682. Spain secretly acquired the territory from France near the end of the Seven Years' War by the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). The actual transfer of authority was a slow process, and after Spain finally attempted to fully replace French authorities in New Orleans in 1767, French residents staged an uprising which the new Spanish colonial governor did not suppress until 1769. Spain also took possession of the trading post of St. Louis and all of Upper Louisiana in the late 1760s, though there was little Spanish presence in the wide expanses of what they called the "Illinois Country".

New Orleans was the main port of entry for Spanish supplies sent to American forces during the American Revolution, and Spain and the new United States disputed the borders of Louisiana and navigation rights on the Mississippi River for the duration of Spain's rule in the colony. New Orleans was devastated by large fires in 1788 and 1794 which destroyed most of the original wooden buildings in what is today the French Quarter. New construction was done in the Spanish style with stone walls and slate roofs, and new public buildings constructed during the city's Spanish period include several still standing today such as the St. Louis Cathedral, the Cabildo, and the Presbytere.

Louisiana was later and briefly retroceded back to France under the terms of the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800) and the Treaty of Aranjuez (1801). In 1802, King Charles IV of Spain published a royal bill on 14 October, effecting the transfer and outlining the conditions. Spain agreed to continue administering the colony until French officials arrived and formalized the transfer. After several delays, the official transfer of ownership took place at the Cabildo in New Orleans on 30 November 1803. Three weeks later on 20 December, another ceremony was held at the same location in which France transferred New Orleans and the surrounding area to the United States pursuant to the Louisiana Purchase. A transfer ceremony of Upper Louisiana to France and then to the United States took place on Three Flags Day in St. Louis. It encompassed a series of ceremonies held over two days: March 9–10, 1804.

History

Spanish Exploration
The Spanish were the first known Europeans to discover the Mississippi Delta during the expedition of Alonso Álvarez de Pineda in 1519. This was followed by the forced exploration of the shipwreck survivors Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, his companion Estebanico (believed to be a Spaniard born in North Africa), and two other Spaniards. In the last months of 1528, they sailed between Florida and Texas (Galveston Island) and from there, they walked until 1538, ending their journey in Mexico/New Spain. They covered much of the territory that now corresponds to the southern and southwestern United States, including the coast of Louisiana (see the book "Naufragios" which recounts this adventure).

Long before France began exploring this area and creating the colony of New France, the Spanish had already explored the Mississippi River (which they called "Río del Espíritu Santo") and its vast basin from La Florida. Hernando de Soto claimed the Mississippi Basin for Spain in 1538. Spanish Captain Luis de Moscoso de Alvarado reached the territory of the Natchitoches (also called Nachistochis by the Spanish) in 1542 and then went on to Texas. Shortly before, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's expedition left Mexico in search of the Seven Golden Cities and the Great Quivira (1540-1542). In October 1541, he crossed the plateau he called Llano Estacado, explored the vast prairies (Great Plains) of the territory he named "Cíbola" or "Llanos de Cíbola" (due to the abundance of cíbolos or American bison) or "Llanos del Cubo", perhaps a distortion of the original Spanish name. He reached, from the north, approximately Uachita in today's Ouachita County (Arkansas) and, from the east, to Kansas. In 1601, from the already Hispanic Texas (or Tejas) and New Mexico, Juan de Oñate and his Spanish troops entered the Great Plains area, almost reaching the city of natives whom the Spanish nicknamed Rayados due to the stripe tattoos from their eyes to their ears that these natives (the Wichita) wore. Oñate's forces nearly reached the city of Etnazoa, which perhaps had a huge population of 20,000 inhabitants in today's Arkansas City. However, the few troops led by Oñate had to retreat due to indigenous hostility and not finding any trace of gold or other typical riches of mercantile capitalism.

French Exploration

Starting in 1673, the French, originating from their colonies in New France (present-day Quebec and Acadia, Canada), began to explore the Mississippi River and claimed the territory for France.

The first French settlers explored the new territories of the Mississippi Basin from the Great Lakes (which they reached it via the St. Lawrence River). They undertook canoe journeys that lasted about five to six weeks, aided by the downstream currents of the Mississippi River. In this manner, they traveled from Montreal to Fort Michilimackinac and Grand Portage, a route which included about 50 smaller portages or carryovers. They could also access the territory via the Ohio River (Ujayu), a more accessible and easy route to travel from Montreal to New Orleans during the time of New France. River navigation was relatively swift when going downstream (it took approximately 15 days to travel from the Ohio Basin to New Orleans) but going upstream, or against the current, from New Orleans, took almost three months. The navigation technique of the time only allowed for a speed of about three miles per hour. Upstream navigation improved only with the advent of steamboats in the second half of the 19th century, known as steamers. The three existing routes from New Orleans to Upper Louisiana were challenging and full of hazards. This might explain, in part, why the French were able to maintain the territory's integrity for over 80 years and the Spanish for 40 years.

French Colonization
In 1682, the region was named French Louisiana (la Louisiane Française) in honor of Louis XIV, King of France, and was incorporated into New France as an administrative district. It stretched from the Gulf of Mexico to the current Canadian border.

In 1718, New Orleans was founded, which would become the most important city in the territory and its capital in 1723.

Spain entered the Seven Years' War in support of France, near its conclusion. King Charles III asked the French king to hand over Louisiana to Spain in exchange for Spain's support, which was accepted in the Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1762. However, the war turned out unfavorable for Spain, and Great Britain seized the Floridas. At the end of the war, the Treaty of Paris of 1763 was signed, acknowledging that Great Britain received the Floridas from Spain. As a balance of this war, Spain had lost the Floridas but gained Louisiana.

In the same Treaty of Paris of 1763, France handed over New France (Quebec and Acadia, today Canada) and the Illinois Country to Great Britain. Until then, the stone fortress known as Fort de Chartres had served as the center of French administration in the region for ten years. With the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the English crown declared almost all the land between (from East to West) the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and (from South to North) from the Florida peninsula to the island of Newfoundland with the status of indigenous reserve or "Territory of Indiana."

The British had difficulty establishing a fortress for their regiments in the newly acquired Illinois Country (Pays des Illinois). However, on October 10, 1765, a small detachment of the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment under the command of Captain Thomas Stirling took control of the Fort Chartres fortress and its surroundings. French settlers were ordered to leave or obtain a special license to stay. Many French settlers moved to St. Louis (Missouri), then under Spanish rule. Thus, the city of St. Louis was founded in 1767. One of the three founding partners was Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent, who would become the father-in-law of the governors of Louisiana, Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga and later also Bernardo de Gálvez.

Geography

Spanish Louisiana stretched from the Gulf of Mexico's Coastal Plain and the areas adjacent to the Mississippi Delta to Canada's border. From east to west, it covered the left basin of the Mississippi up to the Rocky Mountains in northeastern Colorado and the Mountain region, thus covering a large part of the Midwest. It spanned an area of 878,745mi² (2,275,940 km²), including all or parts of more than ten current U.S. states.

The population of this vast Spanish territory was estimated to be 125,000 people in 1785. This population was concentrated along the main – and to a lesser extent, secondary – rivers and watercourses such as the Mississippi River, the Red River, and the Missouri River. Demographic movements developed along these rivers and the Ohio River, which, located in the Illinois Country, had already been subjected to Britain after the British Empire defeated the French Empire in the 17th century. By the time Spain received Louisiana, indigenous Sioux (called Siuxes by the Spanish) or Cheyennes populations were estimated to be about 30,000 in Upper Louisiana, primarily in Minnesota.

Ecologically, the vast territory of Spanish Louisiana corresponded to most of what is now called the Midwest and included the following biomes: The Great Plains, largely consisting of expansive flat and gently rolling prairies roamed by herds of millions of massive American bison or cíbolos. These prairies or great plains, covered with tall grasslands (up to 6 feet high) with deep and extensive roots, were located west of the western forests and north of the Cross Timbers, a wooded region primarily composed of deciduous trees. It continued about 150 miles west of the Mississippi River from the dense mixed temperate forests that populated the eastern area of North America from the North Atlantic Ocean until the 19th century. These forests were cleared by American settlers after 1803; many forests in Lower Louisiana and The Floridas not only grew in flooded areas but also had foliage covered with Spanish moss, forming natural serpentine hanging from the branches down to the watery ground. In the far west and north, the great prairies entered an ecotone often covered by coniferous forests, especially in the west where the mountainous relief began.

Except for areas near the Gulf of Mexico which have a subtropical climate, most of the territory (The Great Plains) has a continental climate with warm summers and very cold winters. These plains allow the alternation of warm fronts from the south and icy fronts from the north, causing Spanish Louisiana's core to experience frequent tornadoes and lighting storms, especially in Oklahoma. As for the areas adjacent to the gulf, they occasionally suffer from hurricanes from the southwest that reach important southern cities like New Orleans.

Spanish Government

In 1764, Spain formally announced its acquisition of Louisiana. Antonio de Ulloa assumed his role as Louisiana's first Spanish governor in 1766. However, by 1768, a rebellion erupted, largely fueled by the settlers' displeasure with the governor. Alejandro O'Reilly, the second governor, successfully suppressed the uprising. Soon after, under the leadership of Governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga, who also presided over the New Orleans Cabildo, Spanish law was instituted. Notably, the cabildo banned the enslavement of indigenous people. And on November 3, 1770, Governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga abolished ineffective regulations on slave acquisition with his legal code.

Louisiana, under Spanish rule, especially during the terms of Malagan governors Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga and his brother-in-law, Bernardo de Gálvez, experienced significant demographic shifts. Spanish authorities promoted considerable European migration (including Acadians, Islanders, Alsatians, and Americans), resulting in a 500% population growth in Spanish Louisiana from 1763 to 1803. This brought the number of European-descended inhabitants to 50,000. However, Spain's trade monopoly hindered the economy of these immigrants.

To solidify control over Spanish borders in Upper Louisiana, especially along the Missouri basin, a Spanish military expedition led by Captain Francisco Rui set out from New Orleans in 1767. Rui established multiple Spanish forts in Upper Louisiana. Meanwhile, French settlers, who resided in the region east of the Mississippi River before English occupation, favored Spanish sovereignty. This led them to relocate to the river's western side. Hence, Kaskaskia was occupied by the English, while French settlers, protected by Spain, settled in Santa Genoveva del Mississippi and San Luis de Illinois. The English and later the Americans utilized the ancient Cahokia mound to establish a fort opposite the Spanish capital of Upper Louisiana.

Notable figures of the Spanish period included Malagan governors Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga and his successor and future brother-in-law, Bernardo de Gálvez. Governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga transformed the expansive, nearly uninhabited, and undefended province into a thriving region with some autonomy. Known as 'le Conciliateur', he adopted a conciliatory approach, notably freeing the leaders of the Louisiana Revolution and promoting cross-border trade with American settlers through the Mississippi. This boosted the economies of New Orleans and St. Louis. In addition, Unzaga y Amézaga established the world's first bilingual and intercultural public education system on December 19, 1771. He strengthened Louisiana's defenses, planning the creation of forts such as the Unzaga Post. From April 1776, he covertly aided American revolutionaries during the American Revolution by supplying powder, medicine, flour, etc., responding to requests from Patrick Henry, Charles Lee, Robert Morris, and other members of the Continental Army's Secret Committee.

In contrast, Bernardo de Gálvez, succeeding Unzaga y Amézaga as interim governor, declared war on Great Britain on May 8, 1779. He defeated the British in Baton Rouge, Naches, Mobile, and Pensacola, reclaiming Florida for Spain in 1781, a feat recognized by the 1783 Treaty of Paris. An iconic statue of him stands on Canal Street, and the Texan city of Galveston is named in his honor.

Governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró's tenure witnessed two major fires that ravaged half of New Orleans. To regulate building constructions, he introduced Spanish architectural styles, resulting in arcades, courtyards, and fountains, traces of which remain evident today.

The governance of Colonel Juan Bautista Gemmir y Lleonart also deserves mention. He briefly succeeded Rodríguez Miró until the arrival of the new governor, Baron de Carondelet, in 1791. The Baron began his rule in 1791 and distinguished himself as one of the city's top administrators and urban planners. He commissioned the construction of new trade canals and built forts to shield the city from military attacks. Other advancements during his tenure included public lighting, night patrols, and the release of Louisiana's first newspaper.

Manuel Luis Gayoso de Lemos, who served from 1797 to 1799, is the only Spanish governor buried in New Orleans.

Following the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte sought to reclaim Louisiana. The governor who followed Gayoso was the Marquess of Casa Calvo (1799–1801), and the last Spanish governor was Juan Manuel Salcedo (1801-1803). Ultimately, the 1803 Treaty of San Ildefonso saw Louisiana returned to France under Napoleon's pressure.

Upper and Lower, or the Louisianas
In 1772, Spanish Governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga instituted a territorial subdivision of Louisiana into Upper Louisiana (Luisiana Superior) and Lower Louisiana (Luisiana Inferior). The dividing line was approximately set at latitude 36°35'N, which is roughly in alignment with New Madrid. This northern demarcation was farther up than what the French had previously considered. To the French, Lower Louisiana was the region south of approximately latitude 31°N (which aligns with the current boundary of the state of Louisiana) or the area south of where the Arkansas River meets the Mississippi River, around 33°46'N latitude.

Despite the entire Spanish Louisiana being governed from New Orleans – a city which saw immense prosperity during the Spanish rule – the smaller town of San Luis de Ilinués, now known as St. Louis, Missouri, served as the subordinate capital of Upper Louisiana.

Demographics of Spanish Louisiana

Bernardo de Gálvez assumed the roles of Mayor of New Orleans and interim Governor of Spanish Louisiana on January 1, 1777. France had ceded Louisiana to Spain in 1763 as compensation for handing Florida over to England after the Seven Years' War. Gálvez's primary mission was to monitor events in the British colonies in North America, which were embroiled in war, and prepare the territory for a potential conflict with the United Kingdom. At that time, the region was sparsely populated, with both free inhabitants and slaves, as well as indigenous people. During the early decades of Spanish rule, however, the population grew rapidly: according to a census conducted during O'Reilly's governance in 1769, there were 13,513 inhabitants (excluding indigenous people). Two decades later, the population had surged to 31,433. However, by the end of the century, this growth had plateaued. Notably, the percentage of the Spanish population remained quite low, only reaching about 15% by the end of the Spanish period.

Although the non-indigenous free population represented considerably less than half of the province's total, they wielded significant power. Gálvez's economic policies facilitated the continued dominance of the regional oligarchy, which was primarily composed of Creoles or "creoles". Additionally, the colony had a small but significant free Black population. Government policies on slavery - a status that the majority of the non-indigenous population fell into - largely sought to sustain it. Still, they enabled an increase in slaves who had purchased their freedom. Aiming to boost agriculture and curry favor with the Creole oligarchy, Gálvez authorized the increased import of African slaves in November 1777.

To reinforce the defensive function of this border territory, there was a drive to increase the population, partly through immigration from both Spanish nationals and foreigners, preferably Catholics. In previous decades, settlers of German and French cultures, specifically the Acadians, had settled in the region and had played a part in the revolt against Governor Ulloa. Among the Spanish immigrants, Gálvez particularly encouraged Andalusians to settle, though the majority came from the Canary Islands and were thus termed "Isleños".

Governors, especially Bernardo de Gálvez, focused on curbing English smuggling and promoting monopolistic trade between the large colony and the Spanish metropolis, and occasionally with France.

Immigration from Saint-Domingue
Beginning in the 1790s, following the slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) that began in 1791, waves of refugees came to Louisiana. Over the next decade, thousands of migrants from the island landed there, including ethnic Europeans, free people of color, and African slaves, some of the latter brought in by the white elites. They greatly increased the French-speaking population in New Orleans and Louisiana, as well as the number of Africans, and the slaves reinforced African culture in the city.

Economy
One of the reasons the Spanish Monarchy, which during its height largely adhered to mercantilism, did not prioritize such vast and fertile territories (especially in agriculture and livestock) was the lack of significant gold, silver, or precious stone mines. Additionally, the absence of non-enslaved labor to advance intensive agriculture, which became prolific from the latter half of the 19th century, played a role. Although significant gold and silver deposits were eventually discovered in the mountains of present-day Colorado, this discovery came late—just around the time the territory was handed over to the United States.

The core of Louisiana's economy was primarily based on almost industrial-scale hunting, especially of the bison (also known as "cíbolos") and other wildlife. This practice was later intensified by the Americans, leading to the near-extinction of some species. Consequently, one of the main export items became hides and leather, fostering growth in the fur and leatherworking sectors, and perhaps even in fine leather goods production in the major towns. Bison meat was exported as a preserved item, often resembling the "pemmican" style of jerky during that era.

By the end of Spanish rule, significant portions of Lower Louisiana started cultivating cotton, which would become a globally essential textile until the mid-20th century.

Borders

The territory of Spanish Louisiana encompassed the entire Mississippi Basin to the west, starting from the right bank of the Mississippi River and including the entire Mississippi Delta, which also encompassed New Orleans. Due to the absence of sufficiently known geographical landmarks at that time, aside from parts of the Mississippi River's watershed, the French Empire initially laid claim to territories that were indisputably Spanish up to the Rio Grande's watershed. This encompassed all of Spanish Texas or Tejas and the western half of New Mexico. When the Louisiana Purchase occurred, the Americans inherited these French claims, leading to immediate disputes in Spain.

The territorial boundaries had not been defined in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, through which France ceded it to Spain. Neither were they in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, which involved retrocession to France, nor in the final purchase agreement. The United States claimed that Louisiana included the entire western part of the Mississippi Basin up to the Rocky Mountains watershed and the southeastern land up to the Rio Grande's watershed. Spain argued that it comprised only the Mississippi Basin's western half, which includes cities like New Orleans and St. Louis.

The relatively narrow strip of Louisiana within the Viceroyalty of New Spain was a special province under the Captaincy General of Cuba's jurisdiction. Meanwhile, the vast region extending westward was still seen as a part of the Commandancy General of the Provinces Internas. Louisiana was never considered one of the Provinces Internas of New Spain.

Specifically, Americans laid claim to territories that had been Spanish for centuries, resulting in conflicts with the Spaniards in all frontier areas, including those historically indisputably Spanish. A brief acknowledgment of these American claims occurred with the Adams-Onís Treaty. Through this treaty, the Americans were able to stake their claims on the southwestern area of today's state of Louisiana, including regions like Natchitoches and Lake Charles, in exchange for recognizing the boundaries at the Red River and Nexpentle/Arkansas up to the 42°N parallel and the main meridians connecting these points. However, despite the treaty, jingoists claimed areas like Texas or Tejas, much of New Mexico and Colorado, and more, as part of what they termed Lower Louisiana. This is despite the fact that the true Lower Louisiana referred to the southern part of the Mississippi Basin from New Madrid's latitude.

Manuel Salcedo handed over Lower Louisiana at the New Orleans Cabildo, while Upper Louisiana was officially ceded in St. Louis of Illinois by Lieutenant Governor Carlos Dehault De Lassus.

Timeline

Spanish Exploration

 1519 - Alonso Álvarez de Pineda discovered the Mississippi delta.
 1528 - Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca traversed the area near the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, covering territories corresponding to present-day Louisiana.
 1541 - Hernando de Soto explored from Florida, claimed the Mississippi River and all its tributaries for the Spanish Crown.
 1541 - Francisco Vázquez de Coronado explored from Mexico to Quivira, reaching the current city named Lindsborg in Kansas.
 1601 - Juan de Oñate entered from the southwest from Texas and New Mexico to the center of Kansas and west of Arkansas.

Louisiana (New France)

 1673 - Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet began exploring the Mississippi River from present-day Canada, marking the start of French influence and claims over the territory.
 1699 - Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville started the first French settlement at Fort Maurepas (now Ocean Springs, Mississippi).
 1702 - Bienville moved French settlements to Dauphin Island and established the Mabile colony with Fort Louis.
 1714 - Natchitoches was founded, named after the indigenous Natchitoches tribe.
 1718 - Bienville started constructing New Orleans, shifting the capital of French Louisiana.
 1720 - The Spanish Villasur expedition from Mexico was massacred near Columbus, Nebraska, by the Pawnee tribe allied with the French.
 1723 - New Orleans became the third capital of French Louisiana.
 1724 - Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, held a council with the Comanches against Spanish expeditions from Mexico.
 1754 - France and Britain started the French and Indian War.
 1760 - Britain effectively controlled all French colonies in Quebec.
 1761 - Spain supported France in the Seven Years' War expansion.

Louisiana (New Spain)

 1762 - Louis XV of France secretly proposed to Charles III of Spain that France give Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau.
 1763 - The Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' war, ceding various territories.
 1763 - The migration from Acadia (cajun) began with French settlers relocating to Spanish Louisiana.
 1764 - Pierre Laclede established a trading post in St. Louis, Missouri.
 1764 - Spain's acquisition of Louisiana was formally announced.
 1765 - Joseph Broussard led the first group of about 200 Acadians to St. Martinville, Louisiana.
 1766 - Antonio de Ulloa became the first Spanish ruler of Louisiana.
 1768 - Pro-French rebellion forced Governor Ulloa to abandon Louisiana.
 1769 - Alejandro O'Reilly suppressed the rebellion and enforced Spanish rule.
 1770 - Luis de Unzaga began the era of benign Spanish rule.
 1770 - Spain began administrative processes to govern Upper Louisiana.
 1779 - Spanish settlers, led by Francisco Bouligny, founded New Iberia along Bayou Teche.
 1779 - Spain declared war on Britain during the American Revolutionary War.
 1780 - The Battle of St. Louis was won by Spain.
 1781 - Spain completed its reconquest of Florida.
 1783 - The Treaty of Paris officially returned Florida to Spanish control.
 1788 - The Great New Orleans Fire destroyed much of the city.
 1789 - Reconstruction of New Orleans began.
 1795 - The Treaty of San Lorenzo established borders and navigation rights.
 1795 - Spain started scientific explorations on the Missouri River.
 1798 - Spain revoked the U.S.'s rights to the Mississippi River and New Orleans.
 1799 - The newly constructed Cabildo in New Orleans opened.

Louisiana (New France)

 1800 - In the Treaty of San Ildefonso, Napoleon secretly acquired the territory.
 1801 - The U.S. was allowed to use the port of New Orleans again.
 1803 - The Louisiana Purchase was announced by the U.S.
 1803 - Spain denied Lewis and Clark permission to travel the Missouri River.
 1804 - France officially took control, but the news didn't reach St. Louis until March 10, 1804. This event is known as the "Three Flags Day" in Louisiana.
 1804 - The United States took control of Louisiana territory on October 1, 1804, forming the District of Louisiana.

Remnants of Spanish Control
Until the Adams-Onís Treaty, both Spain and the United States made claims over vast territories. By 1810, due to the weakening of Spain as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and the American War of Independence, U.S. troops demanded the retreat of Spanish detachments to the north of the Red River, currently situated in Oklahoma. However, in 1819, the U.S. agreed to maintain what is now known as the Oklahoma Panhandle and the territory between Texas and Oklahoma, referred to by the Americans as Miller County, as neutral territories.

On the other hand, the Americans relinquished their claims on the territories of Texas and the northwestern half of New Mexico. In return, Spain, which by then was rapidly losing its grip on the American continent, retained control over the entirety of New Mexico, all of Texas, and nearly two-thirds of what is present-day Colorado. Spain also gave up its claim on the western part of the current U.S. state of Louisiana, including the Neutral Zone between the Sabine River and the Hondo Creek. Furthermore, Spain ceded the strategic territories of West and East Florida to the U.S., although by the time of their incorporation into the United States, both had already declared their independence from Spain: the former as the Republic of West Florida and the latter as the 1817 Republic of Florida, distinct from the earlier 1812 separatist movement. These territories were geopolitically key to the Caribbean Basin and the Mississippi Basin.

The boundaries set by the Spanish-American treaty of 1819, which took effect in 1821 with Spain's withdrawal from St. Augustine on July 10 and Pensacola on July 17, were ratified by the U.S. with the First Mexican Empire and subsequently with the First Federal Republic. This status quo persisted until 1836 when Texas declared its independence.

See also

 Louisiana Creole people
 History of Louisiana
 List of colonial governors of Louisiana
 Louisiana (New France)
 Louisiana Purchase
 Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
 Spanish missions in Louisiana
José Francisco Xavier de Salazar y Mendoza (1750–1802) was the first painter of significance to work in Spanish colonial New Orleans, Louisiana.

References

External links

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Colonial United States (Spanish)
Former Spanish colonies
Former colonies in North America

New France
1763 establishments in New Spain
1802 disestablishments in New Spain
1763 establishments in North America
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Pre-statehood history of Louisiana
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Pre-statehood history of Iowa
Pre-statehood history of Nebraska
Pre-statehood history of Kansas
Pre-statehood history of Minnesota
Pre-statehood history of Colorado
Pre-statehood history of South Dakota
Pre-statehood history of North Dakota
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Spanish colonization of the Americas

Louisiana (New Spain)