A breathalyzer or breathalyser (a portmanteau of breath and analyzer/analyser) is a device for measuring breath alcohol content (BrAC). The name is a genericized trademark of the Breathalyzer brand name of instruments developed by inventor Robert Frank Borkenstein in the 1950s.

Origins

Research into the possibilities of using breath to test for alcohol in a person's body dates as far back as 1874, when Francis E. Anstie made the observation that small amounts of alcohol were excreted in breath.

In 1927, Emil Bogen produced a paper on breath analysis. He collected air in a football bladder and then tested this air for traces of alcohol, discovering that the alcohol content of 2 litres of expired air was a little greater than that of 1 cc of urine. Also in 1927, a Chicago chemist, William Duncan McNally, invented a breathalyzer in which the breath moving through chemicals in water would change color.  One suggested use for his invention was for housewives to test whether their husbands had been drinking. In December 1927, in a case in Marlborough, England, Dr. Gorsky, a police surgeon, asked a suspect to inflate a football bladder with his breath. Since the 2 liters of the man's breath contained 1.5 mg of ethanol, Gorsky testified before the court that the defendant was "50% drunk". The use of drunkenness as the standard, as opposed to BAC, perhaps invalidated the analysis, as tolerance to alcohol varies. However, the story illustrates the general principles of breath analysis.

In 1931 the first practical roadside breath-testing device was the drunkometer developed by Rolla Neil Harger of the Indiana University School of Medicine. The drunkometer collected a motorist's breath sample directly into a balloon inside the machine. The breath sample was then pumped through an acidified potassium permanganate solution. If there was alcohol in the breath sample, the solution changed color. The greater the color change, the more alcohol there was present in the breath.  The drunkometer was manufactured and sold by Stephenson Corporation of Red Bank, New Jersey.

In 1954 Robert Frank Borkenstein (1912–2002) was a captain with the Indiana State Police and later a professor at Indiana University Bloomington. His trademarked Breathalyzer used chemical oxidation and photometry to determine alcohol concentrations. The invention of the Breathalyzer provided law enforcement with a quick and portable test to determine an individual's intoxication level via breath analysis.

Subsequent breath analyzers have converted primarily to infrared spectroscopy. In 1967 in Britain, Bill Ducie and Tom Parry Jones developed and marketed the first electronic breathalyser. They established Lion Laboratories in Cardiff. Ducie was a chartered electrical engineer, and Tom Parry Jones was a lecturer at UWIST. The Road Safety Act 1967 introduced the first legally enforceable maximum blood alcohol level for drivers in the UK, above which it became an offence to be in charge of a motor vehicle; and introduced the roadside breathalyser, made available to police forces across the country.  In 1979, Lion Laboratories' version of the breathalyser, known as the Alcolyser and incorporating crystal-filled tubes that changed colour above a certain level of alcohol in the breath, was approved for police use. Lion Laboratories won the Queen's Award for Technological Achievement for the product in 1980, and it began to be marketed worldwide. The Alcolyser was superseded by the Lion Intoximeter 3000 in 1983, and later by the Lion Alcolmeter and Lion Intoxilyser.  These later models used a fuel cell alcohol sensor rather than crystals, providing a more reliable curbside test and removing the need for blood or urine samples to be taken at a police station.  In 1991, Lion Laboratories was sold to the American company MPD, Inc.

Chemistry
When the user exhales into a breath analyzer, any ethanol present in their breath is oxidized to acetic acid at the anode:

C2H5OH(g) + H2O(l) → CH3COOH(l) + 4H+(aq) + 4e−

at the cathode, atmospheric oxygen is reduced:

O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− → 2H2O(l)

The overall reaction is the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid and water.

C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) → CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)

The electric current produced by this reaction is measured by a microcontroller, and displayed as an approximation of overall blood alcohol content (BAC) by the Alcosensor.

Accuracy

Breath analyzers do not directly measure blood alcohol concentration (BAC), which requires the analysis of a blood sample. Instead, they measure the amount of alcohol in one's breath, BrAC, generally reported in milligrams of alcohol per liter of breathed air. The relationship between BrAC and BAC is complex, and is affected by many factors.

Calibration

Calibration is the process of checking and adjusting the internal settings of a breath analyzer by comparing and adjusting its test results to a known alcohol standard. Breath analyzer sensors drift over time and require periodic calibration to ensure accuracy. Many handheld breath analyzers sold to consumers use a silicon oxide sensor (also called a semiconductor sensor) to determine the alcohol concentration. These sensors are prone to contamination and interference from substances other than breath alcohol, and require recalibration or replacement every six months. Higher-end personal breath analyzers and professional-use breath alcohol testers use platinum fuel cell sensors. These too require recalibration but at less frequent intervals than semiconductor devices, usually once a year.

There are two ways of calibrating a precision fuel cell breath analyzer, the wet-bath and the dry-gas methods. Each method requires specialized equipment and factory-trained technicians. It is not a procedure that can be conducted by untrained users or without the proper equipment.

 The dry-gas method utilizes a portable calibration standard which is a precise mixture of ethanol and inert nitrogen available in a pressurized canister. Initial equipment costs are less than alternative methods and the steps required are fewer. The equipment is also portable allowing calibrations to be done when and where required.
 The wet-bath method utilizes an ethanol/water standard in a precise specialized alcohol concentration, contained and delivered in specialized breath simulator equipment. The wet-bath method has a higher initial cost and is not intended to be portable. The standard must be fresh and replaced regularly. In addition, the assumed water-air partition ratio for aqueous ethanol must be taken into account along with its associated uncertainty.

Some semiconductor models are designed specifically to allow the sensor module to be replaced without the need to send the unit to a calibration lab.

Non-specific analysis

One major problem with older breath analyzers is non-specificity: the machines identify not only the ethyl alcohol (or ethanol) found in alcoholic beverages but also other substances similar in molecular structure or reactivity, "interfering compounds".

The oldest breath analyzer models pass breath through a solution of potassium dichromate, which oxidizes ethanol into acetic acid, changing color in the process. A monochromatic light beam is passed through this sample, and a detector records the change in intensity and, hence, the change in color, which is used to calculate the percent alcohol in the breath. However, since potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizer, numerous alcohol groups can be oxidized by it, producing false positives. This source of false positives is unlikely as very few other substances found in exhaled air are oxidizable.

Infrared-based breath analyzers project an infrared beam of radiation through the captured breath in the sample chamber and detect the absorbance of the compound as a function of the wavelength of the beam, producing an absorbance spectrum that can be used to identify the compound, as the absorbance is due to the harmonic vibration and stretching of specific bonds in the molecule at specific wavelengths (see infrared spectroscopy). The characteristic bond of alcohols in infrared is the O-H bond, which gives a strong absorbance at a short wavelength. The more light is absorbed by compounds containing the alcohol group, the less reaches the detector on the other side—and the higher the reading. Other groups, most notably aromatic rings and carboxylic acids can give similar absorbance readings.

Some natural and volatile interfering compounds do exist, however. For example, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has found that dieters and diabetics may have acetone levels hundreds or even thousands of times higher than those in others. Acetone is one of the many substances that can be falsely identified as ethyl alcohol by some breath machines. However, fuel cell based systems are non-responsive to substances like acetone.

Substances in the environment can also lead to false BAC readings. For example, methyl tert-butyl ether, a common gasoline additive, has been alleged anecdotally to cause false positives in persons exposed to it. Tests have shown this to be true for older machines; however, newer machines detect this interference and compensate for it. Any number of other products found in the environment or workplace can also cause erroneous BAC results. These include compounds found in lacquer, paint remover, celluloid, gasoline, and cleaning fluids, especially ethers, alcohols, and other volatile compounds.

Pharmacokinetics

Absorption of alcohol continues for anywhere from 20 minutes (on an empty stomach) to two-and-one-half hours (on a full stomach) after the last consumption, generally taking around 40-50 minutes. During the absorptive phase, the concentration of alcohol throughout the body changes unpredictably, as it is affected by gastrointestinal physiology such as irregular contraction patterns. After absorption, the concentrations in the body settle down and follow predictable patterns. During absorption, the BAC in arterial blood will generally be higher than in venous blood, but post-absorption, venous BAC will be higher than arterial BAC. This is especially clear with bolus dosing, chugging a single large drink. With additional doses of alcohol, the definitions of absorption and post-absorption are less clear. However, once absorption of the last drink has finished, the concentrations will follow standard post-absorption curves. It is also not always clear from a BAC graph when the absorption phase finishes - for example, the body can reach a sustained equilibrium BAC where absorption and elimination are proportional.

Across all phases, BrAC correlates closely with arterial BAC. Arterial blood distributes oxygen throughout the body. Breath alcohol is a representation of the equilibrium of alcohol concentration as the blood gases (alcohol) pass from the arterial blood into the lungs to be expired in the breath. The ratio of ABAC:BrAC is 2294 ± 56 across all phases and 2251 ± 46 [2141-2307] in the post-absorption phase. For example, a breathalyzer measurement of 0.10 mg/L of breath alcohol characterises approximately 0.0001×2251 g/L, or 0.2251 g/L of arterial blood alcohol concentration (equivalent to 0.2251 permille or 0.02251% BAC).

The ratio of venous blood alcohol content to breath alcohol content may vary significantly, from 1300:1 to 3100:1. Assuming a blood-alcohol concentration of 0.07%, for example, a person could have a partition ratio of 1500:1 and a breath test reading of 0.10 g/2100 mL, over the legal limit in some jurisdictions. However, low partition ratios are generally observed during the absorption phase. Post-absorption, the ratio is relatively fixed, 2382 ± 119 [2125–2765], although this ratio was measured in a laboratory environment and variation may be larger in real-world scenarios.

Other false positives of high BrAC and also blood reading are related to patients with proteinuria and hematuria, due to kidney metabolization and failure. The metabolization rate of related patients with kidney damage is abnormal in relation to percent in alcohol in the breath. However, since potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizer, numerous alcohol groups can be oxidized by kidney and blood filtration, producing false positives.

Breathing pattern
It is sometimes said that the exhaled air analyzed by the breathalyzer is "alveolar air", coming from the alveoli in close proximity to the blood in pulmonary circulation and containing ethanol in concentrations proportional to that blood approximated by Henry's law. However, the alcohol in the exhaled air comes essentially from the airways of the lung, and not from the alveoli. The alcohol acts similarly to water vapor, so it is instructive to study the humidity of lung air. During breathing, the inspired air picks up water and alcohol from the airways. Almost all uptake occurs in the upper airways; thus, the BrAC is most affected by the alcohol concentration in the bronchial circulation, which supplies blood to these airways. When the air reaches the alveoli, it is already near equilibrium - this is why inhaling dry air does not dry out the lungs significantly. With exhalation, water and alcohol are rapidly lost to the airways, primarily within the fifth to fifteenth generations of branching. Nonetheless, as may be evidenced by seeing one's breath in the cold, some water vapor does not get re-absorbed by the airways and is exhaled, and similarly some alcohol is exhaled during breathing. But the relationship of the alcohol concentration of this air to the concentration of alcohol in the blood is somewhat suspect and can be affected by many variables.

As air is exhaled, the alcohol concentration of the exhaled air increases over time, rising significantly in the first few seconds and then slowing down after, but not leveling out until the subject stops exhaling. This is not because there is a "dead space" of non-alcoholic air in the airways - the alcohol concentration is nearly identical in all regions of the lung. Rather, it is because, during exhalation, water and alcohol are being redeposited on the airways, primarily the trachea and generations 6 though 12 of the airways. As more fluid is deposited on the mucous surfaces, the remaining fluid travels further, resulting in more alcohol being recorded by the breathalyzer. The recorded alcohol concentrations never reach the alveolar alcohol concentration, even if the subject exhales as deeply as possible. According to Henry's law, alveolar air alcohol concentration would be pulmonary BAC divided by 1756, compared to the BrAC which is arterial blood concentration divided by 2251. When the subject stops exhaling, the alcohol concentration levels off - this does not indicate that alveolar air has been obtained, as it will level off regardless of the point at which the subject stops exhaling. But it does mean that end-exhaled BrAC is readily obtained. This brings up the question of what is meant by reporting BrAC as a single number; is it the "deep-lung air", the highest possible reading obtainable by the subject's full exhalation? Or is it the zero concentration at the initial part of the curve? Hlastala suggests using the average BrAC during the exhalation, which corresponds to the BrAC measured at about the 5-second mark. The Supreme Court of California determined that the BrAC is defined as the alcohol concentration of the last part of the subject's expired breath.

End-exhaled BrAC varies depending on several factors. Most alcohol breath testers require a minimum exhalation volume (normally between 1.1 and 1.5 L) or minimum six-second exhalation time before the breath sample is accepted. This raises concerns for subject with smaller lung volumes - they must exhale a greater fraction of their available lung volume compared with a larger subject. A mathematical model suggests that a 2L-lung-capacity subject's end-exhaled BrAC may read 35% higher than a 6L subject for the same minimum 1.5L exhalation and alveolar alcohol concentration. For exhalation to the maximum extent, such as under typical laboratory conditions, measured BrAC is unaffected by lung size. The subject's body temperature and breath temperature also influence results, with an increase in temperature corresponding to an increase in measured BrAC. Furthermore, the humidity and temperature of the ambient air can decrease results by as much as 10%. The result of these factors is that the breath test is more forgiving for some subjects than others. Nonetheless, the overall variance due to how much one breathes out is usually low, and some breathalyzers compensate for the volume of air.

Jones tested several breathing patterns immediately before and during breathalyzer use and found the following changes (in order of effect):

 Hyperventilation by rapid inspiration and expiration of room air for 20 seconds before forced expiration - decrease by 10%
 Moderate inspiration through mouth and deep expiration - control
 Deep expiration without an inspiration - statistically insignificant increase
 Inspiration through the nose before a deep expiration. - 1.3% increase
 Deep inspiration followed by a slow (20 second) expiration. - 2.0% increase
 Mouth closed for 5 minutes (shallow breathing) before nose-inspiration and a forced expiration. - 7.7% increase
 Inspiration through the nose followed by breath-holding for 30 seconds before forced expiration. - 12.6% increase
 A normal inspiration with breath-holding for 30 seconds before a forced expiration. - 15.7% increase

Overall, the results show an increase in measured BrAC with increased contact between the lungs and the measured air. Exercising immediately before the test, such as running up and down a flight of stairs, can also reduce measured BrAC by 13% or more, with the combined effect of exercise and hyperventilation reaching 20%.

Mouth alcohol
One of the most common causes of falsely high breath analyzer readings is the existence of mouth alcohol. In analyzing a subject's breath sample, the breath analyzer's internal computer is making the assumption that the alcohol in the breath sample came from the lungs. However, alcohol may have come from the mouth, throat or stomach for a number of reasons. A very tiny amount of alcohol from the mouth, throat or stomach can have a significant impact on the breath-alcohol reading.

Recent use of mouthwash or breath fresheners can also skew results upward, as they can contain fairly high levels of alcohol.  Listerine mouthwash, for example, contains 26.9% alcohol, and can skew results for between 5 and 10 minutes. A scientist tested the effects of Binaca breath spray on an Intoxilyzer 5000. He performed 23 tests with subjects who sprayed their throats and obtained readings as high as 0.81—far beyond legal levels. The scientist also noted that the effects of the spray did not fall below detectable levels until after 18 minutes.

Other than those, the most common source of mouth alcohol is from belching or burping. This causes the liquids and/or gases from the stomach—including any alcohol—to rise up into the soft tissue of the esophagus and oral cavity, where it will stay until it has dissipated. The American Medical Association concludes in its Manual for Chemical Tests for Intoxication (1959): "True reactions with alcohol in expired breath from sources other than the alveolar air (eructation, regurgitation, vomiting) will, of course, vitiate the breath alcohol results." Acid reflux, or gastroesophageal reflux disease, can greatly exacerbate the mouth-alcohol problem. The stomach is normally separated from the throat by a valve, but when this valve becomes incompetent or herniated, there is nothing to stop the liquid contents in the stomach from rising and permeating the esophagus and mouth. The contents—including any alcohol—are then later exhaled into the breathalyzer. One study of 10 individuals suffering from this condition did not find any actual increase in breath ethanol.

Mouth alcohol can also be created in other ways. Dentures, some have theorized, will trap alcohol, although experiments have shown no difference if the normal 15 minute observation period is observed.  Periodontal disease can also create pockets in the gums which will contain the alcohol for longer periods. Also known to produce false results due to residual alcohol in the mouth is passionate kissing with an intoxicated person.

To help guard against mouth-alcohol contamination, certified breath-test operators and police officers are trained to observe a test subject carefully for at least 15–20 minutes before administering the breath test. Some instruments also feature built-in safeguards. The Intoxilyzer 5000 features a "slope" parameter. This parameter detects any decrease in alcohol concentration of 0.006 g per 210 L of breath in 0.6 second, a condition indicative of residual mouth alcohol, and will result in an "invalid sample" warning to the operator, notifying the operator of the presence of the residual mouth alcohol. Other instruments require that the individual be tested twice at least two minutes apart. Mouthwash or other mouth alcohol will have somewhat dissipated after two minutes and cause the second reading to disagree with the first, requiring a retest. Many preliminary breath testers, however, feature no such safeguards.

Myths about accuracy

There are a number of substances or techniques that can supposedly "fool" a breath analyzer (i.e., generate a lower blood alcohol content).

A 2003 episode of the science television show MythBusters tested a number of methods that supposedly allow a person to fool a breath analyzer test. The methods tested included breath mints, onions, denture cream, mouthwash, pennies and batteries; all of these methods proved ineffective. The show noted that using these items to cover the smell of alcohol may fool a person, but, since they will not actually reduce a person's BrAC, there will be no effect on a breath analyzer test regardless of the quantity used, if any, it appeared that using mouthwash only raised the BrAC. Pennies supposedly produce a chemical reaction, while batteries supposedly create an electrical charge, yet neither of these methods affected the breath analyzer results.

The MythBusters episode also pointed out another complication: it would be necessary to insert the item into one's mouth (for example, eat an onion, rinse with mouthwash, conceal a battery), take the breath test, and then possibly remove the item — all of which would have to be accomplished discreetly enough to avoid alerting the police officers administering the test (who would obviously become very suspicious if they noticed that a person was inserting items into their mouth prior to taking a breath test). It would likely be very difficult, especially for someone in an intoxicated state, to be able to accomplish such a feat.

In addition, the show noted that breath tests are often verified with blood tests (BAC, which are more accurate) and that even if a person somehow managed to fool a breath test, a blood test would certainly confirm a person's guilt.

Other substances that might reduce the BrAC reading include a bag of activated charcoal concealed in the mouth (to absorb alcohol vapor), an oxidizing gas (such as N2O, Cl2, O3, etc.) that would fool a fuel cell type detector, or an organic interferent to fool an infrared absorption detector. The infrared absorption detector is more vulnerable to interference than a laboratory instrument measuring a continuous absorption spectrum since it only makes measurements at particular discrete wavelengths. However, due to the fact that any interference can only cause higher absorption, not lower, the estimated blood alcohol content will be overestimated. Additionally, Cl2 is toxic and corrosive.

A 2007 episode of the Spike network's show Manswers showed some of the more common and not-so-common ways of attempts to beat the breath analyzer, none of which work. Test 1 was to suck on a copper-coated coin such as a penny. Test 2 was to hold a battery on the tongue. Test 3 was to chew gum. None of these tests showed a "pass" reading if the subject had consumed alcohol.

Law enforcement

In general, two types of breathalyzer are used. Small hand-held breathalyzers are not reliable enough to provide evidence in court but reliable enough to justify an arrest. These devices may be used by officers in the field as a form of "field sobriety test" commonly called "preliminary breath test" or "preliminary alcohol screening", or as evidential devices in point of arrest testing. Larger breathalyzer devices found in police stations can be used to produce court evidence, These desktop analyzers generally use infrared spectrophotometer technology, electrochemical fuel cell technology, or a combination of the two.

All breath alcohol testers used by law enforcement in the United States of America must be approved by the Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Breath alcohol laws
The breath alcohol content reading may be used in prosecutions of the crime of driving under the influence of alcohol (sometimes referred to as driving or operating while intoxicated) in several ways. Historically, states in the US initially prohibited driving with a high level of BAC, and did not have any laws regarding BrAC. A BrAC test result was merely presented as indirect evidence of BAC. Where the defendant had refused to take a subsequent blood test, the only way the state could prove BAC was by presenting scientific evidence of how alcohol in the breath gets there from alcohol in the blood, along with evidence of how to convert from one to the other. DUI defense attorneys frequently contested the scientific reliability of such evidence. Before September 2011, South Dakota relied solely on blood tests to ensure accuracy.

States responded in different ways to the inability to rely on breathalyzer evidence. Many states such as California modified their statutes so to make a certain level of alcohol in the breath illegal per se. In other words, the BrAC level itself became the direct predicate evidence for conviction, with no need to estimate BAC. In per se jurisdictions such as the UK, it is automatically illegal to drive a vehicle with a sufficiently high breath alcohol concentration (BrAC). The breath analyzer reading of the operator will be offered as evidence of that crime, and challenges can only be offered on the basis of an inaccurate reading.

In other states, such as California and New Jersey, the statute remains tied to BAC, but the BrAC results of certain machines have been judicially deemed presumptively accurate substitutes for blood testing when used as directed. While BrAC tests are not necessary to prove a defendant was under the influence, laws in these states create a rebuttable presumption, which means it is presumed that the driver was intoxicated given a high BrAC reading, but that presumption can be rebutted if a jury finds it unreliable or if other evidence establishes a reasonable doubt as to whether the person actually drove with a breath or blood alcohol level of 0.08% or greater.

Another issue is that the BrAC is typically tested several hours after the time of driving. Some jurisdictions, such as the State of Washington, allow the use of breath analyzer test results without regard as to how much time passed between operation of the vehicle and the time the test was administered, or within a certain number of hours of testing. Other jurisdictions use retrograde extrapolation to estimate the BAC or BrAC at the time of driving.

One exception to criminal prosecution is the state of Wisconsin, where a first time drunk driving offense is normally a civil ordinance violation.

Breath levels

There is no international consensus on the statutory ratio of blood to breath levels, ranging from 2000:1 (most of Europe) to 2100:1 (US) to 2300:1 (UK). In the US, the ratio of 2100:1 was determined based on studies done in 1930-1950, with a 1952 report of the National Safety Council establishing the 2100:1 figure. The NSC has acknowledged that more recent research shows the actual relationship is most probably higher than 2100:1 and closer to 2300:1, but opines that this difference is of minimal practical significance in law enforcement. The use of the lower 2100:1 factor errs on the side of conservativism and can only favor the driver.

In early years, the range of the BrAC threshold in the US varied considerably between States. States have since adopted a uniform 0.08% BrAC level, due to federal guidelines. It is said that the federal government ensures the passage of the federal guidelines by tying traffic safety highway funds to compliance with federal guidelines on certain issues, such as the federal government ensuring that the legal drinking age be the age of 21 across the 50 states.

Police in Victoria, Australia, use breathalyzers that give a recognized 20% tolerance on readings. Noel Ashby, former Victoria Police Assistant Commissioner (Traffic & Transport), claims that this tolerance is to allow for different body types.

Preliminary breath tests

The preliminary breath test or preliminary alcohol screening test uses small hand-held breath analyzers (hand-held breathalyzers). (The terms "preliminary breath test" ("PBT") and "preliminary alcohol screening test" reference the same devices and functions.) They are generally based on electrochemical platinum fuel cell analysis. These units are similar to some evidentiary breathalyzers, but typically are not calibrated frequently enough for evidentiary purposes. The test device typically provides numerical blood alcohol content (BAC) readings, but its primary use is for screening. In some cases, the device even has "pass/fail" indicia.  For example, in Canada, PST devices, called "alcohol screening devices" are set so that, from 0 to 49 mg% it shows digits, from 50 to 99 mg% it shows the word "warn" and 100 mg% and above it shows "fail". These preliminary breath tests are sometimes categorised as part of field sobriety testing, although it is not part of the series of performance tests generally associated with field sobriety tests (FSTs) or standard field sobriety tests (SFSTs).

In Canada, a preliminary non-evidentiary screening device can be approved by Parliament as an approved screening device. In order to demand a person produce a breathalyzer sample an officer must have "reasonable suspicion" that the person drove with more than 80 mg alcohol per 100 mL of blood. The demand must be within three hours of driving. Any driver that refuses can be charged under s.254 of the Criminal Code. With the legalization of cannabis, updates to the criminal code are proposed that will allow a breathalyzer test to be administered without suspicion of impairment.

The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration maintains a Conforming Products List of breath alcohol devices approved for preliminary screening use. In the United States, the main use of the preliminary breath test (PBT) is to establish probable cause for arrest. All states have implied consent laws, which means that by applying for a driver's license, drivers are agreeing to take an evidentiary chemical test (blood, breath, or urine) after being arrested for a DUI. But in US law, the arrest and subsequent test may be invalidated if it is found that the arrest lacked probable cause. The PBT establishes a baseline alcohol level that the police officer may use to justify the arrest. The result of the PBT is not generally admissible in court, except to establish probable cause, although some states, such as Idaho, permit data or "readings" from hand-held preliminary breath testers or preliminary alcohol screeners to be presented as evidence in court. In states such as Florida and Colorado, there are no penalties for refusing a PBT. Police are not obliged to advise the suspect that participation in a FST, PBT, or other pre-arrest procedures is voluntary. In contrast, formal evidentiary tests given under implied consent requirements are considered mandatory.

Refusal to take a preliminary breath test in the State of Michigan subjects a non-commercial driver to a "civil infraction" fine, with no violation "points", but is not considered to be a refusal under the general "implied consent" law.  In some states, the state may present evidence of refusal to take a field sobriety test in court, although this is of questionable probative value in a drunk driving prosecution.

Different requirements apply in many states to drivers under DUI probation, in which case participation in a preliminary breath test may be a condition of probation, and for commercial drivers under "drug screening" requirements.  Some US states, notably California, have statutes on the books penalizing preliminary breath test refusal for drivers under 21; however the Constitutionality of those statutes has not been tested.  (As a practical matter, most criminal lawyers advise suspects who refuse a preliminary breath test or preliminary alcohol screening to not engage in discussion or "justifying" the refusal with the police.)

Evidentiary breath tests

In Canada, an evidentiary breath instrument can be designated as an approved instrument. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration maintains a Conforming Products List of breath alcohol devices approved for evidentiary use, Infrared instruments are also known as "evidentiary breath testers" and generally produce court-admissible results.

Drinking after driving
A common defense to an impaired driving charge (in appropriate circumstances) is that the consumption of alcohol occurred subsequent to driving.  The typical circumstance where this comes up is when a driver consumes alcohol after a road accident, as an affirmative defense.  This closely relates to absorptive stage intoxication (or bolus drinking), except that the consumption of alcohol also occurred after driving.  This defense can be overcome by retrograde extrapolation (infra), but complicates prosecution.

While jurisdictions that recognise absorptive stage intoxication as a defense would also accept a defense of consumption after driving, some jurisdictions penalise post-driving drinking.  While laws regarding absorption of alcohol consumed before (or while) driving are generally per se, most statutes directed to post-driving consumption allow defenses for circumstances related to activity not related to.  In Canada, it is illegal to be over the impaired driving limits within 3 hours of driving (given as 2 hours by CDN DOJ); however, the new law allows a "drinking after driving" defence in a situation where a driver had no reason to expect a demand by the police for breath testing.  South Africa is more straightforward, with a separate penalty applied for consumption "After An Accident" until reported to the police and if so required, has been medically examined.

Retrograde extrapolation
The breath analyzer test is usually administered at a police station, commonly an hour or more after the arrest.  Although this gives the BrAC at the time of the test, it does not by itself answer the question of what it was at the time of driving.  The prosecution typically provides an estimated alcohol concentration at the time of driving utilizing retrograde extrapolation, presented by expert opinion.  This involves projecting back in time to estimate the BrAC level at the time of driving, by applying the physiological properties of absorption and elimination rates in the human body.

Extrapolation is calculated using five factors and a general elimination rate of 0.015/hour.

Example Time of breath test-10:00pm...Result of breath test-0.080...Time of driving-9:00pm (stopped by officer)...Time of last drink-8:00pm...Last food-12:00pm. Using these facts, an expert can say the person's last drink was consumed on an empty stomach, which means absorption of the last drink (at 8:00) was complete within one hour-9:00. At the time of the stop, the driver is fully absorbed. The test result of 0.080 was at 10:00. So the one hour of elimination that has occurred since the stop is added in, making 0.080+0.015=0.095 the approximate breath alcohol concentration at the time of the stop.

Consumer use

Public breathalyzers are becoming a method for consumers to test themselves at the source of alcohol consumption. These are used in pubs, bars, restaurants, charities, weddings and all types of licensed events. As breathalyzer tests have increased risk of transmission of coronavirus, they were temporarily suspended from use in Sweden.

Breathalyzer sensors

Photovoltaic assay The photovoltaic assay, used only in the dated photoelectric intoximeter, is a form of breath testing rarely encountered today. The process works by using photocells to analyze the color change of a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction. A breath sample is bubbled through an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate, and silver nitrate. The silver nitrate acts as a catalyst, allowing the alcohol to be oxidized at an appreciable rate. The requisite acidic condition needed for the reaction might also be provided by the sulfuric acid. In solution, ethanol reacts with the potassium dichromate, reducing the dichromate ion to the chromium (III) ion. This reduction results in a change of the solution's color from red-orange to green. The reacted solution is compared to a vial of non-reacted solution by a photocell, which creates an electric current proportional to the degree of the color change; this current moves the needle that indicates BAC. Like other methods, breath testing devices using chemical analysis are prone to false readings. Compounds that have compositions similar to ethanol, for example, could also act as reducing agents, creating the necessary color change to indicate increased BAC.

 Infrared spectroscopy Infrared breathalyzers allow a high degree of specificity for ethanol. Typically evidential breath alcohol instruments in police stations will work on the principle of infrared spectroscopy.

 Fuel cell Fuel cell gas sensors are based on the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde on an electrode. The current produced is proportional to the amount of alcohol present. These sensors are very stable, typically requiring calibration every 6 months, and are the type of sensor usually found in roadside breath testing devices.

 Semiconductor Semiconductor gas sensors are based on the increase in conductance of a tin oxide layer in the presence of a reducing gas such as vaporized ethanol. They are found in inexpensive breathalyzers and their stability is not as reliable as fuel cell instruments.

See also
Coronavirus breathalyzer

References

External links

Alcohol law
Vehicle safety technologies
Brands that became generic
Driving under the influence
Law enforcement equipment
Spectroscopy
Harm reduction
Drug testing

Breathalyzer


Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots is a two-player action toy and game designed by Marvin Glass and Associates and was first manufactured by the Marx toy company in 1964. It features two dueling robot boxers, Red Rocker and Blue Bomber, mechanically manipulated by the players, and the game is won when one player knocks the head off of the opponent. The 2000s version of the game by Mattel features physically smaller robots.

A film based on the game has been announced to be in development by Universal Pictures.

Rules
Each player takes control of one of the two robots: Red Rocker and Blue Bomber, both of which are standing on a platform molded in bright yellow high-impact polystyrene plastic, representing a boxing ring. By pushing plunger buttons on a pair of joysticks at the base of the platform, players make their robot punch at their opponent's robot.  If a robot's head is hit with sufficient force at a suitable angle, the head will overextend away from the shoulders, signifying that the other player has won the round. The losing player then pushes the head back down to the shoulders to get ready for the next round.

History
From 1948, the International Mutoscope Corporation had a coin operated arcade machine called Silver Gloves featuring two players controlling the movement and arms of two boxing figures.

Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots has enjoyed far-ranging success in the United States, selling in the hundreds of thousands and becoming something of a minor popular culture phenomenon.  The game was developed for the Marx toy company by the renowned toy design firm Marvin Glass and Associates. The toy was inspired by boxing games that appeared in arcades in the early 1960s, using mannequins made of metal that would fall over if a player managed to hit the button on the chin of the opposing player's dummy. After some development, Glass decided to cancel the project in 1963 after the death of boxer Davey Moore in the ring. Burt Meyer felt that the toy was too good to go to waste, and suggested that they "de-humanize" the characters, making them robots that fall apart, rather than humanoid figures that fall over.

Text on the box suggested an outer-space backstory for the two robots. The red boxer is "the rollicking Red Rocker" from Soltarus II, and weighs in 375 pounds. The blue opponent, the "beautiful Blue Bomber, pride of Umgluck", weighs in at 382 pounds.

The toy first became available to retailers during the 1964 season. Marx produced the action set, virtually unchanged, for well over a decade, until the packaging and characters were updated for the 1977 sales season with a more overt outer-space theme to make it appeal more to buyers looking for space toys following the release of the movie blockbuster Star Wars.

Versions
The game was available in the United Kingdom during the 1970s, where it was sold under the name Raving Bonkers. The two robots were renamed, with the "Blue Bomber" becoming "Basher Bonker" and the "Red Rocker" becoming "Biffer Bonker".

Marx Toys also released an updated version of Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots called Clash of the Cosmic Robots in 1977. It featured robots of a design more suitable for the Space Age. The redesign was inspired by the success of the film Star Wars, released that May. Instead of a red robot and a blue robot, Clash of the Cosmic Robots featured PROG-2, an orange robot with a head more like that of RoboCop, and V-STYX, a white robot with a long, protruding mouth (but no eyes). The boxing ring was molded in black to give the game a look reminiscent of outer space. Stickers and decals (for both the robots and the ring) were provided, following the same concept.

For a period of time in the mid-1990s the blue robot was changed to a darker shade of blue and given the old PROG-2 head. The red robot was changed to a grey color (though the instructions referred to him as "silver"),  but retained his classic head. Their respective names were changed to "Bolt Crusher Bob" and "Gear Grinder Greg". As in Clash of the Cosmic Robots, stickers and decals were provided for additional design. Aside from the cosmetic changes, the game remained the same.

There have been many variations of the toy, such as a Transformers version, in which the two robots are Optimus Prime and Megatron.

In 2000, a remake of the classic version was developed by Mattel—at approximately half the size of the original model. In addition, an action figure line, a PlayStation game, electronic handhelds, a head-to-head plug and play and bobble head dolls have been recently introduced. The PlayStation game was Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots Arena, published by Mattel Interactive, and was developed by Paradox Development using their successful game engine from the completed, but cancelled, Thrill Kill video game. The video game and action figure lines represented a newer, updated version of the robots, whereas the reissued game and licensed products were all based on the original Red Rocker and Blue Bomber characters.

In popular culture
Al McWhiggin, the main antagonist in the 1999 Disney/Pixar animated film Toy Story 2, owns the Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots playset and has it in his office in Al's Toy Barn. When Slinky Dog meets the robots and talks to them about a cowboy doll with a bad arm, the Blue Bomber says that he hasn't seen Woody but Red Rocker starts to argue with Blue Bomber. Both fight until Blue Bomber defeats Red Rocker. The Blue Bomber is voiced by the film's director, John Lasseter, and the Red Rocker one of the co-directors, Lee Unkrich. They also appeared at the 72nd Academy Awards alongside the Toy Story cast presenting the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.

They also appeared as a cameo in the 2004 Disney/Pixar animated film The Incredibles, where the Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots appeared in Mr. Incredible's room. These robots are also used in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory during the Oompa Loompas' musical number about Mike Teevee in the TV room at Willy Wonka's factory.

The robots appeared in The Simpsons episode, "Simpson Tide" Homer Simpson imagines that he is playing with a Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots.

They appeared as a video game arcade in many Dave & Buster's locations when it debuted and opened on December 26, 2016.

In 2006, Full Fat developed a Game Boy Advance game based on the toy. In the video game, more robots were introduced, including the "Orange Oppressor", the "Yellow Yahoo", the "Green Grappler", the "Purple Pyro", the "Pink Pummeller", the "Brown Bully", the "Silver Stretcher" and the "Black Bruiser".

Near the end of the adventure video game Space Quest III, the player character Roger Wilco and the main antagonist Elmo Pug fight each other with gigantic Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots. Roger Wilco has a grey robot while Elmo Pug has a red one.

Film adaptation
On April 19, 2021, Mattel Films teamed up with Universal Pictures and Vin Diesel's One Race Films for a live-action film adaptation of the 1966-launched toy of the same name; starring Diesel himself.

References

External links

 Rock'em Sock'em Robots at Mattel's ecommerce shop

1960s toys
Products introduced in 1964
Boxing mass media
Mattel
Games about robots
Space Age

Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Robots


For the act of skating, see skating.

Skates are cartilaginous fish. They are the family Rajidae  in the order Rajiformes. They are chondrichthyes, and closely related to the rays. There are more than 200 species in 27 genera.

There are two subfamilies, the hardnose skates and the softnose skates.

Skates and stingrays
Skates are a bit like stingrays (they are in the same group), but they are usually smaller with shorter, thicker tails. There is also a difference: skates do not have stings. Instead, their tails are thicker, with small "thorns" along the edges. At the base of the tail is a set of extra fins.

Skates and rays are also different in the way the give birth. Most rays are ovoviviparous (the eggs develop inside a mother's body), but skates lay their eggs. This means they are oviparous.

References

Cartilaginous fish

Skate (fish)


Ski poles are carried by skiers to help them not falling over. They are called "ski sticks" in the United Kingdom. In France, they are called "batons".

Description
Ski poles in alpine skiing are shorter than ski poles in Nordic skiing.  Longer ski poles are used in cross country and free style skiing.

They are made from metal or composite material.

History
Ski poles have been used for a long time.  People first used one ski pole when skiing.  The first ski poles could also be used as a weapon.  A flat circle was put near the bottom of the ski pole in the 17th century.  This made it so the ski pole would not go all the way down to the ground. People started to use two ski poles by the start of World War I.

A steel ski pole was first made in 1937.  It was invented by Otto Lang.  Before this, some people used bamboo for ski poles.  More and more people started using metal ski poles after World War II.

Lots of changes were made to ski poles from 1950 to 1975.

References

Skiing equipment

Ski pole


Gowd is a saft, hivy, daurk yellae, glazie metal that haes been uised fur mony thoosands o years bi fowk aw ower the warld, for jewelry, as money, an nou in tuith fillins an electronic gear sic as computers. It wis parteecular respectit as jewelry in early times acause o its great luster an brawness. In Exodus it wis uised as pairt o the claes the priests wuir. The colour o this metal is cawed gowd an aw.

Chemical elements
Metals

Gowd


Myrick is an unincorporated historic community in Umatilla County, Oregon, United States. It is between Pendleton and Helix, just south of Oregon Route 334.

Myrick is a station on the Burlington Northern Railroad that was originally named "Warren". Because of the confusion with Warren in Columbia County, the name was changed to honor Samuel Jackson Myrick, who came to Oregon from Missouri in 1884 and settled in the area. Myrick post office ran from 1902 to 1908. John Myrick was the first postmaster.

The Myrick family became successful wheat farmers in the area.

References

Unincorporated communities in Umatilla County, Oregon
1902 establishments in Oregon
Populated places established in 1902
Unincorporated communities in Oregon

Myrick, Oregon


The Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic (or Ancient Greek) successor state of Alexander the Great's empire. At its greatest extent, the Empire covered central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkmenistan, Pamir and the Indus Valley.

Primarily, it was the successor to the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and was followed there by the Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun Empire) conquest and rule, from 650s to 660s AD. Later on, much of this area became part of the Umayyad Empire and then the Abbasid Empire.

There were over 30 kings of the Seleucid dynasty from 323 to 63 BC.

The partition of Alexander's empire (323–281 BC)
Alexander the Great had conquered the Persian Empire but later died young, leaving his huge empire of partly Hellenized culture without an adult heir.

The empire was put under the management of a regent named Perdiccas in 323 BC, and the territories were divided between Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon. Leaders who thought they should have more, started wars to get it. Soon the various parts of the empire were fighting each other.

The early Seleucid Empire
Seleucus I Nicator was one of Alexander's generals who received a portion of the huge empire Alexander had carved out. He received huge expanses of land in Syria, Babylon, Anatolia, even as far out as India. When Perdiccas was killed in a political assassination by Ptolemy of Egypt, the empire that was barely held together then splintered apart. The Seleucid Empire quickly expanded, eventually taking parts of Thrace in the west and advancing past the Indus in the East.

Seleucus I clashed several times with his southern rival for power, the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic Dynasty controlled most of Egypt and the lands around it, and would fight the Seleucid Empire on many occasions for control of Syria. Seleucus I conquered much of Anatolia, and was preparing to invade Macedonia, when he was assassinated. This momentarily put an end to the Seleucid Empire's ambitions in Greece. After Seleucus I died, his heirs spent much of their time and money trying to maintain the enormous empire they had inherited. In this, they were rather successful, but the vastness of the empire defied attempts by the successors of Seleucus to control it effectively.

References

History of Persia
Ancient history of Azerbaijan
History of Pakistan
Former countries in the Middle East
Former empires

Seleucid Empire


The Merkur Tower () is an observation tower on the Merkur near Baden-Baden, at 8°16'50" E and 48°45'52" N.  The tower has been in use since 8 April 1950 by the former SWF (now SWR) as a transmission tower for FM-radio and, since 1953, television.

At the end of the 1970s the tower was completely renovated and its radio equipment modified.  An underground equipment room for radiotechnical equipment was built, and a new tower was constructed, adjoining the older tower.  In this tower also an elevator for visitors was installed.  Built between autumn 1980 and December 1982, it is twenty three metres high, constructed from steel and concrete, and carrying a forty metre high aerial mast with FM- and TV-aerials on its top.

See also
List of towers

External links

Observation towers in Baden-Württemberg
Buildings and structures in Baden-Baden

Merkur Tower


Windows Sysinternals is a website that offers technical resources and utilities to manage, diagnose, troubleshoot, and monitor a Microsoft Windows environment. Originally, the Sysinternals website (formerly known as ntinternals) was created in 1996 and was operated by the company Winternals Software LP, which was located in Austin, Texas. It was started by software developers Bryce Cogswell and Mark Russinovich. Microsoft acquired Winternals and its assets on July 18, 2006.

The website featured several freeware tools to administer and monitor computers running Microsoft Windows. The software can now be found at Microsoft. The company also sold data recovery utilities and professional editions of their freeware tools.

Winternals Software LP
Winternals Software LP was founded by Bryce Cogswell and Mark Russinovich, who sparked the 2005 Sony BMG CD copy protection scandal in an October 2005 posting to the Sysinternals blog.

On July 18, 2006, Microsoft Corporation acquired the company and its assets. Russinovich explained that Sysinternals will remain active until Microsoft agrees on a method of distributing the tools provided there. However, NT Locksmith, a Windows password recovery utility, was immediately removed. Most of the source that Sysinternals provided was also removed. Currently, the Sysinternals website is moved to the Windows Sysinternals website and is a part of Microsoft Docs.

In late 2010, Bryce Cogswell retired from Sysinternals.

Products
Windows Sysinternals supplies users with numerous free utilities, most of which are being actively developed by Mark Russinovich and Bryce Cogswell, such as Process Explorer, an advanced version of Windows Task Manager, Autoruns, which Windows Sysinternals claims is the most advanced manager of startup applications, RootkitRevealer, a rootkit detection utility, Contig, PageDefrag and a total of 65 other utilities. NTFSDOS, which allowed NTFS volumes to be read by Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system, is now discontinued and is no longer available for download. A larger number of these utilities are nowadays bundled by the publishers for the sake of simpler downloading of all, or most, current versions in the so-called Sysinternals Suite.

Previously available for download was the Winternals Administrator Pak which contained ERD Commander 2005, Remote Recover 3.0, NTFSDOS Professional 5.0, Crash Analyzer Wizard, FileRestore 1.0, Filemon Enterprise Edition 2.0, Regmon Enterprise Edition 2.0, AD Explorer Insight for Active Directory 2.0, and TCP Tools.

On May 18, 2010 Sysinternals released its first new utility since its acquisition by Microsoft. Named RAMMap, it is a diagnostic utility similar to the memory tab of Windows Resource monitor, but more advanced. RAMMap runs only on Windows Vista and later. A system event monitoring tool, Sysmon, was released in 2014, which can collect and publish system events that are helpful for security analysis into the Windows Event Log.

In November 2018, Microsoft confirmed it is porting Sysinternals tools, including ProcDump and ProcMon, to Linux.

Licensing issue with Best Buy
In April 2006, Geek Squad, a tech support company working in cooperation with Best Buy, was accused of using unlicensed versions of the ERD Commander software. Winternals supplied Best Buy with copies of its software so that Best Buy could evaluate the software while conducting contract negotiations for using it on a permanent basis. When contract talks broke down Best Buy did not notify its Geek Squad Agents to stop using the software and discard all copies. A judge granted a restraining order on April 14, requiring that use of all unlicensed software be stopped, and forcing Best Buy to turn over all copies of Winternals software within 20 days. After settlement, a version of the Winternals software was released to be used by Geek Squad.

See also
 List of companies based in Austin, Texas

References

External links
 Sysinternals page on Microsoft Docs
 Sysinternals Live tools directory – Directly accessible repository of utilities
 Winternals homepage– Redirected to Microsoft Bing search for "winternals"

Computing websites
Internet properties established in 1996
Software companies based in Texas
Companies based in Austin, Texas
Microsoft subsidiaries
Technology companies established in 1996
Defunct software companies of the United States

Sysinternals


Arnold Cecil Powell (18 September 1882 – 15 November 1963) was an English schoolmaster, educationalist and clergyman who was head master of several schools successively, ending his career as Custos of St Mary's Hospital, Chichester.

Early life
The son of W. H. Powell, he was educated at St Olave's Grammar School, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was an open Exhibitioner and took his degree in the Natural Sciences Tripos.

Career
Powell's first post was as an assistant master at Gresham's School. He next taught at King's School, Grantham, and at Sedbergh School. His first appointment as a headmaster came at Skipton Grammar School, from where he was appointed head at Bedford Modern School in 1917, before serving as head master at Epsom College from 1922 to 1939.
In 1939 Powell became Rector of Graffham with Lavington, where he remained until 1947, and served also as Rural Dean of Petworth from 1945 to 1947. In 1947 he was appointed Prebendary of Highleigh and acted as Custos of St Mary's Hospital, Chichester, from 1954 to 1962.

Private life
In 1909, Powell married Mary Winnifred, a daughter of A. Walker, of Haxby Hall, York, and they had two sons and one daughter. After his first wife had died in 1954, in 1955 he married secondly Eva, the widow of Canon Salwey of Chichester.

He was a member of the Public Schools Club.

Publications
Arnold Cecil Powell, The Hospital of the Blessed Mary, Chichester (1962)

References

1882 births
1963 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
20th-century English Anglican priests
Headmasters of Epsom College
People educated at St Olave's Grammar School

Arnold Powell


The 1920 Cleveland Tigers season was the franchise's inaugural season in the American Professional Football Association (APFA) and fifth total as an American football team. The Tigers entered the season coming off a 5-win, 2-loss, 2-tie (5–2–2) record in 1919. After the 1919 season, several representatives from the Ohio League, a loose organization of professional football teams, wanted to form a new professional league; thus, the APFA was created.

The Tigers opened the season with a 0–0 tie against the Dayton Triangles, en route to a 2–4–2 record, which placed the team 10th in the final standings. In week 8, the Tigers scored 7 points against the Akron Pros, which was the only points Akron allowed all season. The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All-Pro list, but no players from the Tigers were on it. As of 2012, no player from the 1920 Tigers roster has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Offseason

The Cleveland Tigers finished 5–2–2 in their 1919 season in the Ohio League. After the 1919 season, representatives of four Ohio League teams—the Canton Bulldogs, the Tigers, the Dayton Triangles, and the Akron Pros—called a meeting on August 20, 1920, to discuss the formation of a new league. At the meeting, they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams. They also agreed on a name for the circuit: the American Professional Football Conference. They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17.

At the second meeting, held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom in Canton, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Racine Cardinals, the Massillon Tigers, the Chicago Cardinals, and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league. Representatives of the Buffalo All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting, but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league. Team representatives changed the league's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers, installing Jim Thorpe as president. Under the new league structure, teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed, so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played. Also, representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy.

Schedule

Game summaries

Week 3: at Dayton Triangles

October 10, 1920, at Triangle Park

In their opening game of the 1920 season, the Tigers played the Dayton Triangles. The Triangles were coming off a historic game; it was the first match between two APFA teams. No team scored in this game, and it ended in a 0–0 tie.

Week 4: at Canton Bulldogs

October 17, 1920, at Lakeside Park

The Tigers next faced the Canton Bulldogs, which would be the Bulldogs' first APFA opponent. The Tigers lost 7–0 before a crowd of 7,000 people. The Bulldogs' offense had 15 first downs, and the only score of the game came when the Bulldogs' Ike Martin had a 7-yard touchdown run in the first quarter. Jim Thorpe of the Bulldogs, who would later be enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, made his season debut in the game, coming in as a substitute in the fourth quarter.

Week 5: at Akron Pros

October 24, 1920, at League Park

The Akron Pros were the Tigers' next opponent. Playing in front of 6,000 fans, the game was called a "punting duel" by the Youngstown Vindicator. The only score came from a punt block by Akron's Bob Nash in the first quarter. Nash grabbed the ball from the Tigers' punter, Stan Cofall, on the 8-yard line and ran in for the score. With an extra point from Charlie Copley, the Pros defeated the Tigers 7–0 to keep their undefeated season alive. During the game, injuries for both teams occurred. Pollard of the Pros dislocated his right shoulder, and Toughey Conn for the Tigers injured his right leg in the fourth quarter.

Week 6: vs. Columbus Panhandles

October 31, 1920, at League Park

In week 6, the Tigers played against the Columbus Panhandles. In front of 5,000 fans, the Tigers won 7–0. The lone score came from a rushing touchdown in the second quarter from Charlie Brickley. This was the eighth straight loss for the Panhandles, dating back to 1919, and the seventh straight without scoring. According to football historian Chris Willis, this loss for the Panhandles crushed the city of Columbus and made the Panhandles challenge lesser teams for the rest of the season.

Week 7: vs. Canton Bulldogs

November 7, 1920, at Dunn Field

Tigers' next game was played against the Canton Bulldogs, who were coming off their first loss of the season. Neither team scored in the first quarter, but the Bulldogs ran for two touchdowns in the second. Calac and Grigg had 6- and 15-yard rushing touchdowns. The Bulldogs' defense forced two safeties—one in the third and one in the fourth quarter—to win the game 18–0.

Week 8: vs. Akron Pros

November 14, 1920, at Dunn Park, Cleveland, Ohio

In week eight, the Tigers had a rematch with the Pros. Playing in front of 8,000 fans, the Pros allowed their first and only points of the year from a 50-yard touchdown pass from Mark Devlin to Tuffy Conn and an extra point by Al Pierotti in the third quarter. Pollard had a 20-yard rushing touchdown in the second quarter and Copley made an extra point to tie the game at 7–7, making it the second tie of the season for the Tigers.

Week 9: vs. Toledo Maroons

November 21, 1920, at Dunn Field, Cleveland, Ohio

The Toledo Maroons were the Tigers' next opponent. The Maroons were an independent team but joined the APFA in 1922. Prior to this game, the Maroons did not score a point against an APFA tem all season, and that streak continued into this game. In the first quarter, Baston blocked a kick and ran it for a touchdown. He would later score the game's final points in the fourth as he caught a receiving touchdown from Pierotti. The final score of the game was a 14–0 victory for the Tigers.

Week 10: at Buffalo All-Americans

November 28, 1920, at Buffalo Baseball Park

In their final game of the 1920 season, the Tigers played against the Buffalo All-Americans, who were coming off their first loss of the season. The Public Ledger called the game "scrappy"; most forward passes were blocked, and neither team's offense was productive. A total of 5,000 fans showed up to the game. The All-Americans had possession on the 5-yard line and the 1-foot line, but the Tigers' defense stopped them. The only score of the game came in the third quarter. Anderson scored an 8-yard rushing touchdown.

Post-season

Due to several losses, the Tigers did not contend for the APFA trophy in 1920. The Tigers' performance of 2–4–2 would be the team's best before folding in 1921. Sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All Pro team, but no players made the list. As of 2012, no players from the 1920 Dayton Triangles were enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Roster

 Bert Baston LOE-DE
 Harry Baujan ROE-DE
 George Brickley TB-DB
 Jim Bryant BB-DB
 Stan Cofall TB-DB
 George Conn TB-DB
 Earl Cramer FB-LB
 Mark Devlin BB-DB
 Dinger Doane FB-LB
 Moon Ducote WB-DB
 Johnny Gilroy BB-DB
 Tom Gormley LOG-DG
 John Haggerty ROG-DG
 Charlie Hastings WB-DB
 Pat Herron E
 George Kerr LOT-DT
 Phil Marshall ROE-DE
 Joey Mattern TB-DB
 Jack O'Hearn ROT-DT
 Irving Pearlman ROT-DT
 Leo Petree TB-DB
 Al Pierotti C-MG
 Frank Rydzewski C-MG
 Herb Sies ROT-DT
 Joe Spagna LOT-DT
 Ed Stahl ROG-DG
 Claude Thornhill LOT-DT
 Ray Trowbridge ROE-DE
 Al Wesbecher C-MG

Standings

Notes

References

Cleveland Indians (NFL) seasons
Cleveland Tigers
Cleveland Tig

1920 Cleveland Tigers (NFL) season


Collett Park Neighborhood Historic District is a residential area in Terre Haute, Vigo County, Indiana, surrounding Collett Park.

Collett Park was established in 1883 and named after its benefactor, Josephus Collett. A community of residents soon formed around it, living mainly in large, single-family houses that were set up in a grid around the park. Many of the homes were built between 1900 and 1920 and are of various architectural styles, including Queen Anne Style, Free Classic, Shingle Style and Colonial Revival.{

The area, with its tree-lined streets and impressive dwellings, became a fashionable place for the established residents of Terre Haute to live. In the time when Rose Polytechnic Institute (now Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology) was located only a few blocks south of the area, several professors built homes in the Collett Park neighborhood.

Collett Park Neighborhood Historic District was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004 for its significance in architecture, community planning and landscape architecture. The Collett Park Homeowners Association helps care for the neighborhood. Collett Park itself was placed on the Register in 1983.

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Queen Anne architecture in Indiana
Colonial Revival architecture in Indiana
Neighborhoods in Indiana
Populated places established in 1883
Historic districts in Terre Haute, Indiana
National Register of Historic Places in Terre Haute, Indiana


The Millennium Coastal Park was originally a project undertaken by Llanelli Borough Council to transform a 12 miles stretch of industrial wasteland on the south Carmarthenshire coast into green parkland.  The project was then taken over by Carmarthenshire County Council after the amalgamation of Welsh local authorities and the land was transformed into a landscaped recreational area for the general public. The park is 1000 hectares in area, cost £35 million to develop and in 2002 was awarded a Civic Trust Award. It has extensive views over the Lloughor Estuary to the Gower Peninsula. It includes a cycle track which provides traffic-free cycling and has been described as "one of the finest stretches of the whole National Cycle Network". Another feature is a wave-shaped, grass-covered landform, created from  pulverised fuel ash, a form of "land art".

Another part of the project is the Burry Port Marina which provides berthing for 250 craft in three harbours. The Discovery Centre on the waterfront provides information on the park and its facilities. The Lloughor estuary is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and is within the Carmarthen Bay Special Area of Conservation. The Millennium Coastal Park offers various wildlife habitats such as wetlands and rough grassland, and these are preserved in the Pwll Lagoon Local Nature Reserve, the Ashpits Pond Local Nature Reserve and the North Dock Dunes Local Nature Reserve.

The park offers views of the Gower Peninsula on the other side of the Loughor estuary, and features a variety of visitor attractions including the North Dock visitor centre, National Wetlands Centre Wales at Penclacwydd and Sandy Water Park.  The Millennium Coastal Path (a stretch of the Celtic Trail cycle route, also known as National Cycle Route 4) runs through the park.

See also
WWT National Wetlands Centre

References

Llanelli
Geography of Carmarthenshire

Millennium Coastal Park


The PeaceOUT (World) Homo Hop Festival was an annual festival of hip hop music and culture created by Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) people from 2001 to 2007. The main festival took place in Oakland, California, although sibling festivals were also held in New York City, Atlanta and London.

History

The festival was first held in August 2001 (and was known as "Cypher") as a part of the East Bay (Oakland) LGBT Pride, following the suggestion of East Bay (Oakland) Pride organizer Pete King. Though King was not a fan of hip hop music or culture, he was familiar with the numerous out queer hip hop artists performing in the San Francisco Bay Area and felt the growing scene was an important component of the LGBT arts community. In June 2001, King approached Juba Kalamka of the group Deep Dickollective about his ideas (including naming the event "PeaceOUT") and inquired as to the possibility of organizing the event.

Though at first reticent as a result of what he viewed as racial and class antagonism toward hip hop at mainstream pride events, Kalamka eventually relented, which led to the organization of "Cypher 2000:One" by his Deep Dickollective bandmate Tim'm West and London-based DJ Christopher "Mister Maker" Harvey, who founded the Gayhiphop.com website in 2000.

The success of the event led to plans to create a larger scale event in 2002. East Bay Pride sponsored the event until its own dissolution after PeaceOUT 2003, at which time main financial sponsorship and organization was coordinated by Kalamka's micro-label Sugartruck Recordings and Matt Wobensmith of the zine and record label Outpunk and later the Queercorps imprint.

Among the performers who appeared at the festival were Deep Dickollective, Katastrophe, Tori Fixx, God-des and She, Deadlee, Jen-Ro, Jaycub Perez, Cazwell and soce, the elemental wizard. Numerous performances from the festival are featured in the documentary film Pick Up the Mic, which premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2005.

Despite initial plans to continue with PeaceOUT as a biannual event following the 2007 festival, Kalamka decided to close the event permanently in July 2008. The official website is currently maintained as a permanent historical archive of the festival.

References

Festivals in the San Francisco Bay Area
LGBT hip hop
LGBT events in California
LGBT music festivals
Music festivals in California
Music of the San Francisco Bay Area
Culture of Oakland, California
Music festivals established in 2001
Recurring events disestablished in 2007
2001 establishments in the United States
African-American festivals
Hip hop music festivals in the United States
LGBT festivals in the United States

PeaceOUT World Homo Hop Festival


The Hippodrome was a theatre in the town of Aldershot in Hampshire. It operated as a venue for variety shows, pantomimes, musical comedies and other shows from 1913 to 1961. When Peter Sellers appeared there in 1948 he complained that the band accompanying his drum act were four bars behind as they were eating their sandwiches while they were playing.

Early years
Located on the corner of Station Road and Birchett Road in Aldershot, and replacing a group of derelict buildings which dated to the late 1850s, the Hippodrome was built for Clarence Sounes and was designed by the leading English theatre architect Bertie Crewe. It was a sister theatre to the Kingston Empire at Kingston upon Thames, which had opened in 1910.

The Hippodrome opened on 3 February 1913 with variety shows twice a night at 6.30 and 8.50 pm. The bill on opening night included Chas Karnac & Co, The Four Debutants, Sisters Jerome, Tom Westwall, Duncan & Godfrey, Chas Kitts and Rhoda Windrum.

Theatre and cinema

The theatre was the largest for miles around with seating for about 1,000 people, which included 449 seats in the stalls, 258 seats in the dress circle, 272 seats in the balcony (originally this was benched) in addition to four boxes which seated four people in each. The proscenium was 24 feet wide, and the stage was 30 feet high and 22 feet in depth. The theatre was equipped with bars on all levels and eight dressing rooms. By March 1914, the Hippodrome was showing Kinemacolor films alongside the variety acts and, by the end of the 1920s, cinema shows were occasionally also being shown there.

The Hippodrome was taken over by Kingshot Theatres in 1930 who refurbished it in 1931 with a "Grand Re-Opening" on 6 April 1931, when it began to show twice nightly cine-variety including the screening of "Pathé Super Sound Gazette", part of Pathé News.

By 1953, in addition to the twice-nightly variety shows the Hippodrome also staged pantomimes, circus acts, plays and musical comedies.

Notable performers

The Hippodrome played host to many famous artists of the day, including: Marie Lloyd, Neville Kennard, The Western Brothers, Tom Leamore, Humphrey Lyttelton, Acker Bilk, Mike & Bernie Winters, Eric Delaney, Chas McDevitt and Nancy Whiskey, Arthur English, Clapham and Dwyer, Sabrina, Phyllis Dixey, Florrie Forde, Gracie Fields, Tommy Fields, Terry Scott, Arthur Askey, Frankie Howerd, Harry Champion, Leon Cortez, Ella Shields, Julie Andrews, Hylda Baker, Arthur Lucan and Kitty McShane in their famous 'Old Mother Riley' act, Ivor Moreton and Dave Kaye, Joe Loss and his Orchestra, Lonnie Donegan, Chris Barber and his Jazz Band, Johnny Dankworth and Cleo Laine, Primo Scala and His Accordion Band, Jimmy James and Eli Woods, Wee Georgie Wood, George Robey, Cicely Courtneidge, Tommy Trinder, Jack Haig, George Martin, A. E. Matthews, Chrystabel Leighton-Porter as 'Jane', Robertson Hare, Peter Jeffrey, Clive Dunn, Geoffrey Lumsden and Max Miller.

In October 1918 Ellen Terry appeared at the theatre for five evenings as Mistress Page in scenes from  ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' alongside a full Variety bill.

Peter Sellers appeared at the Hippodrome in February 1948 as a drummer and was billed as "Britain's answer to Gene Krupa". Sellers later described his appearance at the theatre: "I had a crushing defeat in Variety in Aldershot — a terrible thing it was." His complaint was that the band accompanying him were four bars behind as they were eating their sandwiches while they were playing.

According to some sources the actor James Mason made his stage début at the Hippodrome on 23 November 1931 playing Prince Felix Yusupov in a touring performance of Rasputin the Rascal Monk. Other sources, however, claim that this may have happened at the nearby Theatre Royal.

Decline and demolition

With ever-increasing numbers of people going to the cinema or watching television as an alternative to going to the theatre, audiences began to dwindle in the 1950s when the theatre shifted more towards nude revue. This proved rather lucrative as the nearly all-male audience preferred to sit in the more expensive seats near the stage.

Partly refurbished in 1953, the Hippodrome reopened fitfully under a number of managers until about 1960 and was demolished in 1961 after an unsuccessful campaign to save it. The last show performed there was a repertory production of Dry Rot.

The 1960s office block Hippodrome House occupies the site today.

See also
Princes Hall
West End Centre, Aldershot
Theatre Royal, Aldershot

References

External links
The Hippodrome on the 'Bygone Aldershot' website

Former theatres in England
1913 establishments in England
Buildings and structures demolished in 1961
Buildings and structures in Aldershot
Theatres completed in 1913
Theatres in Hampshire
Former music hall venues in the United Kingdom

Hippodrome, Aldershot


In Christianity, different groups disagree about who can be a priest. Protestants believe that any baptized believer can become a priest (though denominations can vary depending on the question of gender), and that anyone can talk directly to God.  Ordination is not necessarily needed to become a priest, however, the unordained are generally referred to as, "Preachers," and the term "Pastor" can be used interchangeably.

In contrast, Roman Catholics believe that only male believers can become priests and that they must receive special training because they intercede between God and His people.  Pope Paul VI in 1964 issued a papal bull called Lumen Gentium: In it, he stated the position the Roman Catholic church held after the Second Vatican Council:

Christ the Lord, High Priest taken from among men, made the new people "a kingdom and priests to God the Father".The baptized, by regeneration and the anointing of the Holy Spirit, are consecrated (..) a holy priesthood, in order that through all those works which are those of the Christian man they may offer spiritual sacrifices and proclaim the power of Him who has called them out of darkness into His marvelous light.

History
The first person who spoke about this was Martin Luther. Luther did not use the exact phrase "priesthood of all believers". He says that there is  a general priesthood in Christendom in his 1520 To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation. In this text, he also dismisses the medieval view that Christians in the present life were to be divided into two classes: "spiritual" and "secular". He put forward the doctrine that all baptized Christians are "priests" and "spiritual" in the sight of God:
That the pope or bishop (..) dresses differently from the laity, may make a hypocrite or an idolatrous oil-painted icon, but it in no way makes a Christian or spiritual human being. In fact, we are all consecrated priests through Baptism, as St. Peter in 1 Peter 2[:9] says, "You are a royal priesthood and a priestly kingdom," and Revelation [5:10], "Through your blood you have made us into priests and kings."

Two months later Luther wrote  in his On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520):
How then if they are forced to admit that we are all equally priests, as many of us as are baptized, and by this way we truly are; while to them is committed only the Ministry (ministerium Predigtamt) and consented to by us (nostro consensu)? If they recognize this they would know that they have no right to exercise power over us (ius imperii, in what has not been committed to them) except insofar as we may have granted it to them, for thus it says in 1 Peter 2, "You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a priestly kingdom." In this way we are all priests, as many of us as are Christians. There are indeed priests whom we call ministers. They are chosen from among us, and who do everything in our name. That is a priesthood which is nothing else than the Ministry. Thus 1 Corinthians 4:1: "No one should regard us as anything else than ministers of Christ and dispensers of the mysteries of God."
The Bible passage considered to be the basis of this belief is the First Epistle of Peter, 2:9:

But you are not like that, for you are a chosen people. You are royal priests, a holy nation, God's very own possession. As a result, you can show others the goodness of God, for he called you out of the darkness into his wonderful light.

References

Protestant theology
Church organization

Universal priesthood (doctrine)


In 2020, 85.84% of the population adhered to Christianity (mainly Orthodox), 11% were Muslim, 0.1% were Jewish, 0.04% were Baha'i and 3% had no religious beliefs.  Other religious groups include Jehovah's Witnesses and Yazidis. Orthodox churches serving other non-Georgian ethnic groups, such as Russians and Greeks, are subordinate to the Georgian Orthodox Church.

A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that between the various Christian communities, Georgia ranks as the third highest nation in terms of Christians who obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education (57%).

History

According to Orthodox tradition, Christianity was first preached in Georgia by the Apostles Simon and Andrew in the 1st century. It became the state religion of Kartli (Iberia) in 319.  The conversion of Kartli to Christianity  is credited to a Greek woman, St. Nino of Cappadocia. The Georgian Orthodox Church, originally part of the Church of Antioch, gained its autocephaly and developed its doctrinal specificity progressively between the 5th and 10th centuries. The Bible was also translated into Georgian in the 5th century, as the Georgian alphabet was developed for that purpose. As was true elsewhere, the Christian church in Georgia was crucial to the development of a written language, and most of the earliest written works were religious texts. Pre-Christian Georgia was religiously diverse, the religions practiced in ancient Georgia include local pagan beliefs, various Hellenistic cults (mainly in Colchis), Mithraism and Zoroastrianism. The adoption of Christianity was to place Georgia permanently on the front line of conflict between the Islamic and Christian worlds. Georgians remained mostly Christian despite repeated invasions by Muslim powers, and long episodes of foreign domination. After Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire, the Russian Orthodox Church took over the Georgian church in 1811.

The Georgian church regained its autocephaly only when Russian rule ended in 1917. The Soviet regime, which ruled Georgia from 1921, did not consider revitalization of the Georgian church an important goal, however. Soviet rule brought severe purges of the Georgian church hierarchy and frequent repression of Orthodox worship. As elsewhere in the Soviet Union, many churches were destroyed or converted into secular buildings. The history of repression encouraged the incorporation of religious identity into the strong nationalist movement and the quest of Georgians for religious expression outside the official government-controlled church. In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, opposition leaders, especially Zviad Gamsakhurdia, criticized corruption in the church hierarchy. After Ilia II became the patriarch (catholicos) of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the late 1970s, Georgian Orthodoxy experienced a revival. In 1988, Moscow permitted the patriarch to begin consecrating and reopening closed churches, and a large-scale restoration process began. The Georgian Orthodox Church has regained much power and full independence from the state since the restoration of Georgia's independence in 1991.

Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church

The Georgian Orthodox Church (full title Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church, or in the Georgian language, საქართველოს სამოციქულო მართლმადიდებელი ავტოკეფალური ეკლესია Sakartvelos Samocikulo Martlmadidebeli Avt'ok'epaluri Ek'lesia) is one of the world's oldest Christian Churches, and tradition traces its origins to the mission of Apostle Andrew in the 1st century. It is an autocephalous (self-headed) part of the Eastern Orthodox Church.  Georgian Orthodoxy has been a state religion in parts of Georgia since the 4th century, and is the majority religion in that country.

The Constitution of Georgia recognizes the special role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the country's history but also stipulates the independence of the church from the state. The relations between the State and the Church are regulated by the Constitutional Agreement of 2002.

Oriental Orthodoxy

Adherents of Oriental Orthodox Christianity in Georgia are mainly ethnic Armenians. Communities of Armenian Apostolic Church in Georgia are under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, and its eparchy (diocese), centered in the Saint George's Church, Tbilisi. In 2023, the head of the Armenian Apostolic Diocese in Georgia is the Very Reverend Archimandrite Father Kirakos Davtyan. He took over from bishop Vazgen Mirzakhanyan.

Catholicism

The Georgian Catholic Church (or Catholic Church in Georgia) has always, since the East-West Schism, been composed mainly of Latin Church Catholics. Since the 18th century, there has also been a significant number of Armenian Rite Catholics.  Georgian Byzantine-Rite Catholics have always been few, and do not constitute an autonomous ("sui iuris") Church, since canon 27 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches defines these Churches as under a hierarchy of their own and recognized as autonomous by the supreme authority of the Church.

A small number, estimated at 500 worldwide, of Byzantine or "Greek" Rite Georgian Catholics do exist. However, "no organized Georgian Greek Catholic Church ever existed", though, outside of Georgia, "a small Georgian Byzantine Catholic parish has long existed in Istanbul. Currently it is without a priest. Twin male and female religious orders 'of the Immaculate Conception' were founded there in 1861, but have since died out." This was never established as a recognized particular Church of any level (exarchate, ordinariate etc.), within the communion of Catholic Churches, and accordingly has never appeared in the list of Eastern Catholic Churches published in the Annuario Pontificio.

Protestantism
The earliest traceable contact between Georgia and Protestantism took place in the mid-16th century. Shortly after 1574, a copy of the Augsburg Confession was translated into Georgian and sent to Georgia. In 1781, Theodor Grabsch, a German missionary of the Moravian Brethren, met with King Heraclius II of Georgia, who invited the Moravians to settle in Georgia. This planned Protestant settlement never took place, because of the Treaty of Georgievsk. Some German Radical Pietism did settle in Georgia under Russian rule, looking for religious freedom. These were mostly from Swabia and followed the Chiliastic theology of Heinrich Stilling. Many of these Pietist groups were brought into the mainstream Lutheranism by the 1860s. Little effort was made by these Protestants to proselytize native Georgians, since it was believed it would jeopardize their freedoms. In the 1860s, the first Baptist church was established in Tbilisi by Martin Klaweit and Nikita Voronin. It converted many Molokans.

See also
 Religion in Georgia (country)
 Freedom of religion in Georgia (country)

References

Bibliography

Religion in Georgia (country)

Christianity in Georgia (country)


The United States entered recession in 1990, which lasted 8 months through March 1991. Although the recession was mild relative to other post-war recessions, it was characterized by a sluggish employment recovery, most commonly referred to as a jobless recovery. Unemployment continued to rise through June 1992, even though a positive economic growth rate had returned the previous year.

Belated recovery from the 1990–1991 recession contributed to Bill Clinton's victory in the 1992 presidential election.

Background

Throughout 1989 and 1990, the economy was weakening as a result of restrictive monetary policy enacted by the Federal Reserve. At the time, the stated policy of the Fed was to reduce inflation, a process which limited economic expansion.  The immediate cause of the recession was a loss of consumer and business confidence as a result of the 1990 oil price shock, coupled with an already weak economy. Another factor that may have contributed to the weakening of the economy, was the Tax Reform Act of 1986, which lowered investment incentives and contributed to the end of the real estate valuation boom of the early to mid-1980s.

Effects
July 1990 marked the end of what was at the time the longest peacetime economic expansion in U.S. history. Prior to the onset of the early 1990s recession, the nation enjoyed robust job growth and a rising unemployment rate. The Labor Department estimates that as a result of the recession, the economy shed 1.623 million jobs or 1.3% of non-farm payrolls. The bulk of these losses were in construction and manufacturing. Among the hardest hit regions were the New England states and the West Coast, while the Midwest and south central regions were less affected.

Recovery
Job losses and unemployment continued to rise and peaked at 7.8% in June 1992. Gross domestic product grew at a slow and erratic pace in the year that followed the official March 1991 end of the recession, but picked up pace in 1992. Exports, typically a driver of economic recovery, weakened due to persistent economic problems in Europe and Japan. Perhaps the largest impact on the protracted period of unemployment following the early 90s recession were large layoffs in defense related industries. Cumulative defense downsizing resulted in 240,000 job losses from 1990 to 1992, representing a full 10% reduction in that sector. These cutbacks also spilled over into transportation, wholesale, trade, and other sectors tied to defense related durable goods manufacturing. For all of 1991, the United States incurred a net loss of 858,000 jobs, with 1.154 million created in 1992 and 2.788 million in 1993.

Other factors contributed to a slow economy, including a slump in office construction resulting from overbuilding during the 1980s. Local markets in the New England states, Southern California, and Texas in particular experienced the effects of commercial overbuilding, reflected in the number of bank failures and the proportion of commercial investments held by those banks. Real estate values would remain depressed through 1995, when they would return to growth. In addition, consumer confidence moved at an erratic pace, limiting the surge in consumption expenditures that is typical of recovery periods. As a result, businesses were reluctant to hire on concerns over the strength of the economic recovery.

Ultimately, the recession proved to be one of the smallest and shortest in the modern era, surpassed in most metrics only by the 2000-01 recession. The economy returned to 1980s level growth by 1993, fueled by the desktop computer productivity boom, low interest rates, low energy prices, and a resurgent housing market. Strong growth resumed and lasted through the year 2000. Although relatively mild, the early 1990s recession was the only interruption to economic expansion during the 1990s.

References

Further reading

Early 1990s recession
Presidency of George H. W. Bush
Recessions in the United States

Early 1990s recession in the United States


Abrázame muy fuerte (Embrace Me Tightly) is a Mexican telenovela that aired in 2000-2001, under the production of Salvador Mejía Alejandre.

It stars Victoria Ruffo, Fernando Colunga, Aracely Arámbula, César Évora, Nailea Norvind and Osvaldo Ríos.

Plot
Cristina (Victoria Ruffo) is a sweet and tender young girl, loved by everyone in "El Platanal", a beautiful estate owned by Don Severiano Álvarez (Joaquín Cordero), her father, a tough country man with a rigid character. Diego Hernández (Osvaldo Ríos), a strong young man who has fallen in love with Cristina, works as a foreman in this place. Given the love that Cristina also feels for Diego, she gives herself to him. Cristina confesses to her father that she is pregnant and that she loves Diego.

Severiano orders Cristina and Raquela (Rossana San Juan), the maid, to go to the capital for his daughter to have the child there. Due to the manipulations of Federico Rivero (César Évora), little María del Carmen returns to the estate as Raquela's daughter. Cristina, in order to be close to her daughter, is forced to marry Federico, a ruthless and ambitious man. From now on, before everyone's eyes, she will be the godmother of María del Carmen. Federico causes an accident as a result of which Cristina loses her sight; thus, her fortune passes into his hands.

Federico is happy with the arrival of his nephew, Carlos Manuel (Fernando Colunga), a handsome young man who has finished his medical studies abroad. Carlos Manuel falls in love with Déborah Falcón (Nailea Norvind), without knowing that she is the lover of his uncle. When Federico finds out about this relationship, he opposes it and looks for a way to separate Déborah from his nephew.

Simultaneously, the now adolescent María del Carmen (Aracely Arámbula) falls in love with Carlos Manuel from the moment she meets him, provoking the hatred of Déborah who, along with Federico, does everything possible to break up the young couple, managing to drift them apart, but without being able to make the love they feel for each other go out.

Carlos Manuel gets Ángel Luis Robles (Arnaldo André), his teacher and friend who is a specialist in ophthalmology, to analyze Cristina's case of blindness so that he can help him operate on her. Dr. Robles secretly falls in love with her and has a vested interest in her regaining her sight. Federico, eager to possess María del Carmen at any cost, tries to sexually abuse the young woman, but Cristina stops him.

This awesome story, in which the purest feelings of the human being are shown, leads us to a series of surprises and emotions giving way to true love; the love that can only be felt when saying Embrace Me Tightly.

Cast

Main

 Victoria Ruffo as Cristina Álvarez Rivas de Rivero
 Fernando Colunga as Carlos Manuel Rivero
 Aracely Arámbula as María del Carmen Campusano / María del Carmen Hernández Álvarez
 César Évora as Federico Rivero
 Nailea Norvind as Déborah Falcón
 Osvaldo Ríos as Diego Hernández

Secondary
 Arnaldo André as Dr. Ángel Luis Robles
 Helena Rojo as Damiana Guillén / Juliana Guillèn
 Alicia Rodríguez as Consuelo Rivas de Álvarez
 Emilia Guiu as Flora Bravo
 Joaquín Cordero as Don Severiano Álvarez
 Rosita Quintana as Eduviges de la Cruz y Fereira
 Lilia Aragón as Efigenia de la Cruz y Ferreira
 René Muñoz as Regino
 Pablo Montero as José María Montes
 Rossana San Juan as Raquela Campusano
 Tina Romero as Jacinta vda. de Rivero
 Aurora Clavel as Vicenta
 Miguel Córcega as Father Ignacio
 Mario Casillas as Marcelino
 Ana Hally as Macrina
 Eduardo Noriega as Francisco "Pancho" Montes
 Dacia González as Candelaria Campusano
 Toño Infante as Eulogio Rojas
 Ignacio Guadalupe as Benito
 Alberto Chávez as Artemio
 Manuel Raviela as Silverio
 Alicia Montoya as Gumersinda de Montes
 Esther Rinaldi as Nieves Muñoz
 Veronika Con K. as Casilda
 Dacia Arcaraz as Gema
 Jorge De Silva as Abel "Abelito" Ramos
 Emely Faride as Francisca "Paquita" Silva
 Fabián Lavalle as Dr. Fabián Anaya
 Paco Ibáñez as Juancho
 Abril Campillo as Estela "Estelita"
 Rosita Pelayo as "La Güera"
 Pedro Romo as Apolinar
 José Antonio Ferral as Fayo Ruiz
 Eduardo Rodríguez as Máximo "Max" Ruiz
 René Casados as Francisco José Bravo / Fernando Joaquín Bravo
 Carmen Salinas as Celia Ramos

Recurring
 Ernesto Alonso as Father Bosco
 Raúl Buenfil as Dandy

Guest starts
 Toño Mauri as Father Moisés
 Sergio Reynoso as Commander Hernán Muñoz
 Manuel Capetillo as Miguel Salvador Zamudio
 Lalo "El Mimo" as Casimiro
 Humberto Elizondo as Bernal Orozco
 Eduardo Santamarina as Himself

Awards and nominations

Remake
In 2015 Angelli Nesma Medina produced Que te perdone Dios for Televisa. Zuria Vega, Mark Tacher, Sergio Goyri and Rebecca Jones were cast as main protagonists.

References

External links

2000 telenovelas
Spanish-language telenovelas
Televisa telenovelas
2000 Mexican television series debuts
2001 Mexican television series endings

Abrázame muy fuerte (TV series)


Jerold M. Starr (May 12, 1941 – July 13, 2012)  was an American writer, professor, and social activist.

Biography
He was born in Detroit, Michigan, where he attended Mumford High School and Montieth College of Wayne State University. Starr earned a Ph.D. in sociology from Brandeis University in 1970. He taught 1969–76 at the University of Pennsylvania, 1976–2002 at West Virginia University and 2004–08 at the University of California at San Diego. Since 1980 he has lived in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Among his many awards, Starr has been a Fulbright Scholar, National Endowment for the Humanities Fellow and recipient of the Alfred McClung Lee Award from Sociological Abstracts for "Distinguished Career as a Humanist Sociologist."

Starr's works have focused on two areas: One is peace and conflict resolution, organized in the 1980s under "The Lessons of the Vietnam War" program of the Center for Social Studies Education. This program received the Veterans for Peace Medal for Educational Achievement and has been used in about 3,500 colleges and secondary schools. In the 1990s he founded Citizens for Independent Public Broadcasting, an effort to bring greater diversity to public television and media reform throughout the PBS and NPR systems.

Since 1984, Starr has been active in theatre as a board member, producer, actor, and playwright.

Works
 Social Structure and Social Personality, nonfiction (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974)
 Cultural Politics: Radical Movements in Modern History, nonfiction (New York: Praeger, 1985)
 The Lessons of the Vietnam War: A Modular Textbook, nonfiction (Pittsburgh: Center for Social Studies Education, 1988)
 Air Wars: The Fight to Reclaim Public Broadcasting, nonfiction (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000)
 Buried: The Sago Mine Disaster, play (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Playwrights Theatre, 2006)
 Interesting Times, play (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Playwrights Theatre, 2008)

References
 Christopher Rawson (2008). Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: Feature on Jerry Starr. Retrieved November 14, 2008.
 Amy McConnell Schaarsmith (2012). Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: Obituary of Jerry Starr. Retrieved October 20, 2012.

External links

1941 births
2012 deaths
Writers from Pittsburgh
American sociologists

Jerold Starr