Paul Martin Rodriguez Jr. (born December 31, 1984), also known by his nickname P-Rod, is an American professional street skateboarder, actor, rapper, and recording artist. Rodriguez has won a total of eight medals at the X Games, four of them gold, with the most recent first-place victory occurring in Los Angeles, California in July 2012.

Early life and family
Rodriguez was born in Tarzana, California, U.S. His father is actor and comedian Paul Rodriguez, and his mother is Laura Martinez. He also has an older sister Nikole and a younger brother Lucas.

As a child, Rodriguez occasionally got to meet celebrities through his father. In a later interview, he recounted one such memory:
I'll tell you a good story about Mr. T. I believe it was 1988, every year there was a Christmas Day parade in Pasadena [California, US]; I was probably about three-and-a-half, four years-old—I loved Mr. T. He had the cartoon out at the time and all that. We were there at the banquet before the parade started 'cause my dad brought me to take me in the car to wave at the crowd, or whatever. And, ah, I had to go to the bathroom, my dad was getting interviewed, and, like, I tried to tell him; Mr. T was just standing there, chilling, 'cause they were just talking, and Mr. T goes, "I'll take you". And he throws me up on his shoulders, and I'm sitting up on top of all his gold chains. I remember it perfectly and he  put me on top of his shoulders and walked me to the bathroom; like, just waited outside for me, and it was sick. Mr. T chauffeured me to [the bathroom].

Rodriguez's nickname "P-Rod" was given to him by his classmates when he was around eleven years old.

When he was twelve, Rodriguez received his first skateboard as a Christmas gift from his parents. Rodriguez had seen a group of skateboarders at his new school and was immediately fascinated by "how they kept their board to their feet and how they could flip it." Rodriguez said in June 2014: "I got money, got myself a board, and it was game over."

Rodriguez stated in a July 2013 interview that he slept with new skateboard products as a child due to his passion for skateboarding, and admitted that he slept with his first Street League Skateboarding (SLS) trophy.

Rodriguez attended Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, CA.

Career
Rodriguez was initially recruited to the team of a local skateboard shop named "One Eighteen", managed by an Andy Netkin, who was 19 years old at the time, while Rodriguez had just become 14 years old. As he was too shy at the time, Rodriguez asked a friend to submit his "Sponsor me" video tape to Netkin, who was immediately impressed and asked the friend to bring Rodriguez into the store. Netkin then offered Rodriguez a place on the store team the following day at their first meeting—Netkin explained in 2014 that, at the time, he had a strong sense of Rodriguez's future as a "superstar." DNA Skateboards was Rodriguez's first company sponsor and he appeared in the 1999 video Microanalysis. Former professional skateboarder Anthony Pappalardo stated in a June 24, 2014 online radio show—hosted by professional skateboarder Alex Olsen—that he encouraged Joe Castrucci, cofounder of the Habitat skateboard brand, to recruit Rodriguez before he was officially sponsored, but Castrucci declined.

City Stars
At age sixteen, Rodriguez then rode for City Stars, a company co-founded by professional skateboarder Kareem Campbell in Los Angeles, U.S. Despite being an amateur at the time, Rodriguez earned the last part in the video Street Cinema, which is an honor typically bestowed to an esteemed professional of the team. Rodriguez explained in 2014 that he was initially opposed to Campbell's use of the Jackson 5 song "I Want You Back" for the first half of his part, as it had been used for Guy Mariano's part in the Blind Skateboards video Video Days, but conceded that at the time he "was oblivious to the statement he [Campbell] was trying to make by choosing that song."

Alongside Mikey Taylor, Justin Case, Devine Calloway and Kevin "Spanky" Long, Rodriguez was an amateur team member, while the professional team included Lee Smith, Joey Suriel, Ryan Denman and Eric Pupecki. Rodriguez developed his interest in jewelry during this period, as Campbell was a collector and purchased Rodriguez a diamond bracelet. The period also influenced Rodriguez's musical taste, as he commenced listening to artists like Jay-Z and Nas due to the time spent with Campbell.

City Stars had planned to release a signature skateboard deck design, featuring Rodriguez's name on the grill of a Mercedes Benz (Rodriguez's first car), but Rodriguez's departure from the company resulted in the product's cancellation. Rodriguez explained in February 2013: "I specifically remember that I knew I wanted to quit and I felt like I could at least show enough respect and tell them before they spent all that money to print up my boards. I didn't want to leave them with an inventory of boards they couldn't sell so I made sure to quit well before they went into production." In 2014 Rodriguez described his time at the brand as "the most magical," with a team that possessed "enthusiasm and passion" that was "contagious."

Girl
Rodriguez was featured in Transworld Skateboarding's 2002 video, In Bloom. This video showcased a segment of sponsored, talented skaters who were at the start of their respective careers. Following the video's release, Rodriguez commenced riding for Girl Skateboards and achieved professional status in September 2002. Rodriguez explained in a 2013 interview that he was asked to join the Girl team by Eric Koston, whom he called his all-time favorite skateboarder. Rodriguez said that it was the most significant event in his skateboarding career, as it was, "the moment that my dream happened."
Rodriguez was sponsored by Girl from the age of seventeen to nineteen, and appears in the Girl Skateboards film Yeah Right. During this period, he shared a house with professional skateboarder and rap artist Jereme Rogers.

In February 2013, Rodriguez identified his debut professional signature skateboard with Girl as his favorite deck graphic of all-time. The deck, released in 2002, featured the original Girl logo, Rodriguez's name (written in English), and the Spanish word "Muchachita", meaning "girl", instead of the usual "Girl" brand name. Rodriguez stated that "That was my first pro board and to have it on a company like Girl was awesome." In April 2013 Rodriguez explained that he "loved" his time with the Girl company and, prior to receiving contact from Danny Way—who asked him to join the relaunched Plan B company—he considered Girl a lifelong sponsor.

Plan B
Following Girl, Rodriguez joined the relaunched Plan B skateboard deck brand that was under the ownership and guidance of original riders Danny Way and Colin McKay, who continue to own the brand as of March 2014.

Rodriguez released a solo Plan B video part, entitled Me, Myself, and I, in 2010. The inaugural Plan B full-length video has been a topic of discussion among the global skateboarding community for a prolonged duration of time, as promotional footage has been released and the company has been in existence for a significant period of time, with a renowned team established during this time period. A late November episode of the internet-based, weekly program, Skateline, broadcast on the RIDE Channel, showed footage of company co-owner and team rider, Danny Way, stating that the video would be made according to a schedule determined by the company regardless of external pressure.

Seven out of Rodriguez's top ten skateboard graphics of all time are Plan B Rodriguez signature designs, according to an interview that was published in February 2013. A collaboration between Plan B and Nike SB is Rodriguez's second favorite graphic, while a Bruce Lee "Fury" deck ("Needless to say, Bruce Lee is my number one influence other than Jesus Christ ... it also shows the three scrapes he had on his face from Enter The Dragon. I love this one.") and a Muhammad Ali deck were also included in the list.

In a July 2013 radio interview with Big Boi on Los Angeles' Power 106, Rodriguez confirmed his departure, which had already been widely speculated. During his winning performance at Stop 5 of the 2013 Street League Skateboarding contest in Portland, Oregon, U.S., Rodriguez rode a skateboard deck with the Plan B logo painted over and the company's logo was removed from his personal website as of July 16, 2013. Rodriguez explained in the interview that he is seeking to "own a little bit more of myself."

Post-Plan B
In June 2014, following the launch of his own skateboard deck company, Primitive Skateboarding, and his eighth signature shoe with Nike, Rodriguez explained his perspective on the future:

It got to a point where I wanted to get my name on a board and did that, wanted my name on a shoe and did that, wanted other endorsements, awards, and to win certain competitions, and did those, too ... Now it's back to just wanting to get better. I want to keep improving my abilities.

The design for his Nike signature shoe was first leaked onto the Internet at the beginning of the year, leading to an intense degree of discussion among consumers, described by the Ripped Laces website as "hate/skepticism." The corresponding advertisement featured Nike SB team member, Theotis Beasley, and was produced by the Wieden + Kennedy agency.

In a promotional day-in-the-life photo diary for the Hypebeast website, published on December 16, 2014, Rodriguez revealed that his personal skateboarding park is scheduled for a remodeling process. He also stated that his daily caffeine fix brings "happiness," and that the only time his mind is clear is while he is skateboarding.

At the beginning of 2015, Rodriguez joined the Glassy Sunhaters sunglasses brand, co-owned by fellow professional skateboarder Mike Mo Capaldi. His signature sunglasses model was released in February 2015.

Primitive Skateboarding

In 2008, Rodriguez launched Primitive Skateboarding.

Sponsors
As of January 19, 2016, Rodriguez is sponsored by Primitive Skateboarding, Nike Skateboarding, Target, Nixon Watches, Incase Designs, Primitive Skateshop, Glassy Sunhaters, Markisa, Venture, Andalé Bearings As of June 2014, Rodriguez is managed by Circe Wallace.

Nike sponsorship
Rodriguez is a senior team rider for the Nike skateboarding division, having released his eighth skate shoe model in May 2014, and was responsible for welcoming Luan Oliviera to Nike in September 2012. Rodriguez released his first signature Nike shoe in 2005 following his departure from skate shoe brand, éS Footwear. Rodriguez explained in a 2012 interview for the "Footnotes" segment on the Berrics website:

The transition from éS to Nike was—after I got through making the phone call—I had to call Koston; I had to call, you know, Tony at éS; had to call a few people 'cause we were close; we were good family over there. So, after I got through that hard part, and I could just, and I was free of that burden, then when I got on Nike, it was just, like, the world was opened up—it was insane.

Rodriguez was one of the early riders to be approached by Nike following its second attempt to succeed in the skateboarding market and sub-culture. Rodriguez has explained:

Um, my thoughts on Nike when they first approached me were cool. I mean, like, I did get some criticisms, selling out, this and that ... and I've never really been too worried 'bout that criticism. So my thoughts were just like, I look at it like this, like: My first pair of shoes were the baby Jordans [basketball player, Michael Jordan], you know what I mean, so, like, I had Nikes all my life growing up, and even at the time that I was on éS, any time that I was not skating, I wearing some white-on-white Air Force Ones, or Cortezs—I had a whole flock of Nike anyway ... the way I looked at it, was like, I've been a Nike supporter since birth. So me, I was just stoked, I was just hyped to get on Nike.

Rodriguez released his seventh signature model shoe, entitled the "Paul Rodriguez 7," with Nike in mid-2013. It was designed with Shawn Carboy, who Rodriguez first started working with during the design of his fifth signature model. Rodriguez prioritized the functionality of the shoe, and impact protection is its primary feature.

The "P-ROD 8", Rodriguez's eighth signature shoe was released in May 2014. On May 25, 2014, Rodriguez, alongside fellow Nike team member and skateboarding veteran, Lance Mountain, promoted the model in a video interview, whereby the history of the Nike shoe in skateboarding culture forms the foundation of the segment—Mountain explained that prior to the official launch of the Nike brand onto the skateboarding market, skateboarders said, "This [Nike] is our shoe". Rodriguez described himself as a "Jordan baby", growing up during the peak of Michael Jordan's career, and explained that his eighth Nike shoe model is an "homage to all those things I grew up loving—even before I met skateboarding. And now it's intertwined." The P-ROD 8 features three of Nike's shoe technology developments: "Lunarlon", "Flywire" and "Hyperscreen". (Rodriguez explained in the video with Mountain that the Flywire grips around the foot in the event of a significant fall during the act of skateboarding.)

Following the release of the P-ROD 8, Rodriguez was informed by a Nike executive that he is one of only four Nike athletes to have produced eight signature shoe models—the other being Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant and LeBron James. In 2014, having been sponsored by Nike for ten years, Rodriguez stated: "it feels like I've also grown with them. I've become intertwined with Nike. Our stories are together — at least with Nike SB. The process of making a shoe, at this point, is like a well-oiled machine."

Target sponsorship
On August 13, 2010, the Target corporation announced in a press release that Rodriguez had joined its sponsorship ranks. He became the second professional skateboarder to have a sponsorship deal with Target, the first being Shaun White, though White is better known for snowboarding. A Target representative stated in the press release, "Paul is an amazing competitor and is the perfect personality to add to our program. With so many accomplishments and a promising future ahead of him, Paul is a natural fit for Target and we're proud to have our brand represented on his skateboard." Rodriguez was also quoted in the press release: "I grew up right across the street from a Target and have many memories of skating over to the store as a kid. I've always loved their brand and am excited about the relationship and potential of what we can do together."

AT&T competition
In 2012 Rodriguez participated in a competition with AT&T that allowed the winner to participate in the filming of a promotional video featuring Rodriguez. The final video also featured professional skateboarder, Manny Santiago, and was directed by Nigel Alexander, a long-time friend of Rodriguez.

Private training facility
Rodriguez owns a private skateboard park in the Canoga Park area of California, U.S. that features design elements from his sponsors, Mountain Dew, Nike SB, and Target. Rodriguez designed the park with skateboard park builder Mike Roebke, who used a computer program to blend his own ideas with drawings from Rodriguez. Rodriguez has stated, "I enjoy skating there and I'm blessed to have that type of place at my fingertips."

LIFE series
In collaboration with the Network A media company, Rodriguez is featured in a six-part internet-based series about himself entitled LIFE. The series, produced and directed by professional skateboarder Steve Berra, was released on a weekly basis on the company's YouTube channel.

The first episode "Family First" follows Rodriguez as he revisits his grandmother's home following her cancer diagnosis (Rodriguez foregoes competing at the notable Tampa Pro contest to undertake the visit). Rodriguez explained in 2013 that Berra was the only other person to accompany him during his visit to his grandmother's home, as Rodriguez trusted Berra to be present. In the second episode, entitled "mASTA of disASTA", Rodriguez prepares to compete against Tom Asta in the Battle of the Berrics competition.

In the third episode, "Street League Matters", Rodriguez is filmed in Kansas City, U.S., as he prepares for the qualifying round of one of the stops of the Street League competition. The episode shows Rodriguez as he finishes in fourth place. The fourth episode of LIFE follows Rodriguez, together with close friends Heath Brinkley (photographer and filmer), Justine Schulte, and Carlos Zarazua, as he visits New Orleans, U.S. for the opening of hip hop artist Lil' Wayne's skate park in the wake of Hurricane Katrina—the skate park is called the "Truckstop" and is located in the Lower Ninth Ward area.

In "The Other Half", the fifth episode of LIFE, the camera follows Rodriguez as he competes in the Dew Tour contest and discusses the role of contests in relation to the more fundamental aspects of a professional street skateboarder's life—video footage and street skateboarding.

Influence
Transworld SKATEboarding selected Rodriguez for the thirtieth position of its "30 Most Influential Skaters of All Time" list, released in December 2011. In response to the selection, Rodriguez revealed that Koston and Andrew Reynolds are two professional skateboarders who he considers as influential in a career sense, due to their "longevity", "the impacts they've had", and the degree of respect they have garnered. In an April 2013 interview, Rodriguez added Tom Penny to his "most influential" list and stated, "Him [Penny], Koston and Reynolds. That's my combo right there.".

In regard to Rodriguez, professional skateboarder Nyjah Huston explained in December 2013:

He is such a good dude, on and off the [skate]board. He's such a professional person. He's an amazing street skater, and just as good of a contest skater. So, he's a pretty ideal professional skateboarder, that's for sure.

Company owner
As of June 2014, Rodriguez is the owner of, or an investor in, the skateboard brands Primitive (retail outlet, apparel and skateboard deck company), Markisa (wallets and accessories) and Andale (skateboard bearings), the latter in partnership with fellow professional skateboarder Joey Brezinski. In relation to Andale, Brezinski explained:

Originally I was working on the idea and I went through all the legal stuff. I quit my bearing sponsor at the time and I started talking to Paul about it because he had recently quit Silver at that point. I didn't know if he had plans with FKD or not, but I presented Andale to him as something we could do together. He was down and I proceeded to move forward. It took about two years to get to this point, doing a lot of work and a lot of planning.

The Primitive company consists of a retail store in Los Angeles that specializes in footwear, an apparel line, and a skateboard deck brand. Rodriguez established the business in around 2005–2006 with three partners, including two friends whom he has known since childhood. In April 2014, Rodriguez was identified as the president of the company, while Netkin is the CEO and founder, and Jubal Jones is the creative director—Netkin and Jones were the original store employees and handled US$300 in sales on the opening day. Netkin describes the Primitive store, which officially opened on July 27, 2008, as a "cross-genre" retail outlet that also sells products, which skateboarders can relate to, outside of the skateboarding subculture.

Following the eventual success of the retail outlet, the company commenced its apparel brand, which was a part of the founders' original plan. The popularity of the apparel brand grew rapidly and in April 2014, Jones stated that he solely focuses on the brand, while new employees are constantly hired. In 2014 Primitive Apparel is available in 11 countries and the company consists of 25 people.

The Primitive brand was expanded into a skateboard deck company called "Primitive Skateboarding" in April 2014.

Together with action sports filmmaker Josh Landon and professional US skateboarder Mikey Taylor, Rodriguez cofounded the Saint Archer Brewing Co., a microbrewery that is co-owned by people who are also the brand's "Ambassadors." The team of Ambassadors includes professional skateboarders Eric Koston, Brian "Slash" Hansen, and Bryan Herman; professional and non-professional surfers Josh Kerr, Taylor Knox, Dusty Payne, Laura Enever, and Jeff Johnson; former professional snowboarder Todd Richards; photographer Atiba Jefferson; and surfboard shaper Chris Christenson. Together with Saint Archer's other Ambassadors, Rodriguez has participated in "Tasting Room" nights that are held at the brewery, in which the Ambassadors pour and serve beers.

In a June 2014 interview, Rodriguez asserted that he is a "young, beginning entrepreneur who's learning the ropes of the game," before revealing the philosophy that has benefited him over the course of his career: "find people that are just as passionate at what they do as you are about what you do."

Personal life
As of November 2013, Rodriguez resides in Northridge, California.

As of August 2010, his partner was Rainbow Alexander and the pair are the parents of daughter Heaven Love. They shared the parenting of Heaven Love while dating Rachel Metz before calling it quits in May 2020. In an April 2013 interview, Rodriguez described himself as a "certified workaholic", and stated that skateboarding and fatherhood are his primary concerns in life. In regard to his Mexican American heritage, Rodriguez has explained:

It's my roots. It's where I come from; it's my genetics, my DNA, my body, my build. All from my heritage. My ancestors all before me contributed to the blessings I'm living now. It's where you come from. You can never be ignorant to where you come from because they're responsible for what you are now.

Rodriguez has stated in an interview with the NetworkA media channel that he holds aspirations for a serious acting career following his time with professional skateboarding—he revealed that he admires the work of Johnny Depp, Christian Bale, and Edward Norton. In addition to Bruce Lee, Alexander the Great, and Jesus Christ, Rodriguez is also influenced by rapper Tupac Shakur, and revealed in February 2013 that a skateboard deck graphic featuring Shakur would be a worthwhile design: "I'd like to get that photo of Tupac standing on the wall with his shirt off and he's got the Thug Life tattoo and the glock in his waist band and a blunt in his hand. That would be sick."

Awards
Rodriguez received the 2002 "Rookie of the Year" award from the Transworld SKATEboarding publication.

Filmography

Video game appearances

Videography

We are Blood 2015

Contest history

X Games (Street)
Bronze: 2003 Los Angeles
Gold: 2004 Los Angeles
Gold: 2005 Los Angeles
Silver: 2008 Los Angeles
Gold: 2009 Los Angeles
Gold: 2012 Los Angeles
 Silver: 2013 Barcelona (Street League Skateboarding (SLS) partnership event)
 Silver: 2013 Munich (SLS partnership event)

Dew Action Sports Tour
Fourth place: 2005
Second place: 2008
Second place: 2011
Third place: 2013

Tampa Pro (Street)
Fifth place: 2002
Third place: 2007
Second place: 2009
First place: 2010

Street League Skateboarding
 Won: 2012 Street League Skateboarding – Stop 3, Glendale, Arizona, U.S.
Silver: 2013 Barcelona Street League Skateboarding
Won: 2013 Street League Skateboarding – Stop 5, Portland, Oregon, U.S.
Won: 2016 Street League Skateboarding Munich, Germany

Battle at the Berrics
Won: 2010 Battle at the Berrics 3 (second place, PJ Ladd; third place, Shane O'Neill)
 Second place: 2009 (first place: Chris Cole)
 Second place: 2013 (first place: pj ladd)

References

External links

Primitive Skateboarding
Official YouTube Page
Interview with Green Label website

1984 births
Living people
American skateboarders
American sportspeople of Mexican descent
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
People from Tarzana, Los Angeles
X Games athletes
Birmingham High School alumni

Paul Rodriguez (skateboarder)


Adam Elliot (died 1700) was an English clergyman and traveller.

Life
Elliot was born in Jedburgh in Scotland, the son of Henry Elliot, a clerk. He was member of Caius College, Cambridge, from 1664 to 1668, when he took his B.A. degree.

According to his own account, Elliot then travelled about Europe for the next two years, and was returning to England in June 1670, when he was taken captive by Moors and sold as a slave. His description of his captivity and escape cannot be assumed true in detail. In November Elliot reached England, and worked as a private tutor for the next two years. In December 1672 he was ordained priest by the Bishop of London. He was then chaplain to Lord Grey of Werke (d. 1675), after which he officiated in Dublin, until in 1679 he was summoned to England as witness in a lawsuit arising out of Lord Grey's will.

Elliot was about to return to Ireland when he was apprehended on the evidence of Titus Oates, who accused him of being a Jesuit priest, and an apostate to Islam. Elliot gained his discharge without being brought to trial, but was reapprehended in Dublin for abusing Oates, and fined £200. In 1682 he brought an action against Oates for defamation of character, and gained £20 damages.

Works
Elliot's Apologia pro Vitâ Suâ was published in 1682: it is sarcastically entitled A Modest Vindication of Titus Oates the Salamanca Doctor from Perjury, and contains the Narrative of his travels, Oates's depositions, and an account of the trial between him and Elliot. It was more ingenious than veracious, and the Narrative was burlesqued by Bartholomew Lane, a partisan of Oates, in A Vindication of Dr. Titus Oates from two Scurrilous Libels (1683).

References

Attribution

17th-century births
1700 deaths
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Moroccan slaves
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
English explorers
English chaplains
Christian chaplains
17th-century English educators
People associated with the Popish Plot

Adam Elliot (traveller)


Emanuel Abraham Schegloff (born 1937 in New York) is a Distinguished Professor of Sociology at the University of California at Los Angeles. Along with his collaborators Harvey Sacks and Gail Jefferson, Schegloff is regarded as the creator of the field of Conversation Analysis.

Life

Schegloff studied journalism at the Hebrew Teachers College from 1953 to 1957 and was awarded a Bachelor of Journalism at the end of his studies there.

References
Ochs, Elinor, Emanuel Schegloff and Sandra Thompson. (1996) Interaction and Grammar. Cambridge University Press.
Harvey Sacks, Emanuel A. Schegloff, Gail Jefferson. "A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking for Conversation." Language, Vol. 50, No. 4, Part 1 (Dec., 1974), pp. 696–735
Schegloff, Emanuel A. (2006). Sequence organization in interaction: A primer in conversation analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

External links
 Vita at the UCLA site
 Schegloff publications archive

Linguists from the United States
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
1937 births
Living people
American sociologists
Hebrew College alumni
Discourse analysts

Emanuel Schegloff


Roy Fredrick Bargy (July 31, 1894 – January 16, 1974) was an American composer and pianist.

Biography
Born in Newaygo, Michigan, he grew up in Toledo, Ohio. In 1919, he began working with Charley Straight at the Imperial Piano Roll Company in Chicago, performing, arranging and composing. He was the leader, pianist and arranger of the Benson Orchestra of Chicago from 1920 to 1922 (when he was replaced by Don Bestor), and later worked with the orchestras of Isham Jones and Paul Whiteman, and recorded piano solos for Victor Records. In 1928, he was the first pianist to record George Gershwin's Piano Concerto in F (in an arrangement by Ferde Grofé; with Paul Whiteman and his Concert Orchestra).

From 1943 until his retirement, he was music director for Jimmy Durante.

He died in Vista, California at the age of 79.

Selected Compositions
 Ditto (1920)
 Omeomy (1920)
 Slipova (1920)
 A Blue Streak (1921)
 Knice and Knifty (with Charley Straight, 1921)
 Rufenreddy (with Charley Straight, 1921)
 Behave Yourself (1922)
 Jim Jams, No. 7 from Piano Syncopations (1922)
 Justin-Tyme (1922)
 Pianoflage (1922)
 Sunshine Capers (1922)
 Sweet And Tender (1923)
 Feeding The Kitty (1924)
 Get Lucky (1924)
 Trouble In Thirds (1925)

See also
 List of ragtime composers

References

External links

 Roy Bargy at the Red Hot Jazz Archive
 Roy Bargy recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.

1894 births
1974 deaths
American male composers
Ragtime composers
Victor Records artists
People from Newaygo, Michigan
20th-century American composers
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians
Benson Orchestra of Chicago members

Roy Bargy


Lori Saunders (born Linda Marie Hines in Kansas City, Missouri; October 4, 1941) is an American film and television actress, probably best known for her role as Bobbie Jo Bradley in the television series Petticoat Junction (1965–1970).

Television

Starring roles
Saunders played brunette middle-sister Bobbie Jo Bradley in 3 episodes of Green Acres, 147 episodes of the rural sitcom Petticoat Junction, and 7 episodes of The Beverly Hillbillies. In Petticoat Junction, she took over the role in 1965 from Pat Woodell, who left the show to focus on her singing career. Co-star Meredith MacRae, who joined the show in 1966, said in a 1960s interview that she and Lori were very close, "like the Bobbsey twins", since they were both married and had each replaced another actress on the series.

She played Elizabeth "Betty" Gordon, one of Mr. Drysdale's secretaries, in the last season of The Beverly Hillbillies.

In 1973–74, Saunders played Betsy on the situation-comedy western Dusty's Trail. Created by Sherwood Schwartz and starring Bob Denver, the show was based on Gilligan's Island, but set in the wild west; her character Betsy was an ingénue drawn after Dawn Wells' character of "Mary Ann". Saunders quipped: "It was the same show, just no coconuts." She said it was interesting to work with Jeannine Riley, who had also starred in Petticoat Junction (as Billie Jo Bradley), but not at the same time as Saunders.

In 2015, she appeared in a MeTV commercial promoting Petticoat Junction, along with fellow cast members Linda Kaye Henning and Gunilla Hutton...... plus she was in season 6 of Tales of Wells Fargo as a regular cast member.

Guest-starring roles
In her early television years, Saunders appeared five times (credited as Linda Marie Hines) as four different characters on The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet. She also appeared in Burke's Law, and the season four episode "The Prairie Elephant" of Rawhide (original air-date November 17, 1961). She appeared in the 1970 episode "Bringing Up Josh" of Daniel Boone, and also in the anthology series Bob Hope Presents The Chrysler Theatre.

Film
She appeared in the cult horror film Blood Bath (1966), credited as Linda Saunders. Other films include: A Day at the White House (1972), So Sad About Gloria (1973), Captive (1980), The Girls on The Beach, (1965) and Mara of the Wilderness (1965, as Linda Saunders).

Music
In the 1960s, Saunders released the single "Lonely Christmas", with the B-side "Out of Your Mind". The latter song was later featured on the compilation album Girls in the Garage, Vol. 02.

Saunders and her Petticoat Junction co-stars Linda Kaye Henning and Meredith MacRae released several singles in the 1960s as the singing group The Girls from Petticoat Junction, including "If You Could Only Be Me" (1968) and "Thirty Days Hath September". Their music is compiled on the album The Girls from Petticoat Junction: Sixties Sounds.

Personal life
Saunders married Bernard Sandler in 1961. They have two children. The couple campaigned against the elephant ivory trade in the 1980s. As there was another "Linda" (Linda Kaye Henning) credited on Petticoat Junction, Saunders officially changed her first name to "Lori" in the fall of 1965. Saunders retired from acting in 1980.

References

External links

1941 births
American film actresses
American television actresses
Living people
21st-century American women
Actors from Missouri
Actresses from Missouri
Actresses from Kansas City, Missouri
Actors from California
20th-century American actresses

Lori Saunders


The Lower Lisbon Street Historic District encompasses part of the earliest commercial center of Lewiston, Maine.  Located on the west side of Lisbon Street, the city's main commercial area, between Cedar and Chestnut Streets are a collection of commercial buildings representing a cross section of architectural styles, built between 1850 and 1950.  When the historic district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985, it included 18 buildings.  Eleven of these have since been demolished, and one has a significantly altered facade.

Description and history
The city of Lewiston was established in 1850 as a center for the manufacture of textiles, and its downtown area developed along Lisbon Street between then and about 1920, when the textile mills began a slow decline.  The upper portion of Lisbon Street, between Main and Chestnut Streets, experienced intensive repeated development, and little of the city's early commercial architecture survives there.  The lower part of the street was less intensively developed, resulting in a collection of buildings architecturally representative of the entire period of development.  The historic district extends for one city block, including all of the buildings on the west side of Lisbon Street between Chestnut and Cedar Streets.  The older buildings on the east side of this block have for the most part been razed and the land redeveloped, with only the First and Second Callahan Buildings (both separately listed on the National Register) at the northern end; they are not included in this district.

When listed on the National Register in 1985, the west side of this block was lined with commercial buildings, most of them built of brick and masonry.  Of the eighteen buildings then on the block, twelve were judged historically significant, and only seven are still standing.  One of the surviving buildings is the district's oldest, a -story wood frame gable-front building built c. 1850–55.  It is flanked by later four-story buildings, one Romanesque and the other Classical Revival, dating to 1914 and 1896 respectively.  To the south stand two more buildings, one four stories and the other one, with commercial Italianate style, but a significantly-altered combined ground-floor storefront.  Two three-story brick buildings still stand near the northern end of the block, one of which, the Centennial Block, has Gothic Victorian styling.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Androscoggin County, Maine

References

Historic districts in Androscoggin County, Maine
Buildings and structures in Lewiston, Maine
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Lewiston, Maine
Culture of Lewiston, Maine

Lower Lisbon Street Historic District


5-MeS-DMT (5-methylthio-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a lesser-known psychedelic drug.  It is the 5-methylthio analog of dimethyltryptamine (DMT). 5-MeS-DMT was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book TiHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved), the minimum dosage is listed as 15-30 mg. The duration listed as very short (less than one hour), just like DMT. 5-MeS-DMT produces similar effects to DMT, but weaker.  Shulgin describes his feelings while on a low dose of this drug as "pointlessly stoned", although at a higher dose of 20 mg he says it is "quite intense" and suggests that a higher dose still might have full activity.

5-MeS-DMT has been the subject of only limited clinical testing, with several small behavioral studies in rats indicating that it is a less potent than 5-MeO-DMT or 4-hydroxy-DMT (psilocin) but more effective than either 4-MeO-DMT or 4-MeS-DMT.

See also
 Tryptamine
 Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants

References

Psychedelic tryptamines
Thioethers

5-MeS-DMT


Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( , ; 24 October 1891 – 30 May 1961), nicknamed El Jefe (, "The Chief" or "The Boss"), was a Dominican military commander and dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from August 1930 until his assassination in May 1961. He served as president from 1930 to 1938 and again from 1942 to 1952, ruling for the rest of his life as an unelected military strongman under figurehead presidents. His rule of 31 years, known to Dominicans as the Trujillo Era ( or La Era de Trujillo), was one of the longest for a non-royal leader in the world, and centered around a personality cult of the ruling family. It was also one of the most brutal; Trujillo's security forces, including the infamous SIM, were responsible for perhaps as many as 50,000 murders. These included between 12,000 and 30,000 Haitians in the infamous Parsley massacre in 1937, which continues to affect Dominican-Haitian relations to this day.

During his long rule, the Trujillo government's extensive use of state terrorism was prolific even beyond national borders, including the attempted assassination of Venezuelan President Rómulo Betancourt in 1960, the abduction and disappearance in New York City of the Basque exile Jesús Galíndez in 1956, and the murder of Spanish writer José Almoina in Mexico, also in 1960. These acts, particularly the presumed murder of Galíndez, a naturalized US citizen, the attempted murder of Betancourt, a staunch critic of Trujillo, and the murder of the Mirabal sisters, who were among his most notable opponents, in 1960, eroded relations between the Dominican Republic and the international community and ushered in OAS sanctions and economic and military assistance to Dominican opposition forces. After this momentous year, large segments of the Dominican establishment, including the military, turned against him.

On 30 May 1961, he was assassinated by a group of conspirators led by general Antonio Imbert Barrera. In the immediate aftermath, Trujillo's son Ramfis took temporary control of the country, executing most of the conspirators. By November 1961, the Trujillo family was pressured into exile by the titular president Joaquín Balaguer, who introduced reforms to open up the regime. The murder ushered in civil strife which concluded with the Dominican Civil War and a US-OAS intervention, eventually stabilised under a multi-party system in 1966.

The Trujillo era unfolded in a Hispanic Caribbean environment particularly susceptible to dictators. In the countries of the Caribbean Basin alone, his dictatorship overlapped with those in Cuba, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Venezuela and Haiti. In perspective, the Trujillo dictatorship has been judged more prominent and more brutal than its contemporaries. Trujillo remains a polarizing figure in the Dominican Republic, as the sheer longevity of his rule makes a detached evaluation difficult. While his supporters credit him for bringing long-term stability, economic growth and prosperity, doubling life expectancy of average Dominicans and multiplying the GDP, critics denounce the heavy-handed and violent nature of his regime, including the murder of tens of thousands, his open racism and xenophobia towards Haitians, as well as the Trujillo family's nepotism, widespread corruption and looting of the country's natural and economic resources.

Early life
Rafael Leónidas Trujillo y Molina was born on 26 October 1891 in San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic, into a lower-middle-class family.

His father was José Trujillo Valdez, the son of Silveria Valdez Méndez of colonial Dominican origin and José Trujillo Monagas, a Canary Islander sergeant who arrived in Santo Domingo as a member of the Spanish reinforcement troops during the annexation era.
Trujillo's mother was Altagracia Julia Molina Chevalier, later known as Mamá Julia, daughter of peasant Pedro Molina Peña, also of colonial Dominican origin, and teacher Luisa Erciná Chevalier, whose parents were of creole Haitian origin.

Chevalier, Trujillo's maternal grandmother, was the daughter of Justin Victor Turenne Carrié Blaise, who was of French descent, and Eleonore Juliette Chevallier Moreau, who was part of Haiti's mulatto class. From her mother's side, Chevalier was granddaughter of Louise Moreau and her husband Bernard Chevallier L'Ouverture, a mulatto Haitian high-ranking officer and politician that established in San Cristóbal with the Haitian occupation, from whom countless Dominican families descend, who was the son of French nobleman Jean Baptiste Chevallier, Marquis de Pouilboreau and his wife Marie-Noëlle L'Ouverture, the sister of Toussaint L'Ouverture, the Father of the Nation of Haiti.

Trujillo was the third of eleven children; he also had an adopted brother, Luis Rafael "Nene" Trujillo (1935–2005), who was raised in the home of Trujillo Molina.

In 1897, at the age of six, Trujillo was registered in the school of Juan Hilario Meriño. One year later, he transferred to the school of Pablo Barinas, where he was educated by disciples of Eugenio María de Hostos and remained there for the rest of his primary schooling. As a child, he was obsessed with his appearance and would place bottle caps on his clothes that mimicked military decorations. At the age of 16, Trujillo got a job as a telegraph operator, which he held for about three years. Shortly after Trujillo, aided by his brother José Arismendy Petán, turned to petty crime: cattle rustling, check counterfeiting, and postal robbery. He spent several months in prison, which did not deter him, as he later formed a violent gang of robbers called The 42.

Rise to power

In 1916, the United States began its occupation of the Dominican Republic following 28 revolutions in 50 years. At the time, Trujillo was twenty-five years old and worked as a guarda campestre (overseer) at a sugar cane plantation in Boca Chica. The occupying force soon established a Dominican army constabulary to impose order. Trujillo joined the newly created National Guard in 1918 with the help of his employer along with US Major James J. MacLean, who was his maternal uncle Teódulo Pina Chevalier's friend, and was soon promoted to second lieutenant and began training with the US Marines. Allegations of forgery were ignored when Trujillo applied and he was later acquitted by a panel of Marines following plausible accusations against him, including the alleged rape and subsequent extortion of a 16-year-old girl. Colonel Richard Malcolm Cutts trained Trujillo further and many Marine leaders praised his abilities at the time, approving his rise among the ranks: he was promoted to lieutenant in 1919 and assigned to the San Pedro de Macorís garrison; he was later promoted to captain in 1922 while stationed in San Francisco de Macorís and given command of the National Guard 10th Company. In 1923 he was promoted to major and appointed Inspector of the 1st military district.

President Horacio Vásquez named Trujillo the commander of the Dominican National Police in 1925, he was named brigadier general in 1927 and in 1928, Trujillo reconstituted the police into the army and created it as an independent armed body under his control. A rebellion or coup d'état against President Vásquez broke out in February 1930 in Santiago. Trujillo secretly cut a deal with the rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña. In return for Trujillo letting Estrella take power, Estrella would allow Trujillo to run for president in new elections. As the rebels marched toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to suppress them. However, feigning "neutrality", Trujillo kept his men in barracks, allowing Estrella's rebels to take the capital virtually unopposed. On 3 March, Estrella was proclaimed acting president, with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police and of the army. As per their agreement, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of the Patriotic Coalition of Citizens (Spanish: Coalición patriotica de los ciudadanos), with Estrella as his running mate. The other candidates became targets of harassment by the army. When it became apparent that the army would allow only Trujillo to campaign unhindered, the other candidates pulled out. Ultimately, the Trujillo-Estrella ticket was proclaimed victorious with an implausible 99% of the vote. In a note to the State Department, American ambassador Charles Boyd Curtis wrote that Trujillo received far more votes than actual voters. Upon taking office on 16 August, Truijllo assumed dictatorial powers which he retained for the next three decades.

In government

Two and a half weeks after Trujillo ascended to the presidency, the destructive Hurricane San Zenon hit Santo Domingo and left 2000 dead. As a response to the disaster, Trujillo placed the Dominican Republic under martial law and began to rebuild the city. He renamed the rebuilt capital of the Dominican Republic, Ciudad Trujillo ("Trujillo City") in his honor and had streets, monuments, and landmarks to honor him throughout the country.

On 16 August 1931, the first anniversary of his inauguration, Trujillo made the Dominican Party, founded two weeks earlier, the nation's sole legal political party. However, the country had effectively become a one-party state with Trujillo's inauguration. Government employees were required by law to "donate" 10% of their salaries to the national treasury and there was strong pressure on adult citizens to join the party. Members had to carry a membership card, nick-named the "Palmita" since the cover had a palm tree on it, and a person could be arrested for vagrancy without one. Those who did not join or contribute to the party did so at their own risk. Opponents of the régime were mysteriously killed.

In 1934, Trujillo, who had promoted himself to generalissimo of the army, was up for re-election. By then, there was no organized opposition left in the country, and he was elected as the sole candidate on the ballot. In addition to the widely rigged (and regularly uncontested) elections, he instated "civic reviews" with large crowds shouting their loyalty to the government, which would in turn create more support for Trujillo.

Personality cult

In 1936, at the suggestion of Mario Fermín Cabral, the Congress of the Dominican Republic voted overwhelmingly to change the name of the capital from Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo. The province of San Cristóbal was renamed to "Trujillo" and the nation's highest peak, Pico Duarte to Pico Trujillo. Statues of "El Jefe" were mass-produced and erected across the Dominican Republic, and bridges and public buildings were named in his honor. The nation's newspapers had praise for Trujillo as part of the front page, and license plates included slogans such as "¡Viva Trujillo!" and "Año Del Benefactor De La Patria" (Year of the Benefactor of the Nation). An electric sign was erected in Ciudad Trujillo so that "Dios y Trujillo" could be seen at night as well as in the day. Eventually, even churches were required to post the slogan "Dios en cielo, Trujillo en tierra" (God in Heaven, Trujillo on Earth). As time went on, the order of the phrases was reversed (Trujillo on Earth, God in Heaven). Trujillo was recommended for the Nobel Peace Prize by his admirers, but the committee declined the suggestion.

Trujillo was eligible to run again in 1938, but, citing the United States example of two presidential terms, he stated, "I voluntarily, and against the wishes of my people, refuse re-election to the high office." In fact, a vigorous re-election campaign had been launched in the middle of 1937 but the international uproar that followed the Haitian massacre later that year forced Trujillo to announce his "return to private life." Consequently, the Dominican Party nominated Trujillo's handpicked successor, 61-year-old vice-president Jacinto Peynado, with Manuel de Jesús Troncoso his running mate. They appeared alone on the ballot in the 1938 election. Trujillo kept his positions as generalissimo of the army and leader of the Dominican Party. It was understood that Peynado was merely a puppet, and Trujillo still held all governing power in the nation. Peynado increased the size of the electric "Dios y Trujillo" sign and died on 7 March 1940, with Troncoso serving out the rest of the term. However, in 1942, with US President Franklin Roosevelt having run for a third term in the United States, Trujillo ran for president again and was elected unopposed. He served for two terms, which he lengthened to five years each. In 1952, under pressure from the Organization of American States, he ceded the presidency to his brother, Héctor. Despite being officially out of power, Rafael Trujillo organized a major national celebration to commemorate 25 years of his rule in 1955. Gold and silver commemorative coins were minted with his image.

Oppression
Brutal oppression of actual or perceived members of the opposition was the key feature of Trujillo's rule from the very beginning in 1930 when his gang, "The 42", led by Miguel Angel Paulino, drove through the streets in their red Packard "carro de la muerte" ("car of death"). Trujillo also maintained an execution list of people throughout the world who he felt were his direct enemies or who he felt had wronged him. He even once allowed an opposition party to form and permitted it to operate legally and openly, mainly so that he could identify those who opposed him and arrest or kill them.

Imprisonments and killings were later handled by the SIM, the Servicio de Inteligencia Militar, efficiently organized by Johnny Abbes, who operated in Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, New York, Costa Rica, and Venezuela. Some cases reached international notoriety such as the disappearance of Jesús de Galíndez and the murder of the Mirabal sisters, which further eroded Trujillo's critical support by the US government. After Trujillo approved an assassination attempt on the Venezuelan President Rómulo Ernesto Betancourt Bello, the Organization of American States and the United States blocked Trujillo's access to US sugar quota profits.

Immigration
Trujillo was known for his open-door policy, accepting Jewish refugees from Europe, Japanese migration during the 1930s, and exiles from Spain following its civil war. At the 1938 Évian Conference the Dominican Republic was the only country willing to accept many Jews and offered to accept up to 100,000 refugees on generous terms. In 1940 an agreement was signed and Trujillo donated  of his properties for settlements. The first settlers arrived in May 1940; eventually, some 800 settlers came to Sosúa and most moved later on to the United States.

Refugees from Europe broadened the Dominican Republic's tax base and added more whites to the predominantly mixed-race nation. Trujillo's government favored white refugees over others while Dominican troops expelled illegal immigrants, resulting in the 1937 Parsley Massacre of Haitian migrants.

Environmental policy

The Trujillo regime greatly expanded the Vedado del Yaque, a nature reserve around the Yaque del Sur River. In 1934 he banned the slash-and-burn method of clearing land for agriculture, set up a forest warden agency to protect the park system, and banned the logging of pine trees without his permission. In the 1950s the Trujillo regime commissioned a study on the hydroelectric potential of damming the Dominican Republic's waterways. The commission concluded that only forested waterways could support hydroelectric dams, so Trujillo banned logging in potential river watersheds. After his assassination in 1961, logging resumed in the Dominican Republic. Squatters burned down the forests for agriculture, and logging companies clear-cut parks. In 1967, President Joaquín Balaguer launched military strikes against illegal logging.

Trujillo encouraged foreign investment in the Dominican Republic, particularly from Americans. He gave a concession with mineral rights in the Azua Basin to Clem S. Clarke, an oilman from Shreveport, Louisiana.

Foreign policy

Trujillo tended toward peaceful coexistence with the United States government. During World War II, Trujillo symbolically sided with the Allies and declared war on Germany, Italy and Japan on 11 December 1941. While there was no military participation, the Dominican Republic thus became a founding member of the United Nations. Trujillo encouraged diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, but his policies often caused friction with other nations of Latin America, especially Costa Rica and Venezuela. He maintained friendly relations with Franco of Spain, Perón of Argentina, and Somoza of Nicaragua. Towards the end of his rule, his relationship with the United States deteriorated.

Hull–Trujillo Treaty
Early on, Trujillo determined that Dominican financial affairs had to be put in order, and that included ending the United States's role as collector of Dominican customs—a situation that had existed since 1907 and was confirmed in a 1924 convention signed at the end of the occupation.

Negotiations started in 1936 and lasted four years. On 24 September 1940, Trujillo and the American Secretary of State Cordell Hull signed the Hull–Trujillo Treaty, whereby the United States relinquished control over the collection and application of customs revenues, and the Dominican Republic committed to deposit consolidated government revenues in a special bank account to guarantee repayment of foreign debt. The government was free to set custom duties with no restrictions.

This diplomatic success gave Trujillo the occasion to launch a massive propaganda campaign that presented him as the savior of the nation. A law proclaimed that the Benefactor was also now the Restaurador de la independencia financiera de la Republica (Restorer of the Republic's financial independence).

Haiti

Haiti had historically occupied what is now the Dominican Republic from 1822 to 1844. Encroachment by Haiti was an ongoing process, and when Trujillo took over, specifically the northwestern border region had become increasingly "Haitianized". The border was poorly defined. In 1933, and again in 1935, Trujillo met the Haitian President Sténio Vincent to settle the border issue. By 1936, they reached and signed a settlement. At the same time, Trujillo plotted against the Haitian government by linking up with General Calixte, Commander of the Garde d'Haiti, and Élie Lescot, at that time the Haitian ambassador in Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo). After the settlement, when further border incursions occurred, Trujillo initiated the Parsley Massacre.

Parsley massacre

Known as La Masacre del Perejil in Spanish, the massacre was started by Trujillo in 1937. Claiming that Haiti was harboring his former Dominican opponents, he ordered an attack on the border that slaughtered tens of thousands of Haitians as they tried to escape. The number of dead is still unknown, but it is now calculated between 12,000 and 30,000. The Dominican military used machetes to murder and decapitate many of the victims; they also took people to the port of Montecristi, where many victims were thrown into the sea to drown with their hands and feet bound.

The Haitian response was muted, but its government eventually called for an international investigation. Under pressure from Washington, Trujillo agreed to a reparation settlement in January 1938 of US$750,000. By the next year, the amount had been reduced to US$525,000 (US$ million in ); 30 dollars per victim, of which only two cents were given to survivors because of corruption in the Haitian bureaucracy.

In 1941, Lescot, who had received financial support from Trujillo, succeeded Vincent as President of Haiti. Trujillo expected that Lescot would be his puppet, but Lescot turned against him. Trujillo unsuccessfully tried to assassinate him in a 1944 plot and then published their correspondence to discredit him. Lescot fled into exile in 1946 after demonstrations against him.

Cuba
In 1947, Dominican exiles, including Juan Bosch, had concentrated in Cuba. With the approval and support of Cuba's government, led by Ramón Grau, an expeditionary force was trained with the intention of invading the Dominican Republic and overthrowing Trujillo. However, international pressure, including from the United States, made the exiles abort the expedition. In turn, when Fulgencio Batista was in power, Trujillo initially supported anti-Batista supporters of Carlos Prío Socarrás in Oriente Province in 1955; however, weapons Trujillo sent were soon inherited by Fidel Castro's insurgents when Prío allied with Castro; Dominican-made Cristóbal carbines and hand grenades became the rebels' standard weapons.

After 1956, when Trujillo saw that Castro was gaining ground, he started to support Batista with money, planes, equipment, and men. Trujillo, convinced that Batista would prevail, was very surprised when Batista showed up as a fugitive after he had been ousted. Trujillo kept Batista until August 1959 as a "virtual prisoner". Only after paying US$3–4 million Batista could leave for Portugal, which had granted him a visa.

Castro made threats to overthrow Trujillo, and Trujillo responded by increasing the budget for national defense. A foreign legion was formed to defend Haiti, as it was expected that Castro might invade the Haitian part of the island first and remove François Duvalier as well. A Cuban plane with 56 fighting men landed near Constanza, Dominican Republic, on Sunday, 14 June 1959, and six days later more invaders brought by two yachts landed at the north coast. However, the Dominican Army prevailed.

In turn, in August 1959, Johnny Abbes attempted to support an anti-Castro group led by Escambray near Trinidad, Cuba. The attempt, however, was thwarted when Cuban troops surprised a plane he had sent when it was unloading its cargo.

Betancourt assassination attempt

By the late 1950s, opposition to Trujillo's regime was starting to build to a fever pitch, especially among a younger generation who had no memory of the poverty and instability that had preceded the dictatorship. Many clamored for democratization. The Trujillo regime responded with greater repression. The Military Intelligence Service (SIM) secret police, led by Johnny Abbes, remained as ubiquitous as before. Other nations ostracized the Dominican Republic, compounding the dictator's paranoia.

Trujillo began to interfere more and more in the domestic affairs of neighboring countries. He expressed great contempt for Venezuela's president Rómulo Betancourt; an established and outspoken opponent of Trujillo, Betancourt associated with Dominicans who had plotted against the dictator. Trujillo developed an obsessive personal hatred of Betancourt and supported numerous plots by Venezuelan exiles to overthrow him. This pattern of intervention led the Venezuelan government to take its case against Trujillo to the Organization of American States (OAS), a move that infuriated Trujillo, who ordered his agents to plant a bomb in Betancourt's car. The assassination attempt, carried out on Friday, 24 June 1960, injured but did not kill the Venezuelan president.

The Betancourt incident inflamed world opinion against Trujillo. Outraged OAS members voted unanimously to sever diplomatic relations with his government and impose economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic. The brutal murder on Friday, 25 November 1960, of the three Mirabal sisters, Patria, María Teresa and Minerva, who opposed Trujillo's dictatorship, further increased discontent with his repressive rule. The dictator had become an embarrassment to the United States, and relations became especially strained after the Betancourt incident.

Personal life
Trujillo's "central arch" was his instinct for power. This was coupled with an intense desire for money, which he recognized as a source of and support for power. Up at four in the morning, he exercised, studied the newspaper, read many reports, and completed papers before breakfast. At the office by nine, he continued his work, and took lunch by noon. After a walk, he continued to work until 7:30 pm. After dinner, he attended functions, held discussions, or was driven around incognito in the city "observing and remembering." Until Santo Domingo's National Palace was built in 1947, he worked out of the Casas Reales, the colonial-era Viceregal center of administration. Today the building is a museum; on display are his desk and chair, along with a massive collection of arms and armor that he bought. He was methodical, punctual, secretive, and guarded; he had no true friends, only associates and acquaintances. For his associates, his actions towards them were unpredictable.

Trujillo and his family amassed enormous wealth. He acquired cattle lands on a grand scale, and went into meat and milk production, operations that soon evolved into monopolies. Salt, sugar, tobacco, lumber, and the lottery were other industries which he or his family members dominated. Family members also received positions within the government and the army, including one of Trujillo's sons who was made a colonel in the Dominican Army when he was only four years old. Two of Trujillo's brothers, Héctor and José Arismendy, also held positions in his government. José Arismendy Trujillo oversaw the creation of the main radio station, La Voz Dominicana, and later the television station, the fourth in the Caribbean.

By 1937 Trujillo's annual income was about $1.5 million ($ million in ); at the time of his death the state took over 111 Trujillo-owned companies. His love of fine and ostentatious clothing was displayed in elaborate uniforms and suits, of which he collected almost two thousand. Fond of neckties, he amassed a collection of over ten thousand. Trujillo doused himself with perfume and liked gossip.
His sexual appetite was rapacious, and he preferred mulatta women with full bodies.

Trujillo was married three times and kept other women as mistresses. On 13 August 1913, Trujillo married Aminta Ledesma Lachapelle, with whom he had 2 daughters, Julia, who died as an infant, and Flor de Oro, who died of lung cancer in 1978. On 30 March 1927, Trujillo married Bienvenida Ricardo Martínez, a girl from Monte Cristi and the daughter of Buenaventura Ricardo Heureaux. A year later he met María de los Angeles Martínez Alba (nicknamed "la españolita", or "the little Spanish girl"), and had an affair with her. He divorced Bienvenida in 1935 and married Martínez. A year later he had a daughter with Bienvenida, named Odette Trujillo Ricardo.

Trujillo's three children with María Martínez were Rafael Leónidas Ramfis, who was born on 5 June 1929, María de los Ángeles del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (Angelita), born in Paris on 10 June 1939, and Leónidas Rhadamés, born on 1 December 1942. Ramfis and Rhadamés were named after characters in Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida.

In 1937, Trujillo met Lina Lovatón Pittaluga, an upper-class debutante with whom he had two children, Yolanda in 1939, and Rafael, born on 20 June 1943.

In spite of Trujillo's indifference to the game of baseball, the dictator invited many black American players to the Dominican Republic, where they received good pay for playing on first-class, un-segregated teams. The great Negro league star Satchel Paige pitched for Los Dragones of Ciudad Trujillo, a team organized by Trujillo. Paige later claimed, jokingly, that his guards positioned themselves "like a firing squad" to encourage him to pitch well. Los Dragones won the 1937 Dominican championship at Estadio Trujillo in Ciudad Trujillo.

Trujillo was energetic and fit. He was generally quite healthy but suffered from chronic lower urinary infections and, later, prostate problems. In 1934, Dr. Georges Marion was called from Paris to perform three urologic procedures on Trujillo.

Over time Trujillo acquired numerous homes. His favorite was Casa Caobas, on Estancia Fundacion near San Cristóbal. He also used Estancia Ramfis (which, after 1953, became the Foreign Office), Estancia Rhadames, and a home at Playa de Najayo. Less frequently he stayed at places he owned in Santiago de los Caballeros, Constanza, La Cumbre, San José de las Matas, and elsewhere. He maintained a penthouse at the Embajador Hotel in the capital.

While Trujillo was nominally a Roman Catholic, his devotion was limited to a perfunctory role in public affairs; he placed faith in local folk religion.

He was popularly known as "El Jefe" ("The Chief") or "El Benefactor" ("The Benefactor") but was privately referred to as Chapitas ("Bottlecaps") because of his indiscriminate wearing of medals. Dominican children emulated Trujillo by constructing toy medals from bottle caps.

Assassination

On Tuesday, 30 May 1961, Trujillo was shot and killed when his blue 1957 Chevrolet Bel Air was ambushed on a road outside the Dominican capital. He was the victim of an ambush plotted by a number of men, such as General Juan Tomás Díaz, Pedro Livio Cedeño, Antonio de la Maza, Amado García Guerrero and General Antonio Imbert Barrera.

Aftermath
The plotters failed to take control, as the later-executed General José René Román Fernandez ("Pupo Román") betrayed his co-conspirators by his inactivity, and contingency plans had not been made. On the other side, Johnny Abbes, Roberto Figueroa Carrión, and the Trujillo family put the SIM to work to hunt the members of the plot and brought back Ramfis Trujillo from Paris to step into his father's shoes. The response by the SIM was swift and brutal. Hundreds of suspects were detained, many tortured. On 18 November the last executions took place when six of the conspirators were executed in the "Hacienda María Massacre". Imbert was the only one of the seven assassins who survived the manhunt. A co-conspirator named Luis Amiama Tio also survived.

US President John F. Kennedy learned of Trujillo's death during a diplomatic meeting with French President Charles de Gaulle.

Trujillo's funeral was that of a statesman with the long procession ending in his hometown of San Cristóbal, where his body was first buried. Dominican President Joaquín Balaguer gave the eulogy. The efforts of the Trujillo family to keep control of the country ultimately failed. The military uprising on 19 November of the Rebellion of the Pilots and the threat of US intervention set the final stage and ended the Trujillo regime. Ramfis tried to flee with his father's body aboard his boat Angelita, but was turned back. Balaguer allowed Ramfis to leave the country and to take his father's body to Paris. There, the remains were interred in the Cimetière du Père Lachaise on 14 August 1964, and six years later moved to Spain, to the Mingorrubio Cemetery in El Pardo on the north side of Madrid.

United States' involvement
The role of the United States' Central Intelligence Agency in the killing has been debated. Imbert insisted that the plotters acted on their own. However, Trujillo was certainly murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. In a 1975 report to the Deputy Attorney General of the United States, CIA officials described the agency as having "no active part" in the assassination and only a "faint connection" with the groups that planned the killing.

US involvement appears to go deeper than supplying weapons. In the 1950s, the CIA gave José Figueres Ferrer money to publish a political journal, Combate and to found a left-wing school for Latin American opposition leaders. Funds passed from a shell foundation to the Jacob Merrill Kaplan Fund; then to the Institute of International Labor Research (IILR) headed by Norman Thomas, six-time US presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America; and finally to Figueres, Sacha Volman, and Juan Bosch. Sacha Volman, treasurer of the IILR, was a CIA agent.

Cord Meyer was a CIA official responsible for manipulating international groups. He used the contacts with Bosch, Volman, and Figueres for a new purpose, as the United States moved to rally the Western Hemisphere against Cuba's Fidel Castro, Trujillo had become expendable. Dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove Trujillo.

According to Chester Bowles, the Undersecretary of State, internal Department of State discussions in 1961 on the topic were vigorous. Richard N. Goodwin, Assistant Special Counsel to the President, who had direct contacts with the rebel alliance, argued for intervention against Trujillo. Quoting Bowles directly: The next morning I learned that in spite of the clear decision against having the dissident group request our assistance Dick Goodwin following the meeting sent a cable to CIA people in the Dominican Republic without checking with State or CIA; indeed, with the protest of the Department of State. The cable directed the CIA people in the Dominican Republic to get this request at any cost. When Allen Dulles found this out the next morning, he withdrew the order. We later discovered it had already been carried out.

An internal CIA memorandum states that a 1973 Office of Inspector General investigation into the murder disclosed "quite extensive Agency involvement with the plotters." The CIA described its role in "changing" the government of the Dominican Republic "as a 'success' in that it assisted in moving the Dominican Republic from a totalitarian dictatorship to a Western-style democracy."

Juan Bosch, the earlier recipient of CIA funding, was elected president of the Dominican Republic in 1962 and was deposed in 1963.

Even after the death of Trujillo, the unusual events continued. In November 1961, Mexican police found a corpse they identified as Luis Melchior Vidal Jr., godson of Trujillo. Vidal was the unofficial business agent of the Dominican Republic while Trujillo was in power. Under the cover of the American Sucrose Company and the Paint Company of America, Vidal had teamed up with the US-American Joel David Kaplan to operate as arms merchants for the CIA.

Joel David Kaplan was the nephew of the previously mentioned Jacob Merrill Kaplan. The older Kaplan earned his fortune primarily through operations in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.

In 1962, the younger Kaplan was convicted of killing Vidal, in Mexico City. He was sentenced to 28 years in prison. Kaplan escaped from a Mexican prison using a helicopter. The dramatic event was the basis for the Charles Bronson action film Breakout.

The Mexican police requested for the FBI to arrest and remand Joel Kaplan on 20 August 1971. Kaplan's attorney claimed that Kaplan was a CIA agent. Neither the FBI nor the US Department of Justice has pursued the issue. The Mexican government never initiated extradition proceedings against Kaplan.

Honors and awards
 Legion d'honneur
 Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem

In media

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!width=5%|Media type!!width=25%|Title!!Release date!!class=unsortable|Details
|-
|Book
|Trujillo: The Little Caesar of the Caribbean
|1958
|Authored by Germán Ornes Coiscou, this book reveals the terror of Trujillo's dictatorship as it became a cancerous growth infecting generations of Dominicans for more than 30 years.
|-
|Book
|The Terrible Ones
|1966
|Authored by Valerie Moolman, the book describes the attempts of The Terrible Ones (the widows of murdered Trujillo opponents), Cuban fidelistas and Chinese communist forces to locate and recover US$100 million in gold and precious stones accumulated by Trujillo during his dictatorship.
|-
|Book
|The Day of the Jackal
|How To Win The TrujilloFunk Madden League
|1971
|Authored by Frederick Forsyth, the book fictitiously attributes "credit" for this assassination to the titular assassin. An English arms dealer, suspected of being "the Jackal", had a meeting with Trujillo's chief of police in Ciudad Trujillo on 30 May 1961, trying to sell the police British surplus submachine guns. However, Trujillo is assassinated that same day, and the arms dealer is forced to flee the Dominican Republic.
|-
|Film
|The Day of the Jackal
|1973
|Directed by Fred Zinnemann, the film, like the book of the same title, fictitiously attributes "credit" for this assassination to its titular assassin.
|-
|Book
|Memorias de un Cortesano de la Era de Trujillo
|1988
|Authored by Joaquín Balaguer, the last puppet president of the Dominican Republic appointed by Trujillo, in 1960, and who went on to rule in his own right for most of the period 1966–1996.
|-
|Book
|La era de Trujillo: un estudio casuístico de dictadura hispanoamericana
|1990
| Manuel Vazquez Montalbán, a Catalan writer, wrote about Galíndez en 1990. The book is a fictional recreation of the life and disappearance of the diplomat.
|-
|Book
|In the Time of the Butterflies
|1994
|Authored by Julia Alvarez, the book describes the lives of the four Mirabal Sisters, who lived under Trujillo's regime; three of them eventually were killed after joining the resistance against his rule.
|-
|Documentary
|El Poder del Jefe I
|1994
|Directed by René Fortunato
|-
|Documentary
|Ken Burns' Baseball
|1994
|Winning the Dominican National Championship with Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson discussed in Inning Five: Shadow Ball.
|-
|TV film
|Soul of the Game|1996
|Brief appearance during a baseball game in Santo Domingo.
|-
|Documentary
|El Poder del Jefe II|1996
|Directed by René Fortunato
|-
|Documentary
|El Poder del Jefe III|1998
|Directed by René Fortunato
|-
|Book
|The Feast of the Goat|2000
|A book by Mario Vargas Llosa, set in the Dominican Republic and portraying the assassination of the Dominican dictator, and its aftermath, from two distinct standpoints a generation apart: during and immediately after the assassination itself, in May 1961; and thirty-five years later, in 1996.
|-
|TV film
|In the Time of the Butterflies|2001
|Directed by Mariano Barroso and Trujillo played by Edward James Olmos. Based on the novel by Julia Alvarez (1994) about the regime assassination of the dissident Mirabal sisters.
|-
|Book
|Before We Were Free|2002
|Julia Alvarez, a Dominican-American writer, wrote this young-adult novel about Anita, a twelve-year-old girl in the Dominican Republic in 1960, who realizes that life under the reign of Trujillo is much darker and more dangerous than she had previously known.
|-
|Film
|El Misterio Galíndez – The Galindez File|2003
|Gerardo Herrero directed El Misterio Galíndez, a movie about Jesús de Galíndez Suárez, activist of the PNV party and Basque diplomat who disappeared in 1956; allegedly because of his opposition to Trujillo's regime.
|-
|Film
|The Feast of the Goat (*)
|2006
|Directed by Luis Llosa and Trujillo played by Tomás Milián
|-
|Book
|The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao|2007
|Junot Díaz, a Santo Domingo-born American, wrote this Pulitzer Prize–winning book about a Dominican-American family. The book is a fictional account of the family's misfortunes interwoven with a recounting of the atrocities of Trujillo's regime, some of which are indirectly linked to the family's fate, following them like a curse or fukú across the generations.
|-
| Film
|Code Name: Butterflies|2009
|Directed by Cecilia Domeyko. Film about the life and death of the Mirabal sisters with interviews with people involved, and recreations of key events.
|-
| Film
|Trópico de Sangre|2010
|Directed by Juan Delancer and Trujillo played by Juan Fernández de Alarcon. The film focuses on Minerva Mirabal and tells the true story of how she and her sisters dared to stand up against dictator Rafael Trujillo and were assassinated in 1960 as a result. The film further details how this crime led to the assassination of Trujillo.
|}

 See also

 Explanatory notes

References
 Citations

 General bibliography

Further reading

 Cadeau, Sabine F. (2022). More than a Massacre: Racial Violence and Citizenship in the Haitian–Dominican Borderlands. Cambridge University Press.
 Hougan, Jim. Spooks: The Haunting of America & the Private Use of Secret Agents (non-fiction). New York: William Morrow (1978). .
 López-Calvo, Ignacio, "God and Trujillo": Literary and Cultural Representations of the Dominican Dictator. University Press of Florida (2005). .
 "Generalismo E.N., Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina." Secretario de Estado de las Fuerzas Armadas.
 Timoneda, Joan C. "Institutions as Signals: How Dictators Consolidate Power in Times of Crisis." Comparative Politics, vol. 53, no. 1 (2020), pp. 49–68.
 Turits, Richard Lee. Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History''. Stanford University Press (2004). .

External links

 Biography

1891 births
1961 deaths
1961 murders in North America
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Rafael Trujillo


Juan de la Cosa (c. 1450 – 28 February 1510) was a Castilian navigator and cartographer, known for designing the earliest European world map which incorporated the territories of the Americas discovered in the 15th century.
De la Cosa was the owner and master of the Santa María, and thus played an important role in the first and second voyage of Christopher Columbus to the West Indies.

In 1499, he served as the chief pilot in the expedition of Alonso de Ojeda to the coasts of South America. Upon his return to Andalusia, he drew his famous mappa mundi ("world map") and soon returned to the Indies, this time with Rodrigo de Bastidas. In the following years, De la Cosa alternated trips to America under its own command with special duties from the Crown, including an assignment as a spy in Lisbon and participation in the board of pilots held in Burgos in 1508. In 1509, he began what would be his last expedition, again with Ojeda, to take possession of the coasts of modern Colombia.

De la Cosa died in an armed confrontation with indigenous people before he could get possession of Urabá.

Origin and youth

No one knows exactly where Juan de la Cosa was born. Canovas del Castillo (1892) states that he was from Santoña, Cantabria, because there are documents showing that he was a resident there and his wife and daughter lived in that city. Some 16th-century chroniclers called him "the Biscayne", leading to confusion with another sailor called "Juan Vizcaino". However, today they are known to be different people.

His date of birth is also unknown, but it is estimated between 1450 and 1460, nor is any information available from his childhood or adolescence. It is assumed that the young man took part in sailing voyages around the Bay of Biscay and then towards the Canary Islands and West Africa.

The first solid references come from 1488, when Juan de la Cosa was in Portugal. At that time, navigator Bartolomeu Dias had just arrived in Lisbon, after having reached the Cape of Good Hope. The Catholic Monarchs may have sent de la Cosa to that city as a spy to obtain information and details of the discovery. He managed to return to Castile before Portuguese officers captured him.

Early in the 1490s, Juan de la Cosa was living in El Puerto de Santa María and owned a ship called Marigalante or Galician. It is believed that it was there that he established a business relationship with the Pinzón brothers.

Travels

Travels with Christopher Columbus
Juan de la Cosa sailed with Christopher Columbus on his first three voyages to the New World. He owned and was master of the Santa María (second-in-command to Columbus), flagship of Columbus's first voyage in 1492. The vessel shipwrecked that year on the night of 24–25 December off the present-day site of Cap-Haïtien, Haiti. De la Cosa, in a notable act of cowardice (or treason, in Columbus's documented opinion), fled the sinking Santa Maria (his partial ownership of the vessel notwithstanding) in the flagship's boat, rather than endeavor to assist Columbus in kedging the stricken vessel from off the coral reef on which it had run aground. He and a handful of loyals made for La Nina, waiting a few hundred yards astern of the flagship, but they were turned back by La Nina'''s captain Vicente Yanez.

On Columbus's second voyage, in 1493, de la Cosa was mariner and cartographer on the ship Colina. On Columbus' third voyage, in 1498, de la Cosa was on the ship La Niña. Some historians believe de la Cosa did not participate in this voyage.

In 1494 de la Cosa received compensation from the Spanish monarchs for the sinking of his ship on his first voyage. He was awarded the right to transport docientos cahíces de trigo ("two hundred cahices of flour") from Andalucia to Biscay, and exempted from certain duties.

First voyage with de Ojeda
On his fourth voyage, in 1499, de la Cosa was the first pilot for the expedition of Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, and with them was among the first to set foot on the South American mainland on the Gulf of Paria. At the same time they explored the coast from Essequibo River to Cape Vela.

In spite of not receiving much remuneration, De la Cosa had benefited considerably, having mapped in detail the coast of the region he explored, information he would use to create his famous map.

On the fifth voyage, in 1500, de la Cosa, Rodrigo de Bastidas, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa explored the lands of present-day Colombia and Panama. He explored further along the South American coast to the isthmus of Panama, and returned to Haiti in 1502. When the Spanish court found soon afterwards that the Portuguese had made several incursions into the newly discovered country, Queen Isabella sent Juan de la Cosa at the head of a delegation to Portugal to protest this incursion. De la Cosa was arrested and incarcerated, liberated only with the help of Queen Isabella.

First independent voyage
De la Cosa was nominated an alguazil, and in 1504–05(?) (or 1506) was commander of an expedition to the Pearl Islands and the Gulf of Urabá to found settlements there. At the same time he visited Jamaica and Haiti.

Second voyage with de Ojeda and de la Cosa's death

In 1509 Juan de la Cosa set out for the seventh and last time for the New World. He carried two hundred colonists on three ships, and on reaching Haiti placed himself under the command of Alonso de Ojeda, who added another ship with one hundred settlers to the expedition. After having settled an old border dispute between Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa, they went with Francisco Pizarro into de Ojeda's territory and landed at the future site of Cartagena. This was against the warnings of de la Cosa, who proposed they disembark on the more peaceful coast of the Gulf of Urabá. When the Spanish came ashore, they got in a fight with the natives on the Bay of Calamar, and drove them off. Emboldened by the Spanish victory, de Ojeda decided to go further into the forest, to the native village at the future site of Turbaco. When they arrived at the town, they were attacked by the natives, and de la Cosa was shot with poison arrows and killed. De Ojeda escaped, and fled to the coast. Another Spanish expedition passed by, and de Ojeda told them of the murderous natives. The men of the other expedition joined de Ojeda for a punitive attack on that village, killing all of its inhabitants to avenge de la Cosa's death. De la Cosa's widow received 45,000 maravedís and all the natives he had in his possession as indemnity for services rendered.

 Cartography

Juan de la Cosa made several maps of which the only survivor is his famous world map from 1500. It is the oldest known European map that shows the New World. Of special interest is the outline of Cuba, which Christopher Columbus never believed to be an island. Walkenaer and Alexander von Humboldt were the first to point out the great importance of this chart. It is now in the Museo Naval in Madrid. Reproductions of it were first given by Humboldt in his Atlas géographique et physique.

See also
List of explorers
List of cartographers
List of conquistadors
Voyages of Christopher Columbus
The Pinzon Brothers
Columbian Exchange or The Grand Exchange

References

Bibliography

 Non-English

 Sánchez, Antonio (2013). La espada, la cruz y el Padrón: Soberanía, fe y representación en el mundo ibérico bajo la Monarquía Hispánica, 1503-1598''

External links

1460s births
1510 deaths
15th-century explorers
15th-century Spanish people
16th-century Spanish people
Sailors from Cantabria
Cantabrian conquistadors
Spanish cartographers
Spanish conquistadors
Spanish navigators
Spanish explorers of North America
Explorers of Central America
Spanish military personnel killed in action
People from Santoña

Juan de la Cosa


Lang Labor was a faction of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) consisting of the supporters of Jack Lang, who served two terms as Premier of New South Wales and was the party's state leader from 1923 to 1939. It controlled the New South Wales branch of the ALP throughout most of the 1920s and 1930s. The faction broke away to form separate parliamentary parties on several occasions and stood competing candidates against the ALP in state and federal elections.

By the early 1920s Lang was the dominant ALP figure in New South Wales. He reached national prominence during the Great Depression by opposing the economic policies of James Scullin's federal ALP government. The resulting party split of 1931 saw the Federal Executive expel the Lang-controlled New South Wales branch from the party. Led by Jack Beasley, the Lang Labor members in federal parliament formed a separate party and in November 1931 voted to bring down the Scullin Government. Lang Labor candidates ran against the official ALP at the 1931 and 1934 federal elections, and at its peak the faction held nine out of 74 seats in the House of Representatives. Lang also had supporters outside of New South Wales, most notably several state MPs in South Australia who won elections under his banner.

After a series of "unity conferences", Lang Labor was readmitted into the official ALP in 1936, with Lang remaining as the party's state leader in New South Wales. He was deposed in 1939, after which his influence waned. In 1940, he and his supporters left the ALP for a second time, forming the Non-Communist Labor Party as an explicitly anti-communist body. It had a degree of success at the 1940 federal election, but rejoined official Labor in the lead-up to the 1941 state election. Lang was again expelled from the party in 1943 and ran separate candidates against the official ALP in several further elections. He served a single term in the House of Representatives from 1946 to 1949, while the last Lang Labor MPs in the Parliament of New South Wales were defeated in 1950.

Background
Lang was elected leader of New South Wales branch of the Labor Party in 1922 by the NSW party caucus, after two interim leaders had been appointed during a conflict between the NSW state executive of the party (dominated by the Australian Workers' Union), and the ALP Federal Executive. From very early in his leadership, Lang faced opposition within the caucus due to his domineering manner. Particular areas of contention were the establishment of a Government Insurance Office and Lang's role in an attempt to increase the party's parliamentary majority through the appointment of Alick Kay as the consumer's representative on the Metropolitan Meat Board. However Lang continued to enjoy the overwhelming support of the party branches and he controlled a large majority at the annual conference, which was the party's ultimate forum.

Conflict within the caucus culminated in a leadership challenge in October 1926 by Peter Loughlin, Lang's deputy leader. Lang survived this challenge on the casting vote of the Chairman. Lang responded to the challenge by calling a special meeting of the party conference in which, at his request, the conference took a supervisory role in the pre-selection of party candidates, took away from caucus the power to elect the parliamentary leader, and allowed the party leader to select the cabinet. In the press, these rule changes were referred to as "the red rules" or "the Lang dictatorship".

Lang still faced significant opposition within the caucus and the caucus appointed cabinet, but he was able to defeat his opponents by returning his commission as Premier to the Governor, Sir Dudley de Chair on 25 May 1927. This automatically resulted in the dismissal of the cabinet. As there was no viable alternative government, De Chair recommissioned Lang to form a caretaker government on the condition that he would recommend a dissolution of the Legislative Assembly and call an election. The new government was formed solely of Lang supporters, and Lang used the four months prior to the election to ensure that his opponents were denied ALP pre-selection.  In part due to the switch to single-member electorates, the ALP lost the election. However, the ALP caucus that was elected was firmly under Lang's control, ensuring that he would dominate NSW Labor for the next 12 years.

Australian Labor Party (New South Wales)

With the support of the state party, the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Lang announced a policy of foreign debt repudiation, known as the "Lang Plan", and imposed a moratorium on the New South Wales government's overseas loans. This policy was in contrary to the policy of the federal Labor government led by James Scullin. In March 1931, the Federal Executive expelled the New South Wales branch from the party, including Jack Beasley and Eddie Ward, a result of its disloyalty to the federal Labor government of Scullin. The expelled branch became a separate parliamentary party known as Australian Labor Party (New South Wales), commonly known as Lang Labor. In the federal parliament, Lang Labor was led by Beasley.

Lang repudiated the Premiers' Plan agreed by a meeting of the Premiers of the Australian states in June 1931 for the economic management of the Great Depression in Australia. In November 1931, Lang Labor voted with the United Australia Party (UAP) opposition to bring down the Scullin Labor government and force an early election. Lang Labor then ran candidates against the official ALP at the election. Supporters of the federal party (led in New South Wales by Ted Theodore and Ben Chifley) were known as Federal Labor candidates. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the UAP and the election of Lyons as Prime Minister. Most of the Lang members had ultra-safe working class seats and survived, although Ward was narrowly defeated in East Sydney. He would later return at the 1932 East Sydney by-election. In total, Lang Labor won four seats, while nationwide the ALP retained only 14 seats after the loss of 32 seats, and won only three seats in New South Wales. Theodore and Chifley were both defeated ending Theodore's political career.

The party also ran in the 1934 federal election. Lang Labor significantly increased its total vote, and won nine seats, at the election, which saw the ALP win only one seat in New South Wales (Newcastle).

At its peak, the faction held nine out of 74 seats in the House of Representatives. Lang also had some supporters outside of New South Wales, most notably several state MPs in South Australia who won elections under his banner.

Reconciliation
In September 1935, John Curtin succeeded Scullin as Federal Labor leader and in February 1936 he brought about a reconciliation with the New South Wales Branch after a series of "unity conferences", resulting in Labor running as a single party throughout the nation at the 1937 federal election. Lang remained as the party's state leader in New South Wales. Though Labor remained in opposition after the election, the party's competitiveness was restored with a large increase to their vote and seats held, becoming the largest single party in the House of Representatives on both votes and seats.

Lang's lack of success at state elections eroded his support within the labour movement.  In his 16 years as state Labor leader, he only won two elections, in 1925 and 1930; he was defeated in 1927, 1932, 1935 and 1938.  This led some members of caucus, including Bob Heffron, to break away to form the Industrial Labor Party. In 1939, following intervention by the Federal Executive, the two factions were reunited at a state conference. This gathering also reversed the "red rules" and returned the power of selecting the party leader to the caucus. Lang was replaced as state leader by William McKell.

Australian Labor Party (Non-Communist)

1940–1941

In 1940, Lang seceded from Labor, along with several supporters, and formed a new party called the Australian Labor Party (Non-Communist), in retaliation of a policy opposing Australian involvement in World War II, adopted by the state executive. The breakaway party contested the 1940 federal election, but with only  minority support in the Labor movement of NSW. Many of his old supporters such as Eddie Ward remained loyal to Australian Labor Party leader John Curtin, and Lang candidates polled poorly. The Federal Executive again intervened in the NSW branch and expelled the leftist elements. Following the Federal intervention, prior to the May 1941 state election, Lang and nearly all of his followers rejoined the ALP. The reunification would help assist Curtin to become Prime Minister of Australia in October 1941, allowing Labor to form government.

1943–1950
In 1943, having published newspaper articles attacking McKell (NSW's Premier since 1941) and Prime Minister John Curtin, Lang was expelled from the ALP and restarted the Australian Labor Party (Non-Communist). This manifestation of Lang Labor contested the 1944 NSW election, electing two members—Lang and Lilian Fowler, Australia's first female mayor. When Lang transferred to federal politics, he was succeeded as the Lang Labor member for Auburn by his son James. Although Fowler and Chris Lang were both re-elected in the 1947 NSW election, they were defeated in 1950, leading to the party essentially being defunct.

During Lang's expulsion, the ALP continued to enjoy their greatest House of Representatives victory both in terms of proportion of seats and their strongest national two-party vote at the 1943 federal election and additionally their first successful federal re-election attempt at the 1946 federal election. During this election Lang was elected to the House of Representatives for the federal seat of Reid, being elected with the benefit of Liberal Party preferences. Lang was a nuisance to the Labor government led, since 1945, by Ben Chifley, whom he repeatedly castigated in public. He lost his seat at the 1949 election. In the double dissolution 1951 election he stood for the Senate, but was not elected.

Aftermath
Lang was re-admitted to the NSW branch ALP in 1971, at the age of 94, after a campaign by his protégé Paul Keating and Tony Luchetti. He died four years later.

Notes

References

Bibliography
 Green, Antony (2009). New South Wales Election Archive, Parliament of New South Wales
 Nairn, Bede (1995). Jack Lang the 'Big Fella': Jack Lang and the Australian Labor Party 1891-1949, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne , .
 McMullin, Ross (1991). The Light on the Hill: The Australian Labor Party 1891–1991, Oxford University Press
 Lang, J. T. (1970). The Turbulent Years, Alpha Books
 Lang, J. T. (1956). I Remember, Invicta Press

External links

Defunct political parties in Australia
Defunct political parties in New South Wales
Australian Labor Party factions
Australian Labor Party breakaway groups
Political parties with year of establishment missing
Political parties with year of disestablishment missing

Lang Labor


Ernest Amherst Villiers (14 November 1863 – 26 September 1923), was a British clergyman and Liberal politician.

Villiers was the son of Reverend Charles Villiers of Croft, Yorkshire, and his wife Florence Mary (née Tyssen-Amherst). His great-grandfather, the Hon. George Villiers, was the third son of Thomas Villiers, 1st Earl of Clarendon.

Educated at Uppingham School and Peterhouse, Cambridge, he was ordained as an Anglican priest. After three years as a curate in Halifax, he became rector of Haveringland, Norfolk.

Villiers married the Hon. Elaine Augusta, daughter of Ivor Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne, in 1898. The couple had 2 sons and 2 daughters.

He resigned from holy orders to pursue a political career, and was elected to the House of Commons for Brighton at a by-election on 5 April 1905 caused by the appointment of one of the two members as a minister. He won the by-election by 817 votes and held the seat at the 1906 general election, increasing his majority to 853, but then chose not to contest the January 1910 general election.

Villiers died at his residence, Speen Court, Newbury, Berkshire in September 1923, aged 59. He was buried in the graveyard of Speen Parish Church.

References

External links

http://www.stirnet.com/  (subscription only)

1863 births
1923 deaths
Ernest Villiers
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
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Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
19th-century English Anglican priests

Ernest Villiers


The Corn Laws were a series of British laws regarding taxes on corn. These laws were passed in the 1800s. The laws were passed to favor and protect British land owners. Lord Liverpool passed them in 1815: If the price for corn was below 80 shillings per quarter, importing corn was forbidden; if the price was above, there were no import taxes. In 1822 and 1828, there were small changes. The laws caused many protests, and they were phased out under the government of Robert Peel, in 1846. Despite this, over one million people starved in Ireland, between 1846 and 1849. This famine is known as Irish Potato Famine today.

Economists, such as David Ricardo were against the Corn Laws. Ricardo believed that overall, protectionism made corn too expensive for the economy as a whole. He also believed that with the laws, the protection of agriculture was too big. He wrote about these ideas in his work called  On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation from 1817. Thomas Malthus was in favor of the laws; in his opinion, they helped the agriculture of the country, and would not lead to the country depending on others.

19th century in the United Kingdom
Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom

Corn Laws