Totopoly is a commercial board game, based on the events leading up to, and during, a horse race. Originally published in 1938 by Waddingtons, the game is based on a double-sided board, with each side representing a different half of the game.

Board design

Side 1
In the first section, each player has a set of horses, which start and end this phase in one of two stables. The horses are moved around a loop, and, depending on which squares they land on, the player may collect "advantage" and "disadvantage" cards, which become important in the game's second phase. Some horses may be eliminated during this part of the game. An unusual feature is that each player throws the dice only once in each turn, the same throw being used for all his or her horses.

Side 2
The game's second phase is the actual race. Before starting, bets may be placed on any horse the player wishes. During the race, "advantage" cards may be played to improve a horse's position; also, any "disadvantage" cards held must be used, with the effect of holding a horse back or cancelling an "advantage" card, before the end of the race. As well as the settling of bets, prize money is awarded for first, second and third place.

Horse names
The horses use the names of the winners of the Lincolnshire Handicap between the years 1926–37. The race, which was first run at Lincoln Racecourse in 1853, is now (with occasional exceptions) run at Doncaster Racecourse.

Criticism
A curious aspect of the game, which some people have regarded as a serious design flaw, is that (in the original version) the winner was the person whose horse came in first, irrespective of how much money they had. This meant that the effect of money accrued in the first phase of this version of the game was fairly minor, and in particular the elaborate rules for betting, together with the final race prize money, were irrelevant.

More recent editions of the game have an alteration to the rules, allowing the players to make the winner the one who has most money at the end of the race.

References

External links

Board games introduced in 1938
Racing board games
Waddingtons games
British board games

Totopoly


Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision ruling that racial segregation laws did not violate the U.S. Constitution as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal". The decision legitimized the many state laws re-establishing racial segregation that had been passed in the American South  ("Jim Crow laws") after the end of the Reconstruction era in 1877. Such legally enforced segregation in the south lasted into the 1960s.

The underlying case began in 1892 when Homer Plessy, a mixed-race man, deliberately boarded a whites-only train car in New Orleans. By boarding the whites-only car, Plessy violated Louisiana's Separate Car Act of 1890, which required "equal, but separate" railroad accommodations for white and non-white passengers. Plessy was charged under the Act, and at his trial his lawyers argued that judge John Howard Ferguson should dismiss the charges on the grounds that the Act was unconstitutional. Ferguson denied the request, and the Louisiana Supreme Court upheld Ferguson's ruling on appeal. Plessy then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In May 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy, ruling that the Louisiana law did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and stating that although the Fourteenth Amendment established the legal equality of whites and blacks it did not and could not require the elimination of all "distinctions based upon color". The Court rejected Plessy's lawyers' arguments that the Louisiana law inherently implied that black people were inferior, and gave great deference to American state legislatures' inherent power to make laws regulating health, safety, and morals—the "police power"—and to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed. Justice John Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter from the Court's decision, writing that the U.S. Constitution "is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens", and so the law's distinguishing of passengers' races should have been found unconstitutional.

Plessy is widely regarded as one of the worst decisions in U.S. Supreme Court history. Despite its infamy, the decision has never been explicitly overruled. But a series of the Court's later decisions, beginning with the 1954 decision Brown v. Board of Education, which held that the "separate but equal" doctrine is unconstitutional in the context of public schools, have severely weakened Plessy to the point that it is considered to have been de facto overruled. The Library of Congress regards Plessy as not having been expressly overruled until Bob Jones University v. United States.

Background

Legal background and incident
In 1890, the Louisiana State Legislature passed a law called the Separate Car Act, which required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on Louisiana railroads. The law required passenger train officers to "assign each passenger to the coach or compartment used for the race to which such passenger belongs". It also made it a misdemeanor for any passenger to "insist on going into a coach or compartment to which by race he does not belong," punishable by either a $25 fine or up to 20 days in prison.

A group of prominent black, creole of color, and white creole New Orleans residents formed a civil rights group called the Comité des Citoyens (Committee of Citizens). The group was dedicated to repealing the Separate Car Act and fighting its implementation. The Comité eventually persuaded Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race who was an "octoroon" (person of seven-eighths white and one-eighth black ancestry), to participate in an orchestrated test case to challenge the Act. Plessy had been born a free man and was fair-skinned. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, and thus required to sit in the "colored" car.

On June 7, 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a "Whites Only" car of the East Louisiana Railroad in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for Covington, Louisiana. The railroad company, which had opposed the law on the grounds that it would require the purchase of more railcars, had been previously informed of Plessy's racial lineage, and the intent to challenge the law. Additionally, the Comité des Citoyens hired a private detective with arrest powers to detain Plessy, to ensure that he would be charged for violating the Separate Car Act, as opposed to vagrancy or some other offense. After Plessy took a seat in the whites-only railway car, he was asked to vacate it, and sit instead in the blacks-only car. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective. As planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in Orleans Parish.

Trial
Plessy petitioned the state district criminal court to throw out the case, State v. Homer Adolph Plessy, on the grounds that the state law requiring East Louisiana Railroad to segregate trains had denied him his rights under the Thirteenth and Fourteenth amendments of the United States Constitution, which provided for equal treatment under the law. However, the judge presiding over his case, John Howard Ferguson, ruled that Louisiana had the right to regulate railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries. Four days later, Plessy petitioned the Louisiana Supreme Court for a writ of prohibition to stop his criminal trial.

State appeal
The Louisiana Supreme Court issued a temporary writ of prohibition while it reviewed Plessy's case. In December 1892, the court upheld Judge Ferguson's ruling, and denied Plessy's attorneys' subsequent request for a rehearing. In speaking for the court's decision that Ferguson's judgment did not violate the 14th Amendment, Louisiana Supreme Court Justice Charles Erasmus Fenner cited a number of precedents, including two key cases from Northern states. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled in 1849—before the 14th amendment—that segregated schools were constitutional. In answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court famously stated: "This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law, and probably cannot be changed by law." The law itself was repealed five years later, but the precedent stood.

In a Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated: "To assert separateness is not to declare inferiority ... It is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to intermix."

Supreme Court appeal
Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court. Two legal briefs were submitted on Plessy's behalf. One was signed by Albion W. Tourgée and James C. Walker and the other by Samuel F. Phillips and his legal partner F. D. McKenney. Oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13, 1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy.
Tourgée built his case upon violation of Plessy's rights under the 13th Amendment, prohibiting slavery, and the 14th Amendment, which states "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was "property", which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by Attorney General Milton Joseph Cunningham of Natchitoches and New Orleans. Cunningham was a staunch supporter of white supremacy, who according to a laudatory 1916 obituary "worked so effectively [during Reconstruction] in restoring white supremacy in politics that he finally was arrested, with fifty-one other men of that community, and tried by federal officials."

Decision
On May 18, 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy that upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's train car segregation laws.

Opinion of the Court

Seven justices formed the Court's majority and joined an opinion written by justice Henry Billings Brown. The Court first dismissed any claim that the Louisiana law violated the Thirteenth Amendment, which, in the majority's opinion, did no more than ensure that black Americans had the basic level of legal equality needed to abolish slavery.

Next, the Court considered whether the law violated the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause, which reads: "nor shall any State ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Court said that although the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to guarantee the legal equality of all races in the United States, it was not intended to prevent social or other types of discrimination.

The Court reasoned that laws requiring racial separation were within Louisiana's police power: the core sovereign authority of U.S. states to pass laws on matters of "health, safety, and morals". It held that as long as a law that classified and separated people by their race was a reasonable and good faith exercise of a state's police power and was not designed to oppress a particular class, the law did not violate the Equal Protection Clause. According to the Court, the question in any case that involved a racial segregation law was whether the law was reasonable, and the Court gave State legislatures broad discretion to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed.

Plessy's lawyers had argued that segregation laws inherently implied that black people were inferior, and therefore stigmatized them with a second-class status that violated the Equal Protection Clause. But the Court rejected this argument.

The Court rejected the notion that the law marked black Americans with "a badge of inferiority", and said that racial prejudice could not be overcome by legislation.

Harlan's dissent

Justice John Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter from the decision. Harlan strongly disagreed with the Court's conclusion that the Louisiana law did not imply that black people were inferior, and he accused the majority of being willfully ignorant on the subject.

To support his argument, Harlan pointed out that the Louisiana law contained an exception for "nurses attending children of the other race". This exception allowed black women who were nannies to white children to be in the white-only train cars. Harlan said that this showed that the Louisiana law only allowed black people to be in white-only cars if it was obvious that they were "social subordinates" or "domestics".

In a now-famous passage, Harlan argued that even though many white Americans of the late 19th century considered themselves superior to Americans of other races, the U.S. Constitution was "color-blind" in matters of law and civil rights.

Harlan predicted that the Plessy decision would eventually become as infamous as the Court's 1857 decision Dred Scott v. Sandford, in which the Court ruled that black Americans could not be citizens under the U.S. Constitution, and that its legal protections and privileges could never apply to them.

Aftermath
After the Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's criminal trial went ahead in Ferguson's court in Louisiana on February 11, 1897. Plessy changed his plea to "guilty" of violating the Separate Car Act, which carried a $25 fine or 20 days in jail. He opted to pay the fine. The Comité des Citoyens disbanded shortly after the trial's end.

Significance
Plessy legitimized state laws establishing "racial" segregation in the South and provided an impetus for further segregation laws. It also legitimized laws in the North requiring "racial" segregation, such as in the Boston school segregation case noted by Justice Brown in his majority opinion. Legislative achievements won during the Reconstruction Era were erased through means of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The doctrine had been strengthened also by an 1875 Supreme Court decision that limited the federal government's ability to intervene in state affairs, guaranteeing to Congress only the power "to restrain states from acts of racial discrimination and segregation". The ruling basically granted states legislative immunity when dealing with questions of "race", guaranteeing the states' right to implement racially separate institutions, requiring them only to be equal.

Despite the pretense of "separate but equal", non-whites essentially always received inferior facilities and treatment, if they received them at all.
The prospect of greater state influence in matters of race worried numerous advocates of civil equality, including Supreme Court Justice John Harlan, who wrote in his Plessy dissent, "we shall enter upon an era of constitutional law, when the rights of freedom and American citizenship cannot receive from the nation that efficient protection which heretofore was unhesitatingly accorded to slavery and the rights of the master." Harlan's concerns about the encroachment on the 14th Amendment would prove well-founded; states proceeded to institute segregation-based laws that became known as the Jim Crow system. In addition, from 1890 to 1908, Southern states passed new or amended constitutions including provisions that effectively disenfranchised blacks and thousands of poor whites.

Some commentators, such as Gabriel J. Chin and Eric Maltz, have viewed Harlan's Plessy dissent in a more critical light, and suggested it be viewed in context with his other decisions. Maltz has argued that "modern commentators have often overstated Harlan's distaste for race-based classifications", pointing to other aspects of decisions in which Harlan was involved. Both point to a passage of Harlan's Plessy dissent as particularly troubling: There is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race. But, by the statute in question, a Chinaman can ride in the same passenger coach with white citizens of the United States, while citizens of the black race in Louisiana, many of whom, perhaps, risked their lives for the preservation of the Union... and who have all the legal rights that belong to white citizens, are yet declared to be criminals, liable to imprisonment, if they ride in a public coach occupied by citizens of the white race.

New Orleans historian Keith Weldon Medley, author of We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson, The Fight Against Legal Segregation, said the words in Justice Harlan's "Great Dissent" were taken from papers filed with the court by "The Citizen's Committee".

The effect of the Plessy ruling was immediate; there were already significant differences in funding for the segregated school system, which continued into the 20th century; states consistently underfunded black schools, providing them with substandard buildings, textbooks, and supplies. States which had successfully integrated elements of their society abruptly adopted oppressive legislation that erased reconstruction era efforts. The principles of Plessy v. Ferguson were affirmed in Lum v. Rice (1927), which upheld the right of a Mississippi public school for white children to exclude a Chinese American girl. Despite the laws enforcing compulsory education, and the lack of public schools for Chinese children in Lum's area, the Supreme Court ruled that she had the choice to attend a private school. Jim Crow laws and practices spread northward in response to a second wave of African-American migration from the South to northern and midwestern cities. Some established de jure segregated educational facilities, separate public institutions such as hotels and restaurants, separate beaches among other public facilities, and restrictions on interracial marriage, but in other cases segregation in the North was related to unstated practices and operated on a de facto basis, although not by law, among numerous other facets of daily life.

The separate facilities and institutions accorded to the African-American community were consistently inferior to those provided to the White community. This contradicted the vague declaration of "separate but equal" issued after the Plessy decision. Since no state wrote the "separate but equal" doctrine into a statute, there was no remedy, other than going back to the U.S. Supreme Court, if the separate facilities were not equal, and states faced no consequences if they underfunded services and facilities for non-whites.

From 1890 to 1908, state legislatures in the South disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through rejecting them for voter registration and voting: making voter registration more difficult by providing more detailed records, such as proof of land ownership or literacy tests administered by white staff at poll stations. African-American community leaders, who had achieved brief political success during the Reconstruction era and even into the 1880s, lost gains made when their voters were excluded from the political system. Historian Rogers Smith noted on the subject that "lawmakers frequently admitted, indeed boasted, that such measures as complex registration rules, literacy and property tests, poll taxes, white primaries, and grandfather clauses were designed to produce an electorate confined to a white race that declared itself supreme", notably rejecting the 14th and 15th Amendments to the American Constitution.

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public education was unconstitutional. While Plessy v. Ferguson was never explicitly overruled by the Supreme Court, it is effectively dead as a precedent; the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled that segregation on interstate transport violated the Interstate Commerce Act in the 1955 case Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited legal segregation and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided for federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and voting.

Plessy and Ferguson Foundation
In 2009, Keith Plessy and Phoebe Ferguson, descendants of participants on both sides of the 1896 Supreme Court case, announced establishing the Plessy and Ferguson Foundation for Education and Reconciliation. The foundation will work to create new ways to teach the history of civil rights through film, art, and public programs designed to create understanding of this historic case and its effect on the American conscience.

In 2009, a marker was placed at the corner of Press and Royal Streets, near where Plessy had boarded his train.

Pardon
In 2021, the Louisiana Board of Pardons unanimously approved a posthumous pardon of Plessy, sending it to Governor John Bel Edwards for final approval. Edwards granted the pardon on January 5, 2022.

See also
 Anticanon
 List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment
 Loving v. Virginia
 United States constitutional law

References

Footnotes

Citations

Works cited

 Review

External links

 Plessy v. Ferguson from the Library of Congress
 Plessy & Ferguson Foundation
 Plessy v. Ferguson from C-SPAN's Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
 Newspaper articles and clippings about Plessy v. Ferguson at Newspapers.com

African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
History of racial segregation in the United States
Legal history of Louisiana
Passenger rail transportation in Louisiana
United States equal protection case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court
Overruled United States Supreme Court decisions
1896 in United States case law
1896 in Louisiana
Civil rights movement case law
African-American Roman Catholicism
Race-related case law in the United States
United States racial discrimination case law
United States Supreme Court cases

Plessy v. Ferguson


The late Paleozoic icehouse, also known as the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) and formerly known as the Karoo ice age, was an ice age that began in the Late Devonian and ended in the Late Permian, occurring from 360 to 255 million years ago (Mya), and large land-based ice-sheets were then present on Earth's surface. It was the second major icehouse period of the Phanerozoic. It is named after the tillite (Dwyka Group) found in the Karoo Basin of western South Africa, where evidence for the ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century.

Timeline
Interpretations of the LPIA vary, with some researchers arguing it represented one continuous glacial event and others concluding that as many as twenty-five separate ice sheets across Gondwana developed, waxed, and waned independently and diachronously over the course of the Carboniferous and Permian, with the distribution of ice centres shifting as Gondwana drifted and its position relative to the South Pole changed. At the beginning of the LPIA, ice centres were concentrated in western South America; they later shifted eastward across Africa and by the end of the ice age were concentrated in Australia. Evidence from sedimentary basins suggests individual ice centres lasted for approximately 10 million years, with their peaks alternating with periods of low or absent permanent ice coverage.

The first glacial episodes of the LPIA occurred during the late Famennian and the Tournaisian and are sometimes considered discrete glaciations separate from and preceding the LPIA proper. These Early Mississippian glaciations were transient and minor. Between 335 and 330 Mya, or sometime between the middle Viséan and earliest Serpukhovian, the LPIA proper began. The first major glacial period occurred from the Serpukhovian to the Moscovian: ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America. During the Bashkirian, a global eustatic sea level drop occurred, signifying the first major glacial maximum of the LPIA. The Lhasa terrane became glaciated during this stage of the Carboniferous. A relatively warm interglacial interval spanning the Kasimovian and Gzhelian, coinciding with the Alykaevo Climatic Optimum, occurred between this first major glacial period and the later second major glacial period. The second glacial period occurred from the late Gzhelian across the Carboniferous-Permian boundary to the early Sakmarian; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India. This was the most intense interval of glaciation of the LPIA; in Australia, it is known as P1. An exceptionally intense cooling event occurred at 300 Ma. From the late Sakmarian onward, and especially following the Artinskian Warming Event (AWE), these ice sheets declined, as indicated by a negative δ18O excursion. Ice sheets retreated southward across Central Africa and in the Karoo Basin. A regional glaciation spanning the latest Sakmarian and the Artinskian, known as P2, occurred in Australia amidst this global pulse of net warming and deglaciation. This massive deglaciation during the late Sakmarian and Artinskian is sometimes considered to be the end of the LPIA proper, with the Artinskian-Kungurian boundary and the associated Kungurian Carbon Isotopic Excursion used as the boundary demarcating the ice age's end. Nonetheless, ice caps of a much lower volume and area remained in Australia. Another long regional interval also limited to Australia from the middle Kungurian to the early Capitanian, known as P3, though unlike the previous glaciations, this one and the following P4 glaciation was largely limited to alpine glaciation. A final regional Australian interval lasted from the middle Capitanian to the late Wuchiapingian, known as P4. As with P3, P4's ice sheets were primarily high altitude glaciers. This glacial period was interrupted by a rapid warming interval corresponding to a surge in activity from the Emeishan Traps and corresponding Capitanian mass extinction event. The final alpine glaciers of the LPIA melted in what is now eastern Australia around 255 Mya, during the late Wuchiapingian.

The time intervals here referred to as glacial and interglacial periods represented intervals of several million years corresponding to colder and warmer icehouse intervals, respectively, were influenced by long term variations in palaeogeography, greenhouse gas levels, and geological processes such as rates of volcanism and of silicate weathering and should not be confused with shorter term cycles of glacials and interglacials that are driven by astronomical forcing caused by Milankovitch cycles.

Glacial deposits

According to Eyles and Young, "Renewed Late Devonian glaciation is well documented in three large intracratonic basins in Brazil (Solimoes, Amazonas and Paranaiba basins) and in Bolivia. By the Early Carboniferous (c. 350 Ma) glacial strata were beginning to accumulate in sub-Andean basins of Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay. By the mid-Carboniferous glaciation had spread to Antarctica, Australia, southern Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Asia and the Arabian Peninsula. During the Late Carboniferous glacial accumulation (c. 300 Ma) a very large area of Gondwana land mass was experiencing glacial conditions. The thickest glacial deposits of Permo-Carboniferous age are the Dwyka Formation (1000 m thick) in the Karoo Basin in southern Africa, the Itararé Group of the Paraná Basin, Brazil (1400 m) and the Carnarvon Basin in eastern Australia.  The Permo-Carboniferous glaciations are significant because of the marked glacio-eustatic changes in sea level that resulted and which are recorded in non-glacial basins.  Late Paleozoic glaciation of Gondwana could be explained by the migration of the supercontinent across the South Pole."

In northern Ethiopia glacial landforms like striations, rôche moutonnées and chatter marks can be found buried beneath Late Carboniferous-Early Permian glacial deposits (Edaga Arbi Glacials). Glaciofluvial sandstones, moraines, boulder beds, glacially striated pavements, and other glacially derived geologic structures and beds are also known throughout the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.

In southern Victoria Land, Antarctica, the Metschel Tillite, made up of reworked Devonian Beacon Supergroup sedimentary strata along with Cambrian and Ordovician granitoids and some Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks, preserves glacial sediments indicating the presence of major ice sheets. Northern Victoria Land and Tasmania hosted a distinct ice sheet from the one in southern Victoria Land that flowed west-northwestward.

The Sydney Basin of eastern Australia lay at a palaeolatitude of around 60°S to 70°S during the Early and Middle Permian, and its sedimentary successions preserve at least four phases of glaciation throughout this time.

Debate exists as to whether the Northern Hemisphere experienced glaciation like the Southern Hemisphere did, with most palaeoclimate models suggesting that ice sheets did exist in Northern Pangaea but that they were very negligible in volume. Diamictites from the Atkan Formation of Magadan Oblast, Russia have been interpreted as being glacigenic, although recent analyses have challenged this interpretation, suggesting that these diamictites formed during a Capitanian integrlacial interval as a result of volcanogenic debris flows associated with the formation of the Okhotsk–Taigonos Volcanic Arc.

Causes

Greenhouse gas reduction
The evolution of land plants with the onset of the Devonian Period, began a long-term increase in planetary oxygen levels. Large tree ferns, growing to 20 m high, were secondarily dominant to the large arborescent lycopods (30–40 m high) of the Carboniferous coal forests that flourished in equatorial swamps stretching from Appalachia to Poland, and later on the flanks of the Urals. Oxygen levels reached up to 35%, and global carbon dioxide got below the 300 parts per million level, possibly as low as 180 ppm during the Kasimovian, which is today associated with glacial periods. This reduction in the greenhouse effect was coupled with lignin and cellulose (as tree trunks and other vegetation debris) accumulating and being buried in the great Carboniferous Coal Measures. The reduction of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere would be enough to begin the process of changing polar climates, leading to cooler summers which could not melt the previous winter's snow accumulations. The growth in snowfields to 6 m deep would create sufficient pressure to convert the lower levels to ice. Research indicates that changing carbon dioxide concentrations were the dominant driver of changes between colder and warmer intervals during the Early and Middle Permian portions of the LPIA.

The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica and Gondwana into Pangaea, in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny, made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region and an increase in carbon sequestration via silicate weathering, which led to progressive cooling of summers, and the snowfields accumulating in winters, which caused mountainous alpine glaciers to grow, and then spread out of highland areas. That made continental glaciers, which spread to cover much of Gondwana. Modelling evidence points to tectonically induced carbon dioxide removal via silicate weathering to have been sufficient to generate the ice age. The closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea, which may have also been a factor in the development of the LPIA.

Milankovitch cycles
The LPIA, like the present Quaternary glaciation, saw glacial-interglacial cycles governed by Milankovitch cycles acting on timescales of tens of thousands to millions of years. Periods of low obliquity, which decreased annual insolation at the poles, were associated with high moisture flux from low latitudes and glacial expansion at high latitudes, while periods of high obliquity corresponded to warmer, interglacial periods. Data from Serpukhovian and Moscovian marine strata of South China point to glacioeustasy being driven primarily by long-period eccentricity, with a cyclicity of about 0.405 million years, and the modulation of the amplitude of Earth's obliquity, with a cyclicity of approximately 1.2 million years. This is most similar to the early part of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, from the Oligocene to the Pliocene, before the formation of the Arctic ice cap, suggesting the climate of this episode of time was relatively warm for an icehouse period. Evidence from the Middle Permian Lucaogou Formation of Xinjiang, China indicates that the climate of the time was particularly sensitive to the 1.2 million year long-period modulation cycle of obliquity. It also suggests that palaeolakes such as those found in the Junggar Basin likely played an important role as a carbon sink during the later stages of the LPIA, with their absorption and release of carbon dioxide acting as powerful feedback loops during Milankovitch cycle driven glacial and interglacial transitions. Also during this time, unique sedimentary sequences called cyclothems were deposited. These were produced by the repeated alterations of marine and nonmarine environments resulting from glacioeustatic rises and falls of sea levels linked to Milankovitch cycles.

Biotic effects
The development of high-frequency, high-amplitude glacioeustasy, which resulted in sea level changes of up to 120 metres between warmer and colder intervals, during the beginning of the LPIA, combined with the increased geographic separation of marine ecoregions and decrease in ocean circulation it caused in conjunction with closure of the Rheic Ocean, has been hypothesised to have been the cause of the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event.

The rising levels of oxygen during the late Paleozoic icehouse had major effects upon evolution of plants and animals. Higher oxygen concentration (and accompanying higher atmospheric pressure) enabled energetic metabolic processes which encouraged evolution of large land-dwelling arthropods and flight, with the dragonfly-like Meganeura, an aerial predator, with a wingspan of 60 to 75 cm. The herbivorous stocky-bodied and armoured millipede-like Arthropleura was  long, and the semiterrestrial Hibbertopterid eurypterids were perhaps as large, and some scorpions reached .

Milankovitch cycles profound impacts on marine life at the height of the LPIA, with high-latitude species being more strongly affected by glacial-interglacial cycles than low-latitude species.

Termination
Earth's increased planetary albedo produced by the expanding ice sheets would lead to positive feedback loops, spreading the ice sheets still further, until the process hit a limit. Falling global temperatures would eventually limit plant growth, and the rising levels of oxygen would increase the frequency of fire-storms because damp plant matter could burn. Both these effects return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, reversing the "snowball" effect and forcing greenhouse warming, with CO2 levels rising to 300 ppm in the following Permian period. Over a longer period the evolution of termites, whose stomachs provided an anoxic environment for methanogenic lignin-digesting bacteria, prevented further burial of carbon, returning carbon to the air as the greenhouse gas methane.

Once these factors brought a halt and a small reversal in the spread of ice sheets, the lower planetary albedo resulting from the fall in size of the glaciated areas would have been enough for warmer summers and winters and thus limit the depth of snowfields in areas from which the glaciers expanded. Rising sea levels produced by global warming drowned the large areas of flatland where previously anoxic swamps assisted in burial and removal of carbon (as coal). With a smaller area for deposition of carbon, more carbon dioxide was returned to the atmosphere, further warming the planet. Over the course of the Early and Middle Permian, glacial periods became progressively shorter while warm interglacials became longer, gradually transitioning the world from an icehouse to a greenhouse as the Permian progressed. Obliquity nodes that triggered glacial expansion and increased tropical precipitation before 285.1 Mya became linked to intervals of marine anoxia and increased terrestrial aridification after this point, a turning point signifying the icehouse-greenhouse transition. By 250 Mya, planet Earth had returned to a percentage of oxygen similar to that found today.

See also
 History of Earth
 Quaternary glaciation – the current ice age
 Timeline of glaciation

References

Bibliography

Glaciology
Ice ages
Carboniferous events
Permian events
Carboniferous Africa
Permian Africa
Carboniferous Antarctica
Permian Antarctica
Carboniferous Australia
Permian Australia
Carboniferous India
Carboniferous South America
Permian South America
Karoo

Late Paleozoic icehouse


Al Ahed Football Club () is a football club based in Ouzai, a district in Beirut, Lebanon, that competes in the Lebanese Premier League, the top flight of Lebanese football. The club was founded in 1964 as Al Ahed Al Jadeed, starting in the Third Division, before they first reached the Lebanese Premier League for the first time in 1996.

Nicknamed "the Yellow Castle" (), Ahed have won one AFC Cup title, nine Premier League titles, six FA Cup titles, two Federation Cup titles, eight Super Cup titles, and six Elite Cup titles. They earned their first league title in 2008, and have won three unbeaten (in 2010, 2018 and 2022). In 2011, Ahed became the first team in Lebanon to accomplish both a domestic treble and quadruple after they won the league, the FA Cup, the Elite Cup, and the Super Cup in the same season. In 2019, Ahed defeated North Korean side April 25 in the final of the AFC Cup, becoming the first Lebanese side to win the competition.

The club primarily receives support from the Shia community in Lebanon; they are also affiliated with Hezbollah, a Lebanese Shia political party and militant group. Ahed are rivals with fellow Beirut clubs Nejmeh and Ansar. Their ultras group, formed in 2018, is called "Ultras Yellow Inferno". Ahed's stadium, the Al Ahed Stadium, holds 2,000 spectators.

History

Early history (1964–1989)
Ahed were founded in 1964 as Al Ahed Al Jadeed () in Dahieh, a southern suburb of Beirut. Under the presidency of Muhieddine Anouti, the club played in the Lebanese Third Division. During the 1970s, Ahed played in Msaytbeh, an area of Beirut, under the name Al Huda Islamic Club (). However, the club stopped playing as a consequence of the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982.

In 1984, Anouti bought a license under the name Nejmet Al Ahed Al Jadeed () but did not actually form a club. On 2 May 1985, the Lebanese Football Association granted membership to the club to continue playing football, with Mohammad Assi as president. During the 1988–89 season in the Second Division, the team qualified for a playoff match against Al-Majdi. However, the match ended 1–1 to prevent Ahed from being promoted to the Lebanese Premier League.

Lebanese Premier League (1992–2005)
In 1992, Abdo Saad became the new president and changed the name of the club to Al Ahed () because its leaders wanted a name with a Quranic meaning. In 1996, Amin Sherri became president after Saad resigned even though Ahed had reached the Second Division promotion play-offs. On 20 December 1996, Ahed were promoted to the Lebanese Premier League for the first time in their history. They won their first Premier League game on 18 October 1997, in a 1–0 win against Riada Wal Adab at the Bourj Hammoud Stadium; Moussa Bedyan scored in the 20th minute.

After two seasons in the Premier League, they were relegated to the Second Division, before they earned promotion back to the Premier League. Following the club's second promotion to the Premier League, Sherri resigned as club president and was replaced by Osama Al-Halabawi. Under Al-Halabawi, Ahed reached the finals of the 2001–02 FA Cup, the finals of the 2002 Elite Cup, and third place in the league during the 2002–03 season. Between 2004 and 2005, Ahed won two Lebanese FA Cups, one Federation Cup, and one Super Cup.

Domestic and continental success (2007–present)

The club won their first league title in 2007–08. They went on a 44-match unbeaten streak in the Premier League from 26 October 2008 to 6 November 2010, winning the 2009–10 league without defeats as a consequence. In the 2010–11 season, Ahed won the league, the cup, the Super Cup and the Elite Cup, becoming the first team in Lebanon to accomplish both a domestic treble and a quadruple. On 25 June 2014, Tamim Sleiman was appointed president of the club by unanimous decision. In his first year as president, Ahed won the 2014–15 Premier League, the club's fourth in total. In 2017–18, Ahed won the league unbeaten, and became the first Lebanese team to do so twice. After having won the 2018–19 Premier League, their seventh in total, Ahed became the three-time defending champions, a position held once before by Ansar in 1992.

Ahed reached the AFC Cup final for the first time in 2019, becoming only the third Lebanese team do so after Nejmeh in 2005 and Safa in 2008. On 4 November 2019, Ahed beat North Korean side 25 April 1–0 in the final from a header by Issah Yakubu, becoming the first Lebanese team to win the competition. Ahed conceded only three goals in 11 matches; they had nine clean sheets, including five in a row in all five knockout matches, as they went unbeaten throughout the tournament. In 2021–22, Ahed won their third league title unbeaten, their eighth in total.

The match between Ahed and Racing Beirut in the first matchday of the 2023–24 Lebanese Premier League, on 6 August 2023, was the first to test the use of video assistant referee (VAR).

Crest and colours
Ahed's main colour is yellow; indeed, they are nicknamed "The Yellow Castle" (). On 20 May 2022, Ahed announced the change to their badge to a more minimalistic logo, to celebrate their 2021–22 league title. More specifically, it became a pictogram of the three Arabic letters composing the word "Ahed"  ().

Stadium
Ahed owns the Al Ahed Stadium in Beirut. Located near Rafic Hariri Airport, the venue can hold 2,000 people. The club only uses its stadium for training. For games at home in club matches, Ahed uses various other stadiums in Lebanon such as the Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and the Saida Municipal Stadium, as they have a larger capacity.

In 2018 Benjamin Netanyahu, the Prime Minister of Israel, accused Hezbollah, a Shia political party and militant group based in Lebanon, in a speech of using the Al Ahed Stadium as a missile cluster. Gebran Bassil, the Lebanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, denied the claims.

Supporters

Ahed's fan base primarily consists of Lebanon's Shia community. The team has strong ties with Hezbollah, with whom they share the same colour, yellow. Following the introduction of ultras groups in Lebanon in 2018, Ahed formed "Ultras Yellow Inferno".

On 28 January 2009, Ahed and Iranian club Sepahan signed an informal partnership deal. The partnership was made official on 8 March 2021, involving training camps and friendly games between the two sides.

Club rivalries

Ahed and Ansar are rivals; also located in Beirut, Ansar identify with the Hariri family and represent the most nationalist stream. In recent years, Nejmeh, another Beirut-based team, has become a fierce rival of Ahed as well. Nejmeh is the most-supported team in Lebanon, and tensions between Nejmeh and Ahed have forced the Lebanese Football Association to change venues multiple times.

Players

Current squad

Notable players

Honours

Domestic
 Lebanese Premier League
 Winners (9): 2007–08, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2014–15, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2021–22, 2022–23
 Lebanese FA Cup
Winners (6): 2003–04, 2004–05, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2017–18, 2018–19
Runners-up (4): 2001–02, 2006–07, 2015–16, 2022–23
 Lebanese Federation Cup
 Winners (2; joint record): 2004, 2023
 Lebanese Elite Cup (defunct)
Winners (6): 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2022
Runners-up (7): 2002, 2003, 2004, 2009, 2012, 2017, 2021
 Lebanese Super Cup
Winners (8; record): 2005, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019
Runners-up (2): 2004, 2009, 2023

Continental
 AFC Cup
 Winners (1; Lebanese record): 2019

Performance in AFC competitions

Ahed first participated in an Asian competition in the 2005 AFC Cup, where they were drawn in the group stage with Indian club Dempo and Jordanian club Al-Hussein. After finishing second in the group, Ahed faced Sun Hei in the quarter-finals, to whom they lost 3–2 on aggregate.

Before they won the competition, their best performance was in 2016, when they reached the semi-finals before Iraqi club Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya eliminated them 4–3 on aggregate. In 2019, Ahed defeated April 25 to win the AFC Cup, becoming the first Lebanese side to do so. Previous finalists Nejmeh and Safa were defeated in the 2005 and the 2008 finals, respectively.

AFC Cup: 12 appearances
2005: Quarter-finals
2006: Group stage
2009: Group stage
2010: Group stage
2011: Round of 16
2012: Group stage
2016: Semi-finals
2018: Zonal semi-finals
2019: Champions
2020: Cancelled
2021: Zonal semi-finals
2023–24: TBD

See also
 List of football clubs in Lebanon

Notes

References

External links

Al Ahed FC at the AFC
Al Ahed FC at FA Lebanon
Al Ahed FC at LebanonFG

Football clubs in Lebanon
1966 establishments in Lebanon
Association football clubs established in 1966
Association football clubs established in 1985
AFC Cup winning clubs
Shia Islam in Lebanon

Al Ahed FC


The International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, sometimes League of Nations Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, was an advisory organisation for the League of Nations which aimed to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists and intellectuals. Established in 1922, it counted such figures as Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Nitobe Inazo, Marie Curie, Gonzague de Reynold, Leonardo Torres Quevedo, and Robert A. Millikan among its members. The committee was the predecessor to UNESCO, and all of its properties were transferred to that organisation in 1946.

The International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (Geneva)
The International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC) was formally established in August 1922. Having started out with 12 members, its membership later grew to 19 individuals, mostly from Western Europe. The first session was held on August 1, 1922, under the chairmanship of Henri Bergson. During its lifetime, the committee attracted a variety of prominent members, for instance Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Kristine Bonnevie, Jules Destrée, Robert Andrews Millikan, Alfredo Rocco, Paul Painlevé, Leonardo Torres Quevedo, Gonzague de Reynold, Jagadish Chandra Bose and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Einstein resigned in 1923, protesting publicly the committee's inefficacy; he rejoined in 1924 to mitigate the use German chauvinists made of his resignation. The body was successively chaired by:
 Henri Bergson (1922–1925)
 Hendrik Lorentz (1925–1928)
 Gilbert Murray (1928–1939).
The ICIC maintained a number of sub-committees (e.g. Museums, Arts and Letters, Intellectual Rights or Bibliography) which also worked with figures such as Béla Bartók, Thomas Mann, Salvador de Madariaga and Paul Valéry.

The ICIC worked closely with the International Educational Cinematographic Institute created in Rome in 1928 by the Italian government under Mussolini.

The last session took place in 1939, but the ICIC was only formally dissolved in 1946, like the League of Nations.

The International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (Paris)
To support the work of the commission in Geneva, the organization was offered assistance from France to establish an executive branch, the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC), in Paris in 1926. However, the IIIC had an autonomous status and was almost only financed by the French government, giving it a certain independence that created tensions with the League of Nations. It maintained relations with the league's member states, which established national commissions for intellectual cooperation and appointed delegates to represent their interests at the institute in Paris. While being an international organisation, each of the IIIC's three successive directors was French:
 Julien Luchaire (1926–1930)
 Henri Bonnet (1931–1940)
 Jean-Jacques Mayoux (1945–1946)
From 1926 to 1930, Alfred Zimmern – the well-known British classicist and a pioneering figure in the discipline of international relations – served as the IIIC's deputy director.

As a result of the Second World War, the institute was closed from 1940 to 1944. It re-opened briefly from 1945 to 1946. When it closed for good in 1946, UNESCO inherited its archives and some parts of its mission.

References

General

  (English summary)

Specific

  See also: French version (PDF) and English summary.

Notes

External links
 Research Guide on Intellectual Cooperation by UN Archives Geneva.
 Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux Section at UN Archives Geneva.

International scientific organizations
League of Nations
Organizations established in 1922
Organizations disestablished in 1946
Former international organizations
Organisations based in Geneva
UNESCO


Argja Bóltfelag is a Faroese professional football club based in Argir. In 2020, they were playing their third season in the Faroe Islands Premier League, after being promoted from 1. deild after playing there for 1 season in 2017. After the 2020 season they ended as 9th and played a match against B68 Toftir from 1. deild, the winner would play in the  Faroe Islands Premier League for the 2021 season. AB Argir lost the match 2-3 and were relegated to 1. deild. They play their home games at the Inni í Vika Stadium in Argir.

History
Argja Bóltfelag (or AB) was founded on 15 August 1973 by Danish resident Johnny Nyby and other football enthusiasts on Argjum. In the spring of 1974, the first board was elected. This composed of Johnny Nyby, Chairman; Fróði Olsen, Co-Chairman; Sonja á Argjaboða, accountant; and Kristian Arge, board writer. Other members of the board were Erling Olsen, Sæmundur Mortenen and Jens Hansen. In the same year, the team started in the regular competition.

Initially the team didn't have very good training facilities and rented a school playground. Later they got a small ground to train on, but it was only 20 x 40 m² in measurements. There was no football field on Argjum at the time, but they were allowed to loan the Gundadalur, which belongs to HB and B36. AB practiced and played their matches at the Gundadalur and this helped the team to survive.

In 1983, a football field was built on Argjum and now had better training facilities. Having their own ground helped the team a lot and in 1985, a new two-storey house was built for AB. AB got the lower storey and the second storey was used as a school classroom.

In 1998, artificial grass was laid on the football field. For some years, the second storey remained as a school classroom for young children. By 2004, AB had grown enough to get the whole house.

From 2000, Tórálvur Stenberg became the chairman of AB and he brought them from the 3rd division all the way to Formuladeildin in 2006. Sadly, he did not see AB play in Formuladeildina, because he died of cancer in the autumn. Stenberg was the first to become an honorary member of the team. He put his life and soul into Argja Bóltfelag. Two of his sons, Jónas and Heðin Stenberg, play for AB.

AB's first season in the Vodafonedeildin wasn't very successful and were relegated along with VB/Sumba, finishing in 9th place. Though in the season afterwards, they bounced right back and were promoted again after finishing runners-up in 1. deild. After spending three years (2014, 2015 and 2016) in the highest series, the team ended the 2016 season in 9th place and got relegated. Although in 2017, AB got promoted from 1. deild after playing there for 1 season in 2017. AB has then been in Betrideildin in 2018, 2019 and also in 2020.

AB´s second team has played in 2. deild, but in 2019 the team qualified to 1. deild for 2020. After the 2020 season the team was relegated to 2. deild.

Honours
 1. deild: 1
 2017
 2. deild: 1
 2002

First team squad

Current squad

As of 1 August 2023

Technical staff
As of the year 2023.

 Manager:  Henrik Larsen
 Assistant manager:  Morten Overgaard
 U21 Manager:  Nikolaj Eriksen
 Fitness coach:  Sólrun Gleðisheygg

Player of the year
Starting from 2006, the club has annually named its player of the year. Players still playing for the club are marked in bold:

Managers
 Oddbjørn Joensen (2000–2001)
 Sámal Erik Hentze (2002–2003)
 Kári Reynheim (2004)
 Jóannes Jakobsen (2005)
 Rúni Nolsøe (2006)
 Oddbjørn Joensen (January – May 31, 2007)
 Sigfríður Clementsen (June 1, 2007 – Dec 31, 2007)
 Allan Mørkøre (2008 – July 31, 2010)
 Sámal Erik Hentze (Aug 1, 2010 – Dec 31, 2013)
 Bill McLeod Jacobsen (Jan 1, 2014 – April 16, 2014)
 Oddbjörn Joensen (April 17, 2014 – May 31, 2015)
 Sámal Erik Hentze (June 1, 2015 – Dec 31, 2015)
 Trygvi Mortensen (2016)
 Kári Reynheim (2017)
 Sorin Anghel (2018–2019)
 Tonny Brimsvík (2020-2021) and  Símun Samuelsen (2020-2021)
 Jonas Dal (6 Aug 2021 - present)

Youth teams
Argja Bóltfelag also has youth teams. There are 16 youth teams, based on gender and age, with the youngest team for the age of 6–8 and the oldest for 21 years of age. There are more than 20 coaches for these youth players.

See also

Argja Bóltfelag Women's Team
List of football clubs in the Faroe Islands

References

External links
Argja Bóltfelag official website (in Faroese)
Frensurin fan Club (in Faroese)

Association football clubs established in 1973
1973 establishments in the Faroe Islands

Argja Bóltfelag


Wesley Polk Chamberlain (born April 13, 1966) is an American former professional baseball right fielder/left fielder. He played all or parts of six seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB), from 1990 through 1995, for the Philadelphia Phillies (1990–95) and Boston Red Sox (1995). He also played one season in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), for the Chiba Lotte Marines (1996). During Chamberlain's playing days, he stood , weighing ; he batted and threw right-handed.

Career
A 4th round pick in the 1987 draft, Chamberlain, who played high school baseball at Neal F. Simeon H.S. in Chicago, was signed by the Pittsburgh Pirates out of the Jackson State University. In 1990, he was sent by Pittsburgh to Philadelphia in the same transaction that brought Carmelo Martínez to the Pirates. His most productive season came in 1991 with the Phillies, when he posted career-highs in home runs (13), RBI (50), runs (51), hits (92), stolen bases (9) and games played (101), including three four-hit games. The effort earned him the 5th place in the NL Rookie of the Year Award vote. He also appeared in the 1993 World Series, won by the Toronto Blue Jays in six games. During the 1994 midseason, he was sent by Philadelphia to Boston in exchange for Paul Quantrill and Billy Hatcher.

In a six-season career, Chamberlain was a .255 hitter with 43 home runs and 167 RBI in 385 games. After that, he was signed by the Japan's Chiba Lotte Marines in 1996.

Following his major league career, Chamberlain played for a number of independent league teams, including the Gary SouthShore RailCats and Winnipeg Goldeyes of the Northern League, being selected an All-Star in 2000 and 2003.

External links

Wes Chamberlain at Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Professional Baseball League)
(In The Final 98–99 Wes Chamberlain connect gold hit they left him on the ground at the Leones del Caracas 3–4 In Barquisimeto The Champion of the Cardenales de Lara 98–99.)

1966 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
Albuquerque Dukes players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American expatriate baseball players in Japan
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Augusta Pirates players
Baseball players from Chicago
Boston Red Sox players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Cafeteros de Córdoba players
Calgary Cannons players
Cardenales de Lara players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Chiba Lotte Marines players
Clearwater Phillies players
Gary SouthShore RailCats players
Harrisburg Senators players
Jackson State Tigers baseball players
Long Island Ducks players
Major League Baseball left fielders
Major League Baseball right fielders
Newark Bears players
Nippon Professional Baseball first basemen
Norfolk Tides players
Oklahoma RedHawks players
Omaha Royals players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Salem Buccaneers players
Schaumburg Flyers players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
Syracuse Chiefs players
Watertown Pirates players
Winnipeg Goldeyes players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
Anchorage Glacier Pilots players

Wes Chamberlain


Raymond Berengar of Anjou (between 1279 and 1282–1307) was the count of Andria and possibly Count of Provence and Prince of Piedmont.

Raymond Berengar was the fifth son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary. He was born in Provence during a brief return of his father to take command of a fleet there. His homeland is evidenced in his Provençal name and the name of his nurse, Adelasia of Aix-en-Provence. He was known to have been born after his brother Robert the Wise and no document of time places him in Naples for many more years. Consequently, he spent his childhood under the guardianship of William de Manoir in the cities of Aix, Sisteron, St Victor, near Marseilles, and Barjols. It is from Sisteron that a letter was sent, dated 2 May 1286, by him and his two elder brothers, Robert and Saint Louis of Toulouse, asking King Edward I of England for the release of their captive father.

By the Treaty of Canfranc (29 October 1288), he was given as a hostage, along with his elder brothers, in exchange for his father. He was ill at the time and did not get sent to Catalonia until the next year (23 February 1289). He joined his brothers at Moncada on 9 March. The three princes were treated with the honour due their status and they carried an entourage of a hundred young noblemen. Raymond invited Pierre de Jean-Olieu to visit him in prison, but received only a letter of consolation.  The brothers were finally released on 7 June 1295 in accordance with the stipulations of the Treaty of Anagni.

Upon his release, he travelled to Naples and visited the Castel dell'Ovo. He followed his brother Louis to Rome. He returned to there in 1297 with his brothers Philip and John to receive Yolanda, daughter of Peter III of Aragon, and bride of Robert their brother, and escort her on to Naples.

In December 1300, Raymond received the honours of Monte Sant'Angelo, Capaccio, Eboli, Isernia, Atri and Vieste, and Altamura, the counties of Gravina and Andria, and the castellanies of Vairano, Lesina, and Terra di Muro. In 1302, he lost Gravina. On 13 December 1304, he was invested with the Countship of Piedmont. Piedmont appears as his brother's in 1307, so his possession of this fief was probably theoretical and not actual. A little later he was created Vicar General of the Regno and in August 1305 grand seneschal.

Raymond Berengar's participation in the politics of the Regno was limited. He fought the Aragonese in Sicily in 1301 and did initiate a grant of land near Gravina to the Knights Templar. In July 1304, he again went to Rome to receive a wife for his brother Robert. This time it was Sancha, daughter of James II of Majorca. He died shortly after his own marriage to Margaret, daughter of Robert, Count of Clermont.

Ancestry

References

Sources

Ghisalberti, Alberto M. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani: III Ammirato – Arcoleo. Rome, 1961.

1281 births
1307 deaths
Capetian House of Anjou
Counts of Andria
Counts of Provence
Princes of Piedmont
Sons of kings

Raymond Berengar of Andria


Yaël Hassan is a French-Israeli writer born in Paris in 1952.
She spent her childhood in Belgium, her adolescence in France, and her youth in Israel. She returned to France in 1984 with her family.
Making the most of the time of a very long immobilization, she writes her first novel, A Grandfather Fallen from the Sky (in French Un grand-père tombé du ciel), which won the Youth Novel Prize (Prix du Roman Jeunesse) in 1996 from the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Young Readers Grand Prize from PEEP in 1998 and the Sorceress Prize in 1998.

Works
The works of Yaël Hassan, the most part edited by Casterman, deal in general with simplicity of the subjects of actuality (the list below is not exhaustive).

 La chataîgneraie
 Petit Roman Portable
 Etre Juif aujourd'hui (illustré par Olivier Ranson)
 Ni D'Eve ni d'avant
 Quand Anne riait
 Le Professeur de musique
 Alex
 De Sacha @ Macha (aussi écrit par Rachel Hausfater)

References

External links

20th-century French Jews
Living people
1952 births
Writers from Paris

Yaël Hassan


Gary Longwell (born 30 July 1971 in Belfast) is an Irish international rugby player. His usual position is as a lock, or second row. He spent his entire career playing for Irish provincial side Ulster, making his debut aged 19 in 1991. He was part of the Heineken Cup-winning Ulster team of 1999 in the 21–6 victory over Colomiers at Lansdowne Road in Dublin. In 2015, he was inducted into the Newtownabbey Hall of Fame

Provincial career
He made 152 caps for his provincial side Ulster, making his debut aged just 19 against English side Cornwall in 1991.  He also played an integral role in the Heineken Cup final victory winning Ulster team of 1999 in the 21–6 victory over Colomiers at Lansdowne Road in Dublin.

International career
Longwell made his debut for the Irish national team on 11 November 2000 in a Test against Japan in Dublin and went on to win 26 caps. He was a part of Ireland's squad at the 2003 Rugby World Cup in Australia. He was also the only Ireland try scorer in the 40-8 demolition by New Zealand in Auckland, 2002.

Post-playing career
In 2005, Longwell was appointed head of the Ulster Rugby academy.

References

External links
 Sporting Heroes bio
 ERC bio

1971 births
Irish rugby union players
Ireland international rugby union players
Ulster Rugby players
Queen's University RFC players
Ballymena R.F.C. players
Living people
Rugby union locks
Rugby union players from Belfast
Ulster Rugby non-playing staff
2003 Rugby World Cup players

Gary Longwell


Collingwood Town Hall is a civic building located on Hoddle Street in Abbotsford, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia.

The hall was built between 1885 and 1887 to the competition-winning design of local architect George R. Johnson in the Second Empire style, rich in detail with domed mansard roofs and a soaring clock tower.  It is widely considered one of the finest town halls in Australia, and, along with the Sydney Town Hall and South Melbourne Town Hall, one of the best example of the Second Empire style in Australia.

The Collingwood Town Hall building incorporated many functions in the one project, with a grand hall, a supper room, municipal offices and council chamber, post office, police station and court house, and a mechanics' institute (comprising separate ladies' and gentlemen's library rooms). The opening was held on the 29 March 1887. The clocks in the tower were installed later and were the subject of some debate in September 1887. They are reputed to have been the clocks once at the Melbourne General Post Office which was extended in 1888, but they were in fact ordered from Gaunt & Co, clockmakers, and were to be similar to the clocks at the GPO. Finally ordered in April 1888, and reportedly was on display at the 1888 Melbourne Centennial Exhibition, and the clock bell was cast by Mears and Stainbank at the Whitechapel Foundry, London, in 1890.

It is considered an important example of the work of George R Johnson, possibly the most prolific designer of town halls in late 19th century Victoria (he designed or redesigned at least 6), as well as numerous theatres in Melbourne and other Australian cities.

In 1938 the lobby and hall was significantly remodelled at the time in an Art Deco style, designed by AC Leith & Associates.

The library space, upstairs on the north side, that was to be a mechanic's institute, became by the 1890s the Collingwood Municipal Library, open to the public until 10pm. In 1950 it moved downstairs to the former supper room, and then in 1978 into a former church across Stanton Street on the south side of the Town Hall. All the former rooms became office space.

After the amalgamation of the City of Collingwood with the Cities of Fitzroy and Richmond in 1994 to form the City of Yarra, the Town Hall now functions as secondary offices and service centre for the Collingwood area for the City of Yarra. The Collingwood Police Station still operates from the rear on Eddy Court. The hall itself is used for special functions and as an exhibition space.

In 2014 the hall was extensively renovated, and brought up to modern standards.

See also
 List of town halls in Melbourne
 City of Yarra
 List of mayors of Yarra
 List of mayors of Collingwood

References

Town halls in Melbourne
Victorian architecture in Victoria (state)
Second Empire architecture in Australia
1890 establishments in Australia
Heritage-listed buildings in Melbourne
Buildings and structures in the City of Yarra
Clock towers in Australia

Collingwood Town Hall


The native peoples of Europe are seperated by common genetics, common language, or both. It is estimated there are 87 distinct native peoples in Europe, 33 of which form the ethnic majority in their country. The other 54 are minorities in their countries. The Russians are the largest group, with over 134 million.

Languages

Indo-European
Baltic languages: Includes Latgalian, Latvian, Lithuanian, and Samogitian.

Celtic languages: Includes Breton, Cornish, Irish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh.

Germanic languages: Includes Danish, Dutch, English, Faroese, Flemish, Frisian, German, Icelandic, Limburgish, Low Saxon, Luxembourgish, Norwegian, Scots, Swedish, and Yiddish. Afrikaans, a daughter language of Dutch, is spoken mostly by South Africans and Namibians.

Indo-Aryan languages: Romani

Iranic Languages: Ossetian in the Caucasus, and Kurdish in Turkey.

Romance languages: Includes Aromanian, Arpitan, Catalan, Corsican, French, Friulian, Galician, Istro-Romanian, Italian, Ladino, Megleno-Romanian, Occitan, Portuguese, Romanian, Romansh, Sardinian, and Spanish.

Slavic languages: Includes Belarusian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Kashubian, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Russian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Sorbian, and Ukrainian

Language isolates: Greek, Albanian, and Armenian.

Uralic
Finnic: Estonian, Finnish, Livonian

Permic: Komi, Udmurt

Ugric (Disputed branch): Hungarian

Disputed: Mari, Mordvinic, Sámi

No branch: Samoyedic

Ethnic groups in Europe


Pinus sylvestris, the Scots pine (UK), Scotch pine (US) or Baltic pine, is a species of tree in the pine family Pinaceae that is native to Eurasia. It can readily be identified by its combination of fairly short, blue-green leaves and orange-red bark.

Description

Pinus sylvestris is an evergreen coniferous tree growing up to  in height and  in trunk diameter when mature, exceptionally over  tall and  in trunk diameter on very productive sites. The tallest on record is a tree over 210 years old growing in Estonia which stands at . The lifespan is normally 150–300 years, with the oldest recorded specimens in Lapland, Northern Finland over 760 years.

The bark is thick, flaky and orange-red when young to scaly and gray-brown in maturity, sometimes retaining the former on the upper portion. The habit of the mature tree is distinctive due to its long, bare and straight trunk topped by a rounded or flat-topped mass of foliage.

The shoots are light brown, with a spirally arranged scale-like pattern. On mature trees the leaves ('needles') are a glaucous blue-green, often darker green to dark yellow-green in winter,  long and  broad, produced in fascicles of two with a persistent gray  basal sheath. On vigorous young trees the leaves can be twice as long, and occasionally occur in fascicles of three or four on the tips of strong shoots. Leaf persistence varies from two to four years in warmer climates, and up to nine years in subarctic regions. Seedlings up to one year old bear juvenile leaves; these are single (not in pairs),  long, flattened, with a serrated margin.

The seed cones are red at pollination, then pale brown, globose and  in diameter in their first year, expanding to full size in their second year, pointed ovoid-conic, green, then gray-green to yellow-brown at maturity,  long. The cone scales have a flat to pyramidal apophysis (the external part of the cone scale), with a small prickle on the umbo (central boss or protuberance). The seeds are blackish,  in length with a pale brown  wing and are released when the cones open in spring 22–24 months after pollination. The pollen cones are yellow, occasionally pink,  long; pollen release is in mid to late spring.

Varieties

Over 100 Pinus sylvestris varieties have been described in the botanical literature, but only three or four are now accepted. They differ only minimally in morphology, but with more pronounced differences in genetic analysis and resin composition. Populations in westernmost Scotland are genetically distinct from those in the rest of Scotland and northern Europe, but not sufficiently to have been distinguished as separate botanical varieties. Trees in the far north of the range were formerly sometimes treated as var. lapponica, but the differences are clinal and it is not genetically distinct.

Names
Before the 18th century, the species was more often known as Scots fir or Scotch fir. Another, less common name is European redwood.

The timber from it is also called red deal or yellow deal, the name "deal" being adopted from an archaic unit of volume used to measure wood.

Distribution and habitat

Pinus sylvestris is the only pine native to northern Europe, ranging from Western Europe to Eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains and Anatolia, and north to well inside the Arctic Circle in Fennoscandia. In the north of its range, it occurs from sea level to , while in the south of its range it is a mountain tree, growing at  altitude.

The species is mainly found on poorer, sandy soils, rocky outcrops, peat bogs or close to the forest limit. On fertile sites, the pine is out-competed by other tree species, usually spruce or broad-leaved trees.

Britain and Ireland

The tree spread across Britain and Ireland after the Last Glacial Maximum. Pollen records show that pine was present locally in southern England by 9,000 years ago having entered from northeast France and that it had spread as far north as the Lake District and North Pennines 500 years later.

It was present in Ireland over 8,800 years ago but absent from Wales at that time which suggests that the pine in Ireland had a separate Iberian origin or contained surviving populations, although evidence towards its survival is lacking. Pine expanded into Scotland between 8,000 and 8,500 years ago either from an independent refuge, from Scandinavia (via Doggerland) or from Ireland. As the climate warmed it became extinct from most of Britain and Ireland around 5,500 years ago except in Scotland, Kielder in England and The Burren in County Clare, Ireland.

The Irish and western Scottish populations went through a massive decline around 4,000 years ago which ultimately led to the practical extinction of the Irish population between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago. It was replaced by large areas of blanket bog in western Scotland and Ireland though the reasons for its decline and extinction in England are not clear, but it may have been influenced by human activities.

In Britain it now occurs naturally only in Scotland. Historical and archaeological records indicate that it also occurred in Wales and England until about 300–400 years ago, becoming extinct there due to over-exploitation and grazing; it has been re-introduced in these countries. Similar historical extinction and re-introduction applies to Ireland, Denmark and the Netherlands. Whether it truly became extinct in England is unknown. It has been speculated that it may have survived wild long enough for trees used in cultivation in England to derive from native (rather than imported) sources. Shakespeare (in Richard II) was familiar with the species in the 1590s, as was Evelyn in the early 1660s (Sylva), both around the time when the pine was thought to become extinct in England, but when landowners were also beginning ornamental and forestry planting.

The pine formed much of the Caledonian Forest, which once covered much of the Scottish Highlands. Overcutting for timber demand, fire, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and even deliberate clearance to deter wolves have all been factors in the decline of this once great pine and birch forest. Only comparatively small areas, only just over 1% of the estimated original of this ancient forest remain, the main surviving remnants being at Abernethy Forest, Glen Affric, Rothiemurchus Forest, and the Black Wood of Rannoch. Plans are currently in progress to restore at least some areas and work has started at key sites.

Ecology
It forms either pure forests or mixes with Norway spruce, common juniper, silver birch, European rowan, Eurasian aspen and other hardwood species. In central and southern Europe, it occurs with numerous additional species, including European black pine, mountain pine, Macedonian pine, and Swiss pine. In the eastern part of its range, it occurs with Siberian pine, among others.

In 2020, black spot needle blight was found on hundreds of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica trees in four forest farms in northeastern China. It first appeared on the upper part of the needles, and then the needles became withered and gradually showed light black spots, although they still remained green. As the fungal disease progressed, the needles eventually died and turned gray with many dark black spots. The fungus was identified as Heterotruncatella spartii (within the family Sporocadaceae) based on morphology and molecular methods.

Uses

Pinus sylvestris is an important tree in forestry. The wood is used for pulp and sawn timber products. A seedling stand can be created by planting, sowing, or natural regeneration. Commercial plantation rotations vary between 50 and 120 years, with longer rotations in northeastern areas where growth is slower.

In Scandinavian countries, the pine was used for making tar in the preindustrial age. Some active tar producers still exist, but that industry has almost ceased. The pine has also been used as a source of rosin and turpentine.

The wood is pale brown to red-brown, and used for general construction work. It has a dry density around 470 kg/m3 (varying with growth conditions), an open porosity of 60%, a fibre saturation point of 0.25 kg/kg, and a saturation moisture content of 1.60 kg/kg. The pine fibres are used to make the textile known as vegetable flannel, which has a hemp-like appearance, but with a tighter, softer texture.

The pine has also been widely planted in New Zealand and much of the colder regions of North America; it was one of the first trees introduced to North America, in about 1600. It is listed as an invasive species in some areas there, including Ontario, Michigan. It has been widely used in the United States for the Christmas tree trade, and was one of the most popular Christmas trees from the 1950s through the 1980s. It remains popular for that usage, though it has been eclipsed in popularity, by such species as Fraser fir, Douglas-fir, and others. Despite its invasiveness in parts of eastern North America, the pine does not often grow well there, partly due to climate and soil differences between its native habitat and that of North America, and partly due to damage by pests and diseases; the tree often grows in a twisted, haphazard manner if not tended to (as they are in the Christmas tree trade). The pines may be killed by the pine wood nematode, which causes pine wilt disease. The nematode most often attacks trees that are at least ten years old and often kills trees it infects within a few weeks.

Previously, the pine was grown in and used extensively by the coal mining regions of Flanders, Belgium. It was used to fortify tunnels, primarily because it would make a cracking sound when in need of replacement. Large patches of forest, mostly containing the species, are still scattered over the countryside.

Cultivars
Several cultivars are grown for ornamental purposes in parks and large gardens, of which 'Aurea', 'Beuvronensis', 'Frensham', and 'Gold Coin' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

In culture
The Scots pine is the plant badge of Clan Gregor. It is the national tree of Scotland.

Gallery

See also
 Pinus × rhaetica

References

External links

Pinus sylvestris - distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN)

sylvestris
Flora of Europe
Flora of temperate Asia
Forests and woodlands of Scotland
Trees of Asia
Trees of Europe
Trees of Russia
Trees of continental subarctic climate
Trees of humid continental climate
Trees of mild maritime climate
Trees of subpolar oceanic climate
Plants described in 1753
Least concern plants
Least concern biota of Asia
Least concern biota of Europe
Garden plants of Asia
Garden plants of Europe
Ornamental trees
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Pinus sylvestris


The first generation of iPad Pro is a line of iPad tablet computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc, first sold in 2015 at a screen size of 12.9 inches. A smaller model, based on the form factor of the iPad Air 2, with a 9.7 inch screen, was announced on March 21, 2016, and released on March 31, 2016, alongside the first-generation iPhone SE.

The 12.9 inch model was announced alongside the Apple Pencil, and both models were the first iPads to use the Pencil as an input device. The 12.9 inch iPad Pro is larger than all previous iPad models and was the first iPad to feature LPDDR4 RAM.

Features
The 12.9-inch version of the iPad Pro was announced during an Apple Special Event on September 9, 2015. It was released on November 11, 2015, with silver, gold, and space gray color options. Prices ranged from US$799 to $1,229, based on storage size and cellular connectivity. On March 21, 2016, the 9.7-inch version of the iPad Pro was announced at an Apple keynote with an additional rose gold color option. The 9.7-inch version also introduced the ability to choose the base 32 GB model  with a Cellular + WiFi option. Previously, Cellular + WiFi option was only available on 128 GB iPad Pro models. The 9.7-inch model is priced from $599 to $1,129 depending on the configuration. It was released on March 31, 2016.

The 9.7-inch iPad Pro has a faster CPU and a better camera than the iPad Air 2. It is the first iPad to feature True Tone Flash and Retina Flash, and its 256 GB storage option was the highest for an iPad at the time. Its True Tone display allows the LCD to adapt its color and intensity to ambient lighting.

Both iPad Pro models include the A9X chip and the Apple M9 motion co-processor. The 9.7-inch model, however, has a slightly underclocked CPU (2.16 GHz compared to 2.26 GHz on the 12.9-inch model) and only 2 GB of RAM. Several features are carried over from the standard iPad, such as Touch ID and the Retina Display. New features include a smart connector for a keyboard and four stereo speakers located in pairs on top and bottom of the device. The 12.9-inch model has a 2732-by-2048 display and the 9.7-inch model has a 2048-by-1536 display. Both displays have a resolution of 264 pixels per inch and feature a variable refresh rate, a first for Apple. The 12.9-inch version is also the first iOS device to include more than 2 GB of RAM.

A customized 12.9 inch iPad Pro was also designed by Jony Ive and submitted to Phillips' Time for Design auction. The special edition iPad Pro has an "Edition 1 of 1" label engraved on its back and comes with a custom yellow-gold anodized finish, a blue leather Smart Cover and an orange leather Apple Pencil case cover, all of which are not sold by Apple elsewhere. The special edition sold for £50,000.

Software

Both iPad Pro (1st generation) models supported iOS 9, 10, 11, 12, iPadOS 13, 14, 15, and 16, and will not be supporting iPadOS 17 due to hardware limitations.

Reception
Scott Stein from CNET praised the faster processor and new accessories available. However, he criticized the cost of both the unit and its accessories, while noting its slightly slower processor with less RAM of the 9.7-inch model compared to the larger 12.9-inch model. Matt Swider from TechRadar complimented the easy handling, large 256 GB configuration and True Tone display, but was upset about the high starting price. Gareth Beavis gave a positive review, commending the expansive screen and audio quality but stated that the battery life could be made longer.

Timeline

Gallery

See also
 Pen computing
 Graphics tablet

References

External links

Pro
iPad Pro
Tablet computers
Touchscreen portable media players
Tablet computers introduced in 2015
Foxconn

IPad Pro (1st generation)


Park Ji-min (; born October 13, 1995), known mononymously as Jimin, is a South Korean singer and dancer. In 2013, he made his debut as a member of the South Korean boy band BTS, under the record label Big Hit Entertainment.

Jimin has released three solo tracks under BTS' name—"Lie" in 2016, "Serendipity" in 2017, and "Filter" in 2020—all of which have charted on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. He released his first credited solo song, the digital track "Promise", which he co-wrote, in 2018 and recorded the duet "With You" with Ha Sung-woon for the soundtrack for the TvN drama Our Blues in 2022. Jimin released his debut solo album, Face in 2023. It debuted at number one in South Korea and Japan, and number two in the United States, while its second single, "Like Crazy", debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, making him the highest-charting Korean solo artist in history on the Billboard 200 and the Hot 100 at the time, and the first to debut atop the latter.

Early life and education
Park Ji-min was born on October 13, 1995, in Geumjeong District, Busan, South Korea. His immediate family includes his mother, father, and younger brother. When he was a child, he attended Busan's Hodong Elementary School and Yonsan Middle School. In middle school, he attended Just Dance Academy, where he learned popping and locking. Prior to becoming a trainee, Jimin studied contemporary dance at Busan High School of Arts and was a top student in the modern dance department. A teacher suggested that he join an entertainment company, leading him to Big Hit Entertainment. Once he passed the auditions in 2012, he transferred to Korean Arts High School, graduating in 2014.

Jimin graduated from Global Cyber University in August 2020 with a major in Broadcasting and Entertainment. As of 2021, he is enrolled at Hanyang Cyber University, pursuing a Master of Business Administration in Advertising and Media.

Career

2013–present: BTS

Jimin was the last Big Hit trainee to be added to the lineup that would eventually become BTS. Of the band's seven members, he spent the shortest period of time—six months—as a trainee prior to debuting. On June 13, 2013, he debuted as a vocalist and dancer in BTS with the song "No More Dream" from their first single 2 Cool 4 Skool. Under the band's name, he released three solo songs: "Lie", "Serendipity", and "Filter". "Lie" was released in 2016, as part of the band's second Korean studio album, Wings. It was described as stunning and dramatic, conveying dark undertones and emotions in line with the overall concept of the album. In contrast, "Serendipity", from the band's Love Yourself: Her (2017) extended play (EP), was soft and sensual, expressing the joy, conviction, and curiosity of love. "Filter", a track from BTS' 2020 studio album Map of the Soul: 7, had a Latin pop flair, with lyrics reflecting the different sides of Jimin that he shows to the world and those around him.

"Serendipity" and "Lie" both surpassed fifty million streams on Spotify in 2018, followed shortly thereafter by the former's full length version from BTS' Love Yourself: Answer (2018) compilation album, which achieved the milestone in early 2019. Jimin became the first Korean artist to have three solo tracks accumulate over 50 million streams each, surpassing Psy, who previously crossed the 50 million streams mark twice with "Gangnam Style" (2012) and "Gentleman" (2013). Both songs were also the only solos by a BTS member included in the Official Chart Companys (OCC) list of the top 20 most streamed BTS songs in the United Kingdom as of October 2018, ranking at number 17 and 19 respectively. In April 2019, the list was expanded to reflect the top 40, and both tracks were the highest ranked solos included that year, at numbers 18 and 20 respectively.

In May 2019, Jimin became the first BTS member to have a solo music video achieve 100 million views on YouTube when "Serendipity" surpassed the milestone. He remained the only BTS member with multiple solo songs in the January 2020 update of the OCC's top 40 list: "Lie" and "Serendipity" were the second and third most-streamed solos, at numbers 24 and 29 respectively, with the full-length version of the latter at number 38. The following month, Jimin earned his first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 with "Filter", which debuted at number 87 on the chart, as well his first number one on the World Digital Song Sales chart. The song set the record for the biggest streaming debut among all Korean songs on Spotify, accruing over 2.2 million streams in its first 24 hours of release, and went on to become the fastest Korean solo in the platform's history to surpass 20–60 million streams. It was also the only solo album track by BTS to receive a Song of the Year nomination at the Gaon Chart Music Awards. In March 2021, "Filter" became the 15th BTS song to spend a full year on Billboards World Digital Song Sales chart. It was the longest-charting Korean song released in 2020 on the ranking, having spent 80 weeks on the chart as of the issue dated October 9, 2021.

Jimin was awarded the fifth-class Hwagwan Order of Cultural Merit in 2018, alongside his bandmates, by the President of South Korea, Moon Jae-in, for their contributions to the promotion of Korean culture. Three years later, Moon appointed him Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture, alongside his bandmates, to help "lead the global agenda for future generations" and "expand South Korea's diplomatic efforts and global standing" in the international community.

2014–present: Solo work

In 2014, Jimin collaborated with bandmate Jungkook on a song called "Christmas Day", a Korean rendition of Justin Bieber's "Mistletoe"; Jimin wrote the Korean lyrics himself. The two collaborated again in 2017, on a cover of Charlie Puths "We Don't Talk Anymore" featuring Selena Gomez. Jungkook previously released a solo version of the song in February, and the two prepared the duet as a special gift to the band's fandom, releasing it on June 2, during BTS' fourth anniversary celebrations. Teen Vogue wrote that "adding Jimin's voice to the mix makes the rendition all the more lovely", while the Canadian outlet Flare magazine stated that "it honestly might be better than the original". Elite Daily described the cover as "nothing short of flawless".

Jimin appeared on several variety shows such as Hello Counselor, Please Take Care of My Refrigerator, and God's Workplace in 2016. He also served as a special MC on domestic television music programs such as Show! Music Core and M Countdown. In December 2016, he participated in a dance duet at the KBS Song Festival with Taemin from Shinee.

On December 30, 2018, Jimin released "Promise", his first credited song as a solo artist, for free on BTS' SoundCloud page. It earned the biggest 24-hour debut in SoundCloud history with 8.5 million streams, surpassing previous record holder Drake's "Duppy Freestyle" which received 4.9 million streams, and would go on to become the most streamed song on the platform by December 2021, with over 300 million streams. Described by Billboard as a "mellow pop ballad", the song was composed by Jimin and Big Hit producer Slow Rabbit, who also produced the track, and features lyrics written by Jimin and bandmate RM. Jimin released his second solo song "Christmas Love", about his childhood memories of the holidays, on December 24, 2020. In 2022, he contributed the single "With You", a duet with Ha Sung-woon, to the soundtrack of the TvN drama Our Blues; the single was released on April 24.

In January 2023, Jimin co-wrote and featured on the single "Vibe" by Taeyang. His first official solo project since BTS announced an increased focus on individual music endeavors a year prior, the single earned Jimin his debut entry on the Billboard Hot 100 as a solo artist, at number 76. He was announced as a global ambassador for Dior later that month, and as a brand ambassador for Tiffany & Co. in March. "Promise" and "Christmas Love" were made available on streaming platforms worldwide as official singles under Jimin's name on March 6. His debut solo album Face was released on March 24. It set several chart and sales records, debuting at number one in South Korea and Japan, and number two in the US, making Jimin the highest-charting Korean solo artist of all time on the Billboard 200. The album's two singles, "Set Me Free Pt. 2" and "Like Crazy",  released on March 17 and 24 respectively, both entered the Hot 100: the former debuted at number 30, while the latter debuted at number one, making Jimin the first South Korean solo artist in history to top the chart. In May, he appeared as a featured artist, alongside Jvke and Muni Long, on the single "Angel Pt. 1" by Kodak Black and NLE Choppa, as part of the soundtrack for the film Fast X.

Artistry

Jimin's vocals have been described as delicate and sweet. He is regarded as an exceptional dancer among the members of BTS and in K-pop in general, often praised for his "smooth and elegant movements" and charm on stage. In the documentary Burn the Stage, Jimin addressed his perfectionism, stating that even the smallest mistakes on stage make him feel guilty and stressed.

He has cited singer Rain as an inspiration and one of the reasons why he wanted to become a singer and performer.

Impact and influence
In 2016, Jimin was ranked as the 14th most popular idol in an annual survey conducted by Gallup Korea. He subsequently ranked seventh in 2017, and then consecutively ranked first in 2018 and 2019, as the only idol to top the survey for two consecutive years. In 2018, Jimin was the ninth most-tweeted about celebrity and the eighth most-tweeted about musician globally. He was named the 17th best boy band member in history by The Guardian. From January to May 2018, Jimin won the monthly "Top K-Pop Artist–Individual" award for Peeper x Billboard, a collaboration between the Peeper social media app and Billboard Korea that collects fan votes for their favorite K-pop artists. The prize was a donation to UNICEF in his name.

The Cultural Conservation Society awarded Jimin a plaque of appreciation in 2019, for performing buchaechum, a traditional Korean fan dance, during the 2018 Melon Music Awards and helping spread the dance outside of Korea. In October 2021, he became the first idol to spend 34 consecutive months atop the brand reputation ranking for individual boy group idols and the only one to top the overall ranking for three consecutive years.

Jimin is often cited as a role model by various idols in the K-pop industry, many of whom try to emulate his style of dance, mannerisms, and stage presence; media outlets have called him the "Idol of Idols", "Idol's Bible", and "Rookies' Bible". Artists who have cited him as an influence include Arthur of Kingdom, Bic of MCND, Kim Si-hun of BDC, Woochul of Newkidd, Hyunjin of Stray Kids, Wooyoung of Ateez, Lim Se-jun of Victon, Huening Kai and Beomgyu of Tomorrow X Together, and Ni-ki and Jay of Enhypen. British internet personality Oli London underwent 18 cosmetic surgeries costing up to £150,000 to resemble Jimin.

Philanthropy
Jimin is a supporter of education and the arts. From 2016 to 2018, he covered uniform expenses of students at his alma mater, Busan Hodong Elementary School. After the school's closing was announced, he donated summer and winter middle school uniforms to the final graduates and gifted autographed albums to the entire student body. In early 2019, Jimin donated  to the Busan Department of Education to help support students from low income families. Of the total,  went to his alma mater, Busan Arts High School. In July 2020, he donated  to the Jeonnam Future Education Foundation to fund the creation of a scholarship fund for talented students from South Jeolla Province who were struggling financially. In September 2022, Jimin made a personal donation to the Gangwon-do Education Office.

In July 2021, Jimin donated  to Rotary International to help polio patients. As with previous donations, the benefaction was made privately but became public in September, when the Go-seong Rotary Club displayed a banner thanking him for the donation. He was announced as a member of the Green Noble Club, a group of major donors to the Green Umbrella Children's Foundation who have contributed ₩100 million or more, on October 12. In February 2023, he donated  through the Korean UNICEF Committee toward emergency relief for children affected by the Turkey–Syria earthquake.

Personal life
Since 2018, Jimin has lived in Hannam-dong, Seoul, South Korea, with his bandmates. In 2021, he purchased property in the area worth .

Health
In 2017, during BTS' Wings Tour, Jimin was unable to participate in the show in Macau due to neck and shoulder cramping. The following year, while in London for the Love Yourself World Tour, he withdrew from the band's scheduled performance on The Graham Norton Show because of "severe muscle pain in his neck and back", according to a statement released by Big Hit Entertainment.

Discography

Studio albums

Singles

As lead artist

As featured artist

Other charted songs

Other songs

Writing credits
All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.

Filmography

Television

Music videos

 Jimin appeared in the short film Lie released in September 2016 in promotion of BTS' fourth studio album Wings.

Awards and nominations

World records

Notes

References

External links

1995 births
Living people
BTS members
Singers from Busan
K-pop singers
Male songwriters
South Korean pop singers
South Korean singer-songwriters
South Korean male idols
South Korean male singers
South Korean male dancers
Alternative R&B musicians
South Korean contemporary R&B singers
South Korean tenors
21st-century South Korean singers
Recipients of the Order of Cultural Merit (South Korea)
Hybe Corporation artists
Japanese-language singers of South Korea
English-language singers from South Korea

Jimin


Eadhild (died 937) was an English princess, the second wife of Hugh, duke of the Franks. She was a daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the Anglo-Saxons and his second wife Ælfflæd.

In 926 Edward's son, king Æthelstan, received an embassy from his cousin, Adelolf, Count of Boulogne, on behalf of Hugh, and Æthelstan agreed to give his half-sister, Eadhild, in marriage in return for an enormous quantity of gifts and relics. According to William of Malmesbury, these included spices, jewels, many swift horses, an elaborate onyx vase, a crown of solid gold, the sword of Constantine the Great, Charlemagne's lance and a piece of the Crown of Thorns. Eadhild's full sister, Eadgifu, was the wife of the deposed king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple. Hugh was a potential rival for the Frankish throne, and Eadgifu may have promoted the marriage in order to sever a dangerous link between Hugh and Count Herbert of Vermandois.

Eadhild died childless in 937.

Citations

Sources

External links

937 deaths
10th-century English people
10th-century English women
Year of birth unknown
House of Wessex
English princesses
Daughters of kings

Eadhild