The Teton fault is a normal fault located in northwestern Wyoming. The fault has a length of 44 miles (70 km) and runs along the eastern base of the Teton Range. Vertical movement on the fault has caused the dramatic topography of the Teton Range.

Geologic setting

The Teton fault is located in a unique geologic setting. The fault is on the boundary of four major geologic provinces: the Basin and Range, Idaho-Wyoming Thrust belt, Rocky Mountain Foreland, and the Yellowstone volcanic plateau. The Basin and Range province is a region of east-west crustal extension. This province adds tension perpendicular to the fault line causing the fault blocks to move apart. The Idaho-Wyoming Thrust belt is located south of the Teton fault and is a region of thick and deformed crust that prevents the fault from extending farther south. The Rocky Mountain Foreland is located east of the Teton fault and is a region of thicker crust. This section of crust is heavier and adds to the vertical downward force on the hanging wall of fault. The Yellowstone volcanic plateau is a region of uplift and expansion that influences both vertical and horizontal forces on the Teton fault.

The Teton fault is unique in that it dips or slopes to the east. The majority of major faults in the Basin and Range province dip to the west. The unique dip of the Teton fault can be explained by the subsidence of the Snake River Plain. The Snake River Plain is located to the west of the Teton fault and was formed by the migration of the Yellowstone hotspot forming prehistoric calderas across southern Idaho. As this section of crust cools it tends to subside causing the footwall of the fault to tilt down toward the west.

The Teton fault is also an important feature in a larger region of seismic activity called the Intermountain Seismic Belt. This region extends from western Montana south to northern Arizona.

Geologic history

The development of the Teton fault has been influenced by many past geologic events. In the Precambrian, extensive plutonism caused metamorphism and deformation of the region that would become the Teton Range. During the Mesozoic and early Tertiary, the region underwent compression and crustal thickening. This formed thrust faults and folds. In the Late Tertiary, compressional forces ceased and extensional forces began. This led to the development of the Basin and Range province beginning 20–17 million years ago. The age of the Teton fault is somewhat controversial. Most estimates range between 2 and 13 million years old with a consensus that most of the movement on the fault occurred within the last 2 million years. Rates of movement on the fault have changed throughout time. At the end of the Pinedale glaciation 16,000 to 14,000 years ago, slip on the fault increased. This was likely due to changing stresses on the fault as glaciers melted.

The largest known earthquakes on the fault in recent history occurred around 4800 and 8000 years ago. The long intervals between large earthquakes on the fault are consistent with other normal faults in the Intermountain Seismic Belt.

Fault movement

The Teton fault is a normal fault. Therefore, movement on the fault is primarily in a vertical direction. Movement on the Teton fault occurs on a plane that averages a strike of N10°E and dips 45° to 75° to the east. The 44 mile length of the fault is broken into three segments. These segments may move separately or with other segments. The southern segment extends from the town of Wilson, Wyoming north to Taggart Lake. The middle segment extends from Taggart Lake to the south end of Jackson Lake. The northern segment extends to the north end of Jackson Lake.

The Teton fault is somewhat unusual in the amount of movement that has occurred over a relatively short amount of time. The amount of movement on the fault over its lifetime has been estimated to range from about 20,000 to 30,000 feet (6–9 km). Some evidence suggests total displacement on the fault may be as high as 36,000 feet (11 km). The average rate of movement on the fault for the late Quaternary is about 1.3 millimeters per year.

Earthquake hazard

The earthquake hazard in the Teton-Yellowstone region is the highest in the intermountain west. Large earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to 7.0 are estimated to occur in this region roughly every 200 years. However, the Teton fault contributes very little in the way of seismic activity as large earthquakes on the fault occur every 1600 to 6000 years. Most large earthquakes in the region are associated with the Yellowstone caldera and other faults in the area. In a study conducted from 1986 to 2002, it was found that the Teton fault had very little seismic activity. Despite its lack of recent seismic activity, it is believed that the Teton fault could produce a 7.5 magnitude earthquake. An earthquake this large would cause severe ground shaking and potential liquefaction in the valley of Jackson Hole. This would damage or destroy infrastructure and buildings not built to seismic standards. An earthquake could cause the valley of Jackson Hole to tilt slightly to the west altering stream and river channels as well as changing groundwater levels. This could cause flooding in some low-lying areas. A large earthquake would also have the potential to trigger other hazards such as landslides, rockslides and avalanches.

References

External links
 http://www.uusatrg.utah.edu/teton.html

Geology of Wyoming
Seismic faults of the United States

Teton Fault


Lincoln Park is a city in Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 38,144 at the 2010 census, down from 40,008 at the 2000 census.  With a population density of  at the 2010 census, Lincoln Park is the second most-densely populated municipality in the state after Hamtramck.

Lincoln Park contains Council Point Park, which dates back to 1763 when Chief Pontiac met with other tribal leaders along the banks of the Ecorse River to plot a rebellion against increasing European settlers, specifically those in nearby Fort Detroit.  The Potawatomi eventually ceded the land to the French in 1776.

Lincoln Park is considered part of the Downriver collection of communities within Metro Detroit.  The city borders Detroit to the north and also shares borders with Allen Park to the west, Ecorse to the east, Melvindale to the north, and Southgate and Wyandotte to the south.  It developed as a bedroom community, providing homes to workers in the nearby steel mills and automobile plants of the Detroit area, while having no industries of its own.  Lincoln Park was originally part of the now-defunct Ecorse Township, incorporating as a village in 1921 and again as a city in 1925.

History

Long before Lincoln Park was incorporated as a city, an area along the Ecorse River was the site of a pivotal meeting during Pontiac's Rebellion. On April 27, 1763, a council of several American Indian tribes from the Detroit region listened to a speech from the Ottawa leader Pontiac. Pontiac urged the listeners to join him in a surprise attack on the British Fort Detroit, which they attempted on May 9. Today, the area is known as Council Point Park, and a small engraved boulder marks the site of the historic meeting.

Neighborhoods were first laid in the area of Ecorse Township that would become Lincoln Park in 1906.  It was incorporated as a village in 1921, and as a city in 1925.

Preston Tucker, famous for his controversial financing and development of the revolutionary 1948 Tucker Sedan, grew up in Lincoln Park in the early 1900s.  Tucker joined the Lincoln Park Police Department in his early years to gain access to the high performance cars the department used.

During the 20th century, Lincoln Park grew as a bedroom community for the numerous workers at Henry Ford's River Rouge Plant and other mills and factories of the auto industry. Two major shopping hubs were constructed in the 1950s: Lincoln Park Plaza in 1955 on the southeast side and the Lincoln Park Shopping Center the following year on the northwest side.

Among Lincoln Park's minor claims to fame is that it was the home of the members of the seminal punk rock group MC5 in the 1960s.  The band was rumored to have evolved out of the group's habit of listening to music from a car radio in the parking lot of the local White Castle restaurant in the small downtown area. Gary Grimshaw, a noted rock concert poster artist, grew up in Lincoln Park at the same time.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.

The north and south branches of the Ecorse River run through Lincoln Park and join just before leaving the city.  Lincoln Park borders the cities of Detroit, Allen Park, Melvindale, Ecorse, Wyandotte, and Southgate.

Demographics

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 38,144 people, 14,924 households, and 9,685 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 16,530 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.2% White, 5.9% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 5.4% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.9% of the population.

There were 14,924 households, of which 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.8% were married couples living together, 16.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.1% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.13.

The median age in the city was 36.7 years. 24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 11.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 40,008 people, 16,204 households, and 10,581 families living in the city.  The population density was .  There were 16,821 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the city was 93.26% White, 2.06% Black or African American, 0.53% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 1.82% from other races, and 1.81% from two or more races. 6.39% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 16,204 households, out of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were married couples living together, 13.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.7% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.04.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.3% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.7 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $22,515, and the median income for a family was $29,747. Males had a median income of $10,197 versus $6,549 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,140.  About 40.1% of families and 44.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.3% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.

Ethnic groups
Hispanics/Latinos make up about 15% of Lincoln Park residents. The city hosted its first Cinco de Mayo celebration in 2015. Many Hispanic businesses have opened along Dix Highway and Fort Street.

Highways

: former designation (decommissioned in 1973); ran concurrent with Interstate 75
: named locally as Southfield Road; terminus just west of M-85
: named locally as Fort Street
 Outer Drive forms most of the northern border of Lincoln Park with the cities of Detroit and Melvindale.

Education

The city's education system is served by the Lincoln Park Public Schools primarily serving its 19,700 people under the age of 18.  The district includes Lincoln Park High School, Lincoln Park Middle School, Carr Elementary, James A. Foote Elementary, Hoover Elementary, Keppen Elementary, Lafayette Elementary, Paun Elementary, and Raupp Elementary.

Lincoln Park's private schools include Christ the Good Shepherd, which conformed with the schools of Mt. Carmel and Wyandotte Catholic to create Pope John Paul II.

Notable people
MC5, rock band formed in the city in 1964
Dennis Brown, collegiate football player and coach
Arnold Earley, Major League Baseball pitcher from 1960 to 1967
Bill Morrison, comic book artist and writer
Larry Pashnick, Major League Baseball pitcher from 1982 to 1984
Bob Seger, singer, songwriter, and musician; attended Lincoln Park High School
Preston Tucker, automobile entrepreneur, designer of the Tucker 48

References

Notes

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Lincoln Park Historical Society

Cities in Wayne County, Michigan
Metro Detroit
Populated places established in 1921
1921 establishments in Michigan

Lincoln Park, Michigan


Beren Saat (born 26 February 1984) is a Turkish actress.

Saat went to Başkent University to study Business Administration. While at university, she was in the TV competition Türkiye'nin Yıldızları  where she finished runner up.

After being in a series of candy commercials, Saat made her television debut in Aşkımızda Ölüm Var.  She played Ece Uslu's sister. In 2004, she acted in Aşkımızda Ölüm Var and in 2005, she had her first lead role in Aşka Sürgün. Then she played Yasemin Ünsal in Tomris Giritlioğlu's  Hatırla Sevgili.  This show gave her nationwide fame.

In 2008, she again worked with Giritlioğlu in the movie Güz Sancısı (Pains of Autumn). The same year Saat played Bihter Yöreoğlu (Samar) in an adaptation of Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil's classic novel Aşk-ı Memnu set in the modern day. She won consecutive Golden Butterfly Awards for Best Actress for her performance. Saat was the lead in director Serdar Akar's movie Gecenin Kanatları (Wings of the Night) released in December 2009. In 2010-2012, she acted in an adaptation of author Vedat Türkali's story Fatmagülün suçu ne?

Filmography
 Aşkımızda Ölüm Var (2004)
 Aşka Sürgün (2005)
 Hatırla Sevgili (2007)
 Avrupa yakasi
 Güz Sancısı (2008)
 Aşk-ı Memnu (2008-2010)
 Gecenin Kanatları (2009)
 Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne? (2010-2012)
 İntikam (2013-2014)
 Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem (2015-)
 "Toy Story 3" in its Turkish-dubbed version as the voice of Barbie

References

Other websites

1984 births
Living people
Actors from Ankara
Turkish television actors
Turkish movie actors

Beren Saat


David William Harvey, B.A.Sc., M.E.I.C. (February 24, 1887 – December 6, 1938) was a Canadian engineer and transportation manager.  He was a key player in the early development of the Toronto Transportation Commission and served as the transit operator's second General Manager, from 1924 until his death in 1938.

He was born in London, Ontario, and graduated from the University of Toronto with a degree in Civil Engineering.  In 1910 he worked for the Ontario Power Company at Niagara Falls.  The next year he became Resident Engineer of the Railway and Bridge Section of the City of Toronto government Works Department.  He was in charge of both construction and operation of the new Toronto Civic Railways, a loose network of four streetcar lines that was built by the City of Toronto because the privately owned Toronto Railway Company refused to build new lines to serve developing districts.  On September 1, 1921, Harvey became Assistant Manager of the new Toronto Transportation Commission, which merged and consolidated most public and private street railways in Toronto. He became General Manager on May 1, 1924, after H. H. Couzens, the first General Manager, resigned.

Harvey was a well-liked and effective manager, who had excellent knowledge of the technical aspects of operating and maintaining a transit system.  He personally held several patents for transit equipment, including the design of a three-door trailer, pulled by Peter Witt-type motor cars, that significantly speeded up boarding times, compared to the two-door trailers that were previously operated.  He introduced motor buses on lightly travelled feeder routes, and presided over the creation and expansion of Gray Coach Lines, the TTC's intercity motor coach operator.

The main shop facility at the TTC Hillcrest Complex on Bathurst Street, which opened in 1924, was renamed D.W. Harvey Shops in his honour.

References
TTC Coupler, December 1938 Vol 13 No 9

Toronto Transit Commission general managers
University of Toronto alumni
1887 births
1938 deaths

D. W. Harvey


The Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents is an identity document in the People's Republic of China. It is issued to de jure Chinese nationals who do not have household registration in mainland China and are permanent residents of Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwanese nationals, have lived in mainland China for over half a year, and either have a stable job, a stable domicile or attend school continuously in mainland China. Applications for this card first opened on 1 September 2018.

Background
Until the introduction of the residence permit, residents of these places could only use their mainland travel permits as identity document in mainland China. Since the mainland travel permits have a different format from the resident identity card for mainland Chinese residents, this caused trouble in situations where only the resident identity card can be used. The residence permit is designed to be similar to the resident identity card to let its holders enjoy the same basic public services and convenience as mainland Chinese residents.

Contents
Residence permit has a citizen identification number in the same format as resident identity card. This is the first time that the Chinese government ever assigns a number to residents of these places. The address codes of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan for the identification number are 810000, 820000 and 830000 respectively. The contents on the permit are mostly the same as those on the resident identity card; the differences are that there are number of issuances and mainland travel permit number on the obverse side, and there is no ethnicity on the reverse side.

References

Government of Hong Kong
Government of Macau
Mainland Travel Permit
Travel Permit
Residency


Moʻungaʻotonga married a virgin from Sāmoa, a privilige until then only allowed to the Tuʻi Tonga, as that act increased his rank. Apparently so highly risen had the Tuʻi Takalaua by now that he could come away with it and had even with his son Ngata another dynasty started.

Moʻungaʻotonga's first son would succeed him as Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua. His second, Niukapu, was sent out as governor of Haʻapai. The third, Nuku, became governor of the Hahake district, large and rich. The fourth and youngest, Ngata had to do it with Hihifo, always been the smallest and poorest district.

Who could have guessed that from him the mightiest line of kings would come forth? And nowadays the descendants of Nuku and Niukapu are under those of Ngata, and they belong to the Lātūhifo clan (low Lātū).

Moʻungaʻotonga/en


Trapped-key interlocking utilizes locks and keys for sequential control of equipment and machinery to ensure safe operation. Trapped-key interlocks are widely used to ensure safe access to potentially live or dangerous plant or equipment in an industrial setting.

A safe sequence of operations is enabled through transfer of keys that are either trapped or released in a predetermined order. For example, a key is used to isolate a power source (circuit breaker or supply valve), this key is then released and can then be used to gain access through a gate or door to a high risk area by inserting it into an access lock. The key will then remain trapped until the gate or door is closed. A personnel or safety key can be released from the access lock, this ensures that the gate or door can not be closed and the initial key released until this personnel or safety key is returned (assuming that no duplicate keys are available). This provides increased operator safety.

In 1893, French inventor Paul Bouré created engagement lock devices to ensures train traffic safety. They were used in the French railway system in the 1890s to control track switching operations and were manufactured by Trayvou, now known by the name "Serv Trayvou Interverrouillage" (STI) and owned by Halma. Later, the Englishman James Harry Castell (1880–1953), Frenchman B. Trayvou and the American R. L. Kirk  also developed trapped-key interlocking systems. Therefore, such systems are commonly referred to as Castell, Bourré, Trayvou, or Kirk keys. Both worked in the power generation and distribution industries in the early part of the 20th century, and both pioneered the use of trapped-key interlock for switchgear control. Trapped-key interlocks can be found in many industrial settings including electrical utilities, railway, petroleum, and chemical plants as a response to occupational safety and health legislation.

Interlock devices
A typical trapped-key interlock device consists of a lock cylinder which operates a sliding bolt through a cam.  The assembly is contained in a housing, which is made in different styles to accommodate different applications. The sliding bolt, when extended, mechanically prevents operation of a switch, valve, gate, or other device. Many variations exist, with different shapes of interlock bolt and multiple lock cylinders on an interlock. A significant feature of the interlock is that the key is held or trapped in one position of the lock.  Releasing the key indicates that the interlocked device has been made safe; the interlocked device cannot be re-energized until the key has been returned and operated to retract the bolt.

Some complex sequences use key exchange blocks or boxes, that allow alternative sequences of operation.
Interlock devices may have an electrical solenoid which holds the key until an electrical circuit is interrupted; for example, the power supply for a high-voltage cabinet has been de-energized, releasing a key to allow access to the interior of the cabinet. Some interlocks include a time delay function or a rotation detector to ensure a machine has had time to come to a stop before allowing the next step of an interlock sequence to proceed.  A key exchange block may only hold and release keys and may not have a bolt to interlock process equipment, or may be part of the interlock of a particular machine or device.

Manufacturers of trapped-key interlock devices provide application guides showing typical interlock problems and recommended arrangements. Since the reliability and safety of the scheme critically depends on the possession of keys, duplicate keys must be carefully controlled to prevent any possibility of an unsafe operating sequence. For example, a lost key might be replaced only by a duplicate held off-site, or might require ordering a replacement from the original manufacturer.

Example
For example, to prevent access to the inside of an electric kiln while it is operating, a trapped-key system may be used to interlock a disconnecting switch and the kiln door. Whenever the kiln power switch is turned on, the key is automatically held by the interlock, and cannot be manually removed. In order to open the kiln door, the power switch must first be turned off, which releases the key and allows it to be removed from the interlock. The key can then be used to unlock the kiln door. While the key is removed from the switch interlock, a plunger from the interlock mechanically prevents the power switch from being turned on. Power cannot be re-applied to the kiln until the kiln door is locked, releasing the key, and the key is then returned to the power switch interlock. A similar two-part interlock system can be used anywhere it is necessary to ensure the energy supply to a machine is interrupted before the machine is entered for adjustment or maintenance.

See also
 Interlock
 Poka-yoke

References

Safety engineering
Occupational safety and health

Trapped-key interlocking


Amoria spenceriana is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Volutidae, the volutes.

The species was named in honour of the Professor W. Baldwin Spencer C.M.G. in recognition of his many valued services to the natural history of Australia.

Description
The white, fusiform shell is smooth and polished. It grows to a length of 60 mm. The shell is marked with light, yellowish-brown. The interior of the shell is salmon tinted.  A few irregular linear markings run down from the suture. There are two series of broad, equidistant bands of distant zig-zag lines on the body whorl. The shell is spotted below the suture with the spots ceasing on the penultimate whorl. The remaining spiral whorls contain no markings.

The apex is blunt. The spire is short with 6 1/2 whorls, including the protoconch. The suture is well defined on the later whorls and becomes strongly channeled at the aperture. The outer lip is anteriorly expanded. The edge of the shell is acute. The body whorl is somewhat inflated at the upper portion. The columella bears three ascending plates.

Distribution
This marine species occurs off Queensland, Australia.

References

 Bail P. & Limpus A. (2001) The genus Amoria. In: G.T. Poppe & K. Groh (eds) A conchological iconography. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. 50 pp., 93 pls.

External links

Volutidae
Gastropods described in 1908

Amoria spenceriana


Horst Oertel (January 25, 1871 – January 9, 1956) M.D., Emeritus Professor and Head of Pathology at McGill University, Montreal (1918–1938), he was well-known on both sides of the Atlantic. Five of his books are still published today (all republished within the last five years from 2007 to 2010) as standard texts for students of Pathology.

Career

Horst Oertel was born in Dresden, Germany. His parents emigrated to New York City when he was fourteen. He studied Medicine at Yale University, graduating in 1894. His postgraduate studies in pathology were undertaken at the universities of Berlin, Leipzig and Würzburg. In Germany, he became greatly influenced by Rudolf Virchow. In 1907, Oertel returned to the United States when he was appointed director and chief pathologist of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology in New York City. He later undertook a period of study at Guy's Hospital, London.

Oertel came to McGill University in 1914 on the recommendation of John George Adami, and was appointed acting Chair of Pathology in 1918 in consequence of Adami's continuing war service as Inspector of Canadian Hospitals in France.

Oertel succeeded Adami as Professor and head of department in 1919, an election which created much publicity due to his German origins, but despite strong opposition he received a strong vote of confidence from McGill and Adami alike. In the 1880s, McGill's pathology department had secured an international reputation of excellence under Sir William Osler, who appointed Adami to succeed him. But by the end of the First World War, the discipline and its faculties were ready for major developments, for which Oertel was brought in. In 1924, despite Maude Abbott's objections, he reorganized the Pathology Department and its Museum in time to coincide with their transfer from the Strathcona Medical Building to the newly constructed Pathological Institute.

Oertel continued to direct the pathology department with distinction, and continued until four years past the normal retirement age as Chancellor Sir Edward Beatty thought so highly of him that he would not hear of his being retired until 1938.

Reputation

Oertel excelled in teaching, bringing together his superior knowledge of Pathology, Philosophy and Humanities to his lectures. He was held in great respect by his students, but he was unpopular with staff internists and surgeons as he strongly believed that pathology was not the handmaiden of medicine and surgery.

His life centred on McGill University, and yet strangely he did not feel obliged to help his fellow staff members if it did not suit him, particularly when it involved cooperation with the research interests of the clinicians. He befriended Sir Vincent Meredith, President of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, and in the early 1920s defended Meredith's arbitrary appointments that were in the interests of the Royal Vic and not McGill. He was compliant in the Sir Henry Gray affair and later refused to help Wilder Penfield when he was looking for laboratory space for his neuropathology interests. Neither of these events endeared Oertel to his associates.

As a Pathologist, Oertel's first class reputation remains to this day. No less than five of his books are standard texts for students of Pathology and still published today (all republished within the last five years from 2007 to 2010), seventy years after his retirement from McGill and fifty years after his death. He lived between his apartments at the University Club and the Ritz-Carlton Montreal. He died a bachelor in London, England.

Bibliography

 General Pathology: An Introduction to the Study of Medicine; Being a Discussion of the Development (last republished, 2009)
 The Anatomic Histological Process of Bright's Disease (last republished 2009)
 General Pathology: An Introduction to the Study of Medicine; Being a Discussion of the Development and Nature of Processes of Disease (last republished 2007)
 General Pathology (last republished 2010)
 The Anatomic Histological Process of Bright's Disease and Their Relation to the Functional Changes: Lectures Delivered in the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology at City Hospital New York, 1909 (last republished 2010)
 The problems, methods and aims of pathology in their past, present and future aspects,: The two introductory lectures to the course in general pathology at McGill university (1929)
 Outlines of Pathology (1927)
 The Pancreas and Diabetic Metabolism (1924)
 The centennial of Rudolf Virchow, 1821-1921 (1921)
 On universities and university methods of instruction and study;: An address before the Medical Ungraduate Society of McGill University, Nov. 17th, 1919
 On the Mechanism of Cancer Development
 The Position of the Circulation in Nephritus

References

External links

Canadian pathologists
Academic staff of McGill University
1871 births
1956 deaths

Horst Oertel


The helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix) is an endangered species of bird. There is only a tiny population in the Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve, in Victoria, Australia. The helmeted honeyeater became the state of Victoria's official bird emblem in 1971.

Famous ornithologist, John Gould first described the bird as being a separate species, which he named Ptilotis cassidix in 1867. It now one of the three sub-species of the yellow-tufted honeyeater, Lichenostomus melanops. The other sub-species are not endangered.

Where the bird lives
This bird is only found in a five km long patch of forest along two streams in the Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve, 50 km east of Melbourne. A reserve was set up in the Bunyip State Park for releasing birds raised in captivity. In 2003 there were 103 individuals in the wild with 20 breeding pairs known as well as a further 34 birds in captivity at the Healesville Sanctuary. The 2009 Victorian bushfires burnt to within 200 metres of bird colony at Bunyip State Park. Captive birds had to be moved to the Melbourne Zoo when the fires also came close to the Healesville Sanctuary. However, on April 28, 2009, 13 birds bred in captivity were released back into the wild. The number of wild birds is now believed to be 113.

Before the captive breeding program was started there were only about 5060 birds left in the wild. The birds have been bred at Healesville and at Sydney's Taronga Park Zoo.

Description
The Helmeted honeyeater is about 20 centimetres (8 inches) long. Their colour can be anywhere from black to olive green. They have a yellow patch on the heads.

What they eat
Helmeted honeyeaters eat manna, which is like a sap from some eucalyptus trees. They also eat nectar from the eucalypt flowers as well as small insects and spiders.

Saving the helmeted honeyeater
Several things are being done to save this bird from becoming extinct. One is a captive breeding program, where the birds are bred at Healesville and Toronga Park. When they become old enough, between 6—8 months, the are put into the wild where they will hopefully begin breeding. Forest areas are being planted with the right sort of trees and plants to provide the birds with food and shelter. This is being done on private land as well as in the State parks. There is also planting to join the small patches of bush with corridors so the birds are not trapped in one small area.

Other websites
Friends of the Helmeted honeyeater
A plan to save the Helmeted honeyeater

References

Birds of Australia
Passeri

Helmeted honeyeater


Bishnupaduka (also Vishnupaduka) is one of the holy places for Hindus. It is situated in the northwest part of Dharan, where the holy river Kokaha originated. Local people found a rock with two clear footprints and it is believed that the footprints are of Lord Vishnu. So the people built a small temple and called it Bishnupaduka temple.

This religious place is mentioned on the one hundred and tenth chapter of the Holy book Brahma Purana. It clearly states that Lord Vishnu and Laxmi observed Sharaddha (holy rituals remembering the departed ancestors) of Arsha and other Divine Ancestors. Every year many Hindus from the surrounding area gather here, specially during the month of Paush for the Shraddha of their ancestors.

The main pilgrimage sites to perform shraddha are Gokarna of Kathmandu, Betrawati of Rasuwa, and Bishnupaduka of Dharan.

Spritures have accepted this shrine to be older and holier than Gaya of India.

References

Hindu temples in Nepal
Purana temples of Vishnu
Buildings and structures in Sunsari District

Bishnupaduka (Shrine)


Eleanor Gwyn (2 February 1650 – 14 November 1687; also spelled Gwynn, Gwynne) was an English stage actress and celebrity figure of the Restoration period. Praised by Samuel Pepys for her comic performances as one of the first actresses on the English stage, she became best known for being a long-time mistress of King Charles II of England (c. April 1668 - 6 February 1685).

Called "pretty, witty Nell" by Pepys, she has been regarded as a living embodiment of the spirit of Restoration England, and has come to be considered a folk heroine, with a story echoing the rags-to-royalty tale of Cinderella. Gwyn had two sons by King Charles: Charles Beauclerk (1670–1726) and James Beauclerk (1671–1680). Charles Beauclerk (pronounced boh-clair) was created Earl of Burford and Duke of St. Albans; Murray de Vere Beauclerk, 14th Duke of St. Albans is her descendant, and the current holder of the duchy.

Early life
The details of Gwyn's background are somewhat obscure. A horoscope in the Ashmolean manuscripts gives her date of birth as 2 February 1650. On the other hand, an account published in The New Monthly Magazine and Humorist in 1838 states that she was born about 1642. The earlier date of birth was asserted without documentation, but various scholars have supported both the earlier and later dates. The eight-year difference between these two possible birth years can offer different readings of what Gwyn achieved during her lifetime.

The obscurity surrounding Gwyn's date of birth parallels numerous other obscurities that run through the course of her life. The information we have about Gwyn is collected from various sources, including the plays she starred in, satirical poetry and pictures, diaries, and letters. As such, much of this information is founded on hearsay, gossip, and rumour, and must therefore be handled with caution.

Her mother Ellen (or a variant, being referred to in her lifetime as "Old Madam", "Madam Gwyn" and "Old Ma Gwyn") was born, according to a monumental inscription, in the parish of St Martin in the Fields, which stretched from Soho and Covent Garden to beyond Mayfair, and is thought to have lived most of her life there in the West End. She is also believed, by most Gwyn biographers, to have been "low-born". Her descendant and biographer Charles Beauclerk calls this conjecture, based solely on what is known of her later life. Madam Gwyn is sometimes said to have had the maiden surname Smith. This appears to be derived from a fragmentary pedigree by Anthony Wood that shows signs of confusion between different Gwyn families and it has not been firmly established. Nell's mother is said to have drowned when she fell into the water at her house near Chelsea. She was buried on 30 July 1679, in her 56th year, at St Martin in the Fields.

Nell Gwyn is reported in a manuscript of 1688 to have been a daughter of "Thos [Thomas] Guine a Capt [captain] of ane antient fammilie in Wales", although the reliability of the statement is doubtful as its author does not seem to have hesitated to create or alter details where the facts were unknown or perhaps unremarkable. There is some suggestion, from a poem dated to 1681, again of doubtful accuracy, that Gwyn's father died at Oxford, perhaps in prison. It has been suggested, based on the pedigree by Anthony Wood, that Gwyn was a granddaughter of Edward or Edmund Gwyn, Canon of Christ Church from 1615 to 1624. However, administration records show that Edmund Gwyn died unmarried. Moreover, Wood did not give a forename for the supposed grandfather of Nell and there are reasons to think that the "Dr ... Gwyn" in the pedigree was intended to be not Edmund Gwyn but rather his brother Matthew. In either case, the available evidence indicates that Nell was not a member of their family.

Gwyn was assigned arms similar to those of the Gwynnes of Llansannor. However, her specific connection to that family, if any, is unknown.

Three cities make the claim to be Gwyn's birthplace: Hereford, London (specifically Covent Garden) and Oxford. Evidence for any one of the three is scarce. The fact that "Gwyn" is a name of Welsh origin might support Hereford, as its county is on the border with Wales; The Dictionary of National Biography notes a traditional belief that she was born there in Pipe Well Lane, renamed to Gwynne Street in the 19th century. There is also the legend that Nell Gwyn chose red coats for the pensioners of Chelsea Hospital, which she allegedly influenced King Charles II to found, because she remembered that similar coats had been worn at Coningsby Hospital in Hereford. London is the simplest choice, perhaps, since Gwyn's mother was born there and that is where she raised her children. Alexander Smith's 1715 Lives of the Court Beauties says she was born in Coal Yard Alley in Covent Garden and other biographies, including Wilson's, have followed suit. Her noble descendant Beauclerk pieces together circumstantial evidence to favour an Oxford birth.

One way or another, Gwyn's father seems to have been out of the picture by the time of her childhood in Covent Garden, and her "dipsomaniac mother, [and] notorious sister", Rose, were left in a low situation. She experimented with cross-dressing between 1663 and 1667 going under the name "William Nell" and adopting a false beard; her observations informed a most successful and hilarious character interpretation acting as a man on the stage in March 1667. Old Madam Gwyn was by most accounts an alcoholic whose business was running a bawdy house (or brothel). There, or in the bawdy house of one Madam Ross, Nell would spend at least some time. It is possible that she herself was a child prostitute; Peter Thomson, in the Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre, says it is "probable". A rare mention of her upbringing from the source herself might be seen to contradict the idea: A 1667 entry in Samuel Pepys's diary records, second-hand, that.Here Mrs. Pierce tells me [...] that Nelly and Beck Marshall, falling out the other day, the latter called the other my Lord Buckhurst's whore. Nell answered then, "I was but one man's whore, though I was brought up in a bawdy-house to fill strong waters to the guests; and you are a whore to three or four, though a Presbyter's praying daughter!" It is not out of the question that Gwyn was merely echoing the satirists of the day, if she said this at all.

Various anonymous verses are the only other sources describing her childhood occupations: bawdyhouse servant, street hawker of herring, oysters, or turnips, and cinder-girl have all been put forth. Tradition has her growing up in Coal Yard Alley, a poor slum off Drury Lane.

Around 1662, Nell is said to have taken a lover by the name of Duncan or Dungan. Their relationship lasted perhaps two years, and was reported with obscenity-laced acidity in several later satires; "For either with expense of purse or p---k, / At length the weary fool grew Nelly-sick". Duncan provided Gwyn with rooms at a tavern in Maypole Alley, and the satires also say he was involved in securing Nell a job at the theatre being built nearby.

During the English Commonwealth era, pastimes regarded as frivolous, including theatre, had been banned. King Charles II had been restored to the English throne in 1660, and he reinstated the theatre. One of Charles' early acts as king was to license the formation of two acting companies and to legalise acting as a profession for women. In 1663, the King's Company, led by Thomas Killigrew, opened a new playhouse, the Theatre in Bridges/Brydges Street, which was later rebuilt and renamed the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.

Mary Meggs, a former prostitute nicknamed "Orange Moll" and a friend of Madam Gwyn's, had been granted the licence to "vend, utter and sell oranges, lemons, fruit, sweetmeats and all manner of fruiterers and confectioners wares" within the theatre. Orange Moll hired Nell and her elder sister Rose as scantily-clad 'orange-girls', selling the small, sweet "china" oranges to the audience inside the theatre for a sixpence each. The work exposed her to the theatre and to London's higher society: this was "the King's playhouse", and King Charles II frequently attended performances. The orange-girls would also serve as messengers between men in the audience and actresses backstage; they received tips for this role, and some of these messages would end in sexual assignations. Whether this activity rose to the level of pimping may be a matter of semantics.

Actress

The new theatres were the first in England to feature actresses; earlier, women's parts had been played by boys or men. Gwyn joined the rank of actresses at Bridges Street when she was fourteen (if we take her birth year to be 1650), less than a year after becoming an orange-girl.

If her good looks, strong clear voice, and lively wit were responsible for catching the eye of Killigrew, she still had to prove herself clever enough to succeed as an actress. This was no easy task in the Restoration theatre; the limited pool of audience members meant that very short runs were the norm for plays and fifty different productions might be mounted in the nine-month season lasting from September to June. She was reputed to have been illiterate.

She was taught her craft of performing at a school for young actors developed by Killigrew and one of the fine male actors of the time, Charles Hart, and learned dancing from another, John Lacy; both were rumoured by satirists of the time to be her lovers, but if she had such a relationship with Lacy (Beauclerk thinks it unlikely), it was kept much more discreet than her well-known affair with Hart.

Much like the dispute over her date of birth, it is unclear when Gwyn began to perform professionally on the Restoration stage. It is possible that she first appeared in smaller parts during the 1664–65 season. For example, The Bodleian Manuscript of The Siege of Urbin has the part of Pedro (Melina- a maid servant in breeches) played by a 'Mrs. Nell'. Additionally, 'Nelle' was intended to play the small role of Paulina, a courtesan, in Killigrew's Thomaso, or The Wanderer in November 1664, but the play seems to have been cancelled. The use of 'Mrs' would imply that Gwyn was more likely born in 1642 than 1650 as it indicates an actress over the age of 21 (not her marital status) for which certain roles would be more suitable. Nonetheless, since players of less substantial parts are seldom mentioned in cast lists or playgoers' diaries of the period, an absolute date for Gywn's debut cannot be ascertained.

Whatever her first role as an actress may have been, it is evident that she had become a more prominent actress by 1665. It is around this time when she is first mentioned in Pepys's diary, specifically on Monday 3 April 1665, while attending a play, where the description 'pretty, witty Nell' is first recorded. This unusual use of only her first name would imply that Gwyn had made herself known both on the stage and off as her celebrity status started to emerge. Her first recorded appearance on-stage was in March 1665, in John Dryden's heroic drama The Indian Emperour, playing Cydaria, daughter of Moctezuma and love interest to Cortez, played by her real-life lover Charles Hart.

However, Pepys, whose diary usually has great things to say about Gwyn, was displeased with her performance in this same part two years later: "...to the King's playhouse, and there saw 'The Indian Emperour;' where I find Nell come again, which I am glad of; but was most infinitely displeased with her being put to act the Emperour's daughter; which is a great and serious part, which she do most basely."

Gwyn herself seems to agree that drama did not suit her, to judge from the lines she was later made to say in the epilogue to a Robert Howard drama:

We have been all ill-us'd, by this day's poet.
'Tis our joint cause; I know you in your hearts
Hate serious plays, as I do serious parts.

It was in the new form of restoration comedy that Gwyn would become a star. In May 1665, she appeared opposite Hart in James Howard's comedy All Mistaken, or the Mad Couple.

There is some debate over the year The Mad Couple debuted, with earlier authorities believing it to be 1667. This was the first of many appearances in which Gwyn and Hart played the "gay couple", a form that would become a frequent theme in restoration comedies. The gay couple, broadly defined, is a pair of witty, antagonistic lovers, he generally a rake fearing the entrapment of marriage and she feigning to do the same in order to keep her lover at arm's length. Theatre historian Elizabeth Howe goes so far as to credit the enduring success of the gay couple on the Restoration stage entirely to "the talent and popularity of a single actress, Nell Gwyn".

The Great Plague of London shut down the Bridges Street theatre, along with most of the city, from mid-1665 until late 1666. Gwyn and her mother spent some of this time in Oxford, following the King and his court. The King's Company is presumed to have mounted some private theatrical entertainments for the court during this time away from the virulent capital. Gwyn and the other ten "women comedians in His Majesty's Theatre" were issued the right (and the cloth) to wear the King's livery at the start of this exile, proclaiming them official servants of the King.

After the theatres reopened, Gwyn and Hart returned to play role after role that fit the mould of the gay couple, including in James Howard's The English Monsieur (December 1666), Richard Rhodes' Flora's Vagaries, an adaptation of John Fletcher's The Chances by George Villiers, and then in their greatest success, Secret Love, or The Maiden Queen.

This play, a tragicomedy written by the theatre's house dramatist, John Dryden, was performed in March 1667. It was a great success: King Charles "graced it with the Title of His Play" and Pepys's praise was effusive:

... to the King's house to see 'The Maiden Queen', a new play of Dryden's, mightily commended for the regularity of it, and the strain and wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nell, which is Florimell, that I never can hope ever to see the like done again, by man or woman. The King and the Duke of York were at the play. But so great performance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell do this, both as a mad girl, then most and best of all when she comes in like a young gallant; and hath the notions and carriage of a spark the most that ever I saw any man have. It makes me, I confess, admire her.

After seeing the play for the third time, Pepys writes, "It is impossible to have Florimel's part, which is the most comical that ever was made for woman, ever done better than it is by Nelly." Killigrew must have agreed with Pepys's opinion. Once Gwyn left the acting profession, it would be at least ten years before his company revived The Maiden Queen and even the less favoured The Indian Emperour because "the management evidently felt that it would be useless to present these plays without her."

The Maiden Queen featured breeches roles, where the actress appeared in men's clothes under one pretence or another, and as Bax supposes "was one of the first occasions upon which a woman appeared in the disguise of a man"; if nothing else this could draw an audience eager to see the women show off their figures in the more form-fitting male attire. The attraction had another dynamic: the theatres sometimes had a hard time holding onto their actresses, as they were swept up to become the kept mistresses of the aristocracy. In 1667, Gwyn made such a match with Charles Sackville, titled Lord Buckhurst at that time. She supposedly caught his eye during an April performance of All Mistaken, or The Mad Couple, especially in one scene in which, to escape a hugely fat suitor able to move only by rolling, she rolls across the stage herself, her feet toward the audience and her petticoats flying about. A satire of the time describes this and also Hart's position now, in the face of competition from the upper echelons of society:
Yet Hart more manners had, then not to tender
When noble Buckhurst beg'd him to surrender.
He saw her roll the stage from side to side
And, through her drawers the powerful charm descry'd.

Beauclerk describes Buckhurst: "Cultured, witty, satirical, dissolute, and utterly charming". He was one of a handful of court wits, the "Merry Gang" as named by Andrew Marvell. Sometime after the end of April and her last recorded role that season (in Robert Howard's The Surprisal), Gwyn and Buckhurst left London for a country holiday in Epsom, accompanied by Charles Sedley, another wit in the merry gang. Pepys reports the news on 13 July: "[Mr. Pierce tells us] Lord Buckhurst hath got Nell away from the King's house, lies with her, and gives her £100 a year, so she hath sent her parts to the house, and will act no more." Gwyn was acting once more in late August, and her brief affair with Buckhurst had ended. Pepys reports that by 22 August 1667, Gwyn had returned to the King's Playhouse in The Indian Emperour. On 26 August, Pepys learns from Moll Davis that, 'Nell is already left by my Lord Buckhurst, and that he makes sport of her, and swears she hath had all she could get of him; and Hart, her great admirer, now hates her; and that she is very poor, and hath lost my Lady Castlemayne, who was her great friend also but she is come to the House, but is neglected by them all'.

Relationship with King Charles II

Late in 1667, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, took on the role of unofficial manager for Gwyn's love affairs. He aimed to provide King Charles II with someone who would supplant Barbara Palmer, his principal current mistress and Buckingham's cousin, moving Buckingham closer to the King's ear. The plan failed; reportedly, Gwyn asked £500 a year to be kept and this was rejected as it was regarded as too expensive. Buckingham had an alternative plan, which was to set the King up with Moll Davis, an actress with the rival Duke's Company. Davis would be Gwyn's first rival for the King. Several anonymous satires from the time relate a tale of Gwyn, with the help of her friend Aphra Behn, slipping a powerful laxative into Davis's tea-time cakes before an evening when she was expected in the King's bed.

The love affair between the King and Gwyn allegedly began in April 1668. Gwyn was attending a performance of George Etherege's She Wou'd if She Cou'd at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In the next box was the King, who from accounts was more interested in flirting with Gwyn than watching the play. Charles invited Gwyn and her escort, Mr. Villiers, a cousin of Buckingham's, to supper along with his brother the Duke of York. The anecdote turns charming if perhaps apocryphal at this point: the King, after supper, discovered that he had no money on him; nor did his brother, and Gwyn had to foot the bill. "Od's fish!" she exclaimed, in an imitation of the King's manner of speaking, "but this is the poorest company I ever was in!"

Having previously been the mistress of Charles Hart and Charles Sackville, Gwyn jokingly called the King "her Charles the Third". By mid-1668, Gwyn's affair with the King was well-known, though there was little reason to believe it would last for long. She continued to act at the King's House, her new notoriety drawing larger crowds and encouraging the playwrights to craft more roles specifically for her. June 1668 found her in Dryden's An Evening's Love, or The Mock Astrologer, and in July she played in Lacy's The Old Troop, a farce about a company of Cavalier soldiers during the English Civil War, based on Lacy's own experiences. Possibly, Gwyn's father had served in the same company, and Gwyn's part—the company whore—was based on her own mother. As her commitment to the King increased, though, her acting career slowed, and she had no recorded parts between January and June 1669, when she played Valeria in Dryden's very successful tragedy Tyrannick Love.

King Charles II had a considerable number of mistresses through his life, both short affairs and committed arrangements. He also had a wife, Portuguese Queen consort Catherine of Braganza, whose pregnancies all ended in miscarriages, and she had little or no say over Charles's choice to have mistresses. This had come to a head shortly after their marriage in 1662, in a confrontation between Catherine and Barbara Palmer, which became known as the "Bedchamber crisis". Ostracised at Court and with most of her retinue sent back to Portugal, Catherine had been left with little choice but to acquiesce to Charles's mistresses being granted semi-official standing.

During Gwyn's first years with Charles, there was little competition in the way of other mistresses: Barbara Palmer was on her way out, while others, such as Moll Davis, kept quietly away from the spotlight of public appearances or Whitehall. Gwyn gave birth to her first son fathered by Charles II, Charles Beauclerk, on 8 May 1670. He was the King's seventh son by five separate mistresses.

Several months later, Louise de Kérouaille came to England from France, ostensibly to serve as a maid of honour to Queen Catherine, but also to become another mistress to King Charles, probably by design on both the French and English sides. She and Gwyn would prove rivals for many years to come. They were opposites in personality and mannerism; Louise a proud woman of noble birth used to the sophistication of Versailles, Gwyn a spirited and pranking ex-orange-wench. Gwyn nicknamed Louise "Squintabella" for her looks and the "Weeping Willow" for her tendencies to sob. In one instance, recorded in a letter from George Legge to Lord Preston, Gwyn characteristically jabbed at the Duchess's "great lineage," dressing in black at Court, the same mourning attire as Louise when a prince of France died. Someone there asked, "What the deuce was the Cham of Tartary to you?" to which Gwyn responded, "Oh, exactly the same relation that the French Prince was to Mademoiselle de Kérouaille." The Duchess of Portsmouth's only recorded riposte was, "anybody may know she has been an orange-wench by her swearing". Their relationship was not strictly adversarial; they were known to get together for tea and cards, for example. Basset was the popular game at the time, and Gwyn was a frequent—and high-stakes—gambler.

Gwyn returned to the stage again in late 1670, something Beauclerk calls an "extraordinary thing to do" for a mistress with a royal child. Her return was in Dryden's The Conquest of Granada, a two-part epic produced in December 1670 and January 1671. This may have been her last play; 1671 was almost certainly her last season. Gwyn's theatrical career spanned seven years and ended at the age of 21 (if we take 1650 to be her birth year).

In the cast list of Aphra Behn's The Rover, produced at Dorset Garden in March 1677, the part of Angelica Bianca, "a famous Curtezan" is played by a Mrs. Gwin. This has sparked some confusion. The spelling of 'Gwin' does not refer to Nell Gwyn, but to Mrs. Anne Quin. Nell Gwyn had left the stage by this point.

In February 1671, Gwyn moved into a brick townhouse at 79 Pall Mall. The property was owned by the crown and its current resident was instructed to transfer the lease to Gwyn. It would be her main residence for the rest of her life. Gwyn seemed unsatisfied with being a lessee only—in 1673, a letter written by that of Joseph Williamson stated that "Madam Gwinn complains she has no house yet." Gwyn is said to have complained that "she had always conveyed free under the Crown, and always would; and would not accept [the house] till it was conveyed free to her by an Act of Parliament." In 1676, Gwyn was granted the freehold of the property, which remained in her family until 1693; as of 1960 the property was still the only one on the south side of Pall Mall not owned by the Crown.

Gwyn gave birth to her second child by the King, christened James Beauclerk, on 25 December 1671, or Christmas Day.

There are two stories about how the eldest of her two children by Charles was given the Earldom of Burford, both of which are unverifiable. The first, and most popular, is that when Charles was six years old, on the arrival of the King, Gwyn said, "Come here, you little bastard, and say hello to your father." When the King protested against her calling Charles that, she replied, "Your Majesty has given me no other name by which to call him." In response, Charles created him Earl of Burford. Another is that Gwyn grabbed young Charles and hung him out of a window of Lauderdale House in Highgate, where she briefly resided, and threatened to drop him unless he was granted a peerage. The King cried out "God save the Earl of Burford!" and subsequently officially created the peerage, saving his son's life. On 21 December 1676, a warrant was passed for "a grant to Charles Beauclerc, the King's natural son, and to the heirs male of his body, of the dignities of Baron of Heddington, co. Oxford, and Earl of Burford in the same county, with remainder to his brother, James Beauclerc, and the heirs male of his body." A few weeks later, James was given "the title of Lord Beauclerc, with the place and precedence of the eldest son of an earl."

Shortly afterwards, the King granted Gwyn and their son a house, which was renamed Burford House, on the edge of the Home Park in Windsor. She lived there when the King was in residence at Windsor Castle. In addition to the properties mentioned above, Gwyn had a summer residence on the site of what is now 61–63 King's Cross Road, London, which enjoyed later popularity as the Bagnigge Wells Spa. According to the London Encyclopedia (Macmillan, 1983) she "entertained Charles II here with little concerts and breakfasts". An inscribed stone of 1680, saved and reinserted in the front wall of the present building, shows a carved mask which is probably a reference to her stage career.

Just after the death of Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans on 5 January 1684, King Charles granted his son Charles the title of Duke of St Albans, gave him an allowance of £1,000 a year, and also granted him the offices of Chief Ranger of Enfield Chase and Master of the Hawks in reversion; i.e., after the death of the current incumbents.

King Charles died on 6 February 1685. James II, obeying his brother's deathbed wish, "Let not poor Nelly starve," eventually paid most of Gwyn's debts and gave her an annual pension of £1,500. He also paid off the mortgage on Gwyn's Nottinghamshire lodge at Bestwood, which remained in the Beauclerk family until 1940. At the same time, James applied pressure on Gwyn and her son Charles to convert to Roman Catholicism, something she resisted.

Death
In March 1687, Gwyn suffered a stroke that left her paralysed on one side. In May, a second stroke left her confined to the bed in her Pall Mall house; she made out her will on 9 July and a codicil on 18 October with her executors, Laurence Hyde (the Earl of Rochester), Thomas Earl of Pembroke, Sir Robert Sawyer the Attorney General, and Henry Sidney each receiving £100. Gwyn died from apoplexy "almost certainly due to the acquired variety of syphilis" on 14 November 1687, at ten in the evening, less than three years after the King's death. She was 37 years old (if she was born in 1650). Her balance at Child's Bank was reported to be well over four figures, and she possessed almost 15,000 ounces of plate. The Oxford Dictionary of Actors therefore suggests that 'perhaps most of her wealth was in trust or not in liquid assets' which might explain why the rich woman was so poor. A letter from Wigmore to Etherege, the day after Gwyn's burial, reports that Gwyn left about £1,000,000, "a great many say more, few less". The majority of her estate went to her son. Gwyn's will also conveys her charitable side with her leaving £100 to be distributed to the poor of the parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields and Westminster and £50 to release debtors from prison every Christmas.

She was buried in the Church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, London, on 17 November 1687. In compliance with one of Gwyn's final requests, Thomas Tenison, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, preached a sermon on 17 December from the text of Luke 15:7  "Just so, I tell you, there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who need no repentance." Her will and codicil were proved on 7 December 1687.

Legacy

Though Gwyn was often caricatured as an empty-headed woman, John Dryden said that her greatest attribute was her native wit, and she certainly became a hostess who was able to keep the friendship of Dryden, the playwright Aphra Behn, William Ley, 4th Earl of Marlborough (a lover of hers), John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the King's other mistresses. She is especially remembered for one particularly apt witticism, which was recounted in the memoirs of the Comte de Gramont, remembering the events of 1681:Nell Gwynn was one day passing through the streets of Oxford, in her coach, when the mob mistaking her for her rival, the Duchess of Portsmouth, commenced hooting and loading her with every opprobrious epithet. Putting her head out of the coach window, "Good people", she said, smiling, "you are mistaken; I am the Protestant whore." The Catholic whore was still the Frenchwoman Louise de Kérouaille, who had been created Duchess of Portsmouth in 1673.

The author of her 1752 biography relates a conversation (more than likely fabricated) between Gwyn and Charles II in which he, feeling at a loss, said, "O, Nell! What shall I do to please the People of England? I am torn to pieces by their clamours."

"If it please your Majesty," she replied, "there is but one way left, which expedient I am afraid it will be difficult to persuade you to embrace. Dismiss your ladies, may it please your Majesty, and mind your business; the People of England will soon be pleased."

She is noted for another remark made to her coachman, who was fighting with another man who had called her a whore. She broke up the fight, saying, "I am a whore. Find something else to fight about."

In 1937, a new ten-storey block of 437 flats in Sloane Avenue, Chelsea, was given the name Nell Gwynn House, and in a high alcove above the main entrance is a statue of Gwyn, with a Cavalier King Charles spaniel at her feet. Mostly unnoticed by passers-by, this is believed to be the only statue of a royal mistress in the capital city.

Arms and lineage
According to Paul A. Fox, "[The coat of arms of Nell Gwyn] are clearly based on the arms attributed to Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, Prince of Powys: or, a lion rampant azure. Only one family of Gwyn or Wyn ever used these arms, and they were a little-known clan from Trelydan in Guilsfield, near Welshpool. This family were somewhat distant kinsmen of Nell's own ancestors. One of its members was Captain John Gwyn, who taught King Charles II of England military exercises when he was Prince of Wales, and served throughout the English Civil War and afterwards in the Royal Regiment of Guards, later commanded by the king's son, the Duke of Monmouth. He can be placed in some of the same campaigns as Captain Thomas Gwyn, and the two men had probably met. John [Gwyn] has left a famous account of his exploits during the war, which include his pedigree and arms. It is likely that he would have sought out Nell and claimed kinship with her, as a means of furthering his own military career. It is hard to imagine how otherwise Nell would have come to bear the arms that she did." It is unknown if Nell's arms were officially granted by the College of Arms during the reign of King Charles II, or were self-assumed.

Titles
Nell Gwyn never received any official titles from King Charles II of England while serving as his mistress. Some accounts state that Charles II planned to ennoble Gwyn by making her the "Countess of Greenwich", following the bestowing of the titles of Duchess of Cleveland, Countess of Castlemaine, Baroness Limerick, and Baroness Nonsuch upon his other mistress, Barbara Palmer; the title of Viscountess Shannon upon his first mistress, Elizabeth Killigrew; and the titles of Duchess of Portsmouth, Duchess of Aubigny, Countess of Fareham, and Baroness Petersfield to yet another mistress, Louise de Kérouaille. However, Charles II died on 6 February 1685 before he could formally ennoble Gwyn.

While Fox speculated that Gwyn was descended in the male line from Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, Prince of Powys, William Herbert, 1st Marquess of Powis (1626 – 2 June 1696), one of Charles II's courtiers, had already been elevated by Charles II to Earl of Powis in 1674. Herbert was further reaffirmed as Marquess of Powis in 1687 by King James II.

Charles' younger brother and successor, King James II, paid off Gwyn's debts at the request of Charles II, and gave her an estate with reversion to her son, Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St. Albans. However, James II refrained from ennobling Gwyn, likely due to doubts over Gwyn converting to Roman Catholicism, and her loyalty to the Crown. James II was not far off the mark; the Duke of St. Albans travelled to the Dutch Republic to support King William III and Queen Mary II deposing James II in the Glorious Revolution in November 1688. The Duke of St. Albans would go on to become a court favorite of William and Mary, fighting on the Crown's behalf on military campaigns in Flanders.

By the time William and Mary came to power, Nell Gwyn had already died on 14 November 1687, a full year prior. In 1705, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll was created Baron Chatham and Earl of Greenwich by Anne, Queen of Great Britain as a reward for his support for the Acts of Union 1707, and further elevated to the title Duke of Greenwich in 1719. Upon his death, his Scottish titles passed to his brother, and the English titles became extinct. The next title creation was in Peerage of Great Britain in 1767, when Lady Caroline Townshend was made Baroness Greenwich, in the County of Kent, with remainder to the male issue by her second husband, Charles Townshend. She was the daughter of John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll, who had been created Earl of Greenwich in 1715 and Duke of Greenwich in 1719, titles which became extinct on his death in 1743.

As Caroline's two sons by her second husband predeceased her, the title became extinct upon her death in 1794, and reverted back to the Crown.

The second creation came in the Peerage of the United Kingdom in 1947, when Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, on the morning of his wedding to Princess Elizabeth (who became Queen Elizabeth II), was made Baron Greenwich, of Greenwich in the County of London. He was made Duke of Edinburgh and Earl of Merioneth at the same time. Prince Philip died on 9 April 2021, and the title passed to his son Charles, Prince of Wales, until it merged with the Crown when he became King Charles III on 8 September 2022.

Issue

By King Charles II of England, Nell Gwyn had two sons:

 The Rt. Hon. Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St. Albans (8 May 1670 – 10 May 1726), created Earl of Burford and Baron Heddington, in the county of Oxfordshire, on 21 December 1676 at the age of 6, and Duke of St. Albans in 1684 at the age of 14.
 The Rt. Hon. Lord James Beauclerk, Baron Heddington (25 December 1671 – September 1680 or 1681), designated as brother's heir to the Earl of Burford title in 1676 at the age of 5, should his elder brother fail to produce issue.

James Beauclerk was sent to school in Paris, France when he was 6, where he died there in either September 1680 or 1681. The circumstances of the child's life in Paris and the cause of his death are both unknown, one of the few clues being that he died "of a sore leg", which Beauclerk speculates could mean anything from an accident to poison. It is also unknown if James Beauclerk's body was buried in France or England. The family's history has been published in the authoritative book The House of Nell Gwyn (1974).

Charles Beauclerk, however, survived to adulthood. On 17 April 1694, at the age of 23, he married Lady Diana de Vere, daughter and sole heiress of Aubrey de Vere, 20th Earl of Oxford. She was a well-known beauty, who became a Lady of the Bedchamber to Caroline of Ansbach, Princess of Wales. By his wife, Charles Beauclerk gave Nell Gwyn twelve grandchildren:

Grandchildren
Charles Beauclerk, 2nd Duke of St. Albans (6 April 169627 July 1751), eldest son and heir;
Lady Diana Beauclerk (born c. 1697)
Lord William Beauclerk (22 May 169823 February 1733 N.S.)
Admiral Vere Beauclerk, 1st Baron Vere (14 July 169921 October 1781)
Colonel Lord Henry Beauclerk (11 August 17015 January 1761)
Lord Sidney Beauclerk (27 February 170323 November 1744)
Lieutenant-General Lord George Beauclerk (26 December 170411 May 1768)
Lord Seymour Beauclerk (born 24 June 1708c. 1709)
Rev. Lord James Beauclerk (c. 170920 October 1787); was Bishop of Hereford (1746–1787)
Lord Aubrey Beauclerk (c. 171022 March 1741), became a captain in the Royal Navy, and died at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias.
Lady Mary Beauclerk (born c. 1712)
Lady Anne Beauclerk (born c. 1714)

Charles Beauclerk died on 10 May 1726 at the age of 56, and was buried at Westminster Abbey on 20 May 1726, but has no monument or marker. His direct male-line descendant, and current holder of the Duchy of St. Albans, is Murray Beauclerk, 14th Duke of St. Albans (b. 19 January 1939), Governor-General of the Royal Stuart Society.

In stage works and literature
Gwyn has appeared as the principal, or a leading character, in numerous stage works and novels, including:
 1799, The Peckham Frolic : or Nell Gwyn, a comedy in three acts by Edward Jerningham
 1882, A Royal Amour, a novel by Richard Davey
 1884, Nell Gwynne, an operetta by Robert Planquette and H. B. Farnie
 1900, Sweet Nell of Old Drury a play by Paul Kester
 1900, Mistress Nell, a swashbuckling melodrama by George Hazelton
 1900, English Nell, a play by Edward Rose, later retitled Nell Gwynne, adapted from Anthony Hope's book, Simon Dale. Composer Edward German wrote incidental music for the play which is still performed on occasion
 1900, Nell Gwyn – Comedian, a novel by Frank Frankfort Moore
 1924, Our Nell, a musical by Harold Fraser-Simson and Ivor Novello; a rewrite of 1919's Our Peg, replacing Peg Woffington with Nell Gwyn. (The 1922 Broadway musical by George Gershwin, also called Our Nell, was not based on the Nell Gwyn story.)
 1926, Mistress Nell Gwynne a novel by Marjorie Bowen
 1928, Orlando: A Biography, a novel by Virginia Woolf, which references "that amorous lady" Nell Gwyn.
 1939, a character in Bernard Shaw's late play In Good King Charles's Golden Days
 1944, a character in Kathleen Winsor's novel Forever Amber
 1975, Here Lies Our Sovereign Lord, the third part of Jean Plaidy's historical trilogy, The Loves of Charles II
 1986, "Nell Gwyn and her oranges" are referred to in "Move Over Busker", a song from Paul McCartney's Press to Play album.
 1993, a prominent character in Playhouse Creatures, a play by April De Angelis
 2006, The Remarkable Life and Times of Eliza Rose, a children's historical novel by Mary Hooper where Gwyn is a central character
 2007, The Perfect Royal Mistress, a novel by Diane Haeger
 2008, The King's Favorite a novel by Susan Holloway Scott
 2009, Or, a play by Liz Duffy Adams where Gwynne is a central character
 2011, The Darling Strumpet, a debut novel by Gillian Bagwell
 2011, Exit the Actress, a novel by Priya Parmar interwoven with authentic contemporary documents in order to portray the political and social tumult of the time
 2015, Nell Gwynne: A Dramatick Essaye on Acting and Prostitution, a play by Bella Merlin
 2015–17, Nell Gwynn, a play by Jessica Swale

In film and television
 In the 1911 film, Sweet Nell of Old Drury (based on the play of the same name described above), Gwyn is portrayed by Nellie Stewart
 In the 1915 film, Mistress Nell, based on Hazelton's play of 1900; Gwyn is portrayed by Mary Pickford
 In the 1922 film, The Glorious Adventure, Gwyn is portrayed by Lois Sturt
 In the 1926 film, Nell Gwyn, Gwyn is portrayed by Dorothy Gish
 In the 1934 film, Love, Life and Laughter, Gwyn is portrayed by Gracie Fields
 In the 1934 film, Nell Gwynn, Gwyn is portrayed by Anna Neagle
 In the 1941 film, Hudson's Bay, Gwyn's minor part is portrayed by Virginia Field
 In the 1949 film, Cardboard Cavalier, Gwyn is portrayed by Margaret Lockwood
 In the 1969 mini-series, The First Churchills, Gwyn is portrayed by Andrea Lawrence
 In the 1995 film, England, My England, Gwyn is played by Lucy Speed
 In the 2003 mini-series, Charles II: The Power and The Passion, Gwyn is played by Emma Pierson
 In the 2004 film, Stage Beauty, Gwyn is portrayed by Zoe Tapper

See also
English royal mistress

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Ford, David Nash (2002). Royal Berkshire History: Nell Gwynne. Nash Ford Publishing.

 Chapter one, "Nell Gwyn" available online.
 Online at www.british-history.ac.uk. (URL accessed 10 June 2006.)
 Entire book available from Google Books.

External links
Jacob Henry Burn Collection of Nell Gwyn, 1675-1872 at the Harry Ransom Center

1650 births
1687 deaths
People from Hereford
People from Oxford
People from Westminster
People from Windsor, Berkshire
17th-century English actresses
Nell
Beauclerk family
Mistresses of Charles II of England
English stage actresses
Fulham
History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham

Nell Gwyn


Fear in the Night (also known as Dynasty of Fear and Honeymoon of Fear) is a 1972 British psychological horror film directed, produced, and co-written by Jimmy Sangster and produced by Hammer Film Productions. The film stars Judy Geeson as a psychologically-fragile woman who, upon relocating to a rural boarding school where her husband has taken a job, finds herself being tormented by a mysterious figure with a prosthetic arm. Peter Cushing and Joan Collins, respectively, also star as the school's mysterious headmaster and his wife.

Like many horror films of its era, Fear in the Night has been noted for its usage of female hysteria as a central narrative motif, and was released as a double bill in the United Kingdom with Straight on Till Morning, another Hammer film featuring similar themes. In the United States, the film was released as part of a double bill with Demons of the Mind.

Plot
Peggy, an unassuming twenty-two year old caregiver, has recently married Robert Heller, and is scheduled to move with him to a secluded boys' boarding school south of London for his work. The night before she is to meet Robert to leave the city, she is attacked in her home by a one-armed man with a prosthetic hand and falls unconscious. Rattled by the attack, she leaves with Robert the following morning to the boarding school, which is run by headmaster Michael Carmichael.

Robert and Peggy arrive at the school, and settle into their chalet across the road from the main school building. They make plans to meet the Carmichaels for dinner that evening. The next day Robert leaves for work. Peggy explores the empty school; she hears the voices of boys chatting, but finds the classrooms to be mysteriously empty. She encounters the headmaster Michael, who shows her around the building; she leaves him in the school and returns to her cottage. Shortly after entering her house she is again attacked. Robert returns and is very concerned about Peggy's mental state; although Peggy insists that she was attacked, he doesn't believe her. He cancels the dinner appointment with the Carmichaels.

Later, Peggy and Robert go for a drive around the sprawling property, where they meet the headmaster's wife, Molly, who is rabbit hunting. Peggy finds Molly standoffish toward her. That evening, Robert leaves for a meeting in London, and Peggy believes an intruder has come into the chalet; she arms herself with a shotgun. She descends the staircase, and sees Michael entering the front door, and notices that he has a prosthetic arm; panicked, she shoots him, and flees the chalet, but he continues to pursue her. She runs into the school, where she hears a chorus of racket and boys' voices echoing through the halls. Michael corners her in an upstairs dormitory, and she shoots at him again, but he is unresponsive to the gunfire. He approaches her, and she faints.

The following day, Robert returns, finding Peggy in a nearly catatonic state inside the school, and a pool of blood in the hallway. Michael is nowhere to be found. He questions her about what happened, but she says she cannot remember. Robert explains to Peggy that he had originally met Michael when he was working in a hospital as a medical student; the boarding school had nearly burned to the ground in an accident years prior, and, devastated, Michael returned to the property, setting up recordings of boys' laughter and classroom lectures over the building's intercoms to recreate the feeling of the school's former glory days.

That night, Robert meets with Molly in the school; it is revealed that the two are having an affair, and that Robert married the mentally-fragile Peggy in order to coax her into murdering Michael out of fear for her life. Robert brings in Peggy, and Molly demands she reveal where Michael's body is. Molly goes to search for him, and shortly after, the sound of bells echoes throughout the school. Robert binds Peggy's arms and brings her into the main hall of the school, where Michael's voice comes over the intercom. He reveals that he was aware of Robert and Molly's plot to have him killed, and that he had loaded the shotgun in the chalet with blanks. Robert loads the shotgun with bullets, and shoots at what he believes to be Michael hiding under a sheet covering a couch. When he lifts the sheet, however, he reveals Molly's dead body, bound and gagged.

Robert storms out of the school with Peggy, and attempts to hang her from the tree outside in a staged suicide, but is suddenly grabbed in a strangle grip by Michael. The next morning, two policemen arrive, saying they received a call from Michael. Peggy tells them he's inside the school, and that a new term is beginning. One of the police officers tells her that the school has been shut down for years, until suddenly the sound of a boys' choir begins emanating from the building. In the tree behind the school, Robert's dead body hangs from the noose.

Cast
 Judy Geeson as Peggy Heller
 Joan Collins as Molly Carmichael
 Peter Cushing as Michael Carmichael
 Ralph Bates as Robert Heller
 James Cossins as The Doctor
 Gillian Lind as Mrs. Beamish
 John Bown as 1st Policeman
 Brian Grellis as 2nd Policeman

Background
Fear in the Night derived from a script written by Jimmy Sangster called Brainstorm that was originally developed for Universal Pictures in 1963. The film had been scheduled to go into production several times: first in autumn 1964, then "tentatively" in 1965. In 1967 he retitled the film The Claw. It was not until 1971 that the script was altered by Sangster and co-writer Michael Syson and turned into Fear in the Night.

Production

Filming locations
The film was shot on location in Aldenham, Hertfordshire. The scenes featuring the lakeshore (including the scene where Judy Geeson's character encounters Joan Collins') were shot at Aldenham Country Park around the Aldenham Reservoir. Bhaktivedanta Manor was used for the location of the boys' school. Additional filming took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire.

Release
Fear in the Night was released in the United Kingdom on 9 July 1972, shown as a double bill with Straight on Till Morning, another Hammer film with similar themes. The films were shown in cinemas as a double feature titled "Women in Fear." Executive Michael Carreras at Hammer studios conceived the pairing as a marketing tool, stating: "My original concept was to have two properties by the same author on a central theme, being made into two films both directed by the same person."

The film later premiered as a double bill with the Hammer film Demons of the Mind in the United States on 18 October 1972, in conjunction with the Halloween season.

Critical response
Time Out called the film "one of those neatly constructed but slightly mechanical psycho-thrillers which make you feel as if someone is pushing buttons connected to electrodes in your brain", but that "Hammer fans will soon recognise the plot as a thinly disguised reworking of A Taste of Fear (sic)". Graeme Clark of The Spinning Image retrospectively rated the film 6 out of 10 stars, saying: "Fear in the Night did nothing to improve [Hammer Films]'s fortunes, but it received fair reviews and those who did see it found it satisfying, if a shade modest."

Dave Sindelar of SciFilm.org praised the film's performances, but criticized elements of its script, saying: "Unfortunately, it's at the service of one of the most predictable scripts I've encountered in some time, and this is one of those stories that should be anything but predictable", comparing the film to Gaslight (1944) and Diabolique (1955). Popcorn Pictures gave the film a middling review, calling it "a brave attempt by Hammer to go in a new direction but ultimately fails because even in 1972, the plot twists weren't new or original in the slightest. It's entertaining enough if you want to stick it out but it will never be regarded as one of Hammer's better films."

Home media
The film was released on VHS in the United States by Thorn EMI home video, later receiving a VHS release through Republic Pictures in 1998. It was released for the first time on DVD in North America on 8 October 2002 by Anchor Bay Entertainment as part of their "Hammer Collection" series. It was later released in the United Kingdom on DVD by Studio Canal on 15 January 2007.

On 30 October 2017, Studio Canal released a Blu-ray edition in the United Kingdom. Scream Factory announced in 2019 that they will be releasing a Blu-ray edition in North America on 27 August 2019.

Critical analysis
Literary critic John Kenneth Muir has noted Fear in the Night as a mood piece, as well as an example of the gendered fictional representations of "damsels in distress," a motif that was recurrent in horror films of the era, including amongst Hammer Studios' films itself— Straight on Till Morning, which Fear in the Night was paired with upon its British theatrical release, contains similar themes of female hysteria. Muir likens the film to the 1971 American horror film Let's Scare Jessica to Death, in which a psychologically-fragile female figure, also displaced in a new and strange environment, is tormented by events and visions which may or may not be occurring in reality. "Despite such threadbare material," Muir says, "there is an interesting sexual undercurrent to the film."

Commenting on the film's establishing cinematography, Muir further states:Fear in the Night starts with a pan across a field, as leaves blow across it. We then see the abandoned school that is the film's central setting, and experience a feeling of isolation and foreboding. Then the soundtrack broadcasts  eerie singsongy young voices lifted in song, as the camera probes the gym, the dining room, the bunk room... It's a strange tour of a seemingly haunted or perhaps cursed place, and the (effective) punctuation of the montage is a view of a hanging corpse. It's an artistic, interesting way to set the scene for the story proper, but the film never again recovers from the icy, morbid impression of its opening.

David Huckvale, author of Hammer Films' Psychological Thrillers, 1950-1972, compared the film's treatment of flashback and time to Parsifal, and claims that the film operates as a "series of essays on nostalgia"— "The plot of Fear in the Night depends on Peggy's vulnerability caused by [...] trauma, and much of the film's dramatic tension is built upon her anxiety that the past is not over and done with."

Huckvale also draws comparisons on the character of Molly Carmichael (Joan Collins) as a catalyst to Peggy's purported hysteria, likening her to the unnamed wife of Maximilian de Winter in Daphne du Maurier's Rebecca. "[The character] of Peggy marries a man she knows little about and then finds herself transplanted into a grand house with its own intimidating rituals, but with the major difference that the Rebecca figure is still there in the form of Joan Collins' Molly Carmichael," Huckvale says. "Peggy sees the heartless Molly shoot a cute little rabbit. Molly is a brutal, catlike character, and her superficial smile collapses when Peggy and Robert leave."

Huckvale's interpretation of the scene between Peggy (Judy Geeson) and Headmaster Carmichael (Peter Cushing), during which he removes her hair-tie, as a metaphor for sexual violation, echoing John David Muir's claim of the film's sexual undercurrents: Just as the Biblical Samson's hair signified his virility, so too does Mélisande's hair stand for her sexual allure. Thus, when Carmichael unties Peggy's hair band, we are intended to interpret the act as a form of sublimated rape— at least that is the implication at this stage in the plot. It also gives Sangster an opportunity to reveal Carmichael's prosthetic arm, which he threateningly clicks into position to hold one end of the ribbon while he unties the knot with his other hand. Carmichael does indeed seem to be the man who attacked Peggy in London, but things are never so obvious in a Sangster script.

See also
List of Hammer films
Gender in speculative fiction

References

Sources

External links

Fear in the Night at the British Film Institute
Original theatrical trailer for Fear in the Night by Hammer Films

1972 films
1972 horror films
1970s thriller films
1970s English-language films
British horror films
British thriller films
1970s psychological horror films
Films shot at EMI-Elstree Studios
Hammer Film Productions horror films
Films directed by Jimmy Sangster
Films shot in Hertfordshire
Films set in England
Girls with guns films
Films about fear
1970s feminist films
Films with screenplays by Jimmy Sangster
Films produced by Jimmy Sangster
1970s British films

Fear in the Night (1972 film)