Svetozar Marković (, ; 9 September 1846 – 26 February 1875) was a Serbian political activist, literary critic and socialist philosopher. He developed an activistic anthropological philosophy with a definite program of social change. He was called the Serbian Nikolay Dobrolyubov.

Early life
Marković was born in the town of Zaječar on 9 September 1846, the son of a police clerk. Marković's childhood was spent in the village of Rekovac and then the town of Jagodina. The family moved to Kragujevac in 1856. He reached adolescence at about the time Mihailo Obrenović became the Prince of Serbia. In 1860 he began to study at the gymnasium in Belgrade and in 1863 at the Velika škola of Belgrade, the highest educational body in Serbia at that time, founded in 1808.

While at the Velika škola he became interested in literature and politics, falling under the influences of Vuk Karadžić and Vladimir Jovanović, a leading Serbian Liberal. Because of his outstanding record as a student at the Belgrade college, his professors unanimously nominated him for a post-graduate scholarship to study abroad. He chose to study in Russia, in St. Petersburg in particular, at the Alexander I Institute of Communication Engineers.

Study abroad
For the next three years, he lived in Russia and came under the influence of Russian radicals of the 1860s. These were followers of the agrarian socialist Nikolai Chernyshevsky, who wrote and edited Nikolay Nekrasov's The Contemporary magazine. There he also met Dmitry Pisarev and Lyuben Karavelov, who in the autumn of 1876 took part as a volunteer in the Serbian campaign against the Ottomans, and subsequently joined the Bulgarian irregular contingent with the Russian army in the war of 1877–78. Together with a few other men of birth and education, Mikhail Katkov, Konstantin Pobedonostsev, and Aleksey Suvorin, Marković began secretly to sow the sentiments of democracy among the peasants. His sympathetic nature was influenced by indignation against the brutal methods adopted towards activists, especially political prisoners, and by the stern measures which the authorities felt compelled to adopt in order to repress the revolutionary movement. His indignation carried him into accord for a time with those who advocated the acceptance of constitutional methods. In consequence, he exposed himself to danger by remaining in Russia for fear of being arrested by the Russian authorities for his socialist sympathies with the revolutionaries. He then left for Zurich, Switzerland to pursue political activity.

He settled for a time in Switzerland, then known as the haven of revolutionary leaders, such as Johann Philipp Becker and others. At the ETH Zurich, a STEM university in the City of Zurich, Marković resumed his interrupted studies and in his spare time continued to write articles on social and political issues. There too, politics got in the way of his studies. His scholarship was rescinded after the publication of his article entitled "Our Delusions" (naše obmane) in the newspaper Zastava in 1869, which criticized the Serbian constitution and political regime. When his scholarship was suspended, he returned to Belgrade with new ideas. He met journalist Pera Todorović, one of the future founders of the 'People's Radical Party and his wife journalist Milica Ninković, and other young intellectuals who wanted to make a change. Marković immediately began attracting attention and from 1868 until his early death, became one of the leading figures in Serbia's quest to reclaim its lost ancestral territories and enter into the comity of nations.

Back to the Balkans
Shortly after he arrived, he gathered a small group of students, which included the future Radical leader Nikola Pašić. At the time, Serbia was ruled by a regency on behalf of Prince Milan, in place since 1868. In the spring of 1869, the Serbian Liberal Party signed an accord with the Regency and a constitution with a toothless assembly was set up. Marković denounced this deal as a sellout and formed a minuscule radical party.

Marković now sought to wrest control of the youth wing Omladina from the Liberal Party. The Congress of Omladina met in late August 1870 in the Serbian city of Novi Sad, which in those days was in the hands of Austria-Hungary yet close to the then Serbian border. Marković and his fellow radicals proposed a resolution calling for decentralization and a number of social measures which began with: "The solution of the nationality problem in Austria-Hungary, and the Eastern Question, on the principle of 'free humanity'."

Vladimir Jovanović's liberal supporters countered with a call for an aggressive foreign policy saying that domestic policies had to take second place to unification of the South Slavs.  A compromise was reached calling for decentralization and an expansionist foreign policy.

On 1 June 1871, Marković launched Serbia's first socialist newspaper with Đura Ljočić as editor. The paper, Radenik ("The Worker") struck a careful balance between outspokenness while avoiding printing anything that would get it banned. The paper proved very successful. It was soon being denounced by the establishment as the first socialist paper in the Balkans. A group of deputies of the Serbian National Assembly accused Radenik of propagating communism "thus striking at the very foundations of the state; faith morals and property."

In March 1872, the government decided to arrest Marković however, warned in advance, he escaped across the Sava into Hungarian territory.  Finally Radenik overstepped the mark once too often when it published an article in which Christ was described as a communist and a revolutionary.  Using that as a pretext, the government banned the paper in May 1872 for blasphemy and treason.

Serbia in the East
He opened his literary career in June 1872 by a work on Srbija na istoku ("Serbia in the East"), published in Novi Sad, wherein he analyses the history of Serbia, interpreting the Serbian society before the First Serbian Uprising of 1804 as a society divided not so much on religious lines as by class. Marković argued that the Serbian revolt against the Ottomans had a social character rather than a religious one. He saw the social organization of the Serbian peasants who played the leading role in eventual successful overthrow of Ottoman rule as insufficient to prevent the new state becoming a despotism which soon brought to life a parasitic bureaucracy.

Marković argued that growth of Serbia while this bureaucracy was in control would not lead to greater freedom, but merely strengthen the power of that bureaucracy. As an alternative to this Marković advocated democratic federalism. Marković idealized the old Balkan family structure, the zadruga, and believed that the state should merely serve to coordinate the activities of opštine, or small communities organized on the zadruga principle. In fact, he preferred a federal and revolutionary Serbia:

At the time Marković was making an intensive study of socialism. And, from this framework for an analyses of Serbia came the basis for the growth of a movement of which Marković became the spiritual father and which years later, according to some, would become the Serbian Democratic Party under the leadership of Dimitrije Tucović.

Return to Serbia

As an exile, Marković had carried on his former line of thought and activity. Owing to his political activities in Novi Sad, Marković was expelled by the Hungarian authorities, but was promptly arrested upon his arrival in Serbia. He was already known in Eastern Europe by his book, Serbia in the East, which had been published recently (1872). The new Prime Minister, Jovan Ristić, immediately released him.  Ristić owed his position to the whim of Prince Milan, and as a result, was opposed by both the liberals and the conservatives. Ristić hoped that releasing Marković would keep the socialists off his back.

On 8 November 1873, a new newspaper, Javnost ("The Public") began publication in Kragujevac with Marković as editor. Marković was initially quite gentle on the new conservative government that had come to power only a few weeks before Javnost began publication.

Javnost'''s criticism quickly became more strident.  The government lost patience and on 8 January 1874, Marković was arrested, even though he had handed over editorship by then. In the meanwhile, his supporters were running another newspaper, Glas Javnosti, which was started in anticipation of Javnost being banned.

Trial
Marković had been in ill health for some time and being kept in a damp, poorly heated cell in a Požarevac gaol made matters worse.  His trial for "press crimes" began on 19 February 1874.

Defending himself against the charges that he had "insulted" the National Assembly by dismissing it as a mere debating society, Marković answered that he had written the truth.  He then launched into a defense of the freedom of the press.  On the charge that he had defended the right of the people "to overthrow a prince who does them evil and replace him with a good one", he denied that this was a call for revolution.  He had been talking in the abstract.

16 years before the Marković trial, the Serbian people and the National Assembly exercised this right and in 1858 deposed Prince Alexander Karađorđević and recalled the reigning prince's father, Miloš Obrenović to the throne.

The trial attracted a large audience, including many of the local peasants.  As a result of the trial Marković became a symbol of the growing discontent against the government. Marković's conviction was a foregone conclusion but the sentence, 18 months in prison, was relatively light.  However, by now his general health problems had developed into full blown tuberculosis.  The sentence was further reduced to nine months; it was far from certain that he would survive his term in prison. He was released on 16 November 1874, and went to Jagodina to convalesce.

Socialist success
During Marković's imprisonment and building on the publicity created by Marković's trial, for the first time socialists succeed in getting elected to the National Assembly and small but vocal group, advocating Marković's ideas, formed round the Serbian politician, Adam Bogosavljević.  Ignoring warnings that he needed to recover his health first, Marković was unable to stay in the background. On 1 January 1875 Oslobođenje (Liberation) came out, with Marković at the helm. He was as outspoken as ever at a time when harassment of socialists was in full swing.

When, however, the police told him he had the choice either to submit to arrest or leave Serbia, he chose the latter.  This time he had no illusions that prison would be anything other than a death sentence.

Death
Marković caught a Danube steamer for Vienna. Here the doctors told him that there was little hope for him, and they recommended he go to Dalmatia where the climate was warmer. He reached Trieste but collapsed in his hotel. He did not recover and died on 26 February 1875, at the age of 28. He is buried in Jagodina where he spent most of his youth.

Literature and politics

A major literary critic of this time was Svetozar Marković, who was also the first to introduce the doctrine of social reform among the Serbs. In contrast to previous trends, he believed that literature should actively serve the needs of the majority of the people and deal with the basic problems of everyday life. The acknowledged catalyst of the new trend, Svetozar Marković's influence was an indirect one; he was primarily a social and political thinker and publicist. In the 1870s Marković in Serbia and Vaso Pelagić in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia were what their teachers Chernishevsky, Dobrolyubov, and Pisarev were in Russia in the 1860s.

Immediately after the war and revolution of 1870–71, the nonviolent antistatism of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon reasserted its appeal to a new and chastened generation of social revolutionaries, this movement gained a new following in agrarian southern and eastern Europe. Seminal protagonists of populism like Russia's Nikolay Mikhaylovsky and Serbia's Svetozar Marković translated the works of Proudhon. Marković in particular exerted tremendous influence on his contemporaries recommending them to be positivists in science, republicans in politics, and realists or rather utiliterians in literature. He proudly subscribed to the realistic novels of Jakov Ignjatović. Practically all the new writers — Milovan Glišić, Laza Lazarević, Janko Veselinović, and Simo Matavulj, to name only the best, were in one way or another under the influence of realism, including Jaša Tomić and poet Vladimir M. Jovanović (1859–1898). Under Marković's influence, Glišić undertook to translate Gogol's Dead Souls and Tolstoy's War and Peace.

In the elections of 1875 the socialist-radicals made significant gains and were for a time a significant force in Serbian politics. It was not however able to stay united in the long term. In 1881 Nikola Pašić and other followers of Marković founded a new radical party.

Socialist ideas of Svetozar Marković lived after him. For example, Jovan Skerlić began to work for various socialist and opposition newspapers, such as Socijaldemokrat ("Social Democrat"), Radničke novine ("Worker's Herald"), and Delo ("Work").

Altogether, Marković ought to be seen as a thinker of depth and originality, independence and earnestness, whose short and difficult life did much towards the knowledge and appreciation of Serbian thought. Many Serbian traditionalists regard him as the heretic and a dangerous modernist. There is no doubt that when he treats more purely theological questions he sometimes lays himself open to a charge of that kind. Marković is at his best and surest in the philosophy of history and in ethics. He is the chief representative of an important philosophical school of which many members whose thought is largely occupied with the nature and destiny of man and society—a school which is not without a certain influence on Christians.

Legacy
The Socialism of the new radical party did not survive the failure of the 1883–1884 Timok uprising, after which the radicals repackaged themselves as a nationalist party. For the Yugoslav communists, Marković was merely a Utopian. Nevertheless, his writings (extensive considering how young he died) remained influential even though no political party claimed to follow in his footsteps. Anarchist Krsta Cicvarić, speaking in 1920, said "all of us in Serbia who are democrats or socialists learned the political ABC's from Marković."

A Yugoslav film on his life, Svetozar Marković, directed by Eduard Galić, was first shown in 1980. The Belgrade University Library is named after Svetozar Marković, along with numerous institutions in Serbia. He is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs.

Selected works
Pevanja i mišljenja (1869.)
Realnost u poeziji (1870.)
Srbija na Istoku (1872.)
Načela narodne ekonomije (1874.)

 See also
 Jovan Došenović
 Vladimir Jovanović
 Božidar Knežević
 Dimitrije Matić
 Konstantin Cukić

References

Sources

 Jovan Skerlić, Istorija Nove Srpske Književnosti'' (Belgrade, 1921), pages 427–430.

External links

1846 births
1875 deaths
Serbian politicians
Serbian socialists
19th-century Serbian philosophers
Serbian political philosophers
Serbian literary critics
Literary critics of Serbian
Academic staff of Belgrade Higher School
People from Zaječar
People from the Principality of Serbia
19th-century Serbian people
Socialism in the Principality of Serbia

Svetozar Marković


Rice Lake State Park is a state park of Minnesota, United States, just east of Owatonna.  Park lands entirely surround Rice Lake, an important stopping point for migrating waterfowl.  The lake covers  with an average depth of .

Natural history
The park's bedrock is limestone laid down 500 million years ago as organic sediments settled to the bottom of a shallow sea that covered much of the Midwest.  This limestone is entirely covered by glacial till deposited during a Pre-Illinoian glaciation about 400,000 years ago.  As those glaciers were retreating, a block of ice broke off and remained embedded in the till.  The ice melted, forming a kettle which became Rice Lake.  10,000 years ago the more recent Wisconsin glaciation missed Rice Lake, passing to the west of the park.  Meltwater from that glacier eroded streambeds into the Kansan till.

Rice Lake is the headwaters of the South Branch, Middle Fork of the Zumbro River.  This east flowing stream was the lake's original outlet.  After the Wisconsin glacier passed, the land to the west was lowered and a second outlet formed that flowed west into another watershed.  This outlet feeds the Straight River, a tributary of the Cannon River.

In historical times, Rice Lake may have been as much as  deep, but has filled in considerably due to human influence and the process of eutrophication.  Today, Rice Lake is ringed with marsh vegetation.  The marshy, shallow nature of the lake, as well as its being the only large lake in the area, make it ideal for migrating waterfowl.   Whistling swans, Canada and snow geese, diving ducks, western and pied-billed grebes, and black terns are frequent visitors.

The park lands are covered in a hardwood forest of maple, basswood, elm, and oak, with some meadow openings.  However this is not representative of the area's pre-settlement vegetation, which would have been oak savanna with somewhat denser tree growth on the east side of the lake.  The water buffered the eastern shore against wildfires burning in from the prairie to the southwest.

Cultural history

Wild rice grows naturally in the lake, hence its English name.  Native Americans in the area harvested the rice as an important food source.  The Treaty of Mendota in 1851 opened up southern Minnesota to European settlement.  In 1854, the village of Rice Lake arose on the northeast shore of the lake, along an important stagecoach route.  The village was expected to grow significantly for a rail line was planned to pass through, but the line was ultimately laid farther south and Rice Lake was soon abandoned.  The one surviving structure from the village of Rice Lake is a Methodist church built in 1857, which still stands in the northeast corner of the state park.

Rice Lake's other outlets were dammed and diked in the 1870s to channel more flow down the eastern outlet to power a mill in Wasioja.  Nevertheless, the water level would periodically drop too low to run the mill, and it went out of business, later burning down in 1891.  Most of the water control structures remained in place, however, limiting outflow and resulting in eutrophication from accumulated agricultural runoff.  Rice Lake grew progressively shallower as it filled in with dead vegetation.

In the 20th century, Rice Lake became a recreational destination in the area, for although it was filling in, it was one of the few lakes in southeast Minnesota.  The Izaak Walton League owned  on the north shore, and another fishing and hunting club owned other lakefront.  In 1961, the newspaper editor in Claremont, Dana Hinckley, sparked strong local interest in creating a state park around Rice Lake.  The idea was appealing for several factors.  Owatonna had lost part of Kaplan Woods State Park to construction of Interstate 35, and the Owatonna swimming pool was crowded.  Residents expected that the state would dredge Rice Lake to improve boating and swimming.  With such support, legislation creating Rice Lake State Park passed in 1963.  That same year the shrunken Kaplan Woods State Park was transferred to Owatonna as a city park, known today as Kaplan's Woods Parkway.

The actual purchase of lots from their various private owners proceeded more slowly than local enthusiasm would have indicated.  Several owners were reluctant to sell, but by 1967 recreational facilities had been installed in the north central part of the park, mostly on the former Izaak Walton League property.  Inholdings have been acquired periodically over the years, but the dream of dredging Rice Lake proved unfeasible.  Moreover, the mud, algae, and leeches compromised the lake's appeal as a swimming destination.  However, as Rice Lake has become less appealing for human activities, it has become more appealing to waterfowl.  Rice Lake State Park has reinvented itself as a birdwatching destination.

Recreation
Boating: Boat launch.  Due to shallowness, canoes and kayaks are recommended.  Rental canoes available.
Camping:
Drive-in campground with 42 sites (16 with electrical hookups, 1 handicap accessible).
5 walk-in campsites.
4 cart-in campsites on lakeshore.
5 canoe-in campsites on south shore of lake.
2 group camps, for up to 40 and 20 people.
Trails: The park has  of hiking trails.  In winter  are groomed for cross-country skiing and  for snowmobiling.
Rice Lake is unsuited to fishing or swimming but bullheads are predominate.

References

Hintz, Martin.  Natural Wonders of Minnesota.  Country Roads Press: Oaks, PA. 1996.
Meyer, Roy W.  Everyone's Country Estate: A History of Minnesota's State Parks.  Minnesota Historical Society Press: St. Paul. 1991.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. Rice Lake State Park signage, brochures, and website.
Schulz, Jamie M.  "Wetland Restoration Potential at Rice Lake State Park."

External links
Rice Lake State Park

1963 establishments in Minnesota
Protected areas established in 1963
Protected areas of Dodge County, Minnesota
Protected areas of Steele County, Minnesota
State parks of Minnesota
Zumbro River

Rice Lake State Park


In mathematical logic, Heyting arithmetic  is an axiomatization of arithmetic in accordance with the philosophy of intuitionism.  It is named after Arend Heyting, who first proposed it.

Axiomatization
Heyting arithmetic can be characterized just like the first-order theory of Peano arithmetic , except that it uses the intuitionistic predicate calculus  for inference. In particular, this means that the double-negation elimination principle, as well as the principle of the excluded middle , do not hold. Note that to say  does not hold exactly means that the excluded middle statement is not automatically provable for all propositions - indeed many such statements are still provable in  and the negation of any such disjunction is inconsistent.  is strictly stronger than  in the sense that all -theorems are also -theorems.

Heyting arithmetic comprises the axioms of Peano arithmetic and the intended model is the collection of natural numbers . The signature includes zero "" and the successor "", and the theories characterize addition and multiplication. This impacts the logic: With , it is a metatheorem that  can be defined as  and so that  is  for every proposition . The negation of  is of the form  and thus a trivial proposition.

For numbers, write  for .
For a fixed number , the equality  is true by reflexivity and a proposition  is equivalent to .
It may be shown that  can then be defined as . This formal elimination of disjunctions was not possible in the quantifier-free primitive recursive arithmetic . The theory may be extended with function symbols for any primitive recursive function, making  also a fragment of this theory. For a total function , one often considers predicates of the form .

Theorems

Double negations
With explosion valid in any intuitionistic theory, if  is a theorem for some , then by definition  is provable if and only if the theory is inconsistent. Indeed, in Heyting arithmetic the double-negation explicitly expresses . For a predicate , a theorem of the form  expresses that it is inconsistent to rule out that  could be validated for some . Constructively, this is weaker than the existence claim of such a .
A big part of the metatheoretical discussion will concern classically provable existence claims.

Having established a double-negation  entails . So a theorem of the form  also always gives new means to conclusively reject (also positive) statements .

Proofs of classically equivalent statements
Recall that the implication in  can classically be reversed, and with that so can the one in . Here the distinction is between existence of numerical counter-examples versus absurd conclusions when assuming validity for all numbers. Inserting double-negations turns -theorems into -theorems. More exactly, for any formula provable in , the classically equivalent Gödel–Gentzen negative translation of that formula is already provable in . In one formulation, the translation procedure includes a rewriting of  to  The result means that all Peano arithmetic theorems have a proof that consists of a constructive proof followed by a classical logical rewriting. Roughly, the final step amounts to applications of double-negation elimination.

In particular, with undecidable atomic propositions being absent, for any proposition  not including existential quantifications or disjunctions at all, one has .

Valid principles and rules
Minimal logic proves double-negation elimination for negated formulas, . More generally, Heyting arithmetic proves this classical equivalence for any Harrop formula.

And -results are well behaved as well: Markov's rule at the lowest level of the arithmetical hierarchy is an admissible rule of inference, i.e. for  with  free,

Instead of speaking of quantifier-free predicates, one may equivalently formulate this for primitive recursive predicate or Kleene's T predicate, called , resp.  and .
Even the related rule  is admissible, in which the tractability aspect of  is not e.g. based on a syntactic condition but where the left hand side also requires .

Beware that in classifying a proposition based on its syntactic form, one ought not mistakenly assign a lower complexity based on some only classical valid equivalence.

Excluded middle
As with other theories over intuitionistic logic, various instances of  can be proven in this constructive arithmetic. By disjunction introduction, whenever either the proposition  or  is proven, then  is proven as well. So for example, equipped with  and  from the axioms, one may validate the premise for induction of excluded middle for the predicate . One then says equality to zero is decidable. Indeed,  proves equality "" decidable for all numbers, i.e. . Stronger yet, as equality is the only predicate symbol in Heyting arithmetic, it then follows that, for any quantifier-free formula , where  are the free variables, the theory is closed under the rule

Any theory over minimal logic proves  for all propositions. So if the theory is consistent, it never proves the negation of an excluded middle statement.

Practically speaking, in rather conservative constructive frameworks such as , when it is understood what type of statements are algorithmically decidable, then an unprovability result of an excluded middle disjunction expresses the algorithmic undecidability of .

Conservativity
For simple statements, the theory does not just validate such classically valid binary dichotomies . The Friedman translation can be used to establish that 's -theorems are all proven by : For any  and quantifier-free ,

This result may of course also be expressed with explicit universal closures . Roughly, simple statements about computable relations provable classically are already provable constructively. Although in halting problems, not just quantifier-free propositions but also -propositions play an important role, and as will be argued these can be even classically independent. Similarly, already unique existence  in an infinite domain, i.e. , is formally not particularly simple.

So  is -conservative over . For contrast, while the classical theory of Robinson arithmetic  proves all --theorems, some simple --theorems are independent of it. Induction also plays a crucial role in Friedman's result: For example, the more workable theory obtained by strengthening  with axioms about ordering, and optionally decidable equality, does prove more -statements than its intuitionistic counterpart.

The discussion here is by no means exhaustive. There are various results for when a classical theorem is already entailed by the constructive theory. Also note that it can be relevant what logic was used to obtain metalogical results. For example, many results on realizability were indeed obtained in a constructive metalogic. But when no specific context is given, stated results need to be assumed to be classical.

Unprovable statements
Independence results concern proposition such that neither they, nor their negations can be proven in a theory. If the classical theory is consistent and the constructive counterpart does not prove one of its theorems , then  is independent of the latter. Given some independent propositions, it is easy to define more from them, especially in a constructive framework.

Heyting arithmetic has the disjunction property : For all propositions  and ,

Indeed, this and its numerical generalization are also exhibited by constructive second-order arithmetic and common set theories such as  and . It is a common desideratum for the informal notion of a constructive theory.

Now in a theory with , if a proposition  is independent, then the classically trivial  is another independent proposition, and vice versa. A schema is not valid if there is at least one instance that cannot be proven, which is how  comes to fail. One may break  by adopting an excluded middle statement axiomatically without validating either of the disjuncts, as is the case in .

More can be said: If  is even classically independent, then also the negation  is independent - this holds whether or not  is equivalent to . Then, constructively, the weak excluded middle  does not hold, i.e. the principle that  would hold for all propositions is not valid. If such  is , unprovability of the disjunction manifests the breakdown of -, or what amounts to an instance of   for a primitive recursive function.

Classically independent propositions
Knowledge of Gödel's incompleteness theorems aids in understanding the type of statements that are -provable but not -provable.

The resolution of Hilbert's tenth problem provided some concrete polynomials  and corresponding polynomial equations, such that the claim that the latter have a solution is algorithmically undecidable. The proposition can be expressed as

Certain such zero value existence claims have a more particular interpretation: Theories such as  or  prove that these propositions are equivalent to the arithmetized claim of the theories own inconsistency. Thus, such propositions can even be written down for strong classical set theories.

In a consistent and sound arithmetic theory, such an existence claim  is an independent -proposition. Then , by pushing a negation through the quantifier, is seen to be an independent Goldbach-type- or -proposition. To be explicit, the double-negation  (or ) is also independent. And any triple-negation is, in any case, already intuitionistically equivalent to a single negation.

PA violates DP
The following illuminates the meaning involved in such independent statements. Given an index in an enumeration of all proofs of a theory, one can inspected what proposition it is a proof of.  is adequate in that it can correctly represented this procedure: There is a primitive recursive predicate  expressing that a proof is one of the absurd proposition . This relates to the more explicitly arithmetical predicate above, about a polynomial's return value being zero. One may metalogically reason that if  is consistent, then it indeed proves  for every individual index .

In an effectively axiomatized theory, one may successively perform an inspection of each proof. If a theory is indeed consistent, then there does not exist a proof of an absurdity, which corresponds to the statement that the mentioned "absurdity search" will never halt. Formally in the theory, the former is expressed by the proposition , negating the arithmetized inconsistency claim. The equivalent -proposition  formalizes the never halting of the search by stating that all proofs are not a proof of an absurdity. And indeed, in an omega-consistent theory that accurately represents provability, there is no proof that the absurdity search would ever conclude by halting (explicit inconsistency not derivable), nor - as shown by Gödel - can there be a proof that the absurdity search would never halt (consistency not derivable). Reformulated, there is no proof that the absurdity search never halts (consistency not derivable), nor is there a proof that the absurdity search does not never halt (consistency not rejectible).
To reiterate, neither of these two disjuncts is -provable, while their disjunction is trivially -provable. Indeed, if  is consistent then it violates .

The -proposition expressing the existence of a proof of  is a logically positive statement. Nonetheless, it is historically donoted , while its negation is a -proposition denoted by . In a constructive context, this use of the negation sign may be misleading nomenclature.

Friedman established another interesting unprovable statement, namely that a consistent and adequate theory never proves its arithmetized disjunction property.

Unprovable classical principles
Already minimal logic logically proves all non-contradiction claims, and in particular  and . Since also , the theorem  may be read as a provable double-negated excluded middle disjunction (or existence claim). But in light of the disjunction property, or since the one relevant De Morgan's law does not hold intuitionistically, the plain excluded middle  cannot be -provable.

The breakdown of the principles  and  have been explained.
Now in , the least number principle  is just one of many statements equivalent to the induction principle. The proof below shows how  implies , and therefore why this principle also cannot be generally valid in . However, the schema granting double-negated least number existence for every non-trivial predicate, denoted , is generally valid. In light of Gödel's proof, the breakdown of these three principles can be understood as Heyting arithmetic being consistent with the provability reading of constructive logic.

Markov's principle for primitive recursive predicates  does already not hold as an implication schema for , let alone the strictly stronger . Although in the form of the corresponding rules, they are admissible, as mentioned.
Similarly, the theory does not prove the independence of premise principle  for negated predicates, albeit it is closed under the rule for all negated propositions, i.e. one may pull out the existential quantifier in . The same holds for the version where the existential statement is replaced by a mere disjunction.

And while  does hold intutionistically, the double-negation shift  is not, i.e. the schema of commutativity of "" with universal quantification over all numbers. This is an interesting breakdown that is explained by the consistency of  for some , as discussed in the section on Church's thesis.

Least number principle
Making use of the order relation on the naturals, the strong induction principle reads

In class notation, as familiar from set theory, an arithmetic statement  is expressed as  where . For any given predicate of negated form, i.e. , a logical equivalent to induction is

The insight is that among subclasses , (provably) having no least member is equivalent to being uninhabited, i.e. to being the empty class. Taking the contrapositive results in a theorem expressing that for any non-empty subclass, it cannot consistently be ruled out that there exists a member  such that there is no member  smaller than :

In Peano arithmetic, where double-negation elimination is always valid, this proves the least number principle in its common formulation. In the classical reading, being non-empty is equivalent to (provably) being inhabited by some least member.

Constructively, the weakening can generally not be lifted, as the following example demonstrates: For some proposition  (say  as above), consider the predicate

This  corresponds to a subclass  of the natural numbers. One may ask what the least member of this class may be. Any number proven or assumed to be in this class provably either equals  or , i.e. . Using decidability of equality and the disjunctive syllogism proves the equivalence . If the underlying proposition  is independent, then the predicate is undecidable in the theory. Now since , the proposition  is trivially true and so the class is inhabited: . In particular, least number existence for this class cannot be rejected. Given a conjunction with  is trivial, the existence claim of a least number validating  itself translates to the excluded middle statement for . Knowledge of such a number's value in fact determines whether or not  holds. So for independent , the least number principle instance with  is also independent of .

In set theory notation,  is equivalent to  and so , while its negation is also equivalent to . This demonstrates that elusive predicates can define elusive subsets. And so also in constructive set theory, while the standard order on the class of naturals is decidable, the naturals are not well-ordered. But strong induction principles, that constructively do not imply unrealizable existence claims, are also still available.

Anti-classical extensions
In a computable context, for a predicate , the classically trivial infinite disjunction
,
also written , can be read as a validation of the decidability of a decision problem. In class notation,  is also written .

 proves no propositions not provable by  and so, in particular, it does not reject any theorems of the classical theory. But there are also predicates  such that the axioms  are consistent. Again, constructively, such a negation is not equivalent to the existence of a particular numerical counter-example  to excluded middle for . Indeed, already minimal logic proves the double-negated excluded middle for all propositions, and so , which is equivalent to , for any predicate .

Church's thesis
Church's rule is an admissible rule in . Church's thesis principle  may be adopted in , while  rejects it: It implies negations such as the ones just described.

Consider the principle in the form stating that all predicates that are decidable in the logic sense above are also decidable by a total computable function. To see how it is in conflict with excluded middle, one merely needs to define a predicate that is not computably decidable.
To this end, write  for predicates defined from Kleene's T predicate. The indices  of total computable functions fulfill . While  can be realized in a primitive recursive fashion, the predicate  in , i.e. the class  of partial computable function indices with a witness describing how they halt on the diagonal, is computably enumerable but not computable. The classical compliment  defined using  is not even computably enumerable, see halting problem. This provenly undecidable problem  provides a violating example. For any index , the equivalent form  expresses that when the corresponding function is evaluated (at ), then all conceivable descriptions of evaluation histories () do not describe the evaluation at hand. Specifically, this not being decidable for functions establishes the negation of what amounts to .

The formal Church's principles are associated with the recursive school, naturally. Markov's principle  is commonly adopted, by that school and by constructive mathematics more broadly. In the presence of Church's principle,  is equivalent to its weaker form . The latter can generally be expressed as a single axiom, namely double-negation elimination for any . Heyting arithmetic together with both + prove independence of premise for decidable predicates, . But they do not go together, consistently, with .
 also negates . The intuitionist school of L. E. J. Brouwer extends Heyting arithmetic by
a collection of principles that negate both  as well as .

Models

Consistency
If a theory is consistent, then no proof is one of an absurdity. Kurt Gödel introduced the negative translation and proved that if Heyting arithmetic is consistent, then so is Peano arithmetic. That is to say, he reduced the consistency task for  to that of . However, Gödel's incompleteness theorems, about the incapability of certain theories to prove their own consistency, also applies to Heyting arithmetic itself.

The standard model of the classical first-order theory  as well as any of its non-standard models is also a model for Heyting arithmetic .

Set theory
There are also constructive set theory models for full  and its intended semantics. Relatively weak set theories suffice: They shall adopt the Axiom of infinity, the Axiom schema of predicative separation to prove induction of arithmetical formulas in , as well as the existence of function spaces on finite domains for recursive definitions.
Specifically, those theories do not require , the full axiom of separation or set induction (let alone the axiom of regularity), nor general function spaces (let alone the full axiom of power set).

 furthermore is bi-interpretable with a weak constructive set theory in which the class of ordinals is , so that the collection of von Neumann naturals do not exist as a set in the theory. Meta-theoretically, the domain of that theory is as big as the class of its ordinals and essentially given through the class  of all sets that are in bijection with a natural . As an axiom this is called  and the other axioms are those related to set algebra and order: Union and Binary Intersection, which is tightly related to the Predicative Separation schema, Extensionality, Pairing, and the Set induction schema. This theory is then already identical with the theory given by  without Strong Infinity and with the finitude axiom added. The discussion of  in this set theory is as in model theory. And in the other direction, the set theoretical axioms are proven with respect to the primitive recursive relation

That small universe of sets can be understood as the ordered collection of finite binary sequences which encode their mutual membership. For example, the 'th set contains one other set and the 'th set contains four other sets. See BIT predicate.

Realizability
For some number  in the metatheory, the numeral in the studied object theory is denoted by .

In intuitionistic arithmetics, the disjunction property  is typically valid. And it is a theorem that any c.e. extension of arithmetic that for which it holds also has the numerical existence property :

So these properties are metalogical equivalent in Heyting arithmetic. The existence and disjunction property in fact still holds when relativizing the existence claim by a Harrop formula , i.e. for provable .

Kleene, a student of Church, introduced important realizability models of the Heyting arithmetic.
In turn, his student Nels David Nelson established (in an extension of ) that all closed theorems of  (meaning all variables are bound) can be realized. Inference in Heyting arithmetic preserves realizability. Moreover, if  then there is a partial recursive function realizing  in the sense that whenever the function evaluated at  terminates with , then . This can be extended to any finite number of function arguments .
There are also classical theorems that are not -provable but do have a realization.

Typed versions of realizability have been introduced by Georg Kreisel. With it he demonstrated the independence of the classically valid Markov's principle for intuitionistic theories.

See also BHK interpretation and Dialectica interpretation.

In the effective topos, already the finitely axiomizable subsystem of Heyting arithmetic with induction restricted to  is categorical. Categoricity here is reminiscent of Tennenbaum's theorem. The model validates  but not  and so completeness fails in this context.

Type theory
Type theoretical realizations mirroring inference rules based logic formalizations have been implemented in various languages.

Extensions
Heyting arithemtic has been discussed with potential function symbols added for primitive recursive functions. That theory proves the Ackermann function total.

Beyond this, axiom and formalism selection always has been a debate even within the constructivist circle. Many typed extensions of  have been extensively studied in proof theory, e.g. with types of functions between numbers, and function between those, etc. The formalities naturally become more complicated, with different possible axioms governing the application of functions. The class of functions being total can be enriched this way. The theory with finite types  when further combined with function extensionality plus an axiom of choice in  still proves the same arithmetic formulas as just  and has a type theoretic interpretation. However, that theory rejects Church's thesis for  as well as that all functions in  would be continuous. But adopting, say, different extensionality rules, choice axioms, Markov's and independence principles and even the Kőnig's lemma - all together but each at specific strength or levels - one can define rather "stuffed" arithmetics that may still fail to prove excluded middle at the level of -formulas.
Early on, also variants with intensional equality and Brouwerian choice sequence have been investigated.

Reverse mathematics studies of constructive second-order arithmetic have been performed.

History
Formal axiomatization of the theory trace back to Heyting (1930), Herbrand and Kleene.
Gödel proved the consistency result concerning  in 1933.

Related concepts
Heyting arithmetic should not be confused with Heyting algebras, which are the intuitionistic analogue of Boolean algebras.

See also
BHK interpretation
Constructive analysis
Constructive set theory
Harrop formula
Realizability

References

Ulrich Kohlenbach (2008), Applied proof theory, Springer.
Anne S. Troelstra, ed. (1973), Metamathematical investigation of intuitionistic arithmetic and analysis, Springer, 1973.

External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Intuitionistic Number Theory" by Joan Moschovakis.
Fragments of Heyting Arithmetic by Wolfgang Burr

Constructivism (mathematics)
Formal theories of arithmetic
Intuitionism

Heyting arithmetic


Ezechiel de Decker (c. 1603-c. 1647) was a Dutch surveyor and teacher of mathematics.

Tables of logarithms

In 1625, De Decker entered a contract with Adriaan Vlacq for the publication of
several translations of books by John Napier, Edmund Gunter and Henry Briggs. A first book was published in 1626, with several translations
done by Vlacq. A second book was made of the logarithms of the first 10000 numbers
from Briggs' Arithmetica logarithmica published in 1624. The logarithms were shortened
to 10 places. In 1627, De Decker's "Tweede deel" was published and it contained
the logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 100000, to 10 places. Only very few copies of
this book are known and its publication was apparently stopped or delayed.
In 1628, Vlacq's Arithmetica logarithmica was published and contained exactly
the tables published in 1627.

Publications

 Ezechiel de Decker: Eerste Deel van de Nieuwe Telkonst, 1626
 Ezechiel de Decker: Nieuwe Telkonst, 1626
 Ezechiel de Decker: Tweede Deel van de Nieuwe Tel-konst, 1627 (partial facsimile published in 1964)

References

1600s births
1640s deaths
Dutch surveyors

Ezechiel de Decker


{{Infobox comics story arc |genre=Superhero|cat=DC Comics|artists=Steve Pugh, Dexter Soy, Eduardo Pasarin, Pasarin and Matt Ryan|main_char_team=Crime Syndicate of America, Teen Titans, Suicide Squad, Wally West|imagesize=|titles=War for Earth-3 #1-2, Suicide Squad #13, Flash #780, Teen Titans Academy #13|issues=5|writers=Robbie Thompson, Denis Hopeless and Jeremy Adams|endmo=March 29|endyr=2022|startyr=2022|startmo=March 1|publisher=DC Comics|date=|alt=|caption=|sortkey=War for Earth-3}}
"War for Earth-3" is a 2022 crossover event in DC Comics publications. Written by Robbie Thompson, Denis Hopeless and Jeremy Adams, the story follows a conflict between the Suicide Squad, Crime Syndicate of America, and Teen Titans as Amanda Waller creates a plan to have an everlasting Suicide Squad. The story appeared in five issues spread across three comic titles published over five weeks in March 2022. The event received mixed reviews from critics, with critics praising the story and action but criticizing the art and characters, particularly the Crime Syndicate.

 Publication history
"War for Earth-3" storyline was teased at the end of 2021, when it was revealed that DC Comics will create a crossover event featuring Teen Titans, Suicide Squad, Crime Syndicate and Flash that will deal with Amanda Waller trying to exert her influence over the DC Multiverse.

 Plot summary
 Prelude
Bloodsport is hired by Amanda Waller to recruit more alternate universes of Suicide Squad in Earth-3 when he sees Ultraman, Owlman, Superwoman, Emerald Knight (an evil version of John Stewart) terrorizing civilians. Bloodsport attacks Black Siren (an evil version of Black Canary) when Ultraman arrives and nearly kills him. Back on Earth-Prime, Amanda Waller's Suicide Squad (Talon, Nocturna, Match, Culebra, Ambush Bug, and Major Force) are training with Amanda Waller still not trusting Peacemaker for letting Rick Flag escape. Amanda Waller sends the Suicide Squad to Earth-3 where they fight the Crime Syndicate of America and they rescue Bloodsport and kidnap Black Siren before going back to Russia where they meet Conner Kent.

Rick Flag and Amanda Waller had a fallout because Amanda Waller sees Suicide Squad as disposable and wants to create a new Justice League to take over the world, which causes Amanda Waller to imprison Rick Flag, but Peacemaker frees him. Match and Conner fight while Bloodsport and Nocturna investigate and it's revealed that Amanda Waller cloned Conner Kent which created Match. Amanda Waller teleports the Suicide Squad members away, and Rick Flag decides to recruit his own team starting with Mirror Master, and it's revealed that Talon is a mole in the Suicide Squad.

While the Suicide Squad deals with Sojourner "Jo" Mullein (a Green Lantern) and Hellsquad with Rick Flag recruiting Cheetah, Peacemaker, Lor-Zod and a Parademon to take down Amanda Waller. Amanda Waller has been gathering a group of superpowered villains to take over Earth-3, and Peacemaker asks Bloodsport on why is he still working with Amanda Waller when he has no bomb ever since his fight with Ultraman. Amanda Waller sends the Suicide Squad to Earth-8 where they fight the Retaliators (Purple Rain, Behemoth, American Crusader, Hunda Jin, Red Dragon, LadyBug and Machinehead). Bloodsport and Peacemaker fight, with Bloodsport revealing he's still working for Amanda Waller because she has his brothers from different universes, and she has planted bombs in his brothers in case Bloodsport rebels against her. Bloodsport defeats Peacemaker, but spares him after Peacemaker tells him something, which causes Bloodsport joins Rick Flag's group. The Suicide Squad defeats the Retaliators, but are confronted by The Lightning Strikes (Thrill Kill, Thing Man, Dead Red, Oedipus, and Blood Pouch).

Agent Parker asks Amanda Waller to retreat, but Amanda Waller stands her ground and wants to kill Dr. Rodriguez after realizing Dr. Rodriguez is working with Rick Flag. Major Force betrays the Suicide Squad and starts fighting them, but Black Siren kills him. Amanda Waller tries to detonate the bomb in Black Siren's skull, but Dr. Rodriguez disabled it. Amanda Waller is disappointed with how the Suicide Squad acted on Earth-8, and teleports Match to her due to her disgust with Match gaining emotions and feelings for Nocturna. Rick Flag confronts Amanda Waller, but Amanda reveals she employed Clayface, and plans to go to Earth-3 with her soldiers, Match, Black Hand and Black Siren.

 Main plot
Emerald Knight hosts a party for Ultraman, but Ultraman grows impatient and kills everyone in the party. While in space, Ultraman sees Amanda Waller arriving on his Earth, and sees Superwoman being a Dominatrix to Owlman and gets angry so he confronts her and Owlman. Emerald Knight confronts Amanda Waller's team, but is defeated by Black Hand. Owlman goes out to fight Amanda Waller's team to save Emerald Knight, but his plane is taken down by Black Siren. Amanda Waller calls Ultraman from Emerald Knight's ring, and Superwoman and Ultraman go to confront her. Dr. Rodriguez injects her with a serum to save Rick Flag's team, and they all travel to confront Amanda Waller, but are shocked when Amanda Waller has convinced Ultraman and Emerald Knight to join her side.

Rick Flag's team is forced to retreat, and Dr. Rodriguez is captured by Amanda Waller while Match and Nocturna are sent to Hell by Etrigan the Demon. Talon and Culbera travels back to Earth-3's Gotham City where its revealed he did not kill Talon in order to find a weakness for the Crime Syndicate of America's members. Culbera is killed by Johnny Quick and takes over Owlman's body. Ambush Bug transports Peacemaker to Owlman's Fortress of Solitude to find a weapon to stop Owlman when they are confronted by Superwoman who wants to kill Ultraman and Amanda Waller for what they did to Owlman. Johnny Quick rushes in and gets the secret weapon while Black Siren uses her powers to bring down the Fortress of Solitude on Superwoman, Peacemaker and Ambush Bug.

Johnny Quick arrives on Earth-Prime to get the Cosmic Treadmill. After Wally West returns from his recent adventure with his kids, Wally learns that Linda Park has developed superspeed. Wally hears that Johnny Quick is trying to find the Cosmic Treadmill from orders of Amanda Waller, but Mirror Master appears and tries to destroy the Cosmic Treadmill. It is revealed that Johnny Quick was trapped in the Speed Force but Amanda Waller and Etrigan freed him, with Johnny Quick getting the Cosmic Treadmill and disappearing. Raven tries to heal Cyborg and Beast Boy after Red X injured them in a previous battle, but they are interrupted by Rick Flag and Harley Quinn from Earth-8. Nightwing, Starfire, Donna Troy, Roy Harper, and Wally West decide to go help out the Suicide Squad, but unbeknownst to them Emiko Queen and a couple of their students sneak in their ship.

Rick Flag's Suicide Squad and the Teen Titans fight the Crime Syndicate on Earth-3 while Amanda Waller captures Emiko Queen and the Titans students. Earth-8 Harley Quinn and Mirror Master capture Yorick (a creature with a bird skull for a head) to find out what Amanda Waller is planning. Superwoman saves Peacemaker and Ambush Bug, who goes off to fight Ultraman, who is convinced by Rick Flag that Amanda Waller is using him as a puppet because her true plans is to remove Earth-3 from the DC Multiverse. Amanda Waller tells the Teen Titans to stand down and promises to teleport the Teen Titans and their students away from Earth-3 as she deems them innocent people who are not involved in this. Ultraman nearly kills Superwoman, but Ambush Bug and Mirror Master use their teleport abilities to teleport Ultraman to multiple locations where he is weakened, while Rick Flag, Bloodsport, and Peacemaker shoot Ultraman which gives Emerald Knight enough time to fix the Phantom Zone projecter to send Ultraman into the Phantom Zone. Amanda Waller teleports the rest of the Suicide Squad back to Earth-Prime, creates her own Justice League (Match, Earth-3 Black Canary, Nocturna, Etrigan, Johnny Quick and Superwoman) and Earth-3 is split off from the DC Multiverse.

 Critical reception
According to Comic Book Roundup, War for Earth-3 #1 received an average rating of 6.8 out of 10 based on 10 reviews.

According to Comic Book Roundup, Suicide Squad #13 received an average rating of 7.6 out of 10 based on 6 reviews.

According to Comic Book Roundup, Flash #780 received an average rating of 8.6 out of 10 based on 7 reviews.

According to Comic Book Roundup, Teen Titans Academy #13 received an average rating of 7.6 out of 10 based on 6 reviews.

According to Comic Book Roundup, War for Earth-3'' #2 received an average rating of 5.7 out of 10 based on 5 reviews.

Collected edition

References

War for Earth-3


Sterling Cineplex (previously known as Sterling Cinema) is a multiplex cinema hall in Mumbai. Opened (as a multiplex) in 2007, Sterling has three screens and was the first cinema in India to be THX certified. It is considered a landmark in South Mumbai.

History
Sterling Cinema (also referred to as Sterling Theatre) was opened in 1969 with Doctor Dolittle, a Hollywood musical. Sterling was a frontrunner in terms of technology, being the first cinema in India to introduce Dolby sound and Xenon projectors. In terms of snacks and shows too, Sterling was the first cinema in India to introduce [Caramel Popcorn], matinee shows as well as late night shows. In fact, at one time Sterling was the only cinema in South Mumbai to have a late night show. Its matinee shows were popular among students of nearby colleges. As a single screen cinema, Sterling used to screen only Hollywood films. Ajay Bijli, the owner of PVR Cinemas (then Priya Cinema in New Delhi) visited Sterling Cinema in 1990, which was then the only cinema in India with Dolby sound and was so impressed by it that he convinced his father to remodel Priya Cinema along the lines of Sterling, with Dolby sound and screening Hollywood movies. In 1999, Sterling was looted by robbers armed with knives. The robbers beat up cinema staff and locked them in toilets before escaping with cash and valuables.

Conversion to multiplex

With the advent of new age multiplexes in Mumbai, Sterling, which catered to a niche English-speaking youth crowd, faced competition apart from the fact that single screen cinemas were heavily taxed whereas new multiplexes had tax incentives. It was first reported in 2003, that Sterling along with other single screen cinemas in Mumbai was looking at conversion into a multiplex. In May 2006 it was confirmed that Sterling would close down for a year to make way for a multiplex under the same management. It reopened in May 2007 as Sterling Cineplex for audiences of both Hollywood and Bollywood with films Spider-Man 3 and Yatra. The renewed theatre had three screens, a food court,  THX certification and online booking facilities. When reopened, the Sterling management confirmed that it would screen both Hollywood and Bollywood movies, though priority would be given to Hollywood films. In 2009, it was reported that prior to the 2008 Mumbai attacks, trained Lashkar-e-Taiba militants had surveyed various other places in Mumbai, including Sterling Cinema.

References

External links
 Official Website

Cinemas in Mumbai
1969 establishments in Maharashtra

Sterling Cineplex


Dan Vadis (born Constantine Daniel Vafiadis, 3 January 1938 – 11 June 1987) was an American actor famous for his lead roles in many Italian films made in the 1960s.

Biography
Vadis was of Greek descent, with lineage tracing back to the island of Chios in the Aegean Sea. This former U.S. Navy sailor and bodybuilder was a member of the Mae West "Muscleman Revue" in the late 1950s. He was a brawny, handsome durable 6'4" man with curly brown hair, bluish green eyes and an affable demeanor. He was probably one of the most memorable actors in the Roman epic movies created in the 1960s and early '70s to portray Hercules - the most famous Greek warrior.

He was also one of many bodybuilders to take a stab at fame and fortune with the Italian peplum films of the 1960s. Noted film critic Raymond Durgnat famously asked if he was "the brother of Quo?".<ref>p.71 Frayling, Christopher Spaghetti Westerns: Cowboys and Europeans from Karl May to Sergio Leone" 1981 Routledge</ref>

Dan's most notable role was The Triumph of Hercules (1964), in which he portrayed Hercules battling golden giants and trying to save his princess love from her evil relative. The film was quickly followed by Hercules the Invincible retitled Son of Hercules in the Land of Darkness, in The Sons of Hercules television package by Embassy Pictures. What made Vadis stand out from other athletes and bodybuilders in these films was the obvious speed, dexterity, agility and all around durability that he brought to his films, bringing much needed energy to what otherwise may have been average fight scenes.

After the sword and sandal films faded he moved into Spaghetti Westerns, then became a recurring face in Clint Eastwood movies such as High Plains Drifter, The Gauntlet, Every Which Way But Loose, Any Which Way You Can and  Bronco Billy.

He died 11 June 1987 in Lancaster, California, United States, in a car in the desert, his death was declared an accidental drug overdose with acute ethanol and heroin-morphine intoxication. He was survived by his wife Sharon Jessup and his son Nick Vadis, known as "Nick V".

Partial filmographyColossus of the Arena (1962) - SidonThe Rebel Gladiators (1962) - UrsusThe Pirates of the Mississippi (1963) - BlackfootThe Ten Gladiators (1963) - Roccia / The RockHercules the Invincible (1964) - HerculesZorikan lo sterminatore (1964) - ZorikanThe Triumph of Hercules (1964) - ErcoleTriumph of the Ten Gladiators (1964) - Roccia Spartacus and the Ten Gladiators (1964) - Gladiator RocciaThe Sucker (1965) - (uncredited)Deguejo (1966) - RamonKommissar X – Drei gelbe Katzen (1966) - KingFor a Few Extra Dollars (1966) - Nelson RiggsThe Stranger Returns (1967) - En PleinThe Scalphunters (1968) - YumaDio perdoni la mia pistola (1969) - MartinHigh Plains Drifter (1973) - Dan Carlin, outlawCahill U.S. Marshal (1973) - BrownieThe White Buffalo (1977) - Tall Man (uncredited)The Gauntlet (1977) - BikerEvery Which Way But Loose (1978) - Frank (Black Widow)Bronco Billy (1980) - Chief Big EagleAny Which Way You Can (1980) - Frank (Black Widow)I sette magnifici gladiatori'' (1982) - Nicerote (final film role)

Notes

External links

1938 births
1987 deaths
American male film actors
American bodybuilders
American expatriates in Italy
Male Spaghetti Western actors
20th-century American male actors
Accidental deaths in California
American expatriates in China
American people of Greek descent
Drug-related deaths in California
People associated with physical culture

Dan Vadis


The Little Willies is the self-titled debut album by The Little Willies. The album was released after band member Norah Jones had achieved international stardom as a solo artist.

The album features covers of songs by Hank Williams ("I'll Never Get Out"), Willie Nelson ("Gotta Get Drunk" and "Night Life"), Fred Rose ("Roly Poly"), Townes Van Zandt ("No Place to Fall") and Kris Kristofferson ("Best of All Possible Worlds"). Fusing cover material with a few of their own original compositions, the band delivers what a review by John Metzger describes as "an affable set that occasionally strikes pure gold."

Track listing

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Notes

2006 debut albums
Norah Jones albums

The Little Willies (album)


This is a list of the 20 longest spacewalks, also known as an extravehicular activity or EVA. "Agency" here refers to the organization under whose auspices the EVA was conducted (so a Swiss or Japanese astronaut would be listed under NASA if they wore NASA suits and were controlled by Mission Control Houston).

For details, see lists of spacewalks from 1965–1999, 2000–2014, and 2015-present.

List

See also
 List of spacewalkers
 List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999
 List of spacewalks 2000–2014
 List of spacewalks since 2015
 List of cumulative spacewalk records

References

Human spaceflight
Extravehicular activity
Spacewalks
Spaceflight timelines

List of longest spacewalks


Buckenhof is a municipality in the district of Erlangen-Höchstadt, in Bavaria, Germany.

History
The village called Buckenhof developed between the 11th and 12th century. The first public record is from 1372.
Between the years 1564 and 1567,  the barons von Haller build the Puckenhof Castle.
Since 1850, it houses a youth center of the Inner Mission.
Between 1886 and 1963, Buckenhof was located along the branch line from Erlangen to Uttenreuth.

Population development
Together with the neighboring Erlangen, Buckenhof experienced a tremendous increase in its population after the Second World War. Since 2000, Buckenhof is one of the most densely populated communities in Bavaria. The extraordinary popularity of the village, which is due to Buckenhof's location near the industrial center of Erlangen and at the same time its proximity to a large nature preserve, has resulted in high land prices.

References

Erlangen-Höchstadt

Buckenhof


Ralph Franklin  Hefferline (15 February 1910 in Muncie, Indiana – 16 March 1974) was a psychology professor at Columbia University.

Hefferline became a patient of Fritz Perls around 1946.  He joined a small training group led by Perls in 1948 in New York, and went on to contribute a chapter to the book which defined Gestalt Therapy, Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality, co-authored by Perls, Paul Goodman and Hefferline, published in 1951.  He was the third and junior author and provided the section containing practical exercises.

He went on to join the Behaviourist school of psychology.

References

Perls, Frederick S.; Hefferline, Ralph; Goodman, Paul. Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality. Gestalt Journal Press (This edition February, 1977, but originally published 1951). .

External links
Citations at Getcited.org
Ralph Hepherline the UnkNown Gestalt Therapist German magazine article - auto translation

People from Muncie, Indiana
20th-century American psychologists
1910 births
1974 deaths
Gestalt therapy

Ralph Hefferline


The First Presidency of Community of Christ, formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, is the church's highest-ranking priesthood quorum. It is composed of the Prophet-President and two counselors, and they preside over the whole church under the principles of "theocratic democracy" observed in the governance of the church. This includes responsibility for the World Conference, field ministries, priesthood quorums and orders, and headquarters functions. The president of the Church holds the priesthood office of Prophet and is also a High Priest.

In 1860 with the reorganization of the First Presidency, Joseph Smith III became the second prophet-president of this church and also president of a new First Presidency. William Marks became Smith's First Counselor.

In Community of Christ, each new church president has generally been "designated" as the successor by the preceding church president. The counselors in the First Presidency are then chosen by the church president and are often, but not required, to be former or current members of the Council of Twelve Apostles. In addition, the death or resignation of the Prophet-President does not dissolve the First Presidency, which continues on as the church's executive council in the persons of the remaining two presidents until a Prophet-President is called. The two members who were counselors to the prophet-president cease to be counselors during this time. Upon ordination of the Prophet-President, the former First Presidency is dissolved, and upon ordination of the two counselors, it is reorganized. Members of the First Presidency are not members of the Quorum of Twelve nor do they hold the priesthood office of apostle, regardless of previous calling.

Prior to 1996, all prophet-presidents were descendants of the movement's founder, Joseph Smith Jr. This pattern was broken by Wallace B. Smith, who designated W. Grant McMurray church president. McMurray, in turn, resigned the church presidency in 2004 without designating a successor. A joint council of church leaders led by the Council of Twelve Apostles announced in March 2005 that Stephen M. Veazey was selected as Prophet-President designate. Veazey had been serving as president of the Council of Twelve. Delegates elected to a special World Conference of the church approved Veazey and he was ordained as the 8th president of the High Priesthood, Prophet, and President of the Church on June 3, 2005.

At the 2007 World Conference, Becky L. Savage was ordained as the first woman to serve in the First Presidency.

Current members of the First Presidency are:

President Stephen M. Veazey, President of the Church
President Stassi D. Cramm (Counselor to the president)
President K. Scott Murphy (Counselor to the president)

Chronology

During the lifetime of Joseph Smith Jr.
Both the Community of Christ and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider themselves the continuation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints established by Joseph Smith Jr. in 1832.

Reorganization
Following the murder of Joseph Smith Jr. in 1844, several church leaders claimed to be his successor. Emma Hale Smith initially supported William Marks, who ultimately declined to pursue his claim. When the majority of the church followed Brigham Young west, she remained in Nauvoo with her children. In 1860, her eldest son, Joseph Smith III, reestablished the First Presidency as leadership of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Notes

External links

Latter Day Saint hierarchy
Religious organizations established in 1832

Community of Christ

First Presidency (Community of Christ)


When doing industrial fishing, people want to catch certain species of fish. When they are using nets, they will also catch other species. These are called bycatch or by-catch. Most of the time, the animals caught will be severely injured or killed.  Most of these species are thrown back into ithe sea, but some of the bycatch is used. The exact amount of bycatch is not known. There are estimates that up to a quarter of the total may be bycatch. When catching shrimp, up to eighty percent may be bycatch.  Another problem is that the amount of bycatch is not recorded, and does not show up in statistics.

Fishing

Bycatch


European Sleeper (stylised as European sleeper) is a Belgian-Dutch cooperative which operates a thrice-weekly open-access night train service between Berlin, Germany and Brussels, Belgium, with plans to expand to daily service in the near future as well as extend the line to Dresden and Prague in 2024. There are also plans for services linking Amsterdam, Brussels and Barcelona via France, expected to commence during the spring of 2025.

History
European Sleeper was launched in 2021, with an announcement in April 2021 of a proposal to operate a sleeper train service between Prague and Brussels, with Czech operator RegioJet announced as a partner, providing rolling stock as well as hauling the service in Germany and the Czech Republic. The National Railway Company of Belgium (SNCB) would be responsible for hauling the service in Belgium, and at the time an operator had not been selected yet to haul the service in the Netherlands. The service was expected to begin in spring of 2022, and a second service was slated to begin in December that year.

Around the same time, Belgian startup Moonlight Express announced its intention to commence night train services between Berlin and Brussels, via Liège, with an expected commencement date of April 2022. Having been announced at around the same time, coincidentally, both services from European Sleeper and Moonlight Express were also scheduled to begin at around the same time.

In May 2021, European Sleeper launched a crowdfunding campaign and managed to raise €500,000 in seed capital by selling shares in the cooperative to more than 350 small investors, reportedly in just fifteen minutes.

One month later, in June 2021, it was announced European Sleeper and Moonlight Express would join forces, with the combined entity taking up the European Sleeper name and pursuing the European Sleeper proposal of a Brussels to Prague route with a start date of spring 2022.

A subsequent fundraising round was launched just before the summer of 2022, with €2,000,000 worth of shares sold to 1400 investors. Around the same time, the company announced that the Brussels to Prague route would be indefinitely delayed, with no revised start date provided.

In June 2022, a partnership with tour operator Sunweb Group was announced, with plans to start new night train services between the Netherlands and French ski resorts by the summer of 2023, and an extension to Southern France the following year. In November, it was announced by the two parties that these plans would be put on hold, citing difficulties in securing rolling stock, track access rights and an operator for the services.

The cooperative announced in December that the planned Brussels to Prague route would initially terminate in Berlin due to track capacity constraints imposed for 2023, with German authorities only permitting one long-distance train every two hours south of Dresden due to infrastructure works. The scaled-back route would commence operations on the 25th of May, 2023 with a view to extending service to Prague to complete the original proposal in December 2023, dependent on whether track rights can be secured. The company cited the lack of availability of suitable rolling stock as its biggest challenge, and said that the service would initially operate with leased rolling stock, with plans to purchase new rolling stock afoot, with plans eventually calling for services to be operated with a mix of new and refurbished rolling stock.

European Sleeper's proposed service from Amsterdam to Barcelona was selected in January 2023 to be a pilot project as part of the European Commission's efforts to improve cross-border rail service and encourage new links to be established. It joins two other night train proposals from Snälltaget and Midnight Trains.

Bookings for the service opened on the 20th of February, with tickets only able to be purchased through the European Sleeper website. Work is in progress to allow tickets to be booked with Interrail passes.

Services commenced on the 25th of May, 2023, with the inaugural service running from Berlin towards Brussels, arriving at its Belgian terminus 45 minutes behind schedule. Deputy Prime Minister and Mobility Minister of Belgium Georges Gilkinet met the service at Brussels South on its arrival on the morning of the 26th and saw off the train on its return leg to Berlin that evening.

In June 2023, a third fundraising round for €3 million of growth capital was announced, which will open on the 21st of June and be available to both new and existing investors, who can invest at a starting price of €250, with shares worth €3 to be issued. The cooperative announced it would be the last fundraising opportunity for some time. Funds raised would go towards enabling technical integrations to sell tickets through additional sales channels, hiring a restaurant car for the existing service, preparing service expansions to Prague as well as the proposed services between Amsterdam and Barcelona and ordering new rolling stock. At the same time, the cooperative announced it had sold 10,000 tickets for its existing Berlin-Brussels service, with expectations that €5-6 million worth of tickets would be sold by the year's end. It also announced that Interrail and Eurail passes would be able to be used on services from the 1st of July, with reservations able to be made from the 12th of June.

Service

European Sleeper's only service between Berlin and Brussels commenced operations on the 25th of May, 2023. Currently, service is thrice-weekly, with trains from Brussels to Berlin leaving on Monday, Wednesday and Friday, and trains from Berlin to Brussels leaving on Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday.

In an article in The Sunday Times about the inaugural Brussels to Berlin service, travel writer Kate Leahy commented, "Orient Express-style luxury this is not," but concluded:

References

Night trains
Railway companies established in 2023
2023 establishments in the Netherlands

European Sleeper