The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare was a British journal, devoted to the promotion of the theories and practices (and the collection and dissemination of reports of the applications) of the pseudoscientific concepts of mesmerism and phrenology, and the enterprise of "connecting and harmonizing practical science with little understood laws governing the mental structure of man". The name derived from the Greek word Zoe (ζωή) meaning "life". The Zoist was published quarterly, without a break, for fifteen years: from March 1843 until January 1856.

Edited by John Elliotson, the founder, and former president of the London Phrenological Society, who had been expelled from the University College Hospital in 1838 for his mesmeric practices, and William Collins Engledue, a former President of the British Phrenological Association, who was ostracized by both his medical colleagues for his dedication to mesmerism and phrenology, and by the majority of phrenologists for his rejection of their "socio-religious", spiritual position,<ref>Such as that maintained by William Scott, President of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society, in his The Harmony of Phrenology with Scripture: Shewn in a Refutation of the Philosophical Errors contained in Mr Combe's "Constitution of Man" (1837); and by Mrs John Pugh (S.D. Pugh) in her Phrenology considered in a religious light; or, Thoughts and readings consequent on the perusal of [G.] 'Combe's Constitution of man'. Phrenology Considered in a Religious Light; or, Thoughts and Readings Consequent on the Perusal of "Combe's Constitution of Man" (1846)], etc.</ref> in favour of a scientific, materialist, brain-centred position that, in effect, reduced mental operations to physical forces.

"The Zoist was a materialist journal; it repudiated metaphysics and argued that everything—including human thinking—could be explained through the laws of the physical universe ..."

The journalThe Zoist's first edition was published in January 1843. It was published quarterly, without a break, for fifteen years from March 1843 until January 1856, and each quarterly issue cost 2s.6d.

It was also published in annual volumes; and the first twelve annual volumes were published simultaneously by Hippolyte Ballière, in London, J.B. Ballière, in Paris, and T.O. Weigel, in Leipzig; the thirteenth and last volume was published by Arthur Hall, Virtue, and Co., in London.

Similar publications
Aside from the already established journal, The Phrenological Journal and Miscellany, which ran from 1823 to 1847, and The Phrenological Almanac, which ran from 1842 to 1845, published by the Glasgow Phrenological Society, there was Spencer T. Hall's The Phreno-Magnet and Mirror of Nature: A Record of Facts, Experiments, and Discoveries in Phrenology, Magnetism, &c., which lasted for eleven monthly issues (from February 1843 to December 1843), the short-lived Mesmerist: A Journal of Vital Magnetism, which only lasted for twenty weekly issues (from 13 May 1843 to 23 September 1843), The Annals of Mesmerism and Mesmero-Phrenology, which lasted for three monthly issues (from July 1843 to September 1843), and The People's Phrenological Journal and Compendium of Mental and Moral Science, published weekly, by the Exeter and London Phrenological Societies, for two years (1843 to 1844).

Then, to add to the mix, James Braid's definitive work on hypnotism, Neurypnology or The Rationale of Nervous Sleep, Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism, Illustrated by Numerous Cases of its Successful Application in the Relief and Cure of Disease was released in July 1843.

Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism
The choice of the "Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism" sub-title for their journal—rather than, that is, "Animal Magnetism & Phrenology"—is a measure of the pragmatic, materialist, "leading edge" proto-scientific orientation of both Elliotson and Engledue.

Their deliberately chosen term "cerebral physiology" (coined by Engledue) was entirely consistent with the original anatomy-centred term of "cranioscopy" (German, ) chosen by the German neuroanatomist Franz Joseph Gall; and it was intentionally applied—rather than the (then) prevailing English, metaphysical, mind-centred term, "phrenology" coined by Thomas Forster (see Forster (1815) – to distinguish their own rational, sceptical, proto-scientific efforts in pursuit of a scientific understanding of (what would be termed, today) "brain science", from the superstitious "phrenology" (which was eventually universally dismissed as a flawed pseudoscience).

Similarly, their choice of term "mesmerism" was intentionally applied to indicate that, whilst they were deeply committed to a scientific ratification, and neurophysiological investigation of the phenomena supposedly produced by mesmeric methods, their interest was almost exclusively in the consequences of the applications of the practices of Franz Mesmer, rather than paying any particular attention to the wide range of metaphysical theories of the "animal magnetists".

Scope
Apart from providing literature reviews and announcements of new publications, The Zoist was a source of information, disciplinary interaction, original accounts of phenomena, relevant case studies of its application to wide range of conditions, ranging from epilepsy, stammering, and headache, to torticollis, asthma, and rheumatism, and extensive reports of pertinent innovations and discoveries.

Elliotson was an opponent of capital punishment, and argued, within the Zoist, based upon his phrenological analysis of the heads of executed murderers, that not only was phrenology true, but also that, from this, capital punishment was futile as a deterrent.

According to Gauld (1992, pp. 219–243), apart from its concentration on mesmerism and phrenology, The Zoist was one of the principal sources for information, discussion, and education in the following domains of interest:
(1) Mesmeric Analgesia: although The Zoist would become the major vehicle for the (post-1846) reports of James Esdaile's work in India, it completely ignored the extensive (early 1842) work reported by Braid in his Neurypnology (1843, p. 253). Elliotson had already published his Numerous Cases of Surgical Operations without Pain in early 1843.
(2) Phreno-mesmerism (a.k.a. phreno-magnetism)In his extended discussion of phrenology, in Chapter 6, of his Neurypnology (1843, pp. 79–149), James Braid clearly states (p. 105) that he began his investigations of phreno-mesmerism—which he deals with at pp. 105–149in April 1842 (just six weeks before Neurypnology was sent to the printer); and, it also extremely clear that, as a result of the researches and experiments undertaken over an extended period of time, Braid became convinced that there was no justification in the claims of the phreno-mesmerists (see Braid, !844). and hemicerebral mesmerism (the mesmerization of each hemisphere of the brain separately).
(3) "Reichenbach phenomena" and other matters.
(4) Electro-biology and related matters.
(5) Alleged instances of extra-sensory perception (ESP) occurring in a mesmeric context.

Influence
Unlike France, where the conflict between the conventional medical establishment and the advocates of mesmerism took place in the public/political arena, the British debate between the conventional medical establishment and the scientific advocates of mesmerism, such as Elliotson and Engledue, took place mainly in the medical literature on the one hand (such as Wakley's Lancet), and The Zoist on the other.

Given Wakley's implacable opposition to Elliotson, it is not surprising that, from time to time, "The Lancet continued to fulminate against the mesmerists" maintaining that "all those connected with The Zoist were 'lepers', and doctors who practised mesmerism, traitors...".

Stress on the power of the imagination
A constant aspect of The Zoist's approach was its stress on the power of the imagination. In January 1855, in an article summarizing the Zoist's extensive coverage of the issue over more than a decade, Elliotson wrote of how, "in mesmeric states the effect of imagination is far greater than in the ordinary state, and we suspect that in persons not in the mesmeric state, but who have been formerly mesmerised, the power is far greater than in those who have never been mesmerised".

Contributions
Apart from Elliotson, Engledue, and an otherwise (at the time) unidentified constant contributor, operating under the nom de guerre of "L.E.G.E.", and apart from its exhaustive reports of the clinical and social applications of mesmerism and phrenology, and pain-free medical and dental surgery, and progress reports from the London mesmeric Infirmary, The Zoist featured an exceptionally wide range of items contributed by a wide range of contributors (many of whom remained anonymous) from Britain, the colonies, and the United States. For example:
 Three phrenological articles by Herbert Spencer: "A New View of the Functions of Imitation and Benevolence", "On the Situation of the Organ of Amativeness", and "A Theory concerning the Organ of Wonder".
 A poem written by Miss Anna Savage, reprinted from her recently released collection, Angel Visits (1845): "The Magnetic Sleeper".
 The publication of a previously unpublished paper, written by Thomas Symes Prideaux, esq. of Southampton in June 1839, which advocated using phrenology to select members of parliament (originally written for a "best essay" competition conducted in 1839 by the Phrenological Journal): "On the Application of Phrenology in the Choice of Parliamentary Representatives".Prideaux appended the following note to the publication: "It must be remembered that this was written nearly seven years ago. Phrenology since this period has made rapid strides towards being regarded as an accepted science. A phrenological chair has lately been instituted in one of our universities. The subject has been popularized by the allusions of writers of fiction and others, and an expression of disbelief in the science would not be considered a mark of ignorance by most persons having any pretension to keep pace with the knowledge of the day." (p. 416)
 Another poem from Miss Anna Savage, "suggested by the reply of a slave, who, on being asked to describe his feelings in the mesmeric state, answered, 'As I never felt before—free'.": "Verses by Miss Savage".
 A letter from Harriet Martineau describing her mesmeric treatment of a cow: "Mesmeric Cure of a Cow".
 A second letter from Harriet Martineau describing the angry visit of the veterinarian who had previously tried, in vain, to treat her dangerously ill cow (which was now quite well), on his hearing the news of its recovery: "Distressing effects in a Doctor upon the removal of a Disease from a Cow with Mesmerism".
 A contribution by Lieutenant Richard F. Burton, of Bombay: "Remarks upon a form of Sub-mesmerism, popularly called Electro-Biology, now practised in Scinde and other Eastern Countries".
 A communication from William John Tubbs, L.S.A. (London), M.R.C.S. (England), surgeon and mesmerist, of Upwell, Cambridgeshire to the effect that the son of John Tuck, labourer of Norfolk, and Elizabeth Tuck (née Rollins) had been christened "Mesmer":

 In response to a query from "A Patient", the editors of The Zoist, whilst assuring the enquirer that "we feel as much as he does the difficulty of procuring good mesmerisers", proceeded to set down a set of positive and negative selection criteria: "Choice of a Mesmeriser".
 Yet another poem, this time from Mrs Maria Abdy, widow of the late Rev. John Channing Abdy, M.A., of St. John's, Southwark: "The Mesmerist".

The end of The Zoist
In a parting address to their journal's readers and subscribers written on 31 December 1855, the editors of The Zoist reminded their readers that they had sought "neither pecuniary gain nor worldly reputation", and had willingly undertaken the enterprise despite the fact that "loss was nearly certain", and that "contempt, ridicule, virulent abuse, and serious injury, were all inevitable".

Yet, they assured their readers, "the object for which The Zoist was undertaken"—namely, "the establishment of truths, splendid, exquisite, extensive in their bearings, and of the highest importance to the moral and corporeal well-being of mankind"—had been attained; and that it was their hope that it would "be regarded as a complete work which has come out in fifty-two numbers", and be recognized as "a rich store", and would be used as "a solid work of reference for years to come": see Gallery.

Footnotes

References

 Braid, J., "Experimental Inquiry, to Determine whether Hypnotic and Mesmeric Manifestations can be Adduced in Proof of Phrenology", The Medical Times, Vol. 11, No. 271, (30 November 1844), pp. 181–182.
 Braid, J., Neurypnology or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism Illustrated by Numerous Cases of its Successful Application in the Relief and Cure of Disease, John Churchill, (London), 1843.N.B. Braid's Errata, detailing a number of important corrections that need to be made to the foregoing text, is on the un-numbered page following p. 265.
 Carpenter, W.B., Principles of Mental Physiology: With their Chief Applications to the Psychology, Pathology, Therapeutics, Hygiene, and Forensic Medicine (Fifth Edition), John Churchill, (London), 1855.
 Carpenter, W.B., "On the Influence of Suggestion in Modifying and directing Muscular Movement, independently of Volition", Royal Institution of Great Britain, (Proceedings), 1852, (12 March 1852), pp. 147–153.
 Clarke, J.F., "A Strange Chapter in the History of Medicine", pp. 155–169 in [1874], Clarke, J.F., Autobiographical Recollections of the Medical Profession, J. & A. Churchill, (London,), 1874.
 Collyer, R.H., Psychography, or, The Embodiment of Thought: With an Analysis of Phreno-magnetism, "Neurology", and Mental Hallucination, Including Rules to Govern and Produce the Magnetic State, Zeiber & Co., (Philadelphia), 1843.
 Cooter, R J., "Phrenology and British Alienists, c. 1825–1845, Part I: Converts to a Doctrine", Medical History, Vol. 20, No. 1, (January 1976), pp. 1–21. doi:10.1017/S0025727300021761
 Cooter, R J., "Phrenology and British Alienists, c. 1825–1845, Part II: Doctrine and Practice", Medical History, Vol. 20, No. 2, (April 1976), pp. 135–151. doi:10.1017/S0025727300022195
 Cooter, R.J., The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1984.
 Darnton, R., Mesmerism, and the End of the Enlightenment in France, Harvard University Press, (Cambridge), 1968.
 Elliotson, J., The Harveian Oration, Delivered before the Royal College of Physicians, London 1846, by John Elliotson, M.D. Cantab. F.R.S., Fellow of the College, With an English Version and Notes, (1846).
 Elliotson, J., "The Use of the Sulphate of Copper in Chronic Diarrhoea, to which are added some Observations on the use of Acupuncture in Rheumatism", Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, Vol. 13, Part 2, (1827), pp. 451–468.
 Forster, T., "Observations on a New System of Phrenology, or the Anatomy and Physiology of the Brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim", Philosophical Magazine and Journal, Vol. 45, No. 201, (January 1815), pp. 44–50.
 Gauld, A., A History of Hypnotism, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1992
 Inglis, B., Natural and Supernatural: A History of the Paranormal (Revised Edition), Prism Press, (Bridport), 1992.
 Kurshan, I., "Mind Reading: Literature in the Discourse of Early Victorian Phrenology and Mesmerism", pp. 17–38 in Willis, M. and Wynne, C. (eds), Victorian Literary Mesmerism, Rodopi, (Amsterdam), 2006.
 "Mesmeric Amputation", Medico-Chirurgical Review, and Journal of Practical Medicine, No. 75, (1 January 1843), pp. 280–282.
 Moore, W., The Mesmerist: The Society Doctor Who Held Victorian London Spellbound, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (London), 2017.
 Rosen, G., "Mesmerism and Surgery: A Strange Chapter in the History of Anesthesia", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 4, (October 1946), pp. 527–550. doi:10.1093/jhmas/1.4.527
 Ruth, J., "'Gross Humbug' or 'The Language of Truth'? The Case of the Zoist", Victorian Periodicals Review, Vol. 32, No. 4, (Winter 1999), pp. 299–323.
 Stephen, L., "Combe, George (1788–1858)", pp. 427–429 in Stephen, L. (ed), Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. XI: Clater-Condell, Smith, Elder, & Co., (London), 1887.
 Topham, W. & Ward, W.S., Account of a Case of Successful Amputation of the Thigh, During the Mesmeric State, Without the Knowledge of the Patient. Read to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London on Tuesday 22nd November, 1842, H. Baillière, (London), 1842.
 University of Edinburgh, List of the Graduates in Medicine in the University of Edinburgh from MDCCV to MDCCCLXVI, Neill & Company, (Edinburgh), 1867.
 Winter, A., Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain, The University of Chicago Press, (Chicago), 1998.

External links

 Student Record for John Elliotson – University of Edinburgh, Centre for Research Collections, Individual Records, Students of Medicine (1762–1826)
 Elliotson's (1810) M.D. graduation record: "Jo. Elliotson, Anglus. De inflammation" ("John Elliotson, England. [Title of inaugural dissertation]: Inflammation") – University of Edinburgh (1867), p. 42.
 Elliotson's entry in the first edition of the British Medical Directory (1853) – The Lancet (1853)
 Elliotson's (greatly diminished in size) entry in the second edition of the British Medical Directory (1854) – The Lancet (1854)
 Elliotson's entry in the first edition of The Medical Register  (1860)The General Medical Council (1859): This entry verifies that Elliotson was registered (as of 1 January 1859, the first day of the registration system) as a practitioner under the Medical Act 1858 (an Act to Regulate the Qualifications of Practitioners in Medicine and Surgery), which took effect on 1 October 1858: the Act's official date of commencement.
 Engledue's (1835) M.D. graduation record: "Gulielmus C. Engledue, Anglus. What evidence do we have that the External Senses can be transferred to other parts of the body, as is said to occur in Somnambulism?" ("William C. Engledue, England") – University of Edinburgh (1867), p. 103: From 1834 onwards, English titles of inaugural M.D. dissertations were permitted.
 Engledue's entry in the first edition of the British Medical Directory (1853)The Lancet (1853)
 Engledue's entry in the second edition of the British Medical Directory (1854).The Lancet (1854)
 Doctor W. C. Engledue, Chairman at the Banquet Held in September 1856 to Welcome Home Other Ranks from the Crimea, Proposing the Royal Toast: an 1856 painting by Portsmouth artist and photographer Richard Poate (1811–1878) – in the Collection of the Portsmouth City Museum
 The banquet was held on Tuesday, 16 September 1856: see The Spectator, Vol. 29, No. 1473, (Saturday, 20 September 1856), p. 991; and "Crimean Banquet at Portsmouth", The Times'', No. 22475, (Wednesday, 17 September 1856), p. 9, col. B.

1843 establishments in the United Kingdom
Alternative and traditional medicine journals
English-language journals
Publications established in 1843
Quarterly journals
Phrenology
Neuroscience journals
History of neuroscience
History of mental health in the United Kingdom
Fringe science journals
Physiology journals
Hypnosis
Publications disestablished in 1856
Defunct journals of the United Kingdom
Academic journals associated with learned and professional societies

The Zoist


Bangshi River (also spelt Bansi) () is an important river in central Bangladesh. It originates in Jamalpur, from the course of the old Brahmaputra  and flows past the Madhupur tract. It flows through Tangail and meets the Tongi in Ghazipur. It passes near Jatiyo Smriti Soudho in Savar and falls into the Dhaleshwari. About  long, it is not navigable for most of the year except when swelled by the rains of the monsoon. Louhajang is a tributary of the Bangshi. Dhamrai on the banks of the Bangshi is famous for its muslin weaving.

Turag-Bangshi River basin
A report on wetland protection and enhancement says, "The Turag-Bangshi floodplain is located in Kaliakair Upazila of Gazipur District. Upstream the basin is connected via the Dhaleswari-Pungli River to the greater Jamuna floodplain, and downstream it is connected through the Tongi River with the Buriganga-Meghna River system. The Upper Turag-Lower Bangshi is the main source of water in the region and flows through the site. All associated beels and other floodplain areas are connected to the main river through a series of khals and other channels. This is a deeply flooded area in the low-red soil plateau of Madhupur tract. The floodplain
is inundated when water flows over the banks of the Turag-Bangshi river making all the low areas become a connected sheet of water in the monsoon. By late November, most of the water recedes and boro rice is planted in almost all of the low-lying areas. During the rainy season the water area is about 43 km² while in the dry season the water area becomes less than 7 km². About 2,68,900 people live in this area with 84% of households being involved in fishing, and 15 % of households are full time fishers."

A bazar nayar hat situated at bank while the famous pottery village pal para is also situated on south side of Bangshi.

References

External links

Rivers of Bangladesh
Rivers of Dhaka Division

Bangshi River


Cook Inlet (; Sugpiaq: Cungaaciq) stretches  from the Gulf of Alaska to Anchorage in south-central Alaska. Cook Inlet branches into the Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm at its northern end, almost surrounding Anchorage.  On its southern end, it merges with Shelikof Strait, Stevenson Entrance, Kennedy Entrance and Chugach Passage.

The Cook Inlet and both its arms are bodies of brackish water, containing a turbid mix of ocean salt-water and freshwater runoff from the various rivers and streams. The narrow channel of the inlet funnels the tides creating very fast-moving currents, rip tides, and occasional bore tides. Cook Inlet watershed is the most populated watershed in Alaska. The watershed covers about  of southern Alaska, east of the Aleutian Range, south and east of the Alaska Range, receiving water from its tributaries, which include the Knik River, the Little Susitna River, the Susitna and Matanuska rivers, Eagle River, Ship Creek, Resurrection Creek, Portage Creek, Kenai River, and many others. The watershed includes the drainage areas of Denali (formerly named Mount McKinley) and is the collection point for the runoff from many surrounding glaciers, leading to the high turbidity and large silt deposits. Within the watershed there are several national parks and the active volcano Mount Redoubt, along with three other historically active volcanoes. Cook Inlet provides navigable access to the port of Anchorage at the northern end, and to the smaller Homer port further south. Before the growth of Anchorage, Knik was the destination for most marine traffic in upper Cook Inlet. Approximately 400,000 people live within the Cook Inlet watershed.

Geography

Cook inlet, along with the Kenai Peninsula, the Kenai Mountains, the Chugach Mountains, and Kodiak Island, formed approximately 65 million years ago, just after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Like most of Alaska's mountains, they consist mainly of sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock that were deposited on the ocean floor during the Cretaceous era. This area, where a corner of the Pacific Plate subducts under the North American Plate, uplifted the ocean floor and compressed it, causing the crust to thicken and scrunch. Tectonic forces lifted the mountains and peninsula out of the water, forming a valley that was cut off from the ocean to the north and the west. The rest of Alaska's mountains were formed in the same manner, in cyclic events, and the mountain ranges become progressively older the further north they lie. Thus, the Cook Inlet and its surrounding land masses are rather young compared to those of the Alaska Range, which formed around 126 million years ago, or the Brooks Range which formed around 256 million years ago. The valley left by this continental compaction remains open to the Gulf of Alaska to the south, forming the inlet as it exists today. The surrounding mountains were host the large ice sheets and glaciers during the Pleistocene epoch (the Ice Ages, around 2 million to 11,000 years ago) which scoured the land and formed vast plains and moraines surrounding much of the upper inlet from glacial till that was deposited.

Cook Inlet exists in a subsidence zone which contains many faults, and is frequently prone to earthquake activity. The primary fault, the Aleutian Fault, is found in the nearby Aleutian Trench in the Gulf of Alaska, where a corner of the Pacific Plate is forced underneath Alaska at a 45 degree angle. Thus, most of the uplift force occurs along a line from Kodiak Island and up the Kenai Mountains to the Chugach mountains. The inlet lies in a region where the crust is wrinkled under this force and the tectonic forces push the ground downward. In 1964, a megathrust earthquake occurred when over 600 miles of the Aleutian fault ruptured, uplifting the Kenai Mountains 60 feet (20 meters) in under 5 minutes. With a magnitude of 9.2, the earthquake was the fourth largest ever recorded. It devastated Anchorage where much of downtown dropped several stories, and the mountains surrounding the Turnagain Arm subsided 8 feet (2.4 meters), submerging the towns of Portage and Girdwood, as well as long stretches of the Seward Highway.

Because it lies along a subduction zone, the Cook Inlet region contains active volcanoes, including Augustine Volcano and Mount Redoubt, and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Hot magma and steam from the subducting ocean floor build up within these volcanoes, which tend to erupt in fairly regular cycles with very explosive force, often spewing volcanic ash tens of thousands of feet (several kilometers) high. Volcanic eruptions in the region have been associated with earthquakes and tsunamis, and debris avalanches have resulted in tsunamis also. There was an earthquake of the magnitude of 7.1 on December 31, 1901 generated by an eruption that caused several tsunamis. In 2009 a lahar from Mt. Redoubt threatened the Drift River oil terminal.

Cook Inlet has the fourth largest tidal range in the world. The shape of the inlet and its orientation with respect to the lunar orbit causes the tide to come in and go out very rapidly. As the inlet narrows, the speed of the water increases, creating very powerful currents with speeds of up to 6 knots (7 miles per hour). While lined with large areas of silt, the central and upper inlet is filled with narrow troughs that may be 150 to 300 feet (50 to 100 meters) deep. These, along with the tides, provide a challenge to ships navigating through the waters. The strong tides create powerful rip tides and bore tides which are sometimes among the largest in the world. Tidal bores occur within the inlet, and especially Turnagain Arm, almost daily, but are usually too small to notice. Large bores tend to occur after extreme tidal lows, appearing as a wall of water sometimes over 10 feet high as the tide comes in all at once. Large bores are less frequent, and are typically formed during a new or full moon, especially when the moon is at perigee. Unlike areas around the Bering Sea where weather is largely affected by sea ice, the waters of the inlet are warmed by the Alaska Current in the Gulf of Alaska, part of the North-Pacific Subpolar Gyre, which affects the climate and keeps the temperatures in the Cook Inlet region fairly moderate compared to the extremes found in other parts of the state.

History

The inlet was first explored and settled by Alutiiq people, tribes of coastal-dwelling Pacific Eskimos, beginning around 6000 years ago. The Chugach arrived around the first century and were the last of the Alutiiq people to settle in the area, but abandoned it after tribes of Dena'ina people, an Athabaskan people from the interior of the state, arrived sometime between 500 and 1600 AD. In the 18th century, Russian fur hunters (promyshlenniki) were among the first European visitors. The Lebedev Lastochkin Company leader Stepan Zaikov established a post at the mouth of the Kenai River, Fort Nikolaev, in 1786.  These fur trappers used Siberian Native and Alaska Native people, particularly Aleuts from the Aleutian Islands and Koniag natives from Kodiak, to hunt for sea otters and other marine mammal species for trade with China via Russia's then-exclusive inland port of trade at Kiakhta.

Other Europeans to visit Cook Inlet include the 1778 expedition of James Cook, its namesake, who sailed into it while searching for the Northwest Passage. Cook received maps of Alaska, the Aleutians, and Kamchatka during a visit with Russian fur trader Gerasim Izmailov in Unalaska, and combined these maps with those of his expedition to create the first Mercator projection of the North Pacific.  The inlet was named after Cook in 1794 by George Vancouver, who had served under Cook in 1778. Turnagain Arm was named by Cook, "turnagain" being a moniker he had used before, at his annoyance at having to turn around after exploring another dead end.

Upon reaching the head of Cook Inlet, Cook was of the opinion that both Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm were the mouths of rivers and not the opening to the Northwest Passage. Under orders by the British Crown to ignore any such rivers and inlets, he had initially planned to pass it by, but at the insistence of John Gore and many others of his crew, he reluctantly agreed to explore the area. Cook anchored at Ship Creek and encountered the local Natives for the first time when two men approached in kayaks, invited them to come ashore. Under Cook's orders, William Bligh, of HMS Bounty fame, organized a party to travel up Knik Arm. Bligh served as Cook's Sailing Master on this, his 3rd and final voyage, the aim of which was discovery of the Northwest Passage. After meeting with some local Dena'ina, Bligh returned to report Knik Arm indeed led only to a couple of rivers.

Cook sailed up Turnagain Arm in his ship, the HMS Resolution, finding it impossible to navigate against the strong currents and mudflats, and got stuck on a sandbar when he tried to get back out, having to wait for the tide to come in and free his ship. He never actually confirmed it led to a river, which led to a decade of massive speculation until George Vancouver returned to finish the map. Having been in a bad mood since first agreeing to explore the area, and as a result of this frustration, the second body of water was given the disingenuous name "Turn Again". Early maps label Turnagain Arm as the "Turnagain River".

The S.S. Farallon was a wooden Alaskan Steamship Company liner that struck Black Reef in the Cook Inlet on January 5, 1910. All thirty-eight men on board survived, and were rescued twenty-nine days later. Few white people visited upper Cook Inlet until construction of the Alaska Railroad along the eastern shores of Turnagain Arm and Knik Arm of Cook Inlet around 1915. The natives of the Eklutna village are the descendants of the residents of eight native villages around upper Cook Inlet.

During the 1964 Alaska earthquake, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as  by subsidence and subsequent tidal action. Both hamlets were destroyed. Girdwood was later relocated inland and Portage was abandoned. About  of the Seward Highway sank below the high-water mark of Turnagain Arm; the highway and its bridges were raised and rebuilt in 1964–66.

Communities
Most of Alaska's population is in the Cook Inlet area, with highest concentration in Anchorage. Along the East side of the Cook Inlet, the Kenai Peninsula is host to many smaller fishing communities, such as Kenai, Soldotna, Ninilchick, Anchor Point and Homer.  Many residents of the Kenai rely on income generated from fisheries in the Cook Inlet. The west side of the Inlet is not connected to any major road systems and is typically accessed by boat or plane, including the village of Tyonek, Alaska, some oil camps, and many seasonal fishing camps.

Resources

The Cook Inlet Basin contains large oil and gas deposits including several offshore fields.    As of 2005 there were 16 platforms in Cook Inlet, the oldest of which is the XTO A platform first installed by Shell in 1964, and newest of which is the Osprey platform installed by Forest Oil in 2000.  Most of the platforms are operated by Union Oil, which was acquired by Chevron in 2005. There are also numerous oil and gas pipelines running around and under the Cook Inlet.  The main destinations of the gas pipelines are to Kenai where the gas is primarily used to fuel commercial fertilizer production and a liquified natural gas (LNG) plant and to Anchorage where the gas is consumed largely for domestic uses.

Alaska has approximately half the known coal reserves in the U.S. For decades, there has been a proposal to build a large coal mine (the Chuitna Coal Mine) on the west side of Cook Inlet near the Chuitna River, and the native village of Tyonek, Alaska. American Rivers placed the Chuitna River on its list of America's Ten Most Endangered Rivers of 2007, based on the threat of this mine.

Turnagain Arm is one of only about 60 bodies of water worldwide to exhibit a tidal bore. The bore may be more than six feet high and travel at 15 miles per hour on high spring tides and opposing winds. Turnagain Arm sees the largest tidal range in United States, with a mean of 30 feet (9.2 m), and the fourth highest in the world, behind Bay of Fundy (11.7m), Ungava Bay (9.75m), and Bristol Channel (9.6m). The ocean's natural 12-hour 25-minute tidal cycle is close to Turnagain Arm's natural resonance frequency, which then reinforces the tide similar to water sloshing in a bathtub.  Tidal fluctuations in the main body of Cook Inlet, while not as extreme as the shallow and narrow Turnagain Arm, regularly reach  or more and exhibit currents in excess of  at full tidal flow.  The inlet and its arms have been proposed as a potentially attractive site for the generation of tidal power.

Turnagain Arm and Knik Arm are known for large areas of silt. At low tide, much of this is exposed, making marine navigation difficult. Historically, ships and boats designed for the area had a relatively flat bottom with a modest centerboard and absence of a large keel because the boats would occasionally become beached at low tide either on purpose or by accident.  This design allowed the craft to support its weight on land without sustaining any serious damage to its structure.  An example of this design is the Nomad, a much photographed fishing boat once owned by Joe Reddington which has sat on a mudflat near Knik for several decades.

These mudflats can also be dangerous to walk on, exhibiting quicksand-like characteristics, and have claimed the life of at least four people who have wandered out on them, usually tourists, with many more being rescued every year.

Cruise ships dock at Seward on the Gulf of Alaska or Whittier in Prince William Sound and transport passengers via bus or train to Anchorage. However, over 95% of freight entering Alaska comes through the Port of Anchorage, which is served by major container ship companies and other carriers.

Conservation

The Cook Inlet beluga whale is a genetically distinct and geographically isolated stock. The population fell to 278 in 2005 and it is listed as critically endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This was perhaps due to local hunt, although a recent article in the Anchorage Daily News questioned this conclusion. Killer whales commonly feed on belugas in the Cook Inlet, driving them to the upper part of the inlet where they often seek refuge in the shallower waters of the arms.

In 2000, the US National Marine Fisheries Service listed the Cook Inlet beluga whale population as depleted and began development of a conservation plan. On October 22, 2008 the Cook Inlet beluga whale was put onto the endangered species list.

Cook Inlet activities include commercial fishing, oil and gas development, release of treated sewage, noise from aircraft and ships, shipping traffic, and tourism. However, it is not known what impact these activities had on the beluga whale population.

The Coastal Marine Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks's School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences working with the U.S. Department of the Interior's Minerals Management Service (MMS), began a three-year project in 2003 focusing on the water circulation in Cook Inlet.

Cook Inletkeeper, a member of the Waterkeeper Alliance, began in 1994 when a group of Alaskans became concerned about the rapid ecological changes in the inlet. The group formally incorporated the following year using settlement proceeds from a Clean Water Act lawsuit against Cook Inlet oil and gas producers. Their stated mission is to "protect Alaska's Cook Inlet watershed and the life it sustains," with a focus on clean water, healthy habitat, local economies, and energy. They are based in Homer.

See also

Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center
Augustine Volcano
Kalgin Island
Knik Arm Bridge
Lake Clark National Park
Captain Cook State Recreation Area

Notes

External links
 United States, Alaska South Coast, Barren Islands National Ocean Service
 United States, Alaska South Coast, Cook Inlet, Anchor Point to Kalgin Island National Ocean Service
 Map of Cook Inlet oil and gas activity Alaska Department of Natural Resources

Estuaries of Alaska
Bodies of water of Anchorage, Alaska
Bodies of water of Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska
Bodies of water of Matanuska-Susitna Borough, Alaska
Kenai Mountains-Turnagain Arm National Heritage Area
Monuments and memorials to James Cook

Cook Inlet


Economic boom is a phase when the economy has a huge increase. It is a natural cycle.

The United States of America had an essential supply of natural resources such as timber, iron, coal, minerals, oil and land. Immigrants provided a plentiful and cheap work force to utilise these resources. This enabled America to become a huge economic power at the beginning of the 20th century. These resources were an important foundation for the economy.

Whilst European economies suffered during the First World War, the USA experienced significant growth. US banks loaned money to Europe and businesses sold much needed goods. The war also provided a stimulus for inventions in production, materials and advertising. Immediately after the war there was a small slump but from 1922 the USA experienced an unprecedented economic boom.

Electricity developed slowly before the war but during the 1920s the electricity industry experienced a huge boom. By 1929 the majority of houses in America had electricity and 70 per cent of them used it for lighting purposes. As a result of the development of factories to produce consumer goods for the American people, the demand for electricity doubled. Electrical power was introduced in factories to drive machinery, and thus it became possible to introduce mass production to a number of factories, e.g. refrigerators, washing machines, vacuum cleaners and radio sets.

The car industry is the best example of mass production during the period. Henry Ford was a pioneer with his idea of producing affordable cars for the people of America. He set about realising his dream by producing his early cars in small workshops. He had groups of men working for him and gradually the cars were built.

Henry Ford and his son posing in the model F Ford car in 1905.
Henry Ford and his son posing in the model F Ford car in 1905
Henry Ford's hard work bore fruit. As he produced more and more cars, he could reduce his prices. By 1925 the price of a car was around $290, which was much cheaper than the price of $850 in 1908. Henry Ford was of the opinion that it was better to sell more cars for a small profit, as that meant employing more workers.

By 1929 Americans owned 23 million cars. The workers earned good wages ($5 per day), thousands of jobs were created, roads were built, petrol stations were built, as were hotels and restaurants. Therefore, the entire economy was given a substantial boost due to the car industry.

In order to help American people to purchase the new goods that were available, systems of hire-purchase and credit were introduced. This meant that a person could buy something by paying for it on a monthly basis. As a result, the majority of Americans could afford expensive goods. In order to encourage Americans to take advantage of the scheme, advertisements were placed on roadsides, on the radio, in newspapers and in cinemas.

During the same period, chain stores appeared for the first time, e.g. J P Penney. Catalogue shopping also became fashionable as it was a convenient way of buying goods.

Economics

Economic boom


Vado Football Club 1913, better known as Vado, is an Italian football club based in the city of Vado Ligure, in the province of Savona.

It plays in the Serie D championship and is best known for being the first team to win the Coppa Italia, a trophy won in 1922 by beating Udinese in the final 1–0.

History
On 1 November 1913 a group of members headed by Angelo Morixe agreed to found a football club in the Savona area, the Vado Foot-Ball Club with president Lino Pizzorno. The social colours chosen for the association were red and blue

The first pioneering club competitions were held between the spaces in front of the Fumagalli factory and the old Vado Ligure railway station, until the work for the Campo di Leo was completed. Until 1919 the football activity of the club was linked to football events of various kinds, purely of a friendly nature; later the team joined the FIGC and made its debut by participating in the regional Promozione (second level of Italian football of the time)

Just at that time, that is in the post-war period and specifically in the year 1922, the Ligurian company won the most important trophy in its history: the first edition of the Coppa Italia, beating Udinese 1–0 in the final thanks to Felice Levratto's goal. Not only that: in that season the team also won its own championship of competence, that of the Ligurian Promotion.

Two years later, in 1924, Levratto participated with the Italy national team at the Paris Olympics.

In 1925, Vado changed the playing field moving to the Campo delle Traversine, which a few years later was renamed to the memory of Ferruccio Chittolina, goalkeeper of Vado who disappeared prematurely in 1946 during a game accident with the Ligurian team's shirt. From the second half of the 1920s until 1932, the Vado served in the Second Division, third level, then fourth, of Italian football. In 1932 he was rescued in the First Division. In 1935, with the new name of Associazione Calcio Vado it failed to gain admission to the new Serie C remaining in the First Division, in the meantime downgraded to the fourth level. However, for the promotion in Serie C only one year was expected, and remained there until 1940.

In 1940 Vado in fact renounced to participate in the championship for serious economic problems; in its place was a team of the Italian Youth of Littorio, which weaved the athletes remaining in the city and enrolled in the First Division of Liguria the GIL of Vado for the 1940–41 season. The team performed well in the championship, winning their group and finishing sixth in the final one. Then it disappeared, and only after the liberation from Nazi fascism the Vado Foot-Ball Club reconstituted in 1945.

In 1946 the team was officially admitted to Serie C with the motivation of having been the winner of a national cup in the past, even though it reached only the fourth round of the First Division

In 1967, the ground "Ferruccio Chittolina" was abandoned by the club that moved until 1978 in the Comunale di Quiliano. In 1976 the engineer Giovanni Ciarlo assumed the presidency of the Vado, and he himself designed the new Ferruccio Chittolina Stadium which in 1978 became the new home of the Ligurian team's home matches.

In 1992, after a friendly match with Udinese, the FIGC returned an exact copy of the trophy won 70 years ago, namely the Coppa Italia, which was sold for economic reasons in 1935 to the Vado club (in the meantime militant in Ligurian Excellence). disconnected from the club and correlated with the national war situation of the time. The trophy is exhibited in Piazza Cavour in Vado Ligure, in the Banca Cassa Risparmio di Savona.

Oscillations especially between sixth, fifth and fourth level championships mark the history of the club up to the present day. In 2013-2014 the team celebrated its 100 years of activity, and on that occasion the Municipality dedicated a special exhibition to the club. In the sporting field, the team again disputed the Serie D (group A) after five seasons in which it was absent, committed to rescaling the levels after the relegation of 2009 from Excellence to the Ligurian Promotion

The team was promoted to Serie D for the 2019–20 Serie D season and retained their league status despite finishing in the relegation zone after being readmitted for the 2020–21 Serie D season.

Stadium
Vado initially played its home games at the Campo di Leo, then moved to the new Campo delle Traversine in 1925, so called because it was built near the local train station, along the Genoa-Ventimiglia line

In 1978, the plant was named in memory of the Vadese goalkeeper Giuseppe "Ferruccio" Chittolina, who was seriously injured during Vado-Altarese match of 7 April 1946 and died in Savona a few days later.

The stadium, which has been modernized several times, is capable of 2000 spectators in two opposing stands (the largest of which has a roof), has a natural grass playing field and an athletics track.

Honours
Coppa Italia
Winners: 1922
Eccellenza Liguria
Winners: 2000–01, 2012–13, 2018–19
Promozione
Winners: 1995–96 (group A)

References

 (and machine-translated poor English) A brief history of Vado's Coppa Italia triumph in 1922

Association football clubs established in 1913
Serie C clubs
Serie D clubs
Football clubs in Liguria
Coppa Italia winning clubs
1913 establishments in Italy

FC Vado


The Orbiting Solar Observatory (abbreviated OSO) Program was the name of a series of American space telescopes primarily intended to study the Sun, though they also included important non-solar experiments.  Eight were launched successfully into low Earth orbit by NASA between 1962 and 1975 using Delta rockets.  Their primary mission was to observe an 11-year sun spot cycle in UV and X-ray spectra. The initial seven (OSO 1–7) were built by Ball Aerospace, then known as Ball Brothers Research Corporation (BBRC), in Boulder, Colorado. OSO 8 was built by Hughes Space and Communications Company, in Culver City, California.

History
The basic design of the entire series featured a rotating section, the "Wheel", to provide gyroscopic stability.  A second section, the "Sail", was driven electrically against the Wheel's rotation, and stabilized to point at the Sun. The Sail carried pointed solar instruments, and also the array of solar photovoltaic cells which powered the spacecraft.
The critical bearing between the Wheel and the Sail was a major feature of the design, as it had to operate smoothly for months in the hard vacuum of space without normal lubrication.  It also carried both the power from the Sail and the data from the pointed solar instruments to the Wheel, where most of the spacecraft functions were located.
Additional science instruments could also be located in the Wheel, generally looking out on a rotating radius vector which scanned the sky, and also across the Sun, every few seconds.

OSO B suffered an incident during integration and checkout activities on 14 April 1964. The satellite was inside the Spin Test Facility at Cape Canaveral attached to the third stage of its Delta C booster when a technician accidentally ignited the booster through static electricity. The third-stage motor activated, launched itself and the satellite into the roof, and ricocheted into a corner of the facility until burning out. Three technicians were burned to death. The satellite, although damaged, was able to be repaired using a combination of prototype parts, spare flight parts and new components. It was launched ten months later on 3 February 1965 and was designated OSO 2 on orbit.

OSO C never made it to orbit. Liftoff took place on 25 August 1965 and all went well through the second stage burn. During the coasting phase prior to third stage separation, its rocket motor ignited prematurely. This registered on ground readouts as an attitude disturbance followed by loss of second stage telemetry, and although the third stage managed to separate itself, it suffered from an 18% drop in thrust. The OSO spacecraft could not attain orbital velocity and instead fell back into the atmosphere and burned up. The failure was suspected to have been caused by a modification to the igniter mechanism in the third stage after some minor technical difficulties experienced on the previous Delta C launch (TIROS 10 on 2 Jul).

The Advanced Orbiting Solar Observatory (AOSO) program was developed in the mid 1960s as a more advanced version of the OSO series. Conceived as a polar-orbiting satellite system, these spacecraft would continuously monitor the Sun and surrounding environment with detectors and electronic imaging ranging from x-rays to visual light. Due to budget constraints, the AOSO program was cancelled in 1965. Instead, it was replaced by the OSO-I, OSO-J and OSO-K satellites. Only OSO-I, which became OSO 8, was ever launched.

Another satellite using the Orbiting Solar Observatory platform was developed and launched: the Solwind-satellite. It was launched February 24, 1979. It was operated by the DoD Space Test Program. It was destroyed September 13, 1985 on an ASAT-missile test.

See also
 Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes

References

External links
 OSO 1 experiments record at National Space Science Data Center
 OSO 1 at NASA's Imagine the Universe

1962 in spaceflight
Satellites orbiting Earth
Solar space observatories

Orbiting Solar Observatory