The African Safari Wildlife Park is a drive through wildlife park in Port Clinton, Ohio, United States. Visitors can drive through the  preserve and watch and feed the animals from their car. Visitors can spend as much time in the preserve as they wish, observing and feeding the animals, before proceeding to the walk through part of the park, called Safari Junction. The park is closed during the winter.

The park considers itself to be one of the leaders in conservation efforts for the animals it supports. Current breeding efforts are focused on the alpaca, white zebra, giraffe, and giant eland.

On November 28, 2019, a large fire erupted in a barn where some of the animals were kept, killing 10 animals. An investigation by the State Fire Marshal ruled that the cause was undetermined, but was not from criminal activity.  The park re-opened on May 14, 2020.

Exhibits

The park consists of the Safari, where visitors drive through the animal's habitat, and a walk through section called Safari Junction.

In the Safari, visitors drive through the preserve, and could see more than 50 species in their natural habitat. The species in the preserve include giraffes, zebras (including the rare white zebra), buffalo, alpaca, llama, warthogs, deer, elk, bison, dromedary and Bactrian camels, and giant eland. Many of the animals will come right up to the cars to investigate and to be fed. The park provides one container of food for each car, and additional food can be purchased. Visitors can drive around the preserve as often as they wish.

Safari Junction includes the Mombasa Food pavilion, Simba Lodge Gift Shop, Pork Chop Downs (pig races), educational shows, and camel rides. It also includes an American alligator, red kangaroos, tortoises and a gibbon island.

Notes

External links

Safari parks
Zoos in Ohio
Protected areas of Ottawa County, Ohio
Tourist attractions in Ottawa County, Ohio
Zoos established in 1973

African Safari Wildlife Park


In the Philippines, censorship involves the control of certain information.

History

Spanish colonial period
Although considered widespread by various American and Filipino scholars, the level of censorship varied depending on the sitting Governor General. Noted publications banned by the colonial authorities were the Noli Me Tángere and El filibusterismo novels of José Rizal which were critical of the Spanish colonial government and the church.

From 1857 to 1883, the Spanish largely regulated the press in the Philippines through the Rules of Printing Matters (Reglamento de Asuntos de Imprenta) under which newspapers were required to obtain a license from the government. This was followed by the Printing Order or Gullón (De policía de
imprenta o Gullón) in 1883 by the Liberal Spanish government at the time which led to the emergence of multiple Philippines newspapers until the end of the Spanish colonial period.

American colonial period
The United States administration introduced laws against sedition and libel in the Philippines in 1901 through the Sedition Act and the Criminal Libel Act. This has led to the closure of El Renacimiento which openly advocated for Philippine independence, advocated the usage of Spanish as an official language, and was critical of Governor General William Howard Taft's policies in 1908.

The Board of Censorship for Moving Pictures (BCMP) was formed on November 27, 1929, through Commonwealth Act No. 3852. By 1930, the first board of the BCMP reviewed 1,249 films for public exhibition, six of which were allowed only with cuts, and two were banned. The BCMP became the Board of Review for Moving Pictures (BRMP) in 1936.

World War II
During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines during World War II, the Japanese banned all publications not for the Japanese audience, save for Manila Tribune, Taliba, and La Vanguardia. Publications by these local newspapers were heavily censored by the Imperial Japanese Army. However underground publications were accessible to Filipinos during this period which allowed the distribution of information not censored by the Japanese.

Post-Commonwealth period
Post-war state censorship of print media is limited as the press functioned as a watchdog of the government. During this period, the Philippine press is known to be the "freest in Asia". The Board of Review for Moving Pictures (BRMP) regulated cinema from the end of the war until 1961. The BRMP was reorganized as the Board of Censors of Motion Pictures (BCMP) during the administration of President Carlos P. Garcia. BCMP was constituted through Republic Act No. 3060 on June 17, 1961, and was placed under the Office of the President.

Martial Law period

As part of the imposition of Martial Law during the administration of President Ferdinand Marcos in 1972 until the 1980s, the press was heavily regulated and censored. All publications including from foreign news outfits had to be approved by the Department of Public Information. Society news, editorial commentary, and content critical to the Philippine government were among those banned. The government seized control of privately owned print and broadcast media outfits. Only Daily Express and Bulletin Today (Manila Bulletin) were allowed to resume operations among those publications that existed prior to Martial Law. These newspapers, along with the Times Journal, were owned by Marcos cronies and came to be known as the "crony press" and served as mouthpieces for the dictatorship. Books such as Primitivo Mijares' The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos and Carmen Navarro Pedrosa's The Untold Story of Imelda Marcos were also banned.

The regulations encouraged self-censorship by the press, which were traditionally adversarial towards the government. In the 1980s, an "alternative press" unsanctioned by the government emerged. Among these publications that form part of the alternative press were Jose Burgos' WE Forum and Pahayagang Malaya; Veritas, edited by Felix Bautista and Melinda de Jesus; Raul and Leticia Locsin's Business Day (present-day Business World); Eugenia Apostol and Leticia Magsanoc's Inquirer and Mr. and Ms. Magazine. The phenomenon of samizdat or xerox journalism also proliferated, which involved the dissemination of news clippings, usually from publications abroad that were not checked by the government's censors. These often proliferated through Filipino journalists working for foreign news outfits.

Foreign journalists critical of the regime were often expelled or had their visas denied or revoked. Marcos accused Arnold Zeitlin of the Associated Press of "malicious and false reporting" during his coverage of the fighting between the government forces and Muslim Filipino separatists in Jolo, Sulu. Zeitlin was expelled from the Philippines in 1976. A year later, the government denied the visa application of Bernard Wideman, a news correspondent of The Washington Post and Far Eastern Economic Review. Wideman covered Marcos' seizure of privately-owned companies such as Philippine Airlines and Philippine Cellophane Film Corporation. Wideman's expulsion was eventually reversed by the Immigration Commission.

Like print and broadcast media, film was also heavily regulated during the Martial Law period. Letter of Instruction no. 13 issued on September 29, 1972, prohibited films that incite subversion and rebellion, films that glorify criminals, films that show the use of prohibited drugs, and films that undermine people's confidence in the government. It also banned films that are contrary to the spirit of Proclamation 1081. President Marcos reorganized the Board of Censors of Motion Pictures as the Board of Review for Motion Pictures and Television (BRMPT) on November 13, 1981, through Executive Order No. 745. He also increased the members of the board through Executive Order 757. The Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) replaced BRMPT on October 5, 1985, through Presidential Decree No. 1986. It was tasked to regulate and classify media, including motion picture and television programs.

Contemporary period (1986–present)
With the advent of the internet in the Philippines, there was debate regarding the necessity of censorship in the 1990s to block cyber pornography in response to reports of Filipinos being prostituted through online means. The issue reached the Senate at the time with Senators Blas Ople and Orlando S. Mercado calling for a hearing on the matter in 1995, and Senator Gregorio Honasan filing a bill as a bid to address the matter.

In 2000, the Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines through the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) launched cbcpNet, its own internet service provider (ISP) which filters out content depicting pornography, homosexuality, violence and devil worship, for its subscribers. This venture failed due to a CBCP partner fleeing the Philippines which led to debt and legal issues. CBCP World, was introduced in 2002, the CBCP's second attempt to setup its own ISP which also offered filtered online access like its predecessor.

The passing of the Cybercrime Prevention Act in 2012, was a subject of concern by human rights activists especially its provisions on cyberlibel. The law was challenged and the Supreme Court ruled in 2014 that the original author of libelous content is only liable against the law saying that the act of posting libelous content is not a crime. The court also iterated that access to websites can't be restricted by the Department of Justice without a prior court order and that the government could not monitor individuals in "real time" without the same.

In September 2020, the MTRCB proposed the regulation of content distributed through online streaming services including Netflix believing that these content falls under their mandate to regulate and classify "all forms" of motion picture. Such plans raised concerns over censorship.

By medium

Television and film

The Movie and Television Review and Classification Board is responsible for rating television programs and films aired in the Philippines. The government agency can classify a film or television program an X rating, effectively banning the work from public screening. The MTRCB is, however, criticized for its views on what constitutes obscenity, and is also accused of giving the X rating to materials for political reasons such as Ora Pro Nobis by Lino Brocka, which gained controversy for its allegations of continued human rights violations in the Philippines after the 1986 EDSA revolution.

Free-to-air television programs in the Philippines are given ratings by the MTRCB depending on content: G (general patronage), PG (parental guidance) and SPG (strong parental guidance) except news and sports programming and commercials. Any program assigned an MTRCB rating must carry a full-screen advisory at the beginning of each broadcast and a digital on-screen graphic at the lower right of the upper left of the screen which must be turned on at the beginning of each program or after a commercial break, and turned off at the end of each program or before each commercial break. Programs with an SPG rating, however, must show the rating advisory twice, at the beginning of each program and after the commercial break at the middle of the program, and carry an on-screen graphic of the rating with content qualifiers for themes, language, violence, sex, horror and drug use as applicable in the program.

Most Philippine free-to-air broadcasters practice self-regulation for their programming. In most TV broadcasts, objectionable graphic content such as bloody depictions of death, gore, and actual cadavers are routinely blurred, grayed out or cut. Scenes containing nudity are generally obscured or cut. Depictions of people pointing guns or bladed weapons to oneself or others are often cropped out. Most forms of unintentional product placements especially in news footage are also blurred. The middle finger gesture is generally blurred out (most notably in the 2016 attack ad against Rodrigo Duterte paid for by Antonio Trillanes). Profanity in either English or Filipino are routinely bleeped in free-to-air TV.

Films released in the Philippines are given any of the five content ratings by the MTRCB: G (general patronage), PG (parental guidance), R-13 (restricted 13) R-16 (restricted 16), and R-18 (restricted 18). The MTRCB may also assign an X rating to a film, usually for pornography or extreme graphic violence, banning it from being released in the Philippines;  possession of such films is considered a criminal offense.

Internet

The Freedom on the Net 2013 by the Freedom House ranked the Philippines 10th out of 60 countries. It said that it did not receive reports that officials are pressuring bloggers or online journalists to delete content deemed critical to the authorities. However, it said that "many news websites are online versions of traditional media which self-censor due to the level of violence against journalists in the Philippines".

It also said that "The government does not require the registration of user information prior to logging online or subscribing to internet and mobile phone services, especially since prepaid services are widely available, even in small neighborhood stores." The same report also stated that the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 negatively affected the state of internet freedom of the country. It has also noted that the internet penetration of the country remains low which it attributes to PLDT's "de facto monopoly" and lack of infrastructure and bureaucratic government regulation. The study says that the monopoly resulted to high broadband subscription fees.

A study released in March 2014 by United States-based Pew Research Center stated that most Filipinos found access to the internet without censorship important or somewhat important. A total of 35% of respondents reported that they found internet access without censorship "very important", 38% "somewhat important", 18% "not too important", and 6% "not important", while the rest reported that they did not know or refused to answer.

In 2017, a large number of pornographic websites, including Pornhub, Xhamster, and RedTube, were blocked under suspicion of hosting child pornography.

The National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) issued an order in June 2022 for internet service providers to block access to 26 websites that were allegedly "affiliated to and are supporting" the Communist Party of the Philippines, New People's Army, and the National Democratic Front, including the media outlet Bulatlat. A Quezon City court issued an injunction in August 2022 ordering the NTC to unblock Bulatlat's website, citing the news website's rights to be protected by the constitutional provision on freedom of speech and of the press.

Video games

No video games are officially banned in the Philippines, but video games were officially banned from 1981 to 1986 and later Letter of Instruction No. 1176 s. 81 following a moral panic over its perceived effects on the youth.

The Philippines also does not have its own video game content rating system, but most video games sold by in-store retailers in the Philippines carry Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) ratings.

See also
Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012
Freedom of religion in the Philippines

References

Censorship in the Philippines


Najem Wali (; born 1956) is an Iraqi novelist and journalist, based in Germany.

Life
Born in Amarah, Wali fled Iraq in 1980 after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. He lives in Hamburg. Wali has published seven books. He is a correspondent for Al Hayat and has written in Süddeutsche Zeitung, Die Zeit, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, and elsewhere.  In 2009 he published "Reise in das Herz des Feindes" ("Journey into the Heart of the Enemy"), an account of his travels in Israel, which presented a positive view of the country.

Officially Najem Wali was – as with millions of Iraqis – born on July 1, 1956. But the truth is that he was born on October 20, 1956, in the south of Iraq. This is just one of many stories in the country of thousand and one dictatorship und thousand and more wars. Having finished his A-Levels in Basra and Amara (his official places of birth, by the way) he began his studies of German Literature at the University of Baghdad. Having passed his university degrees in 1978 he was drafted for military service. In 1980 and during the military service he was arrested and tortured as a "dissenter" and "opponent of war". A miracle made him come clear and he continued the military service up to his discharge in August 1980.

Not long after the Iran–Iraq War started on September 22, 1980, young men in his age were drafted again. He didn't want to go to war, so he decided to leave the country. It wasn't easy to get an exit visa, not least because his name was on the list of people who were not allowed to leave the country. But with the help of bribe and some friends he was able leave Iraq half legally half illegally. He came to the Federal Republic of Germany on November 8, 1980, where he continued his studies of German Language and Literature and obtained the degree of Magister Artium. His thesis dealt with Jakob Michael Reinhold Maria Lenz's Der Hofmeister und die Soldaten und die neuen Interpretationen bei Bertold Brecht und Heiner Kipphardt.

In 1987 Najem Wali went to Madrid to study Spanish literature. In 1990 he returned to Hamburg. Several study visits followed, for example to Oxford in 1993 and to Florence in 1995.

Najem Wali started writing early. He wrote his first story in the age of 16 and began to work as a journalist for Radio Bagdhad and a weekly magazine when he was still a student.
His novel The Journey to Tell al-Lahm was published by Carl Hanser publishing in 2004 and by DTV in 2010. Having become a bestseller and been reprinted several times – especially in the Gulf States, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Egypt, the book soon advanced to a cult novel.

On behalf of the IOM (International Organisation for Migration) Najem Wali helped to organize the first Iraqi elections (January and February 2005) from his German exile. In 2002 he accompanied Günter Grass on his journey to Yemen and took part in many international meetings and conferences, for the last time at the University of Haifa in March 2007 in a meeting themed "Quo Vadis Iraq?"

Today Najem Wali mainly lives in Berlin and works as a freelance author, journalist and culture correspondent of the most important Arabic daily newspaper Al Hayat, as well as Al Mada and the Tattoo Magazine which are based in Baghdad. His books have been translated into several languages. Najem Wali also writes for well known German-language newspapers on a regular basis, such as the Süddeutsche Zeitung, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, and Die Zeit.

Awards and honors
2015: Jan Michalski Prize for Literature finalist for Bagdad Marlboro: Ein Roman für Bradley Manning

Works

Arabic editions
 War in the Night Club District, Sahara, Damascus 1993.
 The last night of Marie, narratives, Dar Sharquiat, Cairo 1995.
 A place called Kumait, novel, Dar Sharquiat, Cairo 1997
 Waltzing Matilda, narratives, Dar Al Meda, Damascus 1999.
 Tel Al Laham, novel, Dar Alsaqi, London, Beirut 2001. (New edition: Merit, Cairo 2005)
 Jussif's Picture, novel, Al Markaz, Beirut, Casablanca, 2005. (New edition: Merit, Cairo 2008)
 The South Angel, novel, Kaleembooks, Dubai 2009. (New edition: Dar Al Mada, Damascus, Beirut and Baghdad 2010)
 Baghdad … Marlboro, a novel for Bradley Manning, Arabic Institute for Studies and Publication, Amman, Beirut, 2012

Translated editions
	Angel des Südens (The South Angel), novel, Hanser, 2011, translated by Imke Ahlf-Wien
	Reise in das Herz des Feindes, ein Iraker in Israel (Journey into the Enemy's Heart, an Iraqi in Israel), Hanser publishing 2009, translated by Imke Ahlf-Wien
	Jussifs Gesichter (Jussif's Picture), novel, Hanser, 2008, translated by Imke Ahlf-Wien
	Die Reise nach Tell al-Lahm (The Journey to Tell al-Lahm), novel, translated by Imke Ahlf-Wien
	Der Krieg im Vergnügungsviertel (War in the Nightclub District), novel, 1989, translated by Jürgen Paul
	Hier in dieser fernen Stadt (Here in this Faraway City), Galgenberg 1990
 Wars in Distant Lands, short story, 2008, translated by Raymond Stock

Notes

External links

1956 births
Living people
People from Basra
20th-century Iraqi novelists
Iraqi emigrants to Germany
German male writers
Iraqi short story writers
21st-century Iraqi novelists

Najem Wali


The Crimean journey of Catherine the Great (), also known as Таврический вояж (Taurida Voyage) at the time, was a six-month (January 2, 1787 – July 11, 1787) inspection trip of Catherine II of Russia to the newly acquired lands of New Russia and Crimea, gained as a result of the victorious wars against the Ottoman Empire (1735–39 and 1768–74) and peace treaties with the Cossack Hetmanate followed by the forced liquidation of the free Zaporozhian Sich.

The trip was carried out with her court and several ambassadors. During the trip, she met with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, traveling incognito. The trip was arranged by Grigory Potemkin, a favorite and former lover of Catherine II. The trip happened just prior to the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792).

The trip is the origin of the expression "Potemkin village", referring to the legend of fake villages hastily erected by Potemkin along Catherine's route in order to impress her.

References

Further reading

Russian translation of the memoir of Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur who took the trip as a French ambassador; see also here

Catherine the Great
1787 in the Russian Empire
Crimea in the Russian Empire
Voyages

Crimean journey of Catherine the Great


Hull Fair is one of Europe's largest traveling fairs. In 1993 the fair celebrated its 700th anniversary.

It comes to Hull, England for one week. The fair opens on the Friday closest to 11 October each year. During this time the fair is open every day except Sunday. Unlike small local fairs, Hull Fair attracts rides, attractions and travellers from a wide variety of different regions from around the country. the fair is opened by the Lord Mayor of Hull on the opening evening, normally at 5 pm. It first opened from 9 to 23 March 1278.

In 1752 when the calendar changed in Great Britain, 11 days were lost. Wednesday, 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752. The people of Hull believed this took away their fair. Angry mobs shouted "Give us back our eleven days". The outraged citizens were given their wish. Even since then, October 11th, or the Friday closest to it, became the fair's starting date.

References

Events in the United Kingdom

Hull Fair


The Battle of Glorieta Pass was a battle during the American Civil War. It was fought in New Mexico Territory on 28 March 1862.  It was one of the farthest west battles of the war. There was a skirmish (or minor battle between small groups) on March 26. This was between scouting parties from each army. The main battle took place on March 28. The Confederates were able to push the Union force back through the pass. However, the Confederates had to retreat when their supply train was destroyed and most of their horses were run off. Eventually, the Confederates had to leave the territory and return to Texas.

References

Other websites
The Battle of Glorieta Pass: A Shattered Dream, National Park Service

Glorieta Pass, Battle of
1862 in the United States
History of New Mexico
March 1862 events

Battle of Glorieta Pass


Year 376 (CCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.

Events

By place

Roman Empire
 Gothic War: Emperor Valens lets the Visigothic chieftain Fritigern and his people cross the Danube from Thrace.  They can live in Lower Moesia if they provide soldiers to the legions.
 The Greuthungi, led by Alatheus and Saphrax, ask for help from the Roman Empire. They are refused.
 The Romans fail to disarm the Visigoths. The Goths break out of their containment area along the Danube.  They go south towards the region near Marcianople (Bulgaria).
 Lupicinus, Comes (Count) of Thrace, tries to bring the Visigoths back under control. He invites Fritigern and the Gothic leaders to a banquet.  During the feast Lupicinus tries to kill the Gothics. Fritigern escapes.
 Lupicinus attacks the Visigoths.  His force (5,000 men) is defeated. The Goths get Roman armour and weapons. Fritigern marches south towards Adrianople (Turkey).
 Winter – Fritigern tries to siege Adrianople.

China
 Zhang Tianxi, ruler of Former Liang, submits to Fu Jiān of Former Qin, thus ending the state of Former Liang. Zhang is made "Marquess of Guiyi".
 China is divided between the Former Qin in the north and the Eastern Jin in the south.

Births
 Cyril of Alexandria, patrairch and theologian (d. 444)

Deaths
 Ermanaric, king of the Gothic Greuthungi
 Theodosius the Elder, Roman general
 Tuoba Shiyijian, prince of the Tuoba Dai (b. 320)
 Yuan Hong, historian and politician of the Jin Dynasty (b. 328)

370s

376


The Garfield Place Historic District is a small residential neighborhood in southern Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. It is a  area covering all properties on Garfield Place, which runs for two blocks between Franklin and Montgomery streets, as well as some on nearby sections of Montgomery and Barclay. In 1972 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Today's Garfield Place was originally part of a  area known as the "Little Commons", owned by the van Kleeck family, when Poughkeepsie was incorporated as a village in 1799. In the first decades of the new century, it grew rapidly and a man named Bronson French bought a portion of the Little Commons. In turn he sold it to a partnership of four local businessmen in 1836, who saw it as desirable for upscale homes since it was close to the center of the village and situated on a hill with commanding views of the Hudson River.

They surveyed the property and subdivided it into building lots shortly afterward. At auction, the lots sold for an average of $25 per square foot. However, the Panic of 1837 slowed the economy shortly afterwards, and ground was not broken until the early 1850s when Joseph Corlies, one of the partners, built himself the house at 28 Garfield as a demonstration of what sort of home could be built on the new street.

Others followed, lured by advertising that cited the quietness of the streets, the view of the river and its proximity to the growing city's downtown. By the 1880s South Liberty Street had been pretty much built out. In 1881, the street's name was changed to Garfield Place in memory of recently assassinated President James A. Garfield. The last lots would be developed in the early 20th century.

The houses continued to remain among the city's most desirable addresses, and later on a carriage house originally built for Corlies' home was converted into another residence, 30 Garfield. The street's success as one of the city's first historic districts led the residents of neighboring Academy Street to seek the same status in 1982. It is subject to special architectural rules enforced by the city's Historic District and Landmark Preservation Commission (HDLPC).

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Buildings and structures in Poughkeepsie, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Poughkeepsie, New York
Historic districts in Dutchess County, New York

Garfield Place Historic District


Lewis Center (also Lewis Centre) is an unincorporated community in northwestern Orange Township, Delaware County, Ohio, United States, in the Columbus, OH Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Its ZIP code is 43035. Although Lewis Center is a small community, its ZIP code encompasses a number of shopping centers and retail establishments that line U.S. Route 23 in the nearby vicinity. The Lewis Center area lies on the east side of the Olentangy River, across from the city of Powell,  west of Alum Creek State Park and north of the Polaris shopping hub. It is located in the Olentangy Local School District.

Lewis Center has a population of 30,398 with an average population density of 1371 people per square mile. The median age in Lewis Center is 33.6, slightly below the United States average of 36.8. The median per capita income in Lewis Center is $49,690 and the median household income is $140,076. Lewis Center is also home of the Olentangy School District, one of Ohio's highest scoring school districts. The district includes 4 high schools. Due to a higher median income, the area has been in a real estate boom, further amplified by the coronavirus pandemic. Newer development such as Evans Farm have resulted in thousands of new houses being built each year. There are many thriving suburban neighborhoods, like Olentangy Meadows, Oak Creek, Alum Creek, Walker Wood, Glen Oak, North Orange, and the Meadows at Lewis Center. Since 2000, the place has seen itself become a large, growing suburb of Columbus.

History
Lewis Center was founded around 1850 when the railroad was extended to that point. The community was named after the family of William L. Lewis, who gave their land for a railroad station in exchange for the naming rights. A post office called Lewis Centre was established in 1852, and the name was changed to Lewis Center in 1893.

Looking at the ancestry of the community members, 31.1% are of German descent. 14.9% are of Irish descent and 10.7% are of English descent.

Notable people
Kenny Anunike, Member of the Denver Broncos 2016 Super Bowl team
Zac Kerin, Member of the Tennessee Titans NFL team
Frederick S. Nave, Arizona territorial judge
Joshua Perry, former NFL player, current resident
Frank B. Willis, Governor of Ohio from 1915 to 1917

References

Unincorporated communities in Delaware County, Ohio
Unincorporated communities in Ohio

Lewis Center, Ohio


The Metropolitan-Suburban Province was a three-member electoral province of the Western Australian Legislative Council, located in the metropolitan region of Perth. It was created by the Constitution Acts Amendment Act 1899, and became effective on 29 August 1900 following a special election to fill all three seats. Historically taking in many coastal and riverside areas in the western suburbs of Perth, it was considered safe for the Nationalist Party for most of its existence.

At the 1950 elections, it was renamed Suburban Province, losing Claremont and Subiaco and moving inland. In 1963–1964, electoral changes to the Legislative Council, which abolished the 10 three-member seats and created 15 two-member seats in their place, resulted in the seat's abolishment, with its area being divided between North-East Metropolitan Province and South-East Metropolitan Province.

Geography
The province was made up of several complete Legislative Assembly districts, which changed at each distribution. It had a more restrictive franchise than the Legislative Assembly, however, so not all voters in the corresponding Assembly districts were eligible to vote in the Council.

Representation

Members

References
 David Black (2014), The Western Australian Parliamentary Handbook (Twenty-Third Edition)

Former electoral provinces of Western Australia
1900 establishments in Australia
1965 disestablishments in Australia

Metropolitan-Suburban Province


The Battle of Ane (Dutch Low Saxon:Slag bi'j Aone, Dutch:Slag bij Ane), was fought in 1227 between Otto II of Lippe, Bishop of Utrecht, and Rudolf II van Coevorden with his army of Drenths. The account of  the battle comes from Quedam narracio de Groninghe de Trentis de Covordia et diversis aliis sub episcopis traiectensibus ("A narrative of Groningen and Drenthe and various other things under the Bishops of Utrecht"), a manuscript from the early 13th century.

Background
From the middle of the 11th century the Bishops of Utrecht were given the lands of Groningen, Overijssel and Drenthe as a fief by the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1141 Hartbert van Bierum, the Bishop of Utrecht gave Groningen and Drenthe as fiefdoms to the brothers Leffard and Ludolf, his vassals. Rivalry amongst the respective heirs, prefect Egbert of Groningen and burgrave Rudolf II of Coevorden led to conflicts between Drenthe and Groningen in which  the Drenths fought both with and against the troops of the bishop. This came to a head in the Battle of Ane.

The battle
On 28 July 1227 the armies of the Bishop of Utrecht Otto II of Lippe and a large group of rebellious Drenths led by Rudolph van Coevorden met on a field near the present-day village of Ane.

The Bishop had traveled to the valley of the Overijsselse Vecht to call the rebellious province of Drenthe to order and teach the local peasants a lesson. He was accompanied by many nobles, famous knights and troops supplied by the Bishops of Munster and Cologne. The bishop and his troops met in Ommen and travelled via Hardenberg (then Nienstede) and Gramsbergen to "that disastrous and cursed place" Ane. Rudolf positioned his troops, mainly peasants, behind the Mommeriete, a quagmire approximately half a mile wide, without bushes or trees, with vegetation covering the treacherous peat. As soon as the heavily armoured knights charged, they sank into the quagmire and were easy prey for the lightly armed, but mobile troops of Rudolf, accustomed to the local terrain.

The Drenths managed to beat the Bishop's forces, and killed most of it including the Bishop Otto II of Lippe, and many of his supporting knights. Otto's successor, Wilbrand van Oldenburg, roused the Frisian people into supporting him against the rebellious Drenths which led to the Friso-Drentic War in 1231-1233 that was initially won by the Drenths. In 1233, Wilbrand's successor Otto III van Holland succeeded in suppressing the rebellion by mustering a large army.

As a penance the Drenths had to build and maintain a monastery, Sancta Maria de Campe (Mariënkamp) near Coevorden. The location proved to be unsuitable and the monastery was moved to a place near Rolde around 1258. The monastery later grew out to become the city of Assen, the present day capital of the province of Drenthe.

In 1967 a monument was erected near Ane to commemorate this battle. It has an inscription in Zuud-Drèents: "Slag bi'j Aone, 28 juli 1227, zie vocht'n ok veur oenze vri'jheid." ("Battle of Ane, 28 july 1227, they also fought for our freedom".)

Noble casualties
 Gerard III, Count of Guelders (wounded)
 Lord Gijselbert of Amstel
 Otto II of Lippe, Bishop of Utrecht
 Diderick van der Lippe, Bishop of Münster
 Gerhard II of Lippe, Bishop of Bremen (wounded)
 The lord of Arkel, and his cousin
 Bernhard van Horstmar, Crusader knight
 Gerhart, Count of Goor
 Dietrich V, Count of Cleves (wounded)
 Baldwin, Count of Bentheim
 Engelbert, Lord of Groningen
 Lambertus van Nettelhorst, Knight (died)

References
Citations

Sources

External links

1227 in Europe
Battles of the Middle Ages
Conflicts in 1227
Battle of Ane
Military history of the Netherlands

Battle of Ane


Lóránd Hegyi, was born on April 19, 1954 in Budapest, Hungary is an art historian, curator and writer.

Education
Lorand Hegyi studied History, Art History and Aesthetics and received his PhD from Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) in Budapest. He worked as researcher at the Institute of Art History in the 1980s and taught at ELTE University in Budapest as well as at Karl-Franzens-Universität in Graz. He dedicated himself to curating contemporary art exhibitions in Hungary, Austria and Germany while writing art historical and theoretical texts about Modernism and Post-Modernism.

Career in the Public Institutions
1977-1999  Researcher at the Institute of Art History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest

1990-2001  Director of the Ludwig Museum (Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig) in Vienna, Austria

2002-2006  Art Director of the PAN, (Palazzo Arte Napoli - Centre Of Contemporary Art Naples), Italy

2003-2016  Director of the Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art of Saint-Etienne (Musée d'Art Moderne et Contemporain de Saint-Etienne), France

From 2017  Art Director of the Parkview Museum Beijing/Singapore, China/Singapore

Life and Work
Shortly after the fall of the Berlin Wall, he was invited to Austria, where from 1990 to 2001 he was director of the Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig Vienna, where he developed one of the largest and most complex collections of Contemporary art of the countries of Eastern Europe and Central Europe, to which he dedicates two great exhibitions: Reduktivismus - Abstraktion in Polen, Tschechoslowakei, Ungarn (Vienna, 1992), Aspects, positions: Fifty years of art in Central Europe (Vienna, Barcelona, Southampton 1999).

In 1995, he was art director of the Triennial of Sculpture Fellbach, Germany where he presented the show Europe – Asia, with forty artists from Asian countries. In 1999, he curated the exhibition 50 Years of Art in Central Europe 1949-1999 (Vienna, Budapest, Southampton) and the show La Casa, il Corpo, il Cuore – Construction of Identities (Vienna, Prague). In 2001, he opened the new contemporary art museum MUMOK, Vienna.

1996 Enver Hadžiomerspahić invited Lorand Hegyi to work at the project Ars Aevi , which was founded in 1992 during wartime. Through donations a great collection of contemporary art was created in Sarajevo. Lorand Hegyi organised about 200 donations from international artists for the collection, which he presented in Vienna and Sarajevo. Furthermore he curated several exhibitions in Sarajevo.

From 2003 to 2016 he was director of the Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art of Saint-Etienne. He emphasized in his exhibition and acquisition program a new global regard on contemporary art which included art from Central and East Europe as well, as contemporary art from Asia. He developed the collection of the tendencies of the 70's and 80's both from USA and Global Europe as well, as the new tendencies in Asian contemporary art. He created the exhibition series of contemporary drawing "Cabinet de Dessin" and a series of thematic exhibitions focusing on an anthropological vision of art like "Domicile – Private/Public" and "Fragile". Lorand Hegyi systematically presented a lot of great contemporary masters like Jannis Kounellis, Michelangelo Pistoletto, Giovanni Anselmo, Günther Uecker, Dennis Oppenheim, Richard Nonas, Joel Shapiro, Roman Opalka, Orlan, Bertrand Lavier, Gilbert & George, Anne et Patrick Poirier, Georg Baselitz, Tony Cragg, Peter Halley, Anish Kapoor, etc..

In 2016 he curated the exhibitions "Intriguing Uncertainties - Contemporary Drawing" in Saint-Etienne, the "Challenging Beauty – Italian Art after the 60s" in Beijing and the "Disturbing Narratives" in Singapore. In 2017, he was nominated to Art Director of The Parkview Museum Beijing/Singapore where he created an important collection of contemporary Italian art. In 2017, he curated the first show of the "BRIDGING ASIA/EUROPE" exhibition series in The Parkview Museum Bejing, which presents artists from Asia and Europe in a form of dialogue. In 2017 he curated the exhibition "Anish Kapoor – My Red Homeland" in Saint-Etienne and the show "The Artist's Voice" in Singapore.

Selected Exhibitions

 Eclectic - New Tendencies in Contemporary Hungarian Art (Hungarian National Gallery, 1986)
 Reductivism - Abstraction in Central Europe (Ludwig Museum, Vienna, 1992) ISBN 3900776334 / 9783900776336
 La coesistenza dell'arte - Un modello espositivo (La Biennale di Venezia, 1993)
 The Austrian Vision - Three Generations of Austrian Artists (Fundacion "La Caixa", Madrid, 1994)
 Abstract / Real: Reference Malevich, Duchamp, Beuys (Ludwig Museum, Vienna, 1996)
 Hermann Nitsch: Orgien-Mystherien-Theater (Palazzo dell'Esposizioni, Roma, 1996)
 Sensitivities - Contemporary Art from Central Europe (European Academy for the Arts, London, 1998)
 La Casa, il Corpo, il Cuore: Construction of identities (Ludwig Museum, Vienna / Narodni Galeria, Prague, 1999) ISBN 9783900776817
 Aspects / Positions: 50 Years of Art in Central Europe 1949-1999 (Ludwig Museum, Vienna / Fundacio Miro, Barcelona, 1999) ISBN 9783900776848
 L'autre moitié de l'Europe (Jeu de Paume, Paris, 2000)
 CONCEPTS OF SPACE (Fundacio Miro, Barcelona, 2002) ISBN 9788493215927 / 8493215929
 Solares (or On Optimism) (Biennale of Valencia, 2003) ISBN 8448235487 ISBN 9788448235482
 Gilbert & George: Twenty London East One Pictures (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne / Kestnergesellschaft Hannover, 2004) ISBN 2-910055-21-3
 Passage d'Europe - Réalités, Références (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2004) ISBN 8874391595 ISBN 978-8874391592
 Domicile - Private & Public (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2005) ISBN 2-85056-897-X
 The Giving Person (Palazzo delle Arti Napoli, 2005) ISBN 9788851003258
 Dennis Oppenheim (Fondazione Volume, Roma, 2005) ISBN 9788836620449
 Lee Ufan (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2006) ISBN 9782916277028
 Roman Opalka: Octogon (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2006)
 Something Happened - Aspects of New Narratives (Slovenska Narodna Galeria, Bratislava, 2006)
 ZERO: Avant-garde International 1950-1960 (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne / Kunstpalast Dusseldorf, 2006)
 Zeng Fanzhi (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2006)
 Micro-Narratives (Octobersalon, Belgrade Cultural Centre, 2007)
 Sean Scully: Une rétrospective (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2007)
 Voyage Sentimental (Poznan Biennale, 2008)
 Antony Gormley: Between You and Me  (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2009)
 Essential Experiences (Palazzo Riso, Palermo 2009) ISBN 9788837073909
 Fragile - Fields of Empathy (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne / Daejeon Museum of Art, 2007)
 The Bearable Lightness of Being (Mostra Internazionale di Architettura, La Biennale di Venezia, 2010)
 Never Found Islands (Palazzo Ducale, Genova / National Museum of Contemporary Art, Thessaloniki, 2010)
 Dennis Oppenheim (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2011) ISBN 9788836620449
 Chung Sang-Hwa: Painting Archeology (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2011) ISBN 9788995635285
 Enrico Castellani - Günther Uecker (Ca'Pesaro, Venezia, 2012) ISBN 9788836626960
 Speaking Artists (Busan Art Museum, 2012)
 Jan Fabre: Les années de l'Heure Bleue (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2012)
 Peter Halley: Since 2000 (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2014)
 Jannis Kounellis  (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2014) ISBN 9788836629466
 Jonathan Lasker (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2015) ISBN 9782849753675
 Giovanni Anselmo (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2015)
 Intriguing Uncertainty (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2016)
 Anne et Patrick Poirier: Danger Zones  (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2016)
 The Artists's Voice (Parkview Museum, Singapore, 2017)
 Anish Kapoor: My Red Homeland (Musée d'Art Moderne de Saint-Etienne, 2017)
 Disturbing Narratives (Parkview Museum, Singapore, 2018)
 Dentro il Disegno / Inside the Drawing (Disegno Saluzzo, La Castiglia, Saluzzo, 2019)

Invited public projects and Committee
Lorand Hegyi also co-curated the Biennale de Venice in Italy 1993, Toyama Biennale in Japan 1993, Stuttgart Sculpture Triennale in Germany 1995, Biennale of Valencia in 2003, Poznan Biennale in Poland in 2008. He was the member of many important Art Committee such as the European Investment Bank in Luxembourg, Committee of the LUXEMBURG FOUNDATION, Committee of the Salzburg Foundation in Austria, French National Art Committee, France, Committee of La Societe Generale, France etc

Selected publications / books

 New Sensibility : Change of Paradigm in Contemporary Art, Magvető Könyvkiadó, Budapest (1983) ISBN 9631400670
 Avantgarde and Trans-Avantgarde : Periods of Modern Art, Magvető Könyvkiadó, Budapest (1986) ISBN 9631408752
 Selections from the Second Wave of the Hungarian Avant-Garde 1930-1960. New York, NY: Paul Kovesdy Gallery (1988)
 Alexandria - Essays on Contemporary Art, Jelenkor Kiadó / Pécs (1995) ISBN 963-676-026-8
 Experience and Fiction - Modernism, Avantgarde, Trans-Avantgarde, Jelenkor Irodalmi / Művészeti Kiadó (1991) ISBN 9637770178
 Diversities, Edizione Charta, Milano (2004) ISBN 9788881584895
 The Courage to be Alone - Re-inventing of Narratives in Contemporary Art, Edizione Charta, Milano (2004)
 Fragilité de la narration, SKIRA/Flammarion Milano/Paris (2008 / 2009) ISBN 9788857203768
 Arte in Centro Europa, Silvana Editoriale, Milano (2011) ISBN 8836617158
 Contemporary Art on Show, Silvana Editoriale, Milano (2012) ISBN 8836623840
 Roman Opalka's Essentiality, Editore Aragno, Torino (2015)
 Significante Incertezza, Hapax Editore, Torino (2016)
 Painters of Uncertainty - Remarks on Narrative in Contemporary Painting, Silvana Editoriale, Milano (2017)
 Narratives in Contemporary Art, Silvana Editoriale, Milano (2018) ISBN 9788836642472
 Tre Maestri: Roman Opalka, Ilya Kabakov, Jannis Kounellis - Interrogazione sul tempo,  Mondadori Electa, Milano (2019) ISBN 9788891827289
Drawing in the Age of Uncertainty, Silvana Editoriale, Milano (2021) ISBN 9788836647460

Awards

 Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, France (2009)
 Chevalier de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres, France (1999)
 Cavaliere della Repubblica Italiana per Meriti Culturali, Italy (2000)
 Gran Cruz de la Orden del Merito Civil, Spain (2000)
 Grosser Ehrenkreutz Der Republik Osterreich , Austria (2016)
 Honorary degree honoris causa (2006)

Other websites
https://annoeuropeo2018.beniculturali.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Espressionismo-tedesco_presentazione.pdf

https://admin.depo.ba/clanak/81864/evropski-kustos-i-historicar-umjetnosti-lorand-hegyi-u-art-depou

https://www.centrepompidou.fr/cpv/ressource.action?param.id=FR_R-54e9dad8cd70f05219ac8e66dce3f&param.idSource=FR_P-54e9dad8cd70f05219ac8e66dce3f

http://dspace.unive.it/bitstream/handle/10579/8929/827921-1189130.pdf?sequence=2

https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/17/WS5ad53ceca3105cdcf6518a25_1.html

https://slought.org/media/files/blood_orgies.pdf

https://www.artpool.hu/Al/al03/Hegyi.html

http://www.arteecritica.it/onsite/roman-opalka-eng.html

http://www.michellunardelli.com/search/hegyi/

Playlist

 "Introduction to the exhibition," with Lorand Hegyi (November 4, 2005)

Audio, 20 minutes.

download

 "Museum Politics in France and the New European Art Scene," with Lorand Hegyi (February 17, 2005)

Audio, 84 minutes.

Art critics
Living people
1954 births

Lóránd Hegyi


Classic country is a music radio format that specializes in playing mainstream country and western music hits from past decades.

Repertoire
The radio format specializes in hits from the 1950s through the 1980s, and focus primarily on innovators and artists from country music's Golden Age, including Hank Williams, Patsy Cline, George Jones, Kitty Wells, Charley Pride, Tammy Wynette, Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, Johnny Paycheck, Kenny Rogers, Emmylou Harris, Dolly Parton, and Merle Haggard, along with English and Spanglish language songs from 1960s to 2000s Tejano and New Mexico music artists like Freddy Fender, Johnny Rodriguez, Little Joe, Freddie Brown, and Al Hurricane. It can also include recurrent 1980s to 2000s hits from neotraditional country and honky-tonk artists such as George Strait, Reba McEntire, Toby Keith, Garth Brooks, Alan Jackson, and Randy Travis.

History
The format resulted largely from changes in the sound of country music in the late 1980s and the early 1990s, as it began moving to FM radio stations in and around major cities and absorbing some of the electric sound of rock music; similar pressures also were a factor in the development of the Americana format at around the same time. These new FM country stations excluded older "classic" country artists from their playlists, despite the fact that artists, such as Merle Haggard, George Jones, Dolly Parton, Willie Nelson, Kenny Rogers and Emmylou Harris, were still actively performing and releasing new recordings, some of which were significant hits.  When mainstream country radio began this practice in the mid-1990s, a large segment of older country fans felt alienated and turned away from mainstream country. Whereas modern country began moving to FM around this time, classic country remained (and still remains) one of the few formats that has proven ideal for AM radio, particularly in rural areas; prior to this transition, country was primarily an AM radio phenomenon and was most widely popular in rural areas.

In 1998, Robert Unmacht, editor of the M Street Journal, said that thirty stations around the United States had switched to the format because many longtime country fans did not like what country radio was doing.

The same practice has seemed to follow to television, where Country Music Television and Great American Country rarely play any music videos produced before 1996, leaving heritage and "classic" artists to networks such as RFD-TV, which features a heavy complement of older programming such as Pop! Goes the Country, Porter Wagoner's programs and The Wilburn Brothers Show, along with newer performances from heritage acts. CMT Pure Country, the all-music counterpart to CMT, relegated its classic country programming to a daily half-hour block known as "Pure Vintage" before abandoning classic country altogether by 2015. (Complicating matters somewhat is a relative lack of music videos for country music songs prior to the 1980s.)

Classic country remains a popular block format on mainstream country stations, usually on weekends.

Related formats
As is the case with rock music (where classic rock, mainstream rock, and active rock all have varying amounts of older music), country music stations also can vary in the amount of "classic" content in their playlist, and formats exist for such stations. In addition to pure "classic country" stations, which play little to no current or recurrent country hits (i.e., recorded after about 2010), country music-formatted stations tend to fall under one of these formats:

 Traditional country: Primarily plays classic country but also plays newer country songs. Some traditional country stations feature a gold-based direction, drawing from country acts that were active in the 1990s and early 2000s (including new material and recurrents), and avoiding modern pop-influenced or "bro-country" songs.
 Adult country: Typified by the Nash Icon national format, adult country (there is no generally accepted name for the format) has a music set newer than a classic or traditional country station (almost never playing songs from before 1980) but not as reliant on current hits as a mainstream or hot country station. Such stations are more willing to play pop-oriented songs than classic or traditional country outlets. Nash Icon describes the format as an analogy: it is to country as adult contemporary is to top-40.
 Mainstream country (or modern country): The most common country music format. Unlike traditional country, mainstream country is generally bound to a top 40 chart for the majority of its playlist, but the format allows stations to fill out the remaining playlists with a mix of classic and recent recurrent songs. In the context of the music industry, "country radio" is largely driven by mainstream country stations.
 Hot country: Focuses exclusively on top 40 country music and – with the exception of a small number of recurrent hits no older than two or three years old – plays very little, if any, older music. Hot country stations may also include non-country pop songs in their rotation.
 A late-2010s format known as "The Wow Factor" attempted to cross the adult country format with classic hits. Its juxtaposition of country and pop bore similarity to the adult hits format. By 2020, The Wow Factor had largely cut its country titles.
 Americana: A more recent and emerging format which plays more Modern "Authentic Country music" that often plays music from the modern country subgenres of Americana and Alt-Country, along with roots music. Classic Country is also common on these stations and are often from the Honky Tonk, Hillbilly, Bluegrass, Western Swing, Bakersfield sound, and Outlaw Country subgenres. The station musical libraries usually varies from station to station as some stations might add in a few rock and mainstream country artists that have a more traditional country influence. This type of station format is the biggest in Texas with Texas Country/Red Dirt music radio (with examples being KFWR and KHYI), this format is also popular online and for shows on public radio and college radio stations.

Dividing line
With a few exceptions, the classic country genre has struggled as a radio format (unlike mainstream country stations). While it has a fiercely loyal audience, classic country stations often struggle to find advertisers. While advertisers are primarily interested in the 18 to 49-year-old demographic age group, classic country usually attracts an older audience. For perhaps that reason, country music fans are often (stereotypically) divided into two camps:
 The younger country music fan (with the exception of the Americana roots music fans), especially if he or she is younger than 30 years old, who is largely unfamiliar with the older country music sounds, especially from the 1980s and earlier, and will find earlier pre-1960s "hillbilly" music (such as that by Hank Williams and Kitty Wells) and its unpolished, Appalachian influences over-the-top and unlistenable.
 The classic country fan, frequently over the age of 50, who—with a few exceptions—often dislikes country music produced after 1990, when the genre began incorporating more rock influence. Such fans often bemoan the electrification of popular country music with the addition of heavier guitars, Hard Rock influenced voices and harder percussion (for example, the music of Brantley Gilbert and some of Jason Aldean's discography), and in more recent years even hip hop influences. Other complaints from this era include the increased cliché-driven songwriting ("Achy Breaky Heart" by Billy Ray Cyrus, one of the biggest country hits of the 1990s, was notorious in this respect, as was the fad of bro-country in the early 2010s) and, although pop/country crossover complaints have occurred since even the late 1940s with artists such as Eddy Arnold and Elvis Presley, the marketing of pop songs with little or even no country influence as "country" songs solely because the artists have previously performed country songs (something Billboard eventually confessed in 2019; modern examples of this include Taylor Swift and Carrie Underwood).

The 1990 dividing line coincided with a change in Billboard magazine's rules for what was then the Hot Country Singles record chart. Prior to 1990, it had operated under a variant of the methods used to produce the Hot 100; singles sales were combined with radio airplay to rank songs on the chart. In 1990, through an affiliation with Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, Billboard dropped record sales from the formula, basing a song's ranking solely on spins on country radio, weighted by a station's listenership. (The formula reincorporated singles sales, both physical and digital, in 2012, but included airplay on non-country stations, thus giving pop-crossover singles a major advantage.) The 1990 change had quick effects: a number of musicians who had had consistent success on the chart through the late 1980s suddenly dropped out of the top-40 by 1991.

Although this 1990-era dividing line, to a certain extent, exists, it is not necessarily universal. "Classic" era country artists such as Kenny Rogers, Willie Nelson and Dolly Parton continued producing hits well into the 2000s that received mainstream country radio airplay (sometimes in collaborations). Other artists from the era that did not continue to receive wider radio airplay after their heyday maintained strong cult followings from fans of all ages; an example of this is Johnny Cash, who remains in high regard many years after his 2003 death. Artists that began their careers in the 1980s, near the dividing line of the classic/modern divide, enjoy followings among both audiences; examples include George Strait and Reba McEntire, both of whom (as of 2014) are still active and performing hit songs. Neotraditional country, a style of country that arose in the 1980s, continues to produce hit songs and artists that draw from the sounds of the classic country era.

In part due to changing demographic pressures, "classic country" radio stations have begun adding 1990s music into their playlists since the late 2000s and phasing out music from the 1960s and earlier. As children who grew up between 2000 and 2009 are now adults, some classic country stations play country music from the 2000s, with 1970s music increasingly being de-emphasized. Some classic country stations are even adding occasional early 2010s music. Examples of this are KLBL in Malvern, Arkansas, the now-defunct WAGL in Portville, New York (which brands itself as "country throwbacks" instead of classic country), and KMJX in Conway, Arkansas. This is not universal, as a limited number of AM radio stations still emphasize the earlier, pre-1980s country cuts; WRVK in Mount Vernon, Kentucky and KWMT in Fort Dodge, Iowa being prominent examples.

Syndicated radio programs
The Country Oldies Show - Three-hour weekend show, also available stripped as hourlong daily shows, hosted by Steve Warren. Music aired is from the 1950s through the 1980s.
Country Music Greats Radio Show - Two-hour weekend show, also available stripped, hosted by Jim Ed Brown until his 2015 death and since that time by Nashville radio personality Bill Cody.
Country Gold - Four-hour weekend show hosted by Terri Clark on Westwood One. Music aired is from the 1970s through the 1990s. Show traces its history to Westwood One's Country Gold Saturday Night, a live five-hour request show that launched in the early 1990s, although most of the series no longer resembles its original format. (The original format now airs as The Original Country Gold on Compass Media Networks, hosted by former Country Gold host Rowdy Yates.)
Classic Country Today - Two-hour weekend show, hosted by Keith Bilbrey.
 Weekend In The Country - Two-hour weekend show, hosted by Craig Orndorff.
Rick Jackson's Country Classics - Three-hour weekend show, hosted by Rick Jackson on United Stations Radio Networks.
Country Flashback- Three-hour weekend show that debuted in 1991, hosted by Rich Renik from Starliner Media

References

External links

 Country Flashback Website

 http://listen.radionomy.com/allcountrylegends.m3u All Country Legends webradio with country classic 24/7.
Real Country Online From Citadel Media (formerly ABC Radio Network), a 24-hour satellite-fed format of traditional country music.
Classic Country Revival Facebook Page

American styles of music

Radio formats

Classic country


Koji Toyoda is a Japanese classical musician. He was born in Hamamatsu in 1933.

Biography
Violinists Toshiya Eto and Koji Toyoda were amongst the first students of the famous music educator Shinichi Suzuki after he returned to Japan from studying in Germany. At that time, Koji Toyoda was only three and a half. During World War II, his studies with Suzuki were discontinued when Koji was evacuated from Tokyo. After losing both parents during the war, Koji stayed with his uncle and worked at a sake shop. Post war efforts of Suzuki to locate his student by radio announcement brought Koji under Suzuki's care. He continued his studies at the Conservatoire National Supérieur in Paris where he studied with Professor Benedetti. He graduated there with a diploma in six months in order to study with George Enesco, as suggested by his former teacher Shinichi Suzuki. By this time George Enesco was very old and weak, and died 30 months after he started teaching Koji. Later, Koji heard Arthur Grumiaux play at a concert and decided to pursue his teaching. He has then become one of Grumiaux' best students, together with another Japanese violinist, Tomiko Shida. He received the Bach medal of the Harriet Cohen International Music Award in London and also awards at international competitions in Paris, Brussels, and Geneva's Concours International d'Exécution Musicale.
He was the concertmaster of the Berlin Radio-Philharmonic Orchestra from 1962 to 1979. He was a professor at the Hochschule der Künste in Berlin from 1979 to 2000. He was one of the founders and the first music director of the Kusatsu International Summer Music Academy and Festival, and the director of the Gunma Symphony Orchestra. He assumed the Presidency of the Talent Education Research Institute, a.k.a. Suzuki method after Shinichi Suzuki died in 1998. Some of his compositions are published by the Zen-on Music Publishing Co., Japan.

See also
Pedagogy
Suzuki method
Music education
Harriet Cohen International Music Award

References

1933 births
Japanese classical musicians
Japanese classical violinists
Japanese music educators
Living people
20th-century Japanese musicians
20th-century Japanese educators
21st-century classical violinists

Koji Toyoda


Eric Jacobson (born July 25, 1970) is an American puppeteer who has been working with Sesame Street since 1994. He is the current performer of Grover since 1998 and Bert since 1997, he's also the current performer of Miss Piggy and Fozzie Bear in The Muppets Franchise, replacing Frank Oz. He is married to Mary Jacobson.

Muppet Performers
Muppet Characters: Fozzie Bear (2001-present), Miss Piggy (2002-present), Sam the Eagle (2003-present), Animal (2004-present) Gonzo (2005-present)
Sesame Street: Count Von Count (1993-present), Frankie, Giant Boulder, Mr. Snuffleupagus (2001-present), Guy Smiley (2004-present), Oscar the Grouch (2014-present), Two-Headed Monster (right head, 2017-present) one of The Three Little Pigs, Mr. Tiger, Hammy the Dwarf, the Martians, "Dinner Theatre" Pumpkin uncle ("Annie Get Your Gumbo"), Dusty
Bear in the Big Blue House: Harry the Duck, Yukker Tutter
Elmopalooza: Additional Puppeteer
It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Yoda Muppet
A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa: Fozzie Bear, Miss Piggy, Animal, Sam Eagle
The Muppets: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam Eagle, Marvin Suggs
Spaghetti Space Chase: Bert, Super Grover 2.0
Muppets Most Wanted: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Sam Eagle, Animal, Baby
Muppet Moments: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam the Eagle
The Muppets 2015 Presentation Pilot: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam Eagle
The Muppets: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam Eagle, Marvin Suggs
The Muppets Take the Bowl: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam Eagle, The Newsman
The Muppets Take the O2: Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, Sam Eagle, The Newsman

References

Other websites

Living people
1970 births

Eric Jacobson


Henry Hull Carlton (May 14, 1835 – October 26, 1905) was an American politician, medical doctor, journalist and soldier.

Biography
Carlton was born in Athens, Georgia in 1835. He attended the University of Georgia (UGA) in Athens for two years before attending and graduating from Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1856.

During the American Civil War, Carlton held the ranks of lieutenant, captain, and major of artillery in the Confederate States Army. Following the war, he married Helen C. Newton on 12 November 1867 in Clarke County, Georgia. He maintained a medical practice until 1872. The next year he was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives in the State General Assembly and served in that role until 1877, a year in which he also served as speaker pro tempore of that institution.

Carlton was editor and proprietor of the Athens Banner (Banner Watchman) (currently the Athens Banner Herald) until 1880. During this time, he also studied law, gained admittance to the state bar in 1881 and began a law practice in Athens. Carlton also served as Athens city attorney (1881 and 1882). In 1884, Carlton was elected to the Georgia Senate and served as its president in 1884 and 1885. Running as a Democrat, he was elected to the 50th United States Congress as a Representative and was re-elected to one additional term in that body.

After his federal congressional service, Carlton served an additional term in the Georgia House of Representatives in 1899 before serving in the Spanish–American War as a major in the inspector general's office. He died at his home in Athens on October 26, 1905, and was buried in Oconee Hill Cemetery in that same city.

References

External links

1835 births
1905 deaths
Politicians from Athens, Georgia
Democratic Party members of the Georgia House of Representatives
Democratic Party Georgia (U.S. state) state senators
Confederate States Army officers
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Civil War
Physicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia (U.S. state) lawyers
People of the Spanish–American War
University of Georgia people
United States Army officers
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Georgia (U.S. state)
19th-century American politicians

Henry H. Carlton


was a Japanese pop group that formed and debuted in the late 1970s.  They released their first single, Triangle Love Letter in mid 1978 and their last single, Koi wa Tekkiri Ba-Bi-Bu-Be-Bo in 1980.  The group only released two albums, Triangle Love Letter and Sanjūsō / Triangle 2 in 1978 and 1979 respectively.  Sony Music Entertainment released Triangle Single Collection in 2008.

Members
 Mitchi (Mori Mitsuko →  Komori Michiko)
 Mami (Mami → Ueno Mayumi Ueno)
 Kūko (Ōtsuka Kuniko) left the group in 1979
 Aki (Kei Aki Katō) joined the group in 1979

Discography

Singles
 Triangle Love Letter (c/w "San Shoku no Niji") [1978.04.21]
 0 no Meruhen (c/w "Dreaming") [1978.07.21]
 Captain Zap (c/w "Tatchi Auto")[1978.10.01]
 Love Locomotion (c/w "Kokoro no Todokanu Love Letter") [1979]
 Fuyu ga Chikai (c/w "Kyanpasu") [1979]
 Honjitsu Seiten Nari! (c/w "Wet Boy")[1980]
 Koi wa Tekkiri Ba.Bi.Bu.Be.Bo (c/w "Gyangu ga Machi ni Yatte kita") [1980.09.21]

Albums
 Triangle Love Letter
 Sanjūsō / Triangle 2
 Triangle Single Collection

Japanese pop music groups
Japanese idol groups
Japanese girl groups

Triangle (band)


The Pentecostal Mission (TPM) or New Testament Church (NTC) in the United States or Universal Pentecostal Church (UPC) in the United Kingdom is a Pentecostal denomination that was founded in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1923. The international headquarters is now situated in Irumbuliyur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. There are over 37 million members across the world. It now has churches in over 65 countries operating under various names. It was before known as Ceylon Pentecostal Mission (CPM).

History

The church was founded by Pastor Paul Ramankutty, who was born to Hindu parents in the district of Trichur in Kerala, India. While in Sri Lanka, at the age of 18, he became a Christian. Later, he felt a strong call and began to preach and share the gospel in various parts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka, working with other evangelists.  In 1923 he founded the church with the name Ceylon Pentecostal Mission, later changed to The Pentecostal Mission.

School
The congregation in Sri Lanka operates a school for secular studies known as C.P.M Faith School in Wattala in Columbo.

Church leadership

The church is led by a Chief Pastor (currently Pastor Abraham Mathew). In addition, there is a Deputy Chief Pastor (currently Pastor M.T. Thomas) and an Associate Deputy Chief Pastor (currently Pastor G. Jeyam).

In the United States, most of the church work was pioneered by the late Pastor Don M Spiers, who had previously worked closely with Oral Roberts. Pastor Gregg Wilson now heads the work in USA and countries around the USA. He is assisted by the sister-in-charge, Sister Lisa Billow.

Full-time ministers are expected to practice an ascetic lifestyle including celibacy, obedience to the elder pastors, and communal living (including disposal of private possessions) in faith homes.
TPM churches are run by full-time ministers who are celibate and predominantly single. Married couples who enter full-time ministry can become celibate and may be sent to different locations by the TPM leadership if they so choose.

Doctrines and teachings
The doctrines of the church broadly align with trinitarian Pentecostalism.

Magazine ministry
Magazines are produced in several languages. The English language magazine published in India is called The Voice of Pentecost. Pilgrim's Journal is published and printed in the USA. Other English language magazines are Pentecostal Messenger from Malaysia, The Youth Herald from Singapore, Power Divine from Sri Lanka, and Trumpet of the Lord from the UK.

Church Magazines are being published in more than forty Indian languages and other foreign languages. Malayalam magazine Pentecost is one of the oldest Pentecostal magazines from Kerala. A Hindi edition of Pentecost Ki Wani published from New Delhi, a Tamil edition named Pentecosthin Peroli from Irumbilyur (Chennai), Pentecost-Chi Vaani from Mumbai, "Kadavari varshapu dwani" from Hyderabad, and Pentecost Da Sneha from Dhariwal (Punjab) are also produced.

See also
 Christianity in Sri Lanka

References

Pentecostal denominations in Asia
Pentecostalism in India
Christian organizations established in 1923
1923 establishments in Ceylon

The Pentecostal Mission


Steven Rice (born May 26, 1971) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey right winger who played eight seasons in the National Hockey League in the 1990s. Rice was born in Kitchener, Ontario.

Rice was drafted 20th overall by the New York Rangers in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft. Following his outstanding performance at the 1991 World Junior Hockey Championships, in which he captained Canada to the gold medal, he was considered one of the top young power forward prospects in the game. In the summer of 1991, he was sent to the Edmonton Oilers as one of the centerpieces going the other way in the trade of superstar centre Mark Messier.

His results in Edmonton would be mixed - he spent most of his first two seasons there with their AHL affiliate, but established himself as a full-time NHL player in 1993–94 scoring 17 goals. Following that season, he signed free-agent offer sheet with the Hartford Whalers, and joined the Whalers the following season when Edmonton declined to match the offer. In his three years in Hartford, he established himself as a quality role player, scoring a career high 21 goals in 1996–97. However, a nightmare campaign in 1997–98 following the franchise's move to Carolina, in which he scored just 2 goals, effectively ended his NHL career. He retired at the premature age of 27.

Rice came out of retirement in 2002, playing in the Ontario Hockey Association's Major League Hockey, for the Cambridge Hornets until 2006, and then briefly for the Brantford Blast in the same league before retiring for good in 2006.

He played 329 career NHL games, scoring 64 goals and 61 assists for 125 points.

Career statistics

External links

1971 births
Living people
Binghamton Rangers players
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Cape Breton Oilers players
Carolina Hurricanes players
Edmonton Oilers players
Hartford Whalers players
Kitchener Rangers players
National Hockey League first-round draft picks
New York Rangers draft picks
New York Rangers players
Ice hockey people from Kitchener, Ontario

Steven Rice


Will Sanders (born 1965) is a classical horn player, conductor, and music school professor.

Biography

Sanders was born in Venlo, the Netherlands.

He trained in music at the Maastricht Academy of Music, where he graduated with honours in 1988. In 1985, while still a student, he became a member of the European Youth Orchestra, conducted by Claudio Abbado. A year later he joined the Mannheim National Theatre Orchestra in Germany, serving as understudy horn soloist, and in 1988 he joined the Südwestfunk Baden Baden Radio Symphony Orchestra as horn soloist. In 1990 he joined Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra in the same capacity. He held the position of solo horn in the orchestra of the Bayreuth Festival from 1992 to 1997.

Sanders has worked with many distinguished conductors of our time, as well as with Germany's main orchestras, and has been a guest performer for the Vienna Philharmonic. In addition to his orchestral work, he has made CDs and other recordings for radio and television and is regularly an international soloist as well as a member of numerous chamber music ensembles, such as German Brass, Linos Ensemble, Mullova Ensemble and the Wind Art Ensemble. He has also worked as a conductor in recent years.

Teaching career
Sanders has taught the horn at the Maastricht Academy of Music since 1995. He was named Horn Professor at the University of Music Karlsruhe in Germany in 2000. He has been an occasional guest professor of horn at the University of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil since 2002, and taught courses and master classes and directed international workshops in countries including the United States, Japan, Korea, Australia, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands and Switzerland. He has frequently been on juries for international competitions, including the Aeolus International Competition for Wind Instruments. Since 2012 he has been a visiting professor at the Academy of Music in Kraków in Poland.

References

1965 births
Living people
Dutch classical horn players
Academic staff of the Hochschule für Musik Karlsruhe
Maastricht Academy of Music alumni
Academic staff of the Maastricht Academy of Music
People from Venlo

Will Sanders


August Anheuser Busch Sr. (December 29, 1865 – February 10, 1934) was an American brewing magnate who served as the President and CEO of Anheuser-Busch, based in St. Louis, Missouri, from 1913 to 1934. It became the world's largest brewery in 1957 under direction of his son August A. "Gussie" Busch Jr.

Early life
August Anheuser Busch was born on December 29, 1865, in St. Louis, Missouri. His father, Adolphus Busch, was the German-born founder of Anheuser-Busch. His mother, Lilly Eberhard Anheuser, was the third daughter of brewer Eberhard Anheuser, who owned the Anheuser Brewery. He had eight brothers and five sisters.

Career
Busch became President of Anheuser-Busch in 1913, shortly after his father's death. Under his leadership, the company survived World War I, Prohibition, and the Great Depression by innovating and diversifying.

The company delved into the production of corn products, baker's yeast, ice cream, soft drinks, and commercial refrigeration units to stay afloat during Prohibition. After Prohibition ended in 1933, many of these operations were discontinued. August also managed to keep Anheuser-Busch prosperous during anti-German bias of World War I. He built the Bevo Mill, about halfway between his mansion on Gravois Road and the Anheuser-Busch brewery downtown.

Personal life

Busch married Alice Ziesemann on May 8, 1890. Their children were Adolphus III, Marie, Clara, August Jr., and Alice Busch. The Busches were among prominent families who participated in the Veiled Prophet Ball, and in 1922, Alice Busch was selected as that year's Queen of Love and Beauty.

Both sons joined the family business. Eldest son Adolphus became president and CEO of Anheuser-Busch. After his death in 1946, August Jr. became CEO, building the company into the largest brewery in the world.

Death and legacy
In his later life, Busch suffered from heart disease, dropsy, and gout. After being severely ill for several months, he committed suicide at the age of 68 with a gunshot to the abdomen on February 10, 1934, at the Busch Mansion at Grant's Farm. Before shooting himself, August penned a brief note to his family saying, "Goodbye precious mommie and adorable children." The St. Louis County coroner's jury gathered at the Busch mansion and heard Busch's chauffeur testify to the events of August's suicide. A Dr. P.E. Rutledge of Kirkwood also testified that he had given Busch morphine seven hours before the suicide. The coroner's jury ruled August's death a suicide due to long illness.

Thousands of people mourned August at the Busch mansion, including senators and brewers. Busch's lawyer, Daniel N. Kirby said during the service, "As worthy son of a noble father, he was as great a leader in saving the industry as his father had been in creating it." Although his parents are buried in a mausoleum at Bellefontaine Cemetery, August wished to be buried at Sunset Burial Park, near Grant's Farm in St. Louis. St. Louis police had to keep crowds away from August's grave.

In 1947, his widow Alice Busch donated $70,000 to help with the purchase of the August A. Busch Memorial Conservation Area, as a memorial to her husband.

See also
Adolph Coors, brewer in Colorado

References

External links

1865 births
1934 deaths
Businesspeople from St. Louis
American drink industry businesspeople
American racehorse owners and breeders
Suicides by firearm in Missouri
August
American people of German descent
American brewers
1934 suicides

August Anheuser Busch Sr.


Social class in Sri Lanka  is often described as casteless, though caste is still found on the island in both a symbolic and a practical sense. Caste is also used in an analogous sense to refer to the new social class divisions that have appeared in recent decades. The combination of ethnic nationalist movements that saw caste as an island-wide dividing tool, strong emphasis on providing access to education and healthcare regardless of background, and historic lack of discrimination among the colonial civil service played a factor in eradicating the caste system in most sectors of the island's society. Although the Buddhist culture actively fought against all forms of class discrimination, many Buddhist organizations used caste as a method to extract surplus from temple property.

History

Lanka

Caste system

Buddhism rejects casteism as a fundamental principle of its worldview, and this has an effect on reducing the severity of the caste system on the island. Notably, the highest caste group in both communities of the island also formed the popular majority for both communities.

The caste systems in Sri Lanka were organized in a similar manner to the Jāti systems found in South India. The history of the caste system in Sri Lanka is unclear since there is very little historical evidence and much research carried out into the subject has been criticized as being biased. Caste positions did not correlate with wealth.

Goyigama was the most common caste in the Sinhalese community numbering around 50%. These people were basically landowning farmers but had monopolized the high positions in politics and royal courts. Vellala is the term used for the similar community among Tamils. Brahmins did not have as much influence on the island as on the mainland, and the most politically influential caste belongs to the farmers.

The documented history of the island begins with the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India. The island was reportedly inhabited by four tribes at that time: the Dewa, Nagas, Yakkas and Raksha. Although the origin of Sri Lankan communities is unclear, genetic studies on Sinhalese have shown that most of the Sinhala community is genetically related to the South Indians and Bengalis. About half of the Sinhalese population are Govigama. Of the three native tribes, it is believed that the Dewa are part of the Sinhalese castes.

Ancient Sri Lankan texts, such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya, Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptions, show that a fourfold caste category namely Raja, Bamunu, Velanda and Govi existed among the Sinhalese. Evidence of this hierarchy can be seen during the 18th century British-Kandyan period, indicating its continuation even after the Sri Lankan monarchy. Colonialism and foreign intervention in the dynastic conflicts of the island throughout history has also influenced the caste system, some suggesting even a re-arrangement of the occupational castes. At present 13 castes are commonly found among the Sinhala viz. Radala, Govigama, Bathgama, Deva, Nekathi, Bodhivansha, Rajaka, kumbal, Hunu, Durava, Karava, Salagama and Navandanna, with smaller castes being absorbed to the larger castes.

Kandyan castes
In the Central Highlands, many traditions of the Kingdom of Kandy were preserved from its 1818 collapse beyond independence in 1948 and the Land Reform Act of the 1970s. Most Govigama were however ordinary farmers and tenants as absolute land ownership was exclusive to the king until the British colonial period. In addition to the Govigama, there were several strata of occupational castes. Wahumpura or Deva were the caste who traditionally made jaggery and farmed. The Bathgama caste was also engaged in agriculture with access to some land. The Navandanna (Achari) caste were artisans. The Rada were washers, and this caste is still prevalent in Sri Lanka's laundry sector. The Berava were traditional drummers and agricultural wage labourers. The Kinnara caste did menial work and were segregated from the rest of the community. The most important feature of the Kandyan system was Rajakariya ("the king's work"), which linked each caste to an occupation and demanded service to the court and religious institutions.

Southern castes
There were differences between the caste structures of the highlands and those of the low country, although some service groups were common to both in ancient Sri Lanka. The southwestern coast had three other castes (the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava) in addition to the majority Govigama, which was common throughout the region. Some of these castes' ancestors are believed to have migrated from Southern India and have become important in the Sinhalese social system. The first-century BC Anuradhapura Abayagiri inscription referring to a Karava navika may be the first reference to a specialized occupation.

Tamil castes
The Tolkāppiyam Porulatikaram indicating the four-fold division is the earliest Tamil literature to mention caste. Sangam literature however mentions only five kudis associated with the five tinais. Colonialism also had influenced the caste system.Their caste system had stronger religious ties than its Sinhalese counterpart, although both systems have comparable castes. In the caste system observed, there were distinctions between Northern and Eastern societies, and also the agricultural and coastal societies.

In the agricultural society were mainly the castes of the Vellalar, Nalavar and Koviar, where the Vellalar caste is the dominating one, particularly in Northern Sri Lanka. They approximately constitute half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and were the major land-owning and agricultural caste.

The Northern and Western coastal society was dominated by the Karaiyars, traditionally a seafaring and warrior caste. The Thimilar and the Paravar were also among the coastal communities involved in fishing. The Mukkuvars, traditional pearl divers, dominate greater parts of Eastern Sri Lanka where they were the major landowners also involved in agriculture.

The artisans, known locally as Kammalar or Vishwakarma consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters), Kartatchar (sculptor). Along with the Kammalar were the Ambattar (barbers), Kadaiyar (lime burners), Koviar (farmers), Kusavar (potters), Maraiyar (conch blowers), Nattuvar (musician), Nalavar (toddy-tappers), Pallar (farm workers), Paraiyar (drummers), Turumbar (scavengers) and Vannar (dhobies) constituting the domestic servants termed as Kudimakkal. The Kudimakkal gave ritual importance in marriage, funeral and other temple ceremonies.

Other Sri Lankan Tamil castes of importance were the Cirpatar (cultivators), Iyer (priests), Kaikolar (weavers), Madapalli (former royal cooks), Shanar (toddy-tappers) and Maravar (Poligar-Warriors). The Sri Lankan Chetties, traditional merchants, along with the Bharatha people, traditional seatraders, were listed as their own ethnicities in Sri Lankan census. The Coast Veddas, found mainly in Eastern Sri Lanka were considered a Tamil caste among the Sri Lankan Tamils.

The village deities of the Sri Lankan Tamils were also shaped by the caste structure. The Sri Lankan Moors don't practice the caste system, however, follow a matriclan system which is an extension of Tamil tradition.

Ceylon

With the onset of colonial rule in the country, different castes emerged with new occupations. However, social mobility was present since the colonial rulers didn't impose hereditary occupations as was the case in the Kandy Kingdom. Therefore, it is identified that this is the point at which the caste began to be limited to a social culture rather than an occupational group. Newer castes originated at this point such as the powerful Mudaliyar class who loyally served their colonial masters.

By the late 19th century the upper-class natives of Ceylon (called Ceylonese by the British) formed a second-class group in their own land, serving their colonial masters. The finest example of this would be the famous second-class and third-class carriages used by the Ceylonese on the trains due to the first being reserved only for Europeans . This upper class of Ceylonese derived their wealth from land holdings that were passed down the generations and derived their power from serving in posts in the British colonial administration. At first, these were limited to special posts reserved for natives such as Rate Mahattaya in the central highlands and the Mudaliyars in the coastal areas, letter as the new generation of these native chieftains grew up educated in the Christian missionary schools, public schools modelled after their English counterparts and at British Universities they were taken into the Ceylon Civil Service, others took up places in the Legislative and later the State councils. Entering into this upper class were successful merchants who gained wealth in the lucrative mining industry of the time.

A middle class emerged during this period of a bourgeois people who gained their status by Professions or by Business.

Sri Lanka
The 20th century brought several changes to the social structure. By the 1940s when Ceylon gained Independence from the British (in 1948) there were four social groups. The upper class is made up primarily of landowners, the Upper middle class of educated professionals holding traditional jobs such as Lawyers, Doctors, Army officers, Academics, senior Civil Servants and police officers; and merchants. The political leaders of the new Dominion of Ceylon came from these two classes. The lower middle class was made up of persons who were educated but held less prestigious, but respected jobs such as lower-level public servants, policemen, and teachers.

This order changed dramatically in the 1970s due to the land reforms brought on by the government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike who limited private ownership of land to  and ownership of private houses to two (later changed), excess land was nationalized along with many industries. This rendered the wealthiest who made up the Upper class and Upper middle class greatly dependent on a secondary income void of their income and with it their power. Following the failure of the socialist economic drive of the 1970s the new government of J R Jayewardene opened up the country's economy to free market reforms. This along with the civil war saw major change in the social structure.

The direct result of the changes of the 1970s and the 1980s was witnessed only at the late 20th century and the start of the 21st century. Today;

Society

Upper class
The upper class in Sri Lanka is statistically very small and consists of industrialists, businessmen, senior executives and serving government ministers. These people are the wealthiest in the land, having in some cases inherited money and position, and in other cases having earned it themselves. Their educational backgrounds may vary, but they typically send their children to national, private or international schools to be educated in English and thereafter send them to overseas universities.

Upper middle class
The upper middle class in Sri Lanka consists of educated professionals. Traditional jobs include lawyers, university lecturers, doctors, engineers, senior military officers, senior civil servants, managers, and businessmen who generally come from educated backgrounds, having been educated at public or private schools and local or foreign universities. They manage their own business that has a high income. They typically send their children (depending on family income, traditions, and residence) to national, private or international schools to be educated in English or in their local languages. For university education, they may be sent to overseas universities or local private higher education institutions (depending on family income).

Middle class
The middle classes include government workers such as teachers, and government department workers and manage small businesses such as retail businesses and service providers. Some can afford to put their children into private national schools but refrain from the more expensive private international schools. The Sri Lankan national universities are mainly for the Middle classes. The middle-class university students do travel abroad on university scholarships.

Lower middle class
The lower middle class in Sri Lanka consists of people in blue-collar jobs living in less prosperous suburbs. This class constitutes the largest of Sri Lanka's social groups. Typically they have not had a university education, and send their children to national or provincial schools to be educated in their local languages (depending on family residence or scholarships). For university education, if selected they may be sent to local state universities, if not local private higher education institutions.

Lower class
These people would typically be on low incomes and dependent on state benefits. Many reside in the slums or shanty towns of cities or underdeveloped rural areas. They send their children to provincial schools to be educated in their local languages.

Discrimination
Although caste discrimination is still found in Sri Lanka (particularly in rural areas), caste boundaries are blurring. Political power and wealth have largely replaced caste as the main factor in Sri Lankan social stratification, especially in the Sinhalese and Indian Tamil communities. Ponnambalam Ramanathan, under British Ceylon, opposed extending voting rights to the people and urged reservation of franchise only to men of the Vellalar caste.

In 1951 the Kandyan Peasantry Commission wrote, "... As a first step in the fight against caste it is necessary to abolish the service tenures." (R.K.P.C. 1951, p. 180.) Nur Yalman encountered caste division in the Ceylonese village of Terutenne in 1954. According to Lakshman et al., "The Social Disabilities Act of 1957 intended to outlaw caste-based discrimination" (p. 68, note 16).

References

External links
The impact of macro-events on social structure in Sri Lanka

Social class in Sri Lanka


Joseph F. Fernandez (born c. 1937) was a Central Intelligence Agency station chief in Costa Rica (operating under the pseudonym Tomás Castillo) and a figure in the Iran-Contra Affair.

Joe Fernandez, a Cuban-American, was a protégé of Duane Clarridge in the early years of the Contra operation. When Clarridge was replaced by Alan Fiers as the CIA's Central American point man, Fernandez allied himself with the National Security Council's Oliver North rather than Fiers. North and Fernandez sought to revive the anti-Sandinista cause in the south, blaming Edén Pastora's erratic leadership for the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance's moribund state. In early 1986, Fernandez convinced Pastora's field commanders to join Fernando "El Negro" Chamorro, who had allied with the northern-based Nicaraguan Democratic Force. However, his efforts with North to build a strong Contra Southern Front, including aerial resupply of rebel forces in the south by Richard Secord's "Enterprise," enmeshed him in the Iran-Contra Affair.

Fernandez was originally indicted June 20, 1988 on four counts of obstruction and false statements. The indictment of Fernandez represented the first time that a CIA chief of station had been charged with crimes committed in the course of his duties as a CIA officer. Following a venue change, a new indictment was made April 24, 1989. The case was dismissed November 24, 1989 when Attorney General Richard L. Thornburgh refused to declassify information needed for his defense.

After charges were dropped, he founded Guardian Technologies International with Oliver North.

References
Lawrence E. Walsh (August 4, 1993)  Chapter 20: United States v. Joseph F. Fernandez. Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters.

People of the Central Intelligence Agency
Iran–Contra affair
1937 births
Living people

Joseph F. Fernandez


The Saamian orogeny is one of the earliest recognizable events in the formation of the Baltic Shield, between 3.1 and 2.9 billion years ago in the Archean and Proterozoic. The Saamian orogeny is associated with intense igneous activity that produced large granitoid plutons. The event lined up with the Katarchean, a period in which the Earth's crust approached its present thickness and sialic rocks, rich in silica and aluminium, became commonplace.

References

Orogenies of Europe
Archean orogenies
Proterozoic orogenies

Saamian orogeny


The Praça Raul Soares is a large public square in the city of Belo Horizonte, in Brazil. It is built in the French style. It is located where four major roads meet. The roads are Amazonas, Augusto de Lima, Bias Fortes and Olegário Maciel. The square is named in honor of the former governor of Minas Gerais, Raul Soares de Moura.

In 2008, the square was renovated. The flowerbeds, sidewalks and fountains were fixed up. Some trees were replaced, lamp posts were resized, and advertisements were removed or adjusted. The walks were improved to provide easier access for disabled and blind people. This was paid for by the city's government. It cost about $2,600,000 U.S. dollars. The project aimed to make the square safer and easier for pedestrians.

Belo Horizonte
Town squares in Brazil

Raul Soares Square