The Finnish Air Force (FAF or FiAF; ; ) is one of the branches of the Finnish Defence Forces. Its peacetime tasks are airspace surveillance, identification flights, and production of readiness formations for wartime conditions. The Finnish Air Force was founded on 6 March 1918.

History
The Finnish Air Force, one of the oldest air forces of the world, pre-dates the British RAF (founded as an independent entity on 1 April 1918) and the Swedish  (founded on 1 July 1926). The first steps in the history of Finnish aviation involved Russian aircraft. The Russian military had a number of early designs stationed in the Grand Duchy of Finland, which until the Russian Revolution of 1917 formed part of the Russian Empire. Soon after the Finnish declaration of independence of 6 December 1917, the Finnish Civil War of January to May 1918 broke out, in which the Soviets sided with the Reds – the socialist rebels with ties to Lenin's Bolshevik Party. Finland's White Guard, the Whites, managed to seize a few aircraft from the Soviets, but were forced to rely on foreign pilots and aircraft. Sweden refused to send men and materiel, but individual Swedish citizens came to the aid of the Whites. The editor of the Swedish newspaper , Valdemar Langlet, bought a N.A.B. Albatros aircraft from the Nordiska Aviatik A.B. factory with funds gathered by the  organization. This aircraft, the first to arrive from Sweden, was flown via Haparanda on 25 February 1918 by Swedish pilot John-Allan Hygerth (who on 10 March became the first commander of the Finnish Air Force) and Per Svanbäck. The aircraft made a stop at Kokkola and had to make a forced landing in Jakobstad when its engine broke down. It was later given the Finnish Air Force designation F.2 ("F" coming from the Swedish word "", meaning "aircraft").

Insignia of the Finnish Air Force (1918–1945)

Swedish count Eric von Rosen gave the Finnish White government its second aircraft, a Thulin Typ D. Von Rosen, later one of the founding members of the Nationalsocialistiska Blocket ("National Socialist Bloc"), a Swedish National Socialist political party, and brother-in-law to Hermann Goering, had painted his personal good-luck charm on the Thulin Type D aircraft. This logo – a blue swastika, the ancient symbol of the sun and of good luck, which was back then still used with non-political connotations – gave rise to the insignia of the Finnish Air Force. The white circular background originated when the Finns painted over the advertisement from the Thulin air academy. The swastika was officially taken into use after an order by Commander-in-Chief C. G. E. Mannerheim on 18 March 1918. The FAF changed its aircraft insignia, which resembled the swastika of the Third Reich, after 1944 due to an Allied Control Commission decree, which prohibited fascist organizations. It nevertheless continues to feature in some unit emblems, unit flags and decorations, including on uniforms. In 2020, the BBC reported that the FAF had "quietly stopped" using the symbol in the emblem of the Air Force Command.

First aircraft
The von Rosen aircraft received the designation F.1. Its pilot, Lieutenant Nils Kindberg, flew the aircraft to Vaasa on 6 March 1918, carrying von Rosen as a passenger. As this gift ran counter to the policy of the Swedish government, and no flight permit had been granted, Sweden fined Kindberg 100 Swedish crowns for leaving the country without permission. The F.1 aircraft is considered by some to be the first aircraft of the Finnish Air Force, which did not exist during the Civil War, while the Red side flew a few aircraft with the help of some Russian pilots. The F.1 aircraft was destroyed in an accident which killed its crew, not long after it had been handed over to the Finns. On 7 September 1920, two newly purchased Savoia flying boats crashed in the Swiss Alps en route to Finland, killing all on-board (three Finns and one Italian). This day has since become the memorial day for fallen pilots.

The Finnish Air Force assigns the matriculation numbers to its aircraft by assigning each type a two-letter code following by dash and an individual aircraft number. The two-letter code usually refers to the aircraft manufacturer or model, such as HN for F/A-18 Hornet, DK for Saab 35 Draken, VN for Valmet Vinka etc.

Finnish Civil War, January to May 1918

Air activity of the Reds
The Whites occupied most of the airbases that the Russians left in Finland after the Russian pilots had returned to Russia.

The Reds possessed a few airbases and a few Russian aircraft, mainly amphibious aircraft – they had 12 aircraft in all.  The Reds did not have any pilots themselves, so they hired some of the Russian pilots who had stayed behind.  On 24 February 1918 five aircraft arrived at Viipuri, and were quickly transferred to Riihimäki.

The Reds established air units in Helsinki, Tampere, Kouvola, and Viipuri.  There were no overall headquarters, but the individual units served under the commanders of the individual front lines.  A flight school was set up in Helsinki, but no students were trained there before the fall of Helsinki.

Two of the aircraft, one reconnaissance aircraft (Nieuport 10) and one fighter aircraft (Nieuport 17) that had arrived at Riihimäki were sent to Tampere, and three to Kouvola.  Four Russian pilots and six mechanics also arrived at Tampere.  The first war sortie was flown on 1 March 1918 over Naistenlahti.

It seems likely that the Reds also operated two aircraft over the Eastern front.  The Reds mainly performed reconnaissance, bombing sorties, spreading of propaganda leaflets, and artillery spotting. The Reds' air activity was not particularly successful. Their air operations suffered from bad leadership, worn-out aircraft, and un-motivated Russian pilots. Some of the aircraft were captured by the Whites, while the rest were destroyed.

Air activity of the Whites
In January 1918 the Whites did not have a single aircraft, let alone pilots, so they asked the Swedes for help. Sweden, a neutral country, could not send any official help. Sweden also forbade its pilots to aid Finland.

Despite this official stance, however, one Morane-Saulnier Parasol, and three N.A.B. Albatros arrived from Sweden by the end of February 1918.  Two of the Albatross aircraft were gifts from private citizens supporting the White Finnish cause, while the third was purchased. It was initially intended that the aircraft would support the air operations of the Whites, but the aircraft ultimately proved unsuitable.

Along with aircraft shortages, the Whites also did not have any personnel, so all the pilots and mechanics also came from Sweden.  One of the Finnish Jägers, Lieutenant Bertil Månsson, had received pilot training in Imperial Germany, but he stayed behind in Germany, trying to secure further aircraft deals for Finland.

During the Civil War the White Finnish Air Force consisted of:

 29 Swedes (16 pilots, two observers and 11 mechanics). Of the pilots, only 4 had received military training, and one of them operated as an observer.
 2 Danes (one pilot, one observer)
 7 Russians (six pilots, one observer)
 28 Finns (four pilots – of whom two had military training, six observers, two engineers and 16 mechanics).

The air activity consisted mainly of reconnaissance sorties.  The Germans brought several of their own aircraft, but they did not contribute much to the overall outcome of the war.

The first air-force base of independent Finland was founded on a lake shore near Kolho.  The base could operate three aircraft.  The first aircraft arrived by rail on 7 March 1918, and on 17 March 1918 took off from the base for the first time.  In 1918 the Finns took over nine Russian Stetinin M-9 aircraft that had been left behind.

The first air operation of the Whites during the war was flown over Lyly. It was a reconnaissance-gathering mission as the front-line moved south. As the line neared Tampere, the base moved first to Orivesi and then to Kaukajärvi near Tampere. The contribution of the White air force during the war was almost insignificant.

From 10 March 1918 the Swedish Lt. John-Allan Hygerth led the Finnish Air Force. He was however replaced on 18 April 1918, due to his unsuitability for the position and numerous accidents. The German Captain Carl Seber took over the role and commanded the air force from 28 April 1918 until 13 December 1918.

By the end of the Civil War the Finnish Air Force had 40 aircraft, of which 20 had been captured from the Reds (the Reds did not operate this many aircraft, but some had been found abandoned on Åland). Five of the aircraft had been flown by the Allies from Russia, four had been gifts from Sweden and eight had been bought from Germany.

Winter War (1939–1940)

The Winter War began on 30 November 1939, when the Soviet Air Force bombed 21 Finnish cities and municipalities. The Soviet Union had an estimated  5,000 aircraft in 1939, and of these, some 700 fighters and 800 medium bombers came to the Finnish front to support the Red Army's operations. As with most aerial bombardments in the early stages of World War II, the damage to Finnish industry and railways was quite limited.

At the beginning of the Winter War the Finnish Air Force was equipped with only 18 Bristol Blenheim bombers and 46 fighters (32 modern Fokker D.XXIs and 14 obsolete Bristol Bulldogs). There were also 58 liaison aircraft, but 20 of these were only used for messengers.  The most modern aircraft in the Finnish arsenal were British-designed and -built Bristol Blenheim bombers. The primary fighter aircraft, the Fokker D.XXI, featured a cheap but maneuverable design with fabric-covered fuselage and fixed landing-gear. On paper, the Finnish air assets should have been no match for the attacking Soviet Red Air Force. However, the Finnish Air Force had already adopted the finger-four formation in the mid-1930s, which proved a much more effective formation than the Vic formation that many other militaries continued to use in 1939.

To prevent their aircraft from being destroyed on the ground, the Finns distributed their aircraft to many different airfields and hid them in the nearby forests. The Finns constructed many decoys and built shrapnel-protection walls for the aircraft. Soviet air-raids on Finnish airfields usually caused little or no damage as a result, and often resulted in interception of the attackers by the Finns as the Soviet bombers flew homeward.

As the war progressed, the Finns tried desperately to purchase aircraft wherever they could. This policy resulted in a very diverse aircraft inventory, which caused some major logistical problems until the inventory became more standardized. The Finnish Air Force included numerous American, British, Czechoslovakian, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Soviet, and Swedish designs. Other countries, like South Africa and Denmark, sent aircraft to assist in the Finnish war effort. Many of these purchases and gifts did not arrive until the end of the hostilities, but would see action later during the Continuation and Lapland wars.

To make up for its weaknesses (few and obsolete fighters) the FAF mainly focused on attacking enemy bombers from directions that were disadvantageous to the enemy. Soviet fighters were usually superior in firepower, speed and agility, and Finnish pilots avoided them unless the enemy was in a disadvantageous position.

As a result of these tactics, the Finnish Air Force managed to shoot down 218 Soviet aircraft during the Winter War while losing only 47 to enemy fire. Finnish anti-aircraft guns also had 314 confirmed downed enemy planes. 30 Soviet planes were captured – these were "kills" that landed more or less intact within Finland and were quickly repaired.

Continuation War (1941–1944)

The Finnish Air Force found itself better prepared when the Continuation War against the Soviet Union started in 1941. It had been considerably strengthened and consisted of some 550 aircraft, though many were considered second-rate and thus "exportable" by their countries of origin. Finland purchased a large number of aircraft during the Winter War, but few of those had reached service during the short conflict. Politics had also played a role, since Hitler did not wish to antagonize the Soviet Union by allowing aircraft exports through German-controlled territory during the Winter War. In addition to Fokker fighters and Bristol Blenheim bombers built under license, new aircraft types were in place by the time hostilities with Soviet Union resumed in 1941. Small numbers of Hawker Hurricanes arrived from the United Kingdom, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s from France, Fiat G.50s from Italy, and one liaison aircraft. Numerous Brewster F2A Buffaloes from the neutral USA strengthened the FAF. A few dozen Curtiss Hawk 75s captured by the Germans in France and Norway were sold to Finland when Germany began warming up its ties with Finland. Finns reconditioned captured Tupolev SBs, Ilyushin DB-3s, and Polikarpov I-153s for service.

The FAF proved capable of holding its own in the upcoming battles with the Red Air Force. Older models, such as the Fokker D.XXI and Gloster Gladiator, had been replaced with new aircraft in front-line combat units.

The FAF's main mission was to achieve air superiority over Finnish-held territory and to prevent Soviet air power from reinforcing the Red Army's front lines. The fighter squadrons proved very successful in the Finnish offensive of 1941. A stripped-down, more manoeuvrable, and significantly lightened version of the American Brewster Buffalo was the FAF's main fighter until 1943. Results with this fighter were very good, even though the type was considered to be a failure in the US Navy and with British and Dutch Far East forces. In Finnish use, the Brewster had a victory rate of 32:1 – 459 kills to 15 losses. German Bf 109s replaced the Brewster as the primary front-line fighter of the FAF in 1943, though the Buffalos continued in secondary roles until the end of the fighting.  Other types, including the Italian Fiat G.50 and Curtiss Hawk 75, also proved capable in the hands of well-trained Finnish pilots. The principle reconnaissance type was the German Arado Ar 196, which had been purchased in 1943 and continued to serve throughout the war, though by mid-1944 the planes' pre-war roots were showing and were subsequently modified to a later A-5 model in an attempt to stave off obsolescence. Various Russian designs also saw action when lightly damaged "kills" were repaired and made airworthy.

Dornier Do 17s (received as a gift from Hermann Göring in 1942) and Junkers Ju 88s improved the bombing capability of the Finnish Air Force. The bomber force was also strengthened with a number of captured Soviet bombers, which had been taken in large numbers by the Wehrmacht during Operation Barbarossa. The bomber units flew assorted missions with varying results, but a large part of their time was spent in training, waiting until the time came to use the aircraft. Thus the bomber squadrons of Flying Regiment 4 were ready for the summer battles of 1944, which included for example the Battle of Tali-Ihantala (June to July 1944).

While the FAF was successful in its mission, conditions were not easy. Spare parts for the FAF planes were scarce — parts from the US (Buffalo and Hawk), Britain (Hurricanes), and Italy (G.50) were unavailable for much of the war. Repairs took often a long time, and the State Aircraft Factory was burdened with restoration/repair of captured Soviet planes and of foreign aircraft with many hours of flight time, and with the development of indigenous Finnish fighter types. Also, one damaged bomber took up workshop space equalling three fighters.

Finland was required to expel or intern remaining German forces as part of its peace agreement with the Soviets in September 1944.  As a result, the Finns' fought their final air battles against retreating Luftwaffe units.

The Finnish Air Force did not bomb any civilian targets during either war. Overflying Soviet towns and bases was also forbidden, as to avoid any unneeded provocations and to spare equipment.

The Finnish Air Force shot down 1,621 Soviet aircraft while losing 210 of its own aircraft during the Continuation War.

After World War II
See also The Finnish Air Force 1944–60

The end of World War II in 1945 and the Paris peace talks of 1947 brought about some limitations imposed on the FAF. For example, the Finnish Air Force could have:

 no more than 60 combat aircraft
 no aircraft with internal bomb bays
 no guided missiles or atomic weapons
 no weaponry of German construction or using German parts
 a maximum strength of 3,000 persons
 no offensive weapons

These revisions followed Soviet demands closely. When Britain, fearing that the provisions only augmented Soviet air defences, tried to vary some of the conditions, the Soviets opposed such proposals. The revisions were again revised in 1963, and Finland was allowed to buy guided missiles and a few bombers that were used as target-tugs. The FAF also used a loop-hole to strengthen its capabilities by purchasing large numbers of two-seater aircraft, which counted as trainer aircraft and were not included in the revisions. These aircraft could have secondary roles.

During the Cold War years ( to ), Finland tried to balance its purchases between east, west and domestic producers. This led to a diverse inventory of Soviet, British, Swedish, French and Finnish aircraft. After leading Finnish politicians held unofficial talks with their Swedish counterparts, Sweden began storing surplus Saab 35 Drakens, intended for transfer to Finland in the event of a war against the Soviet Union. This practice continued until the 1980s.

On 22 September 1990, a week before the unification of Germany, Finland declared that the limiting treaties were no longer active and that all the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaties were nullified.

In the 1990s, with the Cold War over, the Finnish Air Force ended its policy of purchasing Soviet/Russian aircraft and replaced the Saab Draken and MiG-21s in its fighter wing with US F/A-18C/D Hornets.

 the FAF is organized into three Air Commands, each assigned to one of Finland's three air-defence areas. The main Wing bases are at Rovaniemi, Tampere and Kuopio-Rissala, each with a front-line squadron. Pilot training takes place at the Air Force Academy in Tikkakoski, with advanced conversion performed at squadron level.

HX Fighter Program

The current Hornet fleet is set to begin being phased out from 2025, and to be completely decommissioned by 2030. The Finnish MoD initiated its Hornet replacement programme in June 2015, and named it the "HX Fighter Program". A working group was created and it identified suitable aircraft.

The final decision for choosing the new Air Force jet is based on five key considerations, which are the multi-role fighter's military capability, security of supply, industrial cooperation solutions, procurement and life cycle costs, and security and defence policy implications. An extensive questionnaire had been sent out the producers asking what their products can offer Finland in form of capabilities, cost, security of supply and the domestic industry's role, as well as security and defence policy impacts.

The goal is to retain the numerical strength of the FAF fighter fleet, which means that the goal is to obtain some 64 aircraft. The MoD has estimated that the programme will cost somewhere between 7–10 billion Euros. In October 2019, the government of Finland stipulated a budget ceiling of  for the HX fighter programme.

In December 2015 the Finnish MoD sent a letter to Britain, France, Sweden and the US informing them that the fighter project had been launched in the Defence Forces. The request for information concerning the HX Fighter Program was sent in April 2016. Responses were received from all five participants in November 2016. The official Request for Quotation was sent in the spring of 2018. The goal is to start the fighter candidates' environmental testing in Finland in 2019. The buying decision took place in 2021.

On 10 December 2021, it was announced that Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II was the winner of the HX program. It was also revealed that neither Rafale nor Typhoon had gone through to the final round.

The cost for 64 aircraft was , and the initial weapons package () and other associated costs (service equipment, reserve and replacement parts, training equipment and other systems and services were ) bringing the package to . Additionally  are going to be used to upgrade facilities, and  are saved for later expenses, such as air-to-ground weapons, resulting in total expenses of , below the limit of . Costs per aircraft frame is .

The aircraft are planned to be delivered between 2026 and 2030, and is expected to replace the F/A-18s during the period 2028–2030. The F-35s are intended to be in service until the 2070s. The FAF expects the annual operating costs not to exceed , which are the current operating costs for the F/A-18 fleet. The first weapons package will include AIM-9X Block II+ Sidewinder and AIM-120C-8 AMRAAM missiles, and later on air-to-ground weaponry will be obtained when they reach sufficient maturity and will match their shelf life with the introduction of the aircraft. The air-to-ground package might consist of GBU-53/B SDB II bombs, GBU-31 JDAM bombs, JSM and AGM-158B-2 JASSM-ER missiles, which all were offered in the deal. The DSCA notification also mentioned BLU-117, BLU-111 and BLU-109 bombs, as well as AGM-154C-1 Joint Stand Off Weapons (although the latter is unlikely as production is ending after 2023).

Equipment

Aircraft

Note: Three C-17 Globemaster III's are available through the Heavy Airlift Wing based in Hungary.

Armament

Organization

The Air Force is organised into three air commands, each of which operates a fighter squadron. In addition, the Air Force includes a number of other units:

 Air Force General Staff, in Tikkakoski
 Air Force Command (AFCOMFIN), at Jyväskylä–Tikkakoski Air Base
 Air Operations Centre, at Jyväskylä–Tikkakoski Air Base
 Lapland Air Command, at Rovaniemi Air Base
 Fighter Squadron 11 (Hävittäjälentolaivue 11, HävLLv 11)
 1st Flight, with F-18C/D
 2nd Flight, with F-18C/D
  Communication Flight, with PC-12 NG
 5th Sector Operations Center
 Base Support Squadron
 C4I Center
 Maintenance Center
 Karelia Air Command, at Kuopio Air Base
 Fighter Squadron 31 (Hävittäjälentolaivue 31, HävLLv 31)
 Headquarters Flight
 1st Fighter Flight, with F-18C/D
 2nd Flight, with F-18C/D
 3rd Flight, with F-18C/D
 Communication Flight, with PC-12 NG
 7th Sector Operations Center
 Base Support Squadron
 C4I Center
 Maintenance Center
 Satakunta Air Command, at Tampere-Pirkkala Air Base
 Air Operations Support Squadron
 Headquarters Flight
 Flight, with CASA C-295M, Learjet 35A/S
 Base Support Squadron
 C4I Center
 Maintenance Center
 Air Force Academy, at Jyväskylä–Tikkakoski Air Base
 Fighter Squadron 41, with Hawk Mk 51/51A, 61
 Headquarters Flight
 1st Flight, with Hawk Mk.51, Mk.51A, Mk.66
 2nd Flight, with Hawk Mk.51, Mk.51A, Mk.66
 3rd Flight, with Hawk Mk.51, Mk.51A, Mk.66
 Communication Flight, with PC-12 NG
 Training Center, with Grob G 115E
 Training Battalion
 Air Force Reserve Officer School
 Air Force NCO School
 Signal Technology Company
 Air Traffic Engineer Company
 Base Support Squadron
 C4I Center
 Maintenance Center
 Air Force Band

War Time Strength
 2x F-18C squadrons
 1x Hawk squadron
 1x Air Operations Support squadron
 4x Stand-by bases
 4x Communication flights

Total strength is 38,000.

Commanders

See also
List of military aircraft of Finland
List of World War II aces from Finland
List of air forces

References

Citations

Sources
 Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Annals of the Gauntlet". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, No. 2, n.d., pp. 163–176.
 Guest, Carl-Fredrick. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast, No. 18, April – July 1982. pp. 78–79. .

 Silvester, John. "Call to Arms: The Percival Sea Prince and Pembroke". Air Enthusiast, No. 55, Autumn 1994, pp. 56–61.

External links

 Pictures of Finnish Air Force aircraft at Airliners.net

Military units and formations established in 1918
Aviation in Finland
1918 establishments in Finland

Finnish Air Force


A tea chest is a type of wooden case originally produced and used to ship tea to the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. The conventional tea chest is a case with riveted metal edges, of approximate size .

Modern tea chests (2023) are made of plywood with metal corners and lined with aluminium foil and parchment paper to provide aroma proof packaging. They are generally shipped in shipping containers, so modern tea chest are commonly dimensioned to fit in standard shipping containers.

The term is now used widely to indicate similarly sized cases, including corrugated boxes, produced for various home and commercial uses.

Wooden tea caddies are also occasionally referred to as "tea chests".

A tea chest holds 42 to 58 kilograms of tea; the size depends on the origin and client. Sizes vary from 400×400×620 to 500×500×750 mm.

History
The traditional construction was of very thin wood held at the edges with metal edges, riveted to the sheets. Internally, tea chests were often lined with metal foil, and strengthened with inch-by-inch boards at the edges.

The foil was stated as lead in a Bushell's 1925 advertisement but later changed to aluminium foil.

Tea chests were only used to carry tea once, so they were generally sold for non-food use. They would often be subsequently used for domestic goods storage and house contents moving as they were low cost, light weight, robust and clean.

During the 1950s throughout the UK, tea chests began to be used as basic basses in skiffle groups, such as the Quarrymen.

Due to containerisation of shipping and the availability of dry vented containers, the use of tea chests for shipping tea declined in the late 20th century. By the second decade of the 21st century, although tea chests were still used in some cases, tea is most commonly transported in sacks, either polyethylene or multi layer paper, stacked on pallets and packed into clean dry vented shipping containers.

See also
 Crate
 Milk crate

References

Food storage containers
Tea

Tea chest


Lake Annean, sometimes referred to as Annean Lake or incorrectly as Nannine Lake, is a DIWA-listed salt lake system located in the Mid West region of Western Australia. The lake is situated about  southwest of Meekatharra.

Description
The lake is roughly  in area, and consists of a main waterbody with two elongate arms. The main waterbody is roughly rectangular, with its long side oriented along a north-westerly axis. A narrow arm, essentially a network of anastomosing creeks, arises from near the eastern edge, stretching north almost to Meekatharra; the lake receives inflow from this arm and also some smaller creeks on the west and north side. Drainage is via the other arm, which arises from near the western edge and reaches almost to headwaters of the Hope River, into which Lake Anneen flows following heavy rains. A low ridge nearly divides the lake roughly in two, and the Great Northern Highway now runs along this ridge.

Lake Annean is shallow, with a great many islands and peninsulas. Some parts of the lake almost always hold water, but the entire lake fills only after flooding caused by tropical summer and autumn rains. This occurs only every five to ten years.

It is one of the most important breeding sites in Western Australia for Gelochelidon nilotica (gull-billed tern) and Chlidonias hybridus (whiskered tern). It is also an important refuge for other waterbirds, the nearest adjacent wetland, Wooleen Lake, being nearly  away.

The ghost town of Nannine is located on the northern banks of Lake Annean. The lake is no longer currently subject to any human use, except for some recreational sailboarding by residents of the area. Potential degrading processes include pastoral grazing, grazing and predation by feral and introduced animals, the illicit picking of wildflowers, and pollution by the highway or nearby gold mines.

See also

 List of lakes of Western Australia

References

Lakes of the Mid West (Western Australia)
DIWA-listed wetlands
Protected areas of Western Australia
Saline lakes of Western Australia

Lake Anneen


Haplogroup R1a1 (Y DNA) In genetics, the Haplogroup R1a1 (M17) is a Y chromosome haplogroup, which is distributed across Greater Asia or (Eurasia). This group is common in Europe, North Central Asia and India. In Europe, the highest concentrations are in Eastern Europe, particularly in Poland and Ukraine, where half of all males belong to this haplogroup. High concentrations are also present in Northern Europe and it is believed that the Vikings spread it throughout the rest of Europe, including the British Isles. The first carriers of the R1a1 haplotype may have been the Proto-Indo-European nomads in Ukraine about 5,000 years ago. In the context of the kurgan hypothesis, it is associated with the spread of the Indo-European languages. In India, the highest concentrations of R1a can be found in the Brahmins. The studies point to an Aryan migration dating back to before 1500 B.C. The average frequency across all castes of the R1a haplogroup is approximately 40%. In Europe a high concentration of this Lineage be found in Roma people https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/r1a1a-conquers-the-worldin-a-few-pulses

References

Chromosomes
DNA

R1a1


William Lisle (1632 – 12 July 1716) was an English lawyer, landowner and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1659 to 1681.

Lisle was the eldest son of Tobias Lisle, Grocer of Cannon Street, London and Saffron Hill and his wife Susan Trist daughter of Richard Trist of Maidford, Northamptonshire. He was admitted at Middle Temple in  1650 and at Magdalen College, Oxford in 1651. He was called to the bar succeeded to the estates of his father in 1659. Also in 1659, he was elected Member of Parliament for Brackley in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was re-elected MP for Brackley in 1660 for the Convention Parliament. In 1662 he was a lieutenant in the volunteer cavalry for Northamptonshire and became captain of the militia in 1663. In 1665 he succeeded to the estates of his uncle William Lisle at Evenley. In the same year he was Master in Chancery and became commissioner for assessment for Northamptonshire until 1680. He was colonel of the militia from 1673 to before 1680. In 1679 he was elected MP for Brackley again. He was also elected MP for Brackley in 1681.  He was commissioner for assessment from 1689 to 1890 and became J.P. for Northamptonshire from 1689 until his death.

Lisle died at the age of 84 and was buried at Evenley.

Lisle married Elizabeth Aylworth, daughter of John Aylworth of the Middle Temple and Polsloe, Devon on 9 November 1661 and had five sons and five daughters.

References

1632 births
1716 deaths
English MPs 1659
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1679
English MPs 1681
English lawyers
17th-century English lawyers
People from Evenley

William Lisle


David Anthony Atkinson (24 March 1940 – 23 January 2012) was a British Conservative politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Bournemouth East from a 1977 by-election until he stepped down at the 2005 general election.

Early life
Born in Westcliff-on-Sea, Atkinson attended St George's College, Weybridge and Southend College of Technology. He later trained at the  Chelsea College of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering in Chelsea where he gained a Diploma in Automobile Engineering and Motor Trade Management. From 1963–72, he was Director of Chalkwell Motor Co. Ltd in Leigh-on-Sea, and from 1973–77 he worked for David Graham Studios Ltd in printing, marketing, artwork and design.

Parliamentary career
Atkinson was national chairman of the Young Conservatives from 1970 until 1971, more right-wing than the long line of his moderate predecessors and successors.  He contested the Newham North West constituency in February 1974 and Basildon in October 1974.

Atkinson became an MP at the 1977 Bournemouth East by-election, retaining the seat for his party. He served as PPS to Paul Channon and was a vociferous supporter of corporal punishment and was nearly dismissed for voting against the Government in its support.

He supported local causes such as AFC Bournemouth during their financial troubles. Atkinson was vocal in his criticism of the Soviet Union and active in a number of international forums aimed at highlighting communist abuse of human rights. He was less critical of South Africa's apartheid regime, calling for the lifting of sanctions and objected to the pressures being placed upon the South African Government.

The Independent reported that Atkinson was invited on a visit to South Africa by Strategy Network International, the lobby group fronted by Derek Laud, the ex Monday Club member and protege of Michael Brown: "John Carlile, Mr Colvin and David Atkinson, who led an SNI delegation to observe the Angolan peace process in 1992, a year before the firm closed."

Personal life
Atkinson married Susan Pilsworth in 1968 and divorced in 1992. They had a son and a daughter. He came out as gay and entered into a civil partnership in 2011. His wife discovered he had been in a relationship with footballer Justin Fashanu when Fashanu came out as gay and said he had had an affair with an unnamed, married Conservative MP whom he had met in a London gay bar. After confronting Atkinson, he revealed he was gay and had been in a series of gay relationships.

His son, Anthony, at first accused him of being a sexual predator and said Geoffrey Dickens had stayed at the Atkinson family home. He said he believed his father had been named in the missing Westminster paedophile dossier compiled by Dickens.

Anthony Atkinson later qualified his statement to say his father had not been engaged in activity that equated to the scope and scale of Jimmy Savile's alleged activities, saying he had no evidence that his father ever had relations with anyone under-aged.

Death
In 2011, Atkinson underwent an operation after he was diagnosed with bowel cancer. He died on 23 January 2012 at the age of 71.

References

External links

 They Work For You - David Atkinson
 Ask Aristotle

1940 births
2012 deaths
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
People educated at Alleyn Court School
People educated at St George's College, Weybridge
People from Westcliff-on-Sea
Place of death missing
English LGBT politicians
Gay politicians
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
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LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Politicians from Bournemouth
21st-century English LGBT people

David Atkinson (politician)


Kent was a parliamentary constituency covering the county of Kent in southeast England. It returned two "knights of the shire" (Members of Parliament) to the House of Commons by the bloc vote system from the year 1290. Members were returned to the Parliament of England until the Union with Scotland created the Parliament of Great Britain in 1708, and to the Parliament of the United Kingdom after the union with Ireland in 1801 until the county was divided by the Reform Act 1832.

History

Boundaries
The constituency consisted of the historic county of Kent. (Although Kent contained eight boroughs, each of which elected two MPs in its own right for part of the period when Kent was a constituency, these were not excluded from the county constituency, and the ownership of property within the borough could confer a vote at the county election. This was even the case for the city of Canterbury, which had the status of a county in itself: unlike those in almost all other counties of cities, Canterbury's freeholders were entitled to vote for Kent's MPs.)

The constituency boundaries may have theoretically encompassed a much larger area and population than would at first appear. After the American Revolution, it was apparently solemnly argued in Parliament that the rebels' complaint of no taxation without representation was mistaken, since "all the grants of land in America were to be held of the Manor of Greenwich in the County of Kent, and therefore the Knights of the Shire for the County of Kent represented all Americans". However, this somewhat flimsy argument - relying on an obsolete legal fiction dating back to the land ownership laws of the feudal system - seems not to have been received entirely respectfully even in the 18th century, and it is certainly not recorded that Kent's returning officer was ever bothered by American colonists demanding their right to vote.

Franchise
In medieval times, the custom in Kent, as elsewhere, was for the MPs for the county and those for its boroughs to be elected on the same day at the county court, by the suitors to the court, which meant the tiny handful of the local nobility who were tenants in chief of the Crown. Thus we find it recorded that in the second year of the reign of Henry V, "In the County Court of Kent, held at Rochester, Four Coroners and Eight others present, chose the Knights for the County, and the same person elect two Citizens for Canterbury, and two for Rochester."

From 1430, the Forty Shilling Freeholder Act extended the right to vote to every man who possessed freehold property within the county valued at £2 or more per year for the purposes of land tax; it was not necessary for the freeholder to occupy his land, nor even in later years to be resident in the county at all.

Except during the period of the Commonwealth in the mid 17th century, Kent had two MPs elected by the bloc vote method, under which each voter had two votes. In the nominated Barebones Parliament, five members represented Kent. In the First and Second Parliaments of Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate, however, there was a general redistribution of seats and Kent elected 11 members, though most of the county's boroughs lost one or both of their MPs. The traditional arrangements were restored from 1659.

Political character
At the time of the Great Reform Act in 1832, Kent had a population of approximately 480,000, though only between 8,000 and 9,000 of these were qualified to vote at the start of the 19th century, and fewer than 4,000 actually voted at the last contested election, in 1818. It has been estimated that in this period around a third of Kent's voters were urban, spread among a couple of dozen medium-sized and small towns: Canterbury, Maidstone, Dover, Deal, Chatham and the growing resorts of Ramsgate and Margate were the biggest, but at the election of 1802 the pollbooks show that only Canterbury (with 384 voters) contributed more than 250 to the poll.

With the villages outvoting the towns by two to one, no particular local interest predominated. By custom, the choice was generally one member from East Kent and one from West Kent. The county's MPs were generally drawn from the leading local families of gentry, but rarely from the nobility, and the voters jealously guarded their independence: although important peers wielded significant influence at times - the Earl of Westmorland and Earl of Winchelsea at the turn of the 18th century for example, the Duke of Dorset sixty years later - it always fell far short of control over the outcome.

Elections were held at a single polling place, and voters from the rest of the county had to travel to the county town to exercise their franchise. It was normal for voters to expect the candidates for whom they voted to meet their expenses in travelling to the poll, making the cost of fighting an election substantial. Contested elections were therefore rare in most counties, but Kent was something of an exception: voters went to the polls at 14 of the 29 general elections between 1700 and 1832, a total exceeded only by Surrey among the other English counties.

Those elections which were contested seem rarely to have been decided on party lines, and too great an adherence to party loyalty by the MPs was sometimes resented. The voters also expected the solicitous attention of their members. Jupp reprints the resolutions passed by a County meeting of Kent freeholders in 1820:
1. That it is essential to the honour and credit of this County, that it should be represented by two gentlemen constantly resident therein.2. That it is the opinion of this Meeting that this county was in the last Parliament very inefficiently represented by one of its members, inasmuch as his residence was elsewhere, and the Freeholders were thereby deprived of that easy access and free communication which are essential between the constituent and the representative.3. That it is the opinion of this meeting that the conduct of a County member in Parliament should be at all times marked by independence, equally free from subserviency to any Administration and unshackled by any Party indiscriminately hostile thereto.4. That we cannot recognise in Mr Honywood's uniform opposition to every measure recently proposed in Parliament, for the purpose of restraining the career of sedition, blasphemy and crime, the influence of that elevated spirit, which should direct the actions of an independent representative for this great and enlightened County.
These sentiments were clearly not held universally, however, since the apostrophised Mr Honywood was re-elected at that year's election.

Abolition
The constituency was abolished in 1832 by the Great Reform Act, being divided into two two-member county divisions, Eastern Kent and Western Kent.

Members of Parliament

MPs 1290–1660

 Constituency created (1290)

MPs 1640–1832

Notes

Election results

References
Robert Beatson, A Chronological Register of Both Houses of Parliament (London: Longman, Hurst, Res & Orme, 1807)
D Brunton & D H Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954)
 John Cannon, Parliamentary Reform 1640-1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972)
Cobbett's Parliamentary history of England, from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803 (London: Thomas Hansard, 1808)
 Maija Jansson (ed.), Proceedings in Parliament, 1614 (House of Commons) (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988)
 Peter Jupp, British and Irish Elections 1784-1831 (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1973)
 F D MacKinnon, On Circuit (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940), quoted in Michael Gilbert (ed.), The Oxford Book of Legal Anecdotes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989)
 Lewis Namier & John Brooke, The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1754-1790 (London: HMSO, 1964)
 J E Neale, The Elizabethan House of Commons (London: Jonathan Cape, 1949)
 Charles Henry Parry (ed), The Parliaments and Councils of England (London: John Murray, 1839)
 J Holladay Philbin, Parliamentary Representation 1832 - England and Wales (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965)
 Robert Walcott, English Politics in the Early Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956)
 Dictionary of National Biography

Parliamentary constituencies in Kent (historic)
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1290
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 1832

Kent (UK Parliament constituency)


A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if they were a single person for certain purposes.  The most common purposes are lawsuits, property ownership, and contracts.

A legal entity is not always something else than the natural persons of which it is composed as one can see with a company or corporation.

Some examples of legal entities include:
 companies
 cooperatives (co-ops)
 corporations
 municipalities
 natural persons
 political parties
 sovereigns
 states
 temples, in some legal systems, have separate legal personality
 trade unions
 ship or vessel

Limitations
There are limitations to the legal recognition of artificial persons.  Legal entities cannot marry, they cannot vote or hold public office, and in most jurisdictions there are certain positions which they cannot occupy.  The extent to which a legal entity can commit a crime varies from country to country.  Certain countries prohibit a legal entity from holding human rights; other countries permit artificial persons to enjoy certain protections from the state that are traditionally described as human rights.

examples of legal entities are
- sole traders
-partnerships
- trusts
- private and public company

Recently, in India, a company despite being artificial person has got court stay, from High Court Jaipur Bench against an employee seeking justice in labour court.

Related pages
 Company

Footnotes

Legal terms

Legal entity


George-Auguste Gigault (November 23, 1845 – April 25, 1915) was a notary, civil servant and political figure in Quebec. He represented Rouville in the House of Commons of Canada from 1878 to 1891 as a Conservative and then independent Conservative member. His first name also appears as Georges-Auguste.

He was born in Saint-Mathias, Canada East, the son of Pierre Gigault and Marguerite Wait, and was educated at the Séminaire de Saint-Hyacinthe. Gigault went on to study law in Montreal and was licensed to practise as a notary in 1867. He practised in Saint-Césaire and later in Sainte-Foy. In 1870, he married Isabella Dillon. Gigault was an unsuccessful candidate for a seat in the House of Commons in 1874. He served as mayor of St-Césaire from 1875 to 1878. He also served as postmaster. Opposed to the execution of Louis Riel, he declared himself a Nationalist Conservative in 1885 and ran as an independent Conservative in 1887. Gigault was defeated when he ran for reelection in 1891. In 1892, he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Rouville seat in the Quebec legislative assembly. Later that year, he was named assistant commissioner in the Quebec Department of Agriculture and Colonization. In 1897, after the department was split, he became assistant commissioner in the Department of Agriculture. He died on his farm in Sainte-Foy at the age of 69.

Electoral record

References

1845 births
1915 deaths
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Mayors of places in Quebec
Nationalist Conservative MPs

George-Auguste Gigault


The N-Gage is a smartphone combining features of a mobile phone and a handheld game system developed by Nokia, announced on 4 November 2002 and released on 7 October 2003. It runs the original Series 60 platform on Symbian OS v6.1.

N-Gage attempted to lure gamers away from the Game Boy Advance by including telephone functionality. This was unsuccessful, partly because the buttons, designed for a telephone, were not well-suited for gaming. The original N-Gage was described as resembling a taco, which led to its mocking nickname "taco phone".

Nokia introduced the N-Gage QD in 2004 as a redesign of the original "Classic" N-Gage, fixing widely criticized issues and design problems. However, the new model was unable to make an impact, and with only 2 million units sold in its two years, the N-Gage and its QD model were a commercial failure, unable to challenge their Nintendo rival.

The N-Gage was discontinued in February 2006, with Nokia moving its gaming capabilities onto selected Series 60 smartphones. This was announced as the N-Gage platform or "N-Gage 2.0" in 2007, carrying on the N-Gage name.

Design

The N-Gage is used in a wide physical form with a 2.1 inch TFT display in the centre with a D-pad to the left and numerical keys to the right, among other buttons. This kind of design was roughly used before by the Nokia 5510 mobile phone.

Instead of using cables, multiplayer gaming was accomplished with Bluetooth or the Internet (via the N-Gage Arena service). The N-Gage also included MP3 and Real Audio/Video playback and PDA-like features into the system.

Besides its gaming capabilities, the N-Gage was a Series 60 smartphone, running Symbian OS 6.1, with features similar to those of the Nokia 3650 (it does not have an integrated camera, however). It was able to run all Series 60 software (other than those that require a camera), and Java MIDP applications as well. Its main CPU was an ARM Integrated (ARMI) compatible chip (ARM4T architecture) running at 104 MHz, the same as the Nokia 7650 and 3650 phones.

Development
Around 2000, gamers increasingly carried both mobile phones and handheld game consoles. Nokia spotted an opportunity to combine these devices into one unit. Nokia announced in November 2002 that they would develop the N-Gage, a device that integrated these two devices. Its original development codename was Starship.

Many of the preloaded ringtones and sounds were composed by former demoscene musician Markus Castrén, who worked at Nokia during mid-2002. For both the N-Gage and Nokia 7600, he wrote ringtones in a variety of popular dance genres, as well as creating a small set of sounds inspired by 1980s arcade games; he chose to compose those in a chiptune style as music in video games of the time did not stand out as sounding distinctively game-related.

Games for N-Gage used to cost $600,000 to $1.5 million to develop.

Release
With a launch price of US$299 (), the N-Gage was not commercially popular. In its first weeks of availability in the United States, it was outsold by the Game Boy Advance 100 to 1. Within 17 days of the deck's release, popular retailers GameStop and Electronics Boutique began offering $100 rebates on the deck's price.

In February 2004, with the N-Gage failing to make a major impact four months on, CEO Jorma Ollila claimed that the device would be given until 2005 to be judged whether it was a success or failure.

In January 2005, UK sales-tracking firm ChartTrack dropped the N-Gage from its regular ELSPA chart, commenting that "The N-Gage chart, though still produced, is of little interest to anyone. Sales of the machine and its software have failed to make any impact on the market at all." Although only directly reflective of the UK market, this was interpreted by some as a serious blow to the N-Gage as a viable gaming platform. Despite this, Nokia reaffirmed their commitment to the N-Gage as a platform, to the point where a new version of the hardware was rumored after GDC 2005.

In November 2005, Nokia admitted that the N-Gage failed, selling only one-third of the company's expectations. The product was discontinued from Western markets in February 2006, but would continue to be marketed in India and parts of Asia. Nokia did continue N-Gage promotions at E3 2006. The last game to be released in the U.S. for the system was Civilization in March 2006 according to Metacritic. In October 2006, Nokia released the last game for the N-Gage QD, combat racer Payload.

As of August 2007, it was estimated that Nokia had shipped more than two million N-Gage game decks. The "N-Gage" brand name still had a poor reputation within the gaming media and among the few consumers who recognized the N-Gage brand, due to the weakness of the system's first games and the original model's limitations. Nokia had more than 50 games available for the system.

Sales
There is some disagreement in sources about the actual number of N-Gage decks sold. Nokia initially claimed 400,000 sales in the first two weeks the deck was available. However, independent market research firms Chart-Track and Arcadia Research claimed that the N-Gage had sold only 5,000 decks in the United States in that time, and 800 decks in the UK. German Magazine GamePro talked about 15.000 sold units by mid 2004 in Germany. Critics suggested Nokia was counting the number of decks shipped to retailers, not the number actually purchased by consumers. Nokia later admitted this was the truth.

In 2004, Nokia claimed in a press release that it had shipped its millionth deck, represented as a company milestone despite falling short of the company's initial projection of six million decks by the end of 2004. However, this number shipped does not give a reliable picture of the actual sales of the deck. Nokia ultimately shipped 3 million N-Gage decks by 2007.

Reception
Pocket Kingdom: Own the World received a handful of glowing reviews when it was released, and Pathway to Glory was Nokia's first self-published success. These games came perhaps too late to have much effect in improving the perception of the N-Gage hardware itself in the eyes of consumers or press. Nokia had projections of at least 6 million sold decks in three years instead of only 3 million.

Devices

N-Gage Classic
The original phone's design was considered awkward: to insert a game, users had to remove the phone's plastic cover and remove the battery as the game slot was next to it. Another feature was that the speaker and microphone were located on the side edge of the phone; this often resulted in many describing it as talking into a "taco phone" or "Sidetalking", or simply that they had one very large ear, because the user held the edge of the phone against the cheek in order to talk into it. Usual for a phone, but unusually for a game system, it had a screen taller than it was wide, with a size of 2.1" and resolution of 176 X 208, giving an aspect ratio of 11:13; at the time most televisions were 4:3.

N-Gage QD

N-Gage service

The new N-Gage, also referred to as N-Gage Next Gen or N-Gage 2.0, saw a change in concept as Nokia explained to the world during E3 2005 that they were planning on putting N-Gage inside several of their smartphone devices, rather than releasing a specific device. In August 2007, the new N-Gage platform was finalised and was released in April 2008. It was compatible on many Symbian S60 smartphones. The service was discontinued in October 2009.

Software

Before the launch of Nokia's first in-house N-Gage title, Pathway to Glory, a one level demo of the game was released to journalists to allow them to sample the game, and understand the concepts behind the turn based wargame. This demo was subsequently placed on the N-Gage.com website as a free download. Undaunted by the 16 MB download size, fans jumped on the Pathway to Glory demo. The success of the download paved the route for future titles. On June 6, 2006 Nokia announced that people also could buy the games digitally.

There are 58 full titles available for N-Gage, but only 56 of these saw North American releases. The titles that were not released in North America are: Flo-Boarding (Germany and UK only) and Sega Rally (Australia and Brazil only). All but three of these titles (Payload, Snakes, Virtua Cop) were available for retail purchase. These are:

Along with those listed above, one more game was bundled with the N-Gage (on the Support CD): an exclusive version of Space Impact Evolution X, that was later made available to Symbian S60v2 phones.

See also
Danger Hiptop
Mylo (Sony)
Nokia 3300
Ogo (handheld device)
Scalable Network Application Package
Xperia Play

References

External links

 Nokia's official N-Gage site

ARM-based video game consoles
Handheld game consoles
Nokia mobile phones
Products introduced in 2003
Products and services discontinued in 2006
Sixth-generation video game consoles
Smartphones
Symbian devices
Discontinued handheld game consoles

N-Gage (device)


Henri de Tonti (né Enrico Tonti;  – September 1704), also spelled Henri de Tonty, was an Italian-born French military officer, explorer, and voyageur who assisted René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, with North American exploration and colonization from 1678 to 1686. de Tonti was one of the first explorers to navigate and sail the upper Great Lakes. He also sailed the Illinois and the Mississippi, to its mouth and thereupon claimed the length of the Mississippi for Louis XIV of France. De Tonti established the first permanent European settlement in the lower Mississippi valley, known as Poste de Arkansea, making him "The Father of Arkansas."

Early life and military service
Henri de Tonti was born in Gaeta, , to Lorenzo and Isabelle (née di Lietto) de Tonti. His father was the governor of Gaeta and a Neapolitan banker. He is credited with inventing the tontine, a form of life insurance, though it has been suggested he merely modified existing Italian life insurance practices. Lorenzo was involved in a revolt against the Spanish viceroy in Naples, and the family was forced to seek asylum in France around the time of Henri's birth. Henri's brother Alphonse was born in 1659, and later became one of the founders of what is now Detroit. Henri de Tonti's cousins, Daniel Greysolon Dulhut and Claude Greysolon de La Tourette were also able to build a name for themselves in New France.

In 1668 around the age of 18, De Tonti decided to join the French service. He was a cadet in the French Army for his first two years of military service. The following four years, De Tonti was a midshipman at Marseilles and Toulon and embarked on seven tours at sea, four of which were on warships and three were on galleys. He later became captain-lieutenant of the maître de camp in Messina. This was a troop that Louis XIV sent to Sicily in 1675 under the Command of The Duke of Vivonne to support the rebellion of Messina (circa 100,000 inhabitants in 1674) during the Franco-Dutch War.

De Tonti took part in military operations in the village of Gesso, up the hills near Messina and he lost his hand in a grenade explosion which was replaced with a metal appliance, and was also taken as a prisoner of war. After being detained for six months, De Tonti was exchanged for the Governor's son. After returning to France, De Tonti continued his deployment as a volunteer on the galleys. From that time on, wore a prosthetic hook covered by a glove, thus earning the nickname "Iron Hand". Among the officers fighting beside the French expedition corps, there were the brothers Antonio and Thomas Crisafy, who years later de Tonti will have the chance to meet again in New France. After the Franco-Dutch War, De Tonti was unable to obtain employment until recruited by La Salle, for exploration.

New France

In the summer of 1678, De Tonti journeyed to Quebec with René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle; who recognized him as an able associate and thus named De Tonti his lieutenant. On August 27, Tonti and La Salle arrived in Gulf St. Lawrence. De Tonti described it as "A place extremely cold where no wheat grows". On December 26 of the same year, de Tonti and La Salle reached the Niagara. De Tonti was left to supervise the construction of Fort Conti below Niagara Falls and the construction of the Griffon in early 1679 above the falls, which was to be the first ship to sail the Great Lakes.

In August 1679, De Tonti arrived at Fort Michilimackinac, the crossroads for southwestern fur trade, in which he discovered some of La Salle's crew had fled to and traded many livre's worth of goods. After rounding up the deserters, De Tonti sailed to the mouth of the St. Joseph and helped establish Fort Miami. Early in 1680. de Tonti also helped build Fort de Crèvecoeur in Illinois, which La Salle left de Tonti to hold while he returned to Ontario. While on his return trip up the Illinois, La Salle concluded that Starved Rock might provide an ideal location for another fortification and sent word downriver to de Tonti regarding this idea.

Following La Salle's instructions, de Tonti took five men and departed up the river to evaluate the suitability of the Starved Rock site. Shortly after de Tonti's departure, on April 16, 1680, the seven members of the expedition who remained at Fort de Crèvecoeur ransacked and abandoned the fort and began their own march back to Canada. This opened up opportunity for Iroquois warriors to attack, stabbing de Tonti and forcing his men to retreat to Baie-des-Puants in late 1680. In 1681, after recuperating from his injuries, De Tonti traveled to Fort Michilimackinac to rejoin La Salle.

Co-founder of Fort St. Louis, Illinois

In the spring of 1682, de Tonti journeyed with La Salle on his descent down the Mississippi and helped establish alliances with Native Americans by presenting the calumet (a peace pipe) to the Natchez tribe, allowing La Salle to travel three leagues inland to meet with their chief. Assuming they had made peace with the tribe, De Tonti tried to convince the Natchez to relocate near their new fort, Fort St. Louis, to conduct trade with one another. La Salle departed for France in 1683 to gather colonists for a new Louisiana venture, leaving de Tonti behind to hold Fort St. Louis.

In La Salle's absence, Joseph-Antoine Le Febvre de La Barre, the governor of New France, confiscated all of La Salle's new territory. Barring de Tonti's aid in fighting off Iroquois attackers, de Tonti was no longer in command of the Illinois territory and was replaced by Louis-Henri de Baugy. de Tonti ventured back to Quebec in the spring of 1684. La Barre later rescinded his decision to seize La Salle's territories, and De Tonti ventured back in 1685.

Word reached De Tonti that La Salle was in the Gulf of Mexico, causing de Tonti to proceed to the south in 1686 to try to meet him on his ascent. Instead of meeting La Salle, De Tonti established a trading post in Arkansas, leaving six Frenchman to secure a permanent French settlement to trade with the Quapaw and to hinder English invasion in the east by establishing a presence in the middle of North America.

In 1689, after receiving news that La Salle had been killed by his own men, de Tonti had begun journeying to La Salle's abandoned settlement in Baie Saint-Louis. Unfortunately, De Tonti was ill-prepared and turned back before he could reach the settlement and returned to Illinois. In late winter 1690, resources grew scarce and he moved Fort St. Louis to Pimiteoui (present-day Peoria). This new Fort St. Louis (also known as Fort Pimiteoui) later became the main trading post for the French.

In the summer of 1685 Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville replaced La Barre as the governor of New France. Denonville decided that war with Iroquois was inevitable, promising Illinois "every protection" as well as consultation from De Tonti on military excursions. Denonville made de Tonti's key role in this military campaign, execution. De Tonti was to mount an assault with 300 men from the rear of the Iroquois while Denonville launched a full frontal assault. De Tonti was unable to mount a large enough number of his men, so he joined with Sieurs de l'hut and de la Durantais at the front of the strait. de Tonti and the others proceeded to their rendezvous on Lake Ontario and met up with Denonville and took part in the van of the French attack against the Senecas.

They later set a military post in Niagara. In 1687, De Tonti was engaged in wars with the English and their Iroquois allies. during this time, he was also able to conduct treaties with Native American tribes. In 1690, after he was granted La Salle's fur trading commission, de Tonti decided to aid French colonization in Illinois by engaging in trade. In the summer of 1697, he left Illinois in the care of his cousin Pierre de Liette. De Tonti then commenced on a journey down the Mississippi to make contact with Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, who had established the Louisiana colony. De Tonti reached Louisiana and joined the colony.

Later life and death
Following this, De Tonti was offered by Pierre Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville the opportunity to work as a treaty negotiator and peacemaker. Working under Pierre Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville's brother Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, De Tonti was able to bring peace between the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations of Louisiana and proceeded to receive aid from the two nations. The use of his appliance that replaced his hand led these tribes to believe he had special powers. De Tonti died in September 1704 from yellow fever. It is believed that De Tonti's "remains were laid to everlasting rest in an unknown grave near the Mobile, and not far from the monument erected in 1902 to commemorate the site of old Mobile".

References

External links

 Henri de Tonti at Historical Marker Database

17th-century births
1704 deaths
17th-century French businesspeople
17th-century French diplomats
17th-century French writers
17th-century Roman Catholics
18th-century French diplomats
18th-century Roman Catholics
Advocates of colonization
American city founders
American Indian Wars prisoners of war
Burials in Alabama
Deaths from yellow fever
French amputees
French colonial governors and administrators
French explorers of North America
French knights
French male non-fiction writers
French military officers
French military personnel of the Franco-Dutch War
French Roman Catholics
Fur traders
Infectious disease deaths in Alabama
Italian emigrants to France
Military personnel from Paris
People from Gaeta
People from Mobile County, Alabama
People of Louisiana (New France)
Writers from Peoria, Illinois

Henri de Tonti


One drop rhythm is a reggae style drum beat.

Popularized by Carlton Barrett, long-time drummer of Bob Marley and the Wailers, the creator is disputed, and it has been attributed to drummers including Barrett, and his brother Aston, and Winston Grennan.

Characteristics
The backbeat is characterized by the dominant snare drum stroke (usually a click produced by cross-sticking) and bass drum both sounding on the third beat of every four, while beat one is left empty. Thus, the expected hit on beat one is "dropped," creating the one-drop effect. Dropping out the bass on the "one" of the measure further accentuates the downbeat of the drums creating the rhythm.

This may be seen in the drum notation for the typical rock drum pattern:
  HH|x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-||
   S|----o-------o---||
   B|o-------o-------||
     1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +
and the one drop:
  HH|x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-||
   S|--------x-------||
   B|--------o-------||
     1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +

Variations
The rockers rhythm is the one drop with a steady bass drum on every eighth note, though one drop is slower than a ska pattern, and rockers is often slower than one drop.

The steppers rhythm is essentially the one drop with a steady bass drum on every quarter note.

Examples
An instructive example of this drum beat is Bob Marley and the Wailers' song "One Drop" which talks about this rhythm.

Examples of songs using the one drop from Bob Marley and the Wailers' album Legend, with Carlton Barrett on drums, include: "No Woman, No Cry", "Three Little Birds", "Get Up, Stand Up", "Waiting in Vain", "Stir It Up", "One Love/People Get Ready", and "I Shot the Sheriff". Other examples include Peter Tosh's "Legalize It", Steel Pulse's "Higher Than High", and Bob Marley's "Exodus". Also The Upsetters's "One Step Dub" (1976) and Bob Marley & The Wailers's "Crazy Baldhead" (1976).

Examples of songs using the steppers from Legend include: "Is This Love", "Exodus", "Buffalo Soldier", "Satisfy My Soul", "Jamming". Other examples include Burning Spear's "Lion".

The one drop style has also been used and referenced in numerous non-reggae songs, including "Lucille Has Messed My Mind Up" by Frank Zappa, "The Spirit of Radio" by Rush, and "You Enjoy Myself" by Phish all placing their own twist on the one drop rhythm.

See also
Half time (music)

Ska stroke

Sources

Drum patterns
Percussion performance techniques
Reggae

One drop rhythm


Fab Five: The Texas Cheerleader Scandal is a 2008 American teen drama telefilm produced by Lifetime. It stars Jenna Dewan, Ashley Benson, and Tatum O'Neal, and was directed by Tom McLoughlin. The film premiered on August 2, 2008. It is based on real-life events that occurred at McKinney North High School in McKinney, Texas, in 2006, five teenage cheerleaders became notorious for truancies, violations of the school dress code, and general disrespect to the school community.

Background

In 2005, Michaela Ward was hired to teach geography and coach the cheerleading squad at McKinney North High School. She discovered that five cheerleaders, nicknamed the "Fab Five", had been disruptive in school and off-campus. They are the five high school mean girls who rule this school with iron fists. They broke rules, were truant, and causing disturbances during classes. They also caused trouble during off-campus activities, posting photographs of themselves partying, drinking alcohol, and visiting an adult store on Myspace. Ward was unable to deal with the Fab Five and the school administrators who did not punish them; she resigned in October 2006, despite her close relationships with her students. Ward contacted media to tell them about the Fab Five's unruly behavior and the school's handling of them. Ward told Lifetime Television about the story; the company produced a film based on Ward's story.

Plot
Five high school cheerleaders dubbed the "Fab Five"—Brooke Tippit (Ashley Benson) who is co-captain of the squad, Jeri Blackburn (Jessica Heap), Lisa Toledo (Aimee Spring Fortier), Ashley Sanchez (Stephanie Honoré), and Tabitha Doering (Ashlynn Ross)--run amok as the mean girls of the school. Teachers, parents, and administrators fail to punish them for their unruly behavior, which includes repeatedly getting their coaches fired after disagreements or driving them to quit. These girls disregard school rules, drink alcohol, bully other students, and post suggestive pictures on the internet. After a new cheerleading coach Emma Carr (Jenna Dewan) arrives, the girls initially rebel against her but later become cooperative. Brooke becomes furious with Coach Carr when she assigns Meagan Harper, the most respected member of the squad, as co-captain because up until then, she had been the only captain. The Fab Five perform well at a pep rally, but after Ashley is kissed by Jeri's boyfriend, the other girls eject her from the group and later become the "Fab Four," although Ashley remains part of the squad. Carr tries to discipline the girls, which results in a change in attitude. The girls start bullying other pupils, including Cindy, Meagan's younger sister, and are suspended from the team. The Fab Four get drunk and are caught trying to leave the campus by a guard and the principal.

The girls tell the school's superintendent they were tired after a test and wanted to sleep. The security guard then tells Carr about the incident, and she confronts the principal and superintendent, who give excuses for not punishing the girls. Carr insists the principal punishes them, so the principal threatens to dissolve the team. Defiant, Carr punishes the whole squad by continually canceling practices and kicking Jeri off the squad. At next practice session, Carr hands each of the girls an eraser for a "fresh" start, but only Tabitha accepts. As revenge for Jeri's ejection, the girls show the superintendent a picture of Carr hugging another teacher at the school and say the two have been having an affair. At the discipline meeting for Jeri, Carr is repeatedly accused of flirting and not formally punishing the girls.

At the next practice session, the squad struggles to perform the liberty stunt, but Carr inspires them to learn it. Carr finds Lisa has cheated on a test; after penalizing her, Lisa yells at Carr and storms out. Lisa then tells her father that Carr was bullying her, so Carr cancels practice and sends an email to the cheerleaders apologizing for it. She visits the school and is fired by the principal; later the girls confront Carr as she prepares to leave the school. She hears about a reporter who is researching "cheerleaders gone wild" and gives an interview about the ongoing events at Jackson High School. The school investigates, and the "Fab Four" enjoy the attention and lie to an independent investigator about their treatment. Carr discovers the investigator's true agenda, tells him what happened, leaves angrily, and bumps into Brooke. Carr simply asks her if she thinks the University of Southern California will accept her as a student after all the negative publicity of what has happened.

The investigator reports that the allegations against the "Fab Four" and administrators are true and that Carr is innocent. He blames the principal for the problem and Carr losing her job. Lorene and the assistant principal are suspended from their jobs. Brooke is pulled from the school by her mother, and the rest of the "Fab Four" are no longer allowed to cheer. Brooke and her mother leave followed by cameras, Brooke then gives Carr the middle finger and Carr is visibly upset. However, Carr doesn't get her job back from the school. Four months later, Carr watches the girls at a cheer competition and is welcomed with praise and hugs, including a newly reformed Ashley, who she exchanges smiles with. The new cheerleaders compete, and Carr discovers Cindy had written an essay about her, discussing how she stood up to the administration and stopped the Fab Four from terrorizing their school, revealing that Carr did change things after all. The girls compete and perform the stunt they struggled with earlier, leaving Carr feeling proud and worthy.

Cast

 Jenna Dewan as Coach Emma Carr
 Ashley Benson as Brooke Tippit
 Aimee Spring Fortier as Lisa Toledo
 Jessica Heap as Jeri Blackburn
 Stephanie Honoré as Ashley Sanchez
 Ashlynn Ross as Tabitha Doering
 Tatum O'Neal as Principal Lorene Tippit
 Dameon Clarke as Coach Adam Reeve
 Carissa Capobianco as Cindy Harper
 Hailey Wist as Meagan Harper
 Natalie Rose as Natalie Zamora

Location
The movie was filmed in the New Orleans metropolitan area. The final scene of the cheerleading competition was shot at the Alario Center in Westwego, Louisiana.

Reception
Fab Five aired on August 2, 2008, and scored a 2.63 household rating (3,041,547 viewers). It scored a 2.63 rating (280,405 viewers) among females aged 12–17 and a 2.17 rating (1,219,726 viewers) among females aged 18–49. Linda Stasi of the New York Post gave the movie three stars out of four.

Newsweek said the real-life events that inspired the film were "grimmer" than the television movie; the real-life principal and the vice-principal of the school lost their jobs. Girls from the Myspace photographs (the "Fab Five") became victims of stalkers and "haunted by their reputations [from high school]". Discipline at McKinney North High School became stricter than before. Newsweek said the film  was close to the real-life events, the portrayal of Jenna Dewan's character was "brave but naïve", and the story was "an entertaining morality tale" yet "preachy".

Steve Thompson of Yahoo! Voices praised this movie for addressing important messages to viewers about consequential actions, especially by schools and cheerleaders. Thompson called the portrayal of cheerleaders "purely evil" and vindictive, and that some scenes were inspired by other real "mean girls" events, such as the beating of a 16-year-old girl in Lakeland, Florida, rather than the McKinney incidents.

Aftermath
After the story broke, Michaela Ward faced unemployment and "became ostracized", especially after her lawsuits. In 2008 she filed an unsuccessful lawsuit to get her job back. According to KGNS-TV, Ward coaches cheerleading in McKinney, Texas, and had privately coached a former pupil. In December 2009, former principal Linda Theret was hired by the Laredo Independent School District as Executive Director of Curriculum.

References

External links

 Ward v. Theret, July 15, 2009 (PDF version)

2008 television films
2008 films
2000s high school films
2000s teen drama films
American films based on actual events
American high school films
American teen drama films
American teen films
Cheerleading films
Films about bullying
Drama films based on actual events
2000s American drama television series
Films directed by Tom McLoughlin
Films scored by Anton Sanko
Films set in Texas
Films shot in New Orleans
Lifetime (TV network) films
2008 drama films
American drama television films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Fab Five: The Texas Cheerleader Scandal


Julie Roberts (born February 1, 1979) is an American country music singer. Signed to Mercury Nashville in 2003, Roberts made her debut with the single "Break Down Here" in February 2004, a Top 20 hit on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) charts and the first track from her self-titled debut album. A second album for Mercury, Men & Mascara, followed in 2006. This album produced two non-charting singles in its title track and a cover of Saving Jane's "Girl Next Door".

In 2013, she took part in the Blind Auditions of fourth season of the reality television show The Voice but failed to qualify. Her comeback album Good Wine & Bad Decision charted on both US Country Albums chart and the US Indie Albums charts.

Roberts has multiple sclerosis.

Biography
Julie Roberts was born in Lancaster, South Carolina, United States, in 1979. The daughter of an engineer and accountant, she began her life performing in pre-school plays. She also was in school choirs and performed in a rendition of "My Fair Lady" at a singing summer camp. Roberts began performing country music as a child. When she was in junior high and high school, she toured with her family, playing at festivals in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. She also performed at area nursing homes (where she developed an appreciation for blues music); and worked at Carowinds (a theme park in Charlotte, North Carolina) and Dollywood. She also worked with 60- and 70-year-old men performing at nursing homes. Her influences include Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell and Tanya Tucker.

She first attended USC Lancaster in her hometown from 1997 to 1999 before graduating from Belmont University in Nashville, Tennessee, with a degree in business administration. Roberts performed in local clubs and restaurants until graduation, she began working for Mercury Nashville Records, later becoming assistant to label head Luke Lewis. During her tenure there, she recorded a demo tape with producer Brent Rowan during her off-time. Rowan eventually played the tape for Lewis, who was favorably impressed by the recording.

Country music career
Roberts was signed to Universal Music Group Nashville's Mercury Nashville division. Her debut single, "Break Down Here", was released on February 24, 2004. The song had previously been recorded by Trace Adkins under the title "I'd Sure Hate to Break Down Here". Roberts released her self-titled debut album on May 25, 2004. It charted within the Top 10 of the Billboard Top Country Albums chart, peaking at No. 9. "Break Down Here" became a Top 20 single on the Hot Country Songs chart, however, she never charted within the Top 40 after that. The two follow-up singles, "The Chance" and "Wake Up Older", peaked at No. 47 and No. 46 on the country charts, respectively. The album was then certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 13, 2004.

In 2006, she released her fourth single, "Men & Mascara", which would in-turn be the title track to her second album. Men & Mascara was released on June 27, 2006. Although not charting a single from this album, it managed to chart even higher than her debut album. It reached No. 4 on the Top Country Albums and No. 25 on the all-genre Billboard 200. Included on the album is a cover version of Saving Jane's "Girl Next Door", however, it failed to chart along with the album's title track.

Roberts and Mercury Records parted ways at the beginning of May 2010. She released her third album "Alive" on June 7 as an independent artist, with the first single being "NASCAR Party".

In 2011, Roberts revealed that she was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis.

Sun Records signed Roberts to a recording contract in mid-2013. Her album Good Wine & Bad Decisions was the first full release for the label in 40 years.

Roberts will release the album Ain't in No Hurry on  October 28, 2022.

Charities
Roberts made a donation of $124,250 to St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital after she, along with contestant Peter Buccellato, won the $100,000 prize in the bonus round on the game show Wheel of Fortune on an episode that aired in February 2007.

The Voice (2013)
In 2013, Julie Roberts took part in the Blind Auditions of fourth season of the reality television show The Voice. In the third Blind Audition episode broadcast on NBC on April 1, 2013, she sang a cover of Blake Shelton song "God Gave Me You". None of the four judges, Adam Levine, Shakira, Usher or Blake Shelton pressed their "I Want You" buttons to turn their chairs and she did not qualify to the following rounds. Shelton immediately recognized the contestant and introduced her by name to the other judges.

Discography

Studio albums

Extended plays

Singles

Music videos

References

External links
Julie Roberts Web site
Official Julie Roberts UMG Nashville Artist Page

American country singer-songwriters
American women country singers
1979 births
Living people
People from Lancaster, South Carolina
Mercury Records artists
People with multiple sclerosis
Sun Records artists
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
Country musicians from South Carolina
Singer-songwriters from South Carolina

Julie Roberts


Gertrude Belle Elion (January 23, 1918 – February 21, 1999) was an American biochemist and pharmacologist. In 1988, she received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Sir James Black, a British coworker.

Background
Elion was born in New York. Elion wanted to pursue a job in science. Although women had a hard time getting a job in science during the Great Depression. Elion started as a cancer researcher in high school. She worked as a lab assistant, food analyst, and high school teacher for several years. While Elion worked, she earned her Master's degree at night. In 1941, she earned her M.S. (Master's in science) degree in chemistry from New York University.

During World War II, the Wellcome Research Laboratories in Tuckahoe, New York hired Elion as a biochemist. In 1988, she and her colleague, George Herbert Hitchings, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. They both discovered and developed treatments for previously incurable diseases. Some of those diseases were leukemia and herpes. She became the senior research chemist. Later, she was promoted to the head of the Department of Experimental Therapy.

Cures for diseases
Elion discovered drugs to treat two deadly diseases. She treated Leukemia and Herpes. She tested her drugs on little children with the disease. She worked with a food and drug company. During her time there were no effective drugs. Because Gertrude discovered and tested these drugs, most children with Leukemia can now be cured.

Acyclovir was the drug she and George Herbert Hitchings developed. Elion and George worked together. She trained a group that found a cure for AIDS and HIV.

Elion also stopped the rejection of kidney transplants, or when someone healthy donates their kidney to someone sick. While studying for her Master's Degree, she was a lab assistant, food inspector, and high school teacher.

Achievements
Elion became president of the American Association for Cancer Research (1983-84). She was named the "Higuchi Memorial Award winner". She lectured at the University of Kansas in 1995. She also received a "Master of Science" award in chemistry from New York University in 1941.

Elion was hired as a biochemist during World War II. She focused on chemical compounds and nitrogenous bases. Elion also worked part time as a doctor in Brooklyn. She received an honorary doctorate, the highest medical degree, from George Washington University.

Elion was also the first woman to be admitted into the National Inventor's Hall of Fame.

Elion graduated from Hunter College with a Bachelor of Art's Degree in chemistry in 1937.

Dedication and death
Gertrude B. Elion held 45 patents. Elion said that her 40 years of research resulted in many cures. Her research also helped many people discover deadly diseases. She also studied about the immune system and viruses as well as biochemistry and pharmacology.

Elion died on February 21, 1999, at the University of North Carolina Hospital.

Works
Gertrude Elion had someone explain of her life in Les Prix Nobel in 1988. She is mentioned in Who's Who 1997 and St. Martin's Press' yearly biographical dictionary.

References

1918 births
1999 deaths
American pharmacologists
American biochemists
Scientists from New York City
American Nobel Prize winners

Gertrude B. Elion


Afrikaans is a West Germanic language mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia.  It was originally the dialect that developed among the Afrikaner Protestant settlers, the unfree workers, and slaves brought to the Cape area in southwestern South Africa by the Dutch East India Company ( - VOC) between 1652 and 1705. Most of these first settlers were from the Netherlands, though there were also many from Germany, some from France, a few from Scotland, and various other countries. The unfree workers and slaves were Malays, and Malagasy in addition to the native Khoi and Bushmen.

Research by J. A. Heese says that until 1807, 36.8% of the ancestors of the White Afrikaans speaking population were Dutch, 35% were German, 14.6% were French and 7.2% non-white (of African and/or Asian origins).
Heese's figures are questioned by other researchers, however, and especially the non-white component quoted by Heese is very much in doubt.

A sizeable minority of those who speak Afrikaans as a first language are not white. The dialect became known as "Cape Dutch". Later, Afrikaans was sometimes called "African Dutch" or "Kitchen Dutch". Afrikaans was considered a Dutch dialect until the early 20th century, when it began to be widely known as a different language. The name Afrikaans is simply the Dutch word for African, and the language is the African form of Dutch.

Related pages
 Afrikaans Language Monument
Afrikaans-English Dictionary On-line

References

Afrikaans


Bogdan Andrzej Zdrojewski  (born 18 May 1957) is a Polish politician, mayor of Wrocław from 1990 to 2001, and Minister of Culture and National Heritage from 2007 till 2014. He has also been member of the Polish and of the European Parliament.

Biography

From 1976 to 1977, Zdrojewski worked as a junior machinist of electric traction at the Polish National Railways, and then until 1979 as a specialist in the National Grain and Milling Factory in Wrocław.

Zdrojewski enrolled at the University of Wrocław's Department of Philosophy and History in 1980; there he founded and chaired the History of Philosophy Scientific Circle. The same year he joined the Independent Students' Union (ISU), becoming head of its department branch. From 1982 till 1984, during the martial law in Poland, Zdrojewski led ISU at the University of Wrocław. He graduated in philosophy in 1983, and in cultural studies in 1985.

In 1984, Zdrojewski became a faculty member at the Wrocław University of Economics, and a member of the founding committee of NSZZ Solidarność. From 1989 to 1990, he worked for the Institute of Sociology at the University of Wrocław. At the same time, he was a secretary of the Wrocław Solidarity Citizens' Committee as well as a founder and director of the Centre for Social Research of the regional executive committee of NSZZ Solidarność in Lower Silesia.

Zdrojewski served three terms as a city councillor of Wrocław (1990–1994, 1994–1998, and 1998–2001). He was the first freely-elected mayor of the City of Wrocław, and Poland's youngest mayor (33 when he took office). He served as mayor for 11 years (from 4 June 1990 to 1 September 2001). During the 1997 flood in Lower Silesia, Zdrojewski, coordinated the city's response to the threat, including by leading efforts to deliver assistance to residents in need.

At the 1997 elections Zdrojewski was elected to the Senate of Poland, receiving 241,179 votes as an independent candidate. He resigned on 11 January 2000, after the Constitutional Court's decision that a mayor's position cannot be combined with a senator's mandate. He resigned from the mayor's position in May 2001, as he decided to stand as a candidate in the 2001 parliamentary elections. He was elected for the 4th parliamentary term of Sejm from Platforma Obywatelska (47,297 votes).

In 2005, Zdrojewski was reelected to Sejm of the 5th legislature from Platforma Obywatelska list in Wrocław (73,959 votes). The following year, he took the position of Minister of Defence in Donald Tusk's shadow cabinet. On 5 December 2006, he became head of the parliamentary group of Platforma Obywatelska. Standing in Wrocław at the 2007 elections, he received the third-highest result in Poland, which amounted to 213,883 votes.

On 16 November 2007, Zdrojewski was appointed Minister of Culture and National Heritage in Donald Tusk's first government. At the 2011 elections, he was re-elected to the Sejm gaining the support of 149,962 voters, and confirmed by Prime Minister Tusk in the same ministerial position.

At the 2014 European elections, Zdrojewski received a mandate of a Member of the European Parliament of the 8th legislature. He took over the mandate on 1 July 2014. He did not contested the 2019 European elections.

Married to Barbara (also a senator), they have a son and a daughter.

Selected awards

2015 r. Gloria Artis Gold – Medal for Merit to Culture
2014 r. Grand Cross of the First Class of the Kingdom of the Netherlands – for civil merit
2014 r. Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta – awarded by President Bronisław Komorowski
2014 r. Order of the Coss of the First Class of Terra Maarjamaa – awarded by the President of the Republic of Estonia, Toomas Hendrik IIves
2013 r. Cross of Recognition of the Second Class of the Latvian Republic – for extraordinary, lasting efforts to enrich deep and dynamic cooperation in the area of culture
2012 r. Order of Saint-Charles of the Second Class, Commander – awarded by Prince Albert of Monaco
2012 r. Commander, Légion d'honneur – awarded by the President of France, François Hollande
2012 r. Maltese Cross–awarded by the Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Matthew Festing
2012 r. Order of Merit of the Free State of Saxony – for contributions to the growth of Polish-German relations in the area of culture, enhancing cooperation, preserving cultural heritage and its promotion outside the borders of the Free State
2012 r. Royal Norwegian Order of Merit – Commander with Cross–awarded by His Majesty King of Norway Harald V
2008 r. Grand Cross of the Order of Merit –awarded by the President of Portugal
2002 r. Gold Cross of Merit–awarded by the President of the Republic of Poland, Aleksander Kwaśniewski
2001 r. Cross First Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Das Verdienstkreuz 1 Klasse) – awarded by the President of Germany
1998 r. Order Sancti Silvestri –awarded by Pope John Paul II (by a decision of 9 January 1998)
 "Gran de Gra-Cruz da Ordem do Merito" Cross of Merit awarded by the President of Portugal.

References

External links

Government profile

1957 births
Living people
People from Kłodzko
Politicians from Wrocław
Members of the Senate of Poland 1997–2001
Members of the Polish Sejm 2001–2005
Members of the Polish Sejm 2005–2007
Members of the Polish Sejm 2007–2011
Members of the Polish Sejm 2011–2015
Members of the Senate of Poland 2019–2023
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Order of Merit of the Free State of Saxony
Recipients of the Cross of Recognition
Culture ministers of Poland
University of Wrocław alumni
Mayors of Wrocław
Recipients of the Order of Saint-Charles
Commanders of the Order of Saint-Charles
MEPs for Poland 2014–2019
Members of the Polish Sejm 2023–2027

Bogdan Zdrojewski


Axel Algmark (born in 1990) is a Swedish pop singer.

Although he is from Tranås, he is a resident of Örnsköldsvik. At 22, he took part in Melodifestivalen 2012 in a bid to represent Sweden in finals to be held in Baku, Azerbaijan. He presented the song "Kyss mig" (meaning Kiss me) co-written by Mattias Frändå, Jonathan Magnussen and Algmark himself in the fourth semi-final held on 25 February 2012 in Malmö Arena, Malmö. Although the song failed to qualify to the finals, it still proved popular with the public and upon release reached number 25 on the Swedish Singles Chart.

Prior to Melodifestivalen, he had won "Sjöviks Schlagerfestival prize" and "Svensktoppen nästa" for new artists, the latter through his own composition "Lördag". Axel's band is composed of Daniel Swarts, Benjamin Karlsson, Karl Horgby, Ludwig Gustavsson and Ludvig Eriksson.

Discography

Singles

References

External links
SVT website: Axel Algmark page

Melodifestivalen contestants
1990 births
Living people
21st-century Swedish singers
21st-century Swedish male singers

Axel Algmark


The Po Leung Kuk Museum (), or Po Leung Kuk Archives is a museum and an archive housed in the Main Building of Po Leung Kuk's Headquarters, located at 66 Leighton Road, Causeway Bay, Hong Kong.

The museum consists of the Old Hall, the Exhibition Hall, the Archives Office, the Research Room and two Archival Conservation Rooms. The Old Hall and the Exhibition Hall are opened to the public.

The museum stores the historical documents of Po Leung Kuk. They will also be available upon request for the public to read.

See also
 List of museums in Hong Kong

Po Leung Kuk
Causeway Bay
History museums in Hong Kong

Po Leung Kuk Museum