A zoo (short for zoological garden; also called an animal park or menagerie) is a facility in which animals are kept within enclosures for public exhibition and often bred for conservation purposes.

The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals. The term is derived from the Greek , , 'animal', and the suffix , , 'study of'. The abbreviation zoo was first used of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828, and to the public in 1847. The first modern Zoo was the Tierpark Hagenbeck by Carl Hagenbeck in Germany.
In the United States alone, zoos are visited by over 181 million people annually.

Etymology

The London Zoo, which was opened in 1828, was initially known as the "Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London", and it described itself as a menagerie or "zoological forest". The abbreviation "zoo" first appeared in print in the United Kingdom around 1847, when it was used for the Clifton Zoo, but it was not until some 20 years later that the shortened form became popular in the rhyming song "Walking in the Zoo" by music-hall artist Alfred Vance. The term "zoological park" was used for more expansive facilities in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Washington, D.C., and the Bronx in New York, which opened in 1847, 1891 and 1899 respectively.

Relatively new terms for zoos in the late 20th century are "conservation park" or "bio park". Adopting a new name is a strategy used by some zoo professionals to distance their institutions from the stereotypical and nowadays criticized zoo concept of the 19th century. The term "bio park" was first coined and developed by the National Zoo in Washington D.C. in the late 1980s. In 1993, the New York Zoological Society changed its name to the Wildlife Conservation Society and re branded the zoos under its jurisdiction as "wildlife conservation parks".

History

Royal menageries

The predecessor of the zoological garden is the menagerie, which has a long history from the ancient world to modern times. The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at Hierakonpolis, Egypt in 2009, of a  menagerie. The exotic animals included hippopotami, hartebeest, elephants, baboons and wildcats. King Ashur-bel-kala of the Middle Assyrian Empire created zoological and botanical gardens in the 11th century BCE. In the 2nd century BCE, the Chinese Empress Tanki had a "house of deer" built, and King Wen of Zhou kept a  zoo called Ling-Yu, or the Garden of Intelligence. Other well-known collectors of animals included King Solomon of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah, Queen Semiramis and King Ashurbanipal of Assyria, and King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. By the 4th century BCE, zoos existed in most of the Greek city states; Alexander the Great is known to have sent animals that he found on his military expeditions back to Greece. The Roman emperors kept private collections of animals for study or for use in the arena, the latter faring notoriously poorly. The 19th-century historian W. E. H. Lecky wrote of the Roman games, first held in 366 BCE:

Charlemagne had an elephant named Abul-Abbas that was given to him by the Abbasid caliph.

King Henry I of England kept a collection of animals at his palace in Woodstock which reportedly included lions, leopards, and camels. The most prominent collection in medieval England was in the Tower of London, created as early as 1204 by King John I. Henry III received a wedding gift in 1235 of three leopards from Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and in 1264, the animals were moved to the Bulwark, renamed the Lion Tower, near the main western entrance of the Tower. It was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions. The animals were moved to the London Zoo when it opened.

Aztec emperor Moctezuma had in his capital city of Tenochtitlan a "house of animals" with a large collection of birds, mammals and reptiles in a garden tended by more than 600 employees. The garden was described by several Spanish conquerors, including Hernán Cortés in 1520. After the Aztec revolt against the Spanish rule, and during the subsequent battle for the city, Cortés reluctantly ordered the zoo to be destroyed.

Enlightenment Era

The oldest zoo in the world still in existence is the Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Vienna, Austria. It was constructed by Adrian van Stekhoven in 1752 at the order of Emperor Francis I, to serve as an imperial menagerie as part of Schönbrunn Palace. The menagerie was initially reserved for the viewing pleasure of the imperial family and the court, but was made accessible to the public in 1765.
In 1775, a zoo was founded in Madrid, and in 1795, the zoo inside the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was founded by Jacques-Henri Bernardin, with animals from the royal menagerie at Versailles, primarily for scientific research and education. The planning about a space for the conservation and observation of animals was expressed in connection with the political construction of republican citizenship.

The Kazan Zoo, the first zoo in Russia was founded in 1806 by the Professor of Kazan State University Karl Fuchs.

The modern zoo
Until the early 19th century, the function of the zoo was often to symbolize royal power, like King Louis XIV's menagerie at Versailles. Major cities in Europe set up zoos in the 19th century, usually using London and Paris as models. The transition was made from princely menageries designed to entertain high society with strange novelties into public zoological gardens. The new goal was to educate the entire population with information along modern scientific lines. Zoos were supported by local commercial or scientific societies.

British Empire

The modern zoo that emerged in the 19th century in the United Kingdom, was focused on providing scientific study and later educational exhibits to the public for entertainment and inspiration.

A growing fascination for natural history and zoology, coupled with the tremendous expansion in the urbanization of London, led to a heightened demand for a greater variety of public forms of entertainment to be made available. The need for public entertainment, as well as the requirements of scholarly research, came together in the founding of the first modern zoos. Whipsnade Park Zoo in Bedfordshire, England, opened in 1931. It allowed visitors to drive through the enclosures and come into close proximity with the animals.

The Zoological Society of London was founded in 1826 by Stamford Raffles and established the London Zoo in Regent's Park two years later in 1828. At its founding, it was the world's first scientific zoo. Originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study, it was opened to the public in 1847. The Zoo was located in Regent's Park—then undergoing development at the hands of the architect John Nash. What set the London zoo apart from its predecessors was its focus on society at large. The zoo was established in the middle of a city for the public, and its layout was designed to cater for the large London population. The London zoo was widely copied as the archetype of the public city zoo. In 1853, the Zoo opened the world's first public aquarium.

Dublin Zoo was opened in 1831 by members of the medical profession interested in studying animals while they were alive and more particularly getting hold of them when they were dead.

Downs' Zoological Gardens created by Andrew Downs and opened to the Nova Scotia public in 1847. It was originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study. By the early 1860s, the zoo grounds covered 40 hectares with many fine flowers and ornamental trees, picnic areas, statues, walking paths, The Glass House (which contained a greenhouse with an aviary, aquarium, and museum of stuffed animals and birds), a pond, a bridge over a waterfall, an artificial lake with a fountain, a wood-ornamented greenhouse, a forest area, and enclosures and buildings.

The first zoological garden in Australia was Melbourne Zoo in 1860.

Germany

In German states leading roles came Berlin (1841), Frankfurt (1856), and Hamburg (1863). In 1907, the entrepreneur Carl Hagenbeck founded the Tierpark Hagenbeck in Stellingen, now a quarter of Hamburg. His zoo was a radical departure from the layout of the zoo that had been established in 1828. It was the first zoo to use open enclosures surrounded by moats, rather than barred cages, to better approximate animals' natural environments. He also set up mixed-species exhibits and based the layout on the different organizing principle of geography, as opposed to taxonomy.

Poland

The Wrocław Zoo () is the oldest zoo in Poland, opened in 1865 when the city was part of Prussia, and was home to about 10,500 animals representing about 1,132 species (in terms of the number of animal species, it is the third largest in the world). In 2014 the Wrocław Zoo opened the Africarium, the only themed oceanarium devoted solely to exhibiting the fauna of Africa, comprehensively presenting selected ecosystems from the continent of Africa. Housing over 10 thousand animals, the facility's breadth extends from housing insects such cockroaches to large mammals like elephants on an area of over 33 hectares.

United States

In the United States, the Philadelphia Zoo, opened July 1, 1874, earning its motto "America's First Zoo." The Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens in Chicago and the Cincinnati Zoo opened in 1875. In the 1930s, federal relief programs provided financial aid to most local zoos. The Works Progress Administration and similar New Deal government agencies helped greatly in the construction, renovation, and expansion of zoos when the Great Depression severely reduced local budgets. It was "a new deal for animals."

The Atlanta Zoo, founded in 1886, suffered neglect. By 1984 it was ranked among the ten worst zoos in the United States. Systematic reform by 2000 put it on the list of the ten best.

By 2020, the United States featured 230 accredited zoos and aquariums across 45 states, accommodating 800,000 animals, and 6,000 species out of which about 1,000 are endangered. The zoos provide 208,000 jobs, and with an annual
budget of $230 million for wildlife conservation. They attract over 200 million visits a year and have special programs for schools. They are organized by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

Japan
Japan's first modern zoo, Tokyo's Ueno Imperial Zoological Gardens, opened in 1882 based on European models. In World War II it was used to teach the Japanese people about the lands recently conquered by the Army. In 1943, fearing American bombing attacks, the government ordered the zoo to euthanize dangerous animals that might escape.

Environmentalism

When ecology emerged as a matter of public interest in the 1970s, a few zoos began to consider making conservation their central role, with Gerald Durrell of the Jersey Zoo, George Rabb of Brookfield Zoo, and William Conway of the Bronx Zoo (Wildlife Conservation Society) leading the discussion. From then on, zoo professionals became increasingly aware of the need to engage themselves in conservation programs, and the American Zoo Association soon said that conservation was its highest priority. In order to stress conservation issues, many large zoos stopped the practice of having animals perform tricks for visitors. The Detroit Zoo, for example, stopped its elephant show in 1969, and its chimpanzee show in 1983, acknowledging that the trainers had probably abused the animals to get them to perform.

Mass destruction of wildlife habitat has yet to cease all over the world and many species such as elephants, big cats, penguins, tropical birds, primates, rhinos, exotic reptiles, and many others are in danger of dying out. Many of today's zoos hope to stop or slow the decline of many endangered species and see their primary purpose as breeding endangered species in captivity and reintroducing them into the wild. Modern zoos also aim to help teach visitors the importance on animal conservation, often through letting visitors witness the animals firsthand. Some critics and the majority of animal rights activists say that zoos, no matter what their intentions are, or how noble they are, are immoral and serve as nothing but to fulfill human leisure at the expense of the animals (which is an opinion that has spread over the years). However, zoo advocates argue that their efforts make a difference in wildlife conservation and education.

Human exhibits

Humans were occasionally displayed in cages at zoos along with non-human animals, to illustrate the differences between people of European and non-European origin. In September 1906, William Hornaday, director of the Bronx Zoo in New York—with the agreement of Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society—had Ota Benga, a Congolese pygmy, displayed in a cage with the chimpanzees, then with an orangutan named Dohong, and a parrot. The exhibit was intended as an example of the "missing link" between the orangutan and white man. It triggered protests from the city's clergymen, but the public reportedly flocked to see Benga.

Humans were also displayed at various events, especially colonial expositions such as the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition, with the practice continuing in Belgium at least to as late as 1958 in a "Congolese village" display at Expo '58 in Brussels. These displays, while sometimes called "human zoos", usually did not take place in zoos or use cages.

Type

Zoo animals live in enclosures that often attempt to replicate their natural habitats or behavioral patterns, for the benefit of both the animals and visitors. Nocturnal animals are often housed in buildings with a reversed light-dark cycle, i.e. only dim white or red lights are on during the day so the animals are active during visitor hours, and brighter lights on at night when the animals sleep. Special climate conditions may be created for animals living in extreme environments, such as penguins. Special enclosures for birds, mammals, insects, reptiles, fish, and other aquatic life forms have also been developed. Some zoos have walk-through exhibits where visitors enter enclosures of non-aggressive species, such as lemurs, marmosets, birds, lizards, and turtles. Visitors are asked to keep to paths and avoid showing or eating foods that the animals might snatch.

Safari park

Some zoos keep animals in larger, outdoor enclosures, confining them with moats and fences, rather than in cages. Safari parks, also known as zoo parks and lion farms, allow visitors to drive through them and come in close proximity to the animals. Sometimes, visitors are able to feed animals through the car windows.

The first safari park was Whipsnade Park in Bedfordshire, England, opened by the Zoological Society of London in 1931 which today (2014) covers 600 acres (2.4 km2). Since the early 1970s, an 1,800 acre (7 km2) park in the San Pasqual Valley near San Diego has featured the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, run by the Zoological Society of San Diego. One of two state-supported zoo parks in North Carolina is the  North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro. The  Werribee Open Range Zoo in Melbourne, Australia, displays animals living in an artificial savannah.

Aquaria

The first public aquarium was opened at the London Zoo in 1853. This was followed by the opening of public aquaria in continental Europe (e.g. Paris in 1859, Hamburg in 1864, Berlin in 1869, and Brighton in 1872) and the United States (e.g. Boston in 1859, Washington in 1873, San Francisco Woodward's Garden in 1873, and the New York Aquarium at Battery Park in 1896).

Roadside zoos
Roadside zoos are found throughout North America, particularly in remote locations. They are often small, for-profit zoos, often intended to attract visitors to some other facility, such as a gas station. The animals may be trained to perform tricks, and visitors are able to get closer to them than in larger zoos. Since they are sometimes less regulated, roadside zoos are often subject to accusations of neglect and cruelty.

In June 2014 the Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Iowa-based roadside Cricket Hollow Zoo for violating the Endangered Species Act by failing to provide proper care for its animals. Since filing the lawsuit, ALDF has obtained records from investigations conducted by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services; these records show that the zoo is also violating the Animal Welfare Act.

Petting zoos

A petting zoo, also called petting farms or children's zoos, features a combination of domestic animals and wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. To ensure the animals' health, the food is supplied by the zoo, either from vending machines or a kiosk nearby.

Animal theme parks

An animal theme park is a combination of an amusement park and a zoo, mainly for entertaining and commercial purposes. Marine mammal parks such as Sea World and Marineland are more elaborate dolphinariums keeping whales, and containing additional entertainment attractions. Another kind of animal theme park contains more entertainment and amusement elements than the classical zoo, such as stage shows, roller coasters, and mythical creatures. Some examples are Busch Gardens Tampa Bay in Tampa, Florida, both Disney's Animal Kingdom and Gatorland in Orlando, Florida, Flamingo Land in North Yorkshire, England, and Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California.

Zoo population management

Sources of animals
By 2000 most animals being displayed in zoos were the offspring of other zoo animals. This trend, however was and still is somewhat species-specific. When animals are transferred between zoos, they usually spend time in quarantine, and are given time to acclimatize to their new enclosures which are often designed to mimic their natural environment. For example, some species of penguins may require refrigerated enclosures. Guidelines on necessary care for such animals is published in the International Zoo Yearbook. Animal exchanges between facilities are usually made voluntarily, based on a model of cooperation for conservation. Loaned animals usually remain the property of the original park, and any offspring yielded by loaned animals are usually divided between the lending and holding institutions. For decades the capture of wild animals or purchasing of animals has been broadly considered unethical and has not been practiced by reputable zoos.

Dealing with space constraints and surplus animals

Especially in large animals, a limited number of spaces are available in zoos. As a consequence, various management tools are used to preserve the space for the genetically most important individuals and to reduce the risk of inbreeding. Management of animal populations is typically through international organizations such as AZA and EAZA. Zoos have several different ways of managing the animal populations, such as moves between zoos, contraception, sale of excess animals and euthanization (culling).

Contraception can be an effective way to limit a population's breeding. However it may also have health repercussions and can be difficult or even impossible to reverse in some animals. Additionally, some species may lose their reproductive capability entirely if prevented from breeding for a period (whether through contraceptives or isolation), but further study is needed on the subject. Sale of surplus animals from zoos was once common and in some cases animals have ended up in substandard facilities. In recent decades the practice of selling animals from certified zoos has declined. A large number of animals are culled each year in zoos, but this is controversial. A highly publicized culling as part of population management was that of a healthy giraffe at Copenhagen Zoo in 2014. The zoo argued that his genes already were well-represented in captivity, making the giraffe unsuitable for future breeding. There were offers to adopt him and an online petition to save him had many thousand signatories, but the culling proceeded. Although zoos in some countries have been open about culling, the controversy of the subject and pressure from the public has resulted in others being closed. This stands in contrast to most zoos publicly announcing animal births. Furthermore, while many zoos are willing to cull smaller and/or low-profile animals, fewer are willing to do it with larger high-profile species.

Many animals breed readily in captivity. Zoos frequently are forced to intentionally limit captive breeding because of a lack of natural wild habitat in which to reintroduce animals. This highlights the importance of in situ conservation, or preservation of natural spaces, in addition to the utility of zoo captive breeding and reintroduction programs. In situ conservation and reintroduction programs are key elements to obtaining certification by reputable organisations such as the AZA.

Justification

Conservation and research

The position of most modern zoos in Australasia, Asia, Europe, and North America, particularly those with scientific societies, is that they display wild animals primarily for the conservation of endangered species, as well as for research purposes and education, and secondarily for the entertainment of visitors. The Zoological Society of London states in its charter that its aim is "the advancement of Zoology and Animal Physiology and the introduction of new and curious subjects of the Animal Kingdom." It maintains two research institutes, the Nuffield Institute of Comparative Medicine and the Wellcome Institute of Comparative Physiology. In the United States, the Penrose Research Laboratory of the Philadelphia Zoo focuses on the study of comparative pathology. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums produced its first conservation strategy in 1993, and in November 2004, it adopted a new strategy that sets out the aims and mission of zoological gardens of the 21st century. When studying behaviour of captive animals, several things should however be taken into account before drawing conclusions about wild populations. Including that captive populations are often smaller than wild ones and that the space available to each animal is often less than in the wild.

Conservation programs all over the world fight to protect species from going extinct, but many conservation programs are underfunded and under-represented. Conservation programs can struggle to fight bigger issues like habitat loss and illness. It often takes a lot of funding and long time periods to rebuild degraded habitats, both of which are scarce in conservation efforts. The current state of conservation programs cannot rely solely in situ (on-site conservation) plans alone, ex situ (off-site conservation) may therefore provide a suitable alternative. Off-site conservation relies on zoos, national parks, or other care facilities to support the rehabilitation of the animals and their populations. Zoos benefit conservation by providing suitable habitats and care to endangered animals. When properly regulated, they present a safe, clean environment for the animals to increase populations sizes. A study on amphibian conservation and zoos addressed these problems by writing,

Whilst addressing in situ threats, particularly habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, is of primary importance; for many amphibian species in situ conservation alone will not be enough, especially in light of current un-mitigatable threats that can impact populations very rapidly such as chytridiomycosis [an infectious fungal disease]. Ex situ programmes can complement in situ activities in a number of ways including maintaining genetically and demographically viable populations while threats are either better understood or mitigated in the wild

The breeding of endangered species is coordinated by cooperative breeding programmes containing international studbooks and coordinators, who evaluate the roles of individual animals and institutions from a global or regional perspective, and there are regional programmes all over the world for the conservation of endangered species. In Africa, conservation is handled by the African Preservation Program (APP); in the U.S. and Canada by Species Survival Plans; in Australasia, by the Australasian Species Management Program; in Europe, by the European Endangered Species Program; and in Japan, South Asia, and South East Asia, by the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums, the South Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation, and the South East Asian Zoo Association.

Positive impacts on local wildlife
Besides conservation of captive species, large zoos may form a suitable environment for wild native animals such as herons to live in or visit. A colony of black-crowned night herons has regularly summered at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. for more than a century. Some zoos may provide information to visitors on wild animals visiting or living in the zoo, or encourage them by directing them to specific feeding or breeding platforms.

Roadside zoos
In modern, well-regulated zoos, breeding is controlled to maintain a self-sustaining, global captive population. This is not the case in some less well-regulated zoos, often based in poorer regions. Overall "stock turnover" of animals during a year in a select group of poor zoos was reported as 20%-25% with 75% of wild caught apes dying in captivity within the first 20 months. The authors of the report stated that before successful breeding programs, the high mortality rate was the reason for the "massive scale of importations."

One 2-year study indicated that of 19,361 mammals that left accredited zoos in the U.S. between 1992 and 1998, 7,420 (38%) went to dealers, auctions, hunting ranches, unaccredited zoos and individuals, and game farms.

Animal welfare in zoos

The welfare of zoo animals varies widely. Many zoos work to improve their animal enclosures and make it fit the animals' needs, but constraints such as size and expense can complicate this. The type of enclosure and the husbandry are of great importance in determining the welfare of animals. Substandard enclosures can lead to decreased lifespans, caused by factors as human diseases, unsafe materials in the cages and possible escape attempts (Bendow 382). However, when zoos take time to think about the animal's welfare, zoos can become a place of refuge. There are animals that are injured in the wild and are unable to survive on their own, but in the zoos they can live out the rest of their lives healthy and happy (McGaffin). In recent years, some zoos have chosen to move out some larger animals because they do not have the space available to provide an adequate enclosure for them (Lemonic, McDowell, and Bjerklie 50).

An issue with animal welfare in zoos is that best animal husbandry practices are often not completely known, especially for species that are only kept in a small number of zoos. To solve this organizations like EAZA and AZA have begun to develop husbandry manuals.

Behavioural restriction
Many modern zoos attempt to improve animal welfare by providing more space and behavioural enrichments. This often involves housing the animals in naturalistic enclosures that allow the animals to express more of their natural behaviours, such as roaming and foraging. Whilst many zoos have been working hard on this change, in some zoos, some enclosures still remain barren concrete enclosures or other minimally enriched cages.

Sometimes animals are unable to perform certain behaviors in zoos, like seasonal migration or traveling over large distances. Whether these behaviors are necessary for good welfare however is unclear. Some behaviors are seen as essential for an animal's welfare whilst others aren't. It is however shown that even in limited spaces, certain natural behaviors can still be performed. A study in 2014 for example found that Asian elephants in zoos covered similar or higher walking distances then sedentary wild populations. Migration in the wild can also be related to food scarcity or other unfavorable environmental problems. However a proper zoo enclosure never runs out of food or water, and in case of unfavorable temperatures or weather animals are provided with (indoor) shelter.

Abnormal behaviour

Animals in zoos can exhibit behaviors that are abnormal in their frequency, intensity, or would not normally be part of their behavioural repertoire. Whilst these types of behaviors can be a sign of bad welfare and stress, this isn't necessarily the case. Other measurements or behavioral research is advised before determining whether an animal performing stereotypical behavior is living in bad welfare or not. Examples of stereotypical behaviors are pacing, head-bobbing, obsessive grooming and feather-plucking A study examining data collected over four decades found that polar bears, lions, tigers and cheetahs can display stereotypical behaviors in many older exhibits. However they also noted that in more modern naturalistic exhibits, these behaviors could completely disappear. Elephants have also been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of swaying back and forth, trunk swaying or route tracing. This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos. However it has been shown that modern facilities and modern husbandry can greatly decrease or even entirely remove abnormal behaviors. A study of a group of elephants in Planckendael showed that the older wild-caught animals displayed many stereotypical behaviors. These elephants had spent part of their lives either in a circus or in other substandard enclosures. On the other hand, the elephants born in the modern facilities that had lived in a herd their whole life barely displayed any stereotypical behaviors at all. The life history of an animal is thus extremely important when analyzing the causes of stereotypical behavior, as this can be a historical relict instead of a result of present-day husbandry.

Some zoos have used psychoactive drugs, such as Prozac, in attempting to stop animals from exhibiting the behaviors.

Longevity
The influence on a zoological environment on animal's longevity is not straightforward. A study of 50 mammal species found that 84% of them lived longer in zoos than they would in the wild on average. On the other hand, some research claims that elephants in Japanese zoos would live shorter than their wild counterparts at just 17 years. This has been refuted by other studies however. Such studies might not yet fully represent recent improvements in husbandry. For example, studies show that captive-bred elephants already have a lower mortality risk then wild-caught ones.

Climate conditions
Climatic conditions can make it difficult to keep some animals in zoos in some locations. For example, Alaska Zoo had an elephant named Maggie. She was housed in a small, indoor enclosure because the outdoor temperature was too low.

Epidemiology
Tsetse flies have invaded zoos that have been established in the tsetse zone. More concerning, tsetse-borne species of trypanosomes have entered zoos outside the traditional tsetse zone in infected animals imported and added to their collections. Whether these can be controlled depends on several factors: Vale 1998 found that the technique used in placing attractants was important; and Green 1988, Torr 1994, Torr et al. 1995, and Torr et al. 1997 found the availability for specifically needed attractants for the specific job to also vary widely.

Moral criticism
Some critics and many animal lovers  activists argue that zoo animals are treated as voyeuristic objects, rather than living creatures, and often suffer due to the transition from being free and wild to captivity. Ever since imports of wild-caught animals can  became more regulated by organizations like CITES and national laws, zoos have started sustaining their populations via breeding. This change started around the 1970s. Many corperations in the form of breeding programs have been set up since, for both common and endangered species. Emma Marris, writing an opinion piece for The New York Times, suggested zoos "stopped breeding all their animals, with the possible exception of any endangered species with a real chance of being released back into the wild ... Eventually, the only animals on display would be a few ancient holdovers from the old menageries, animals in active conservation breeding programs and perhaps a few rescues. Such zoos might even be merged with sanctuaries."

In 2017, activist travel company Responsible Travel and animal welfare charity the Born Free Foundation conducted an independent survey of 1,000 members of the UK public who had visited a zoo in the previous five years, to gauge public understanding of zoos' contribution to conservation. The results showed that zoos spend on average ten times less than visitors expect on conservation. It also emerged that three-quarters of visitors would expect at least one-fifth of the animals in a zoo to be endangered. The actual figure, according to the Born Free Foundation, is 10%.

In light of these findings and ongoing animal welfare concerns, in 2017, Responsible Travel became the first travel company to stop promoting holidays that include visits to a zoo.

Live feeding

In some countries, feeding live vertebrates to zoo animals is illegal under most circumstances. The UK Animal Welfare Act of 2006, for example, states that prey must be killed for feeding, unless this threatens the health of the predator. Some zoos had already adopted such practices prior to the implementation of such policies. London Zoo, for example, stopped feeding live vertebrates in the 20th century, long before the Animal Welfare Act. Despite being illegal in China, some zoos have been found to still feed live vertebrates to their predators. In some parks like Xiongsen Bear and Tiger Mountain Village, live chickens and other livestock were found to be thrown into the enclosures of tigers and other predators. In Guilin, in south-east China, live cows and pigs are thrown to tigers to amuse visitors. Other Chinese parks like Shenzhen Safari Park have already stopped this practice after facing heavy criticism.

Regulation

United States
In the United States, any public animal exhibit must be licensed and inspected by the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and others.

Additionally, zoos in several countries may choose to pursue accreditation by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), which originated in the U.S. To achieve accreditation, a zoo must pass an application and inspection process and meet or exceed the AZA's standards for animal health and welfare, fundraising, zoo staffing, and involvement in global conservation efforts. Inspection is performed by three experts (typically one veterinarian, one expert in animal care, and one expert in zoo management and operations) and then reviewed by a panel of twelve experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated once every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007; fewer than 10% are accredited.

Europe
The European Union introduced a directive to strengthen the conservation role of zoos, making it a statutory requirement that they participate in conservation and education, and requiring all member states to set up systems for their licensing and inspection. Zoos are regulated in the UK by the Zoo Licensing Act of 1981, which came into effect in 1984. A zoo is defined as any "establishment where wild animals are kept for exhibition [...] to which members of the public have access, with or without charge for admission, seven or more days in any period of twelve consecutive months", excluding circuses and pet shops. The Act requires that all zoos be inspected and licensed, and that animals kept in enclosures are provided with a suitable environment in which they can express most normal behavior.

See also

 List of zoos by country
 Wildlife refuge
 List of zoo associations
 Animals in captivity
 Environmental enrichment
 Conservation
 Wildlife conservation
 Ex-situ conservation
 In-situ conservation
 Conservation movement
 Index of conservation articles
 Virtual zoo
 Extinction
 Endangered species
 Zoo emergency response team
 Zoology (includes a list of prominent zoologists)
 Immersion exhibit
 Frozen zoo

Notes

Further reading

 Baratay, Eric, and Elizabeth Hardouin-Fugier. (2002) History of Zoological Gardens in the West
 Blunt, Wilfrid (1976). The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century, Hamish Hamilton, London.  online
 Braverman, Irus (2012). Zooland: The Institution of Captivity, Stanford University Press.  excerpt
 Bruce, Gary. (2017) Through the Lion Gate: A History of the Berlin Zoo excerpt
 Conway, William (1995). "The conservation park: A new zoo synthesis for a changed world", in The Ark Evolving: Zoos and Aquariums in Transition, Wemmer, Christen M. (ed.), Smithsonian Institution Conservation and Research Center, Front Royal, Virginia.
 Donahue, Jesse C., and Erik K. Trump. (2014) American zoos during the depression: a new deal for animals (McFarland, 2014).
 Fisher, James. (1967) Zoos of the World: The Story of Animals in Captivity, popular history

 Hancocks, David. A Different Nature: The Paradoxical World of Zoos and Their Uncertain Future (2003) excerpt

 Hardouin-Fugier, Elisabeth. (2004) Zoo: A History of Zoological Gardens in the West
 Hyson, Jeffrey (2000). "Jungle of Eden: The Design of American Zoos" in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, Conan, Michel (ed.), Dumbarton Oaks, Washington.
 Hochadel, Oliver. "Watching Exotic Animals Next Door: 'Scientific' Observations at the Zoo (ca. 1870–1910)."Science in Context(June 2011) 24#2 pp 183–214. online
 Hyson, Jeffrey (2003). "Zoos," in
 The International Zoo Yearbook, annual since 1959 from the Zoological Society of London.
 Kohler, Robert E. (2006). All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors, and Biodiversity, 1850–1950 (Princeton University Press).
 Kisling, Vernon N., ed. (2001) Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens (2001) excerpt .
 Maddeaux, Sarah-Joy. (2014) "A 'delightful resort for persons of all ages, and more especially for the young': Children at Bristol Zoo Gardens, 1835–1940." Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 7.1 (2014): 87–106 excerpt.
 Maple, Terry (1995). "Toward a Responsible Zoo Agenda", in Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare, and Wildlife Conservation, Norton, Bryan G., Hutchins, Michael, Stevens, Elizabeth F. and Maple, Terry L. (ed.), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
 Meuser, Natascha (2019). Zoo Buildings. Construction and Design Manual. DOM publishers, Berlin.
 Miller, Ian Jared, and Harriet Ritvo. The Nature of the Beasts: Empire and Exhibition at the Tokyo Imperial Zoo (2013) excerpt

 Murphy, James B. (2007) Herpetological History of the Zoo & Aquarium World
 Reichenbach, Herman (2002). "Lost Menageries: Why and How Zoos Disappear (Part 1)", International Zoo News Vol.49/3 (No.316), April–May 2002.
 Robinson, Michael H. (1987a). "Beyond the zoo: The biopark", Defenders of Wildlife Magazine, Vol. 62, No. 6.
 Robinson, Michael H. (1987b). "Towards the Biopark: The Zoo That Is Not", American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, Annual Proceedings.
 Rothfels, Nigel. (2008) Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo excerpt
 Woods, Abigail. (2018) "Doctors in the Zoo: Connecting Human and Animal Health in British Zoological Gardens, c. 1828–1890." In Animals and the Shaping of Modern Medicine (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018), pp. 27–69.

External links

 Zoos Worldwide Zoos, aquariums, animal sanctuaries and wildlife parks
 Zoological Gardens keeping Asian Elephants
 The Bartlett Society: Devoted to studying yesterday's methods of keeping wild animals, download page

Animal rights
Animal welfare
Zoology

Zoo


Colleen Corby (born August 3, 1947) is an American retired model. She is best known for her work as a teen in the 1960s, as well as for her modeling work in department store catalogs from the 1960s and 1970s, including those of Sears, JC Penney, Montgomery Ward, and others.  Corby's modeling career began in 1959 when she was eleven years old.

Early career
Two weeks after walking into Eileen Ford's modeling agency (ostensibly to look for a summer job), Corby was sent on her first modeling assignment. By the end of that first summer, she was steadily booking assignments and her parents enrolled her in Manhattan's Professional Children's School, which allows for the irregular schedules of actors and models. By her last year of high school, she was so busy she hardly ever attended classes.

By the mid-1960s, Corby's popularity was at its peak.  In 1963, she signed a multi-year movie contract with Universal Pictures, and had every intention of making acting her new career. However, her acting career never got off the ground. Her popularity as a model, however, was still strong; she appeared in TV commercials,  magazines and catalogs. Corby was most closely associated with Seventeen magazine, appearing on an unprecedented 15 covers in the 1960s (five times in 1964 alone) and in the magazine's fashion spreads almost every month.

By the 1970s, Corby's teen market was gone, but she continued to appear in magazines like Glamour and Mademoiselle and was a fixture in the catalogs of major retailers like Sears and JCPenney. She initially retired from modeling in 1979, when she married businessman Peter Bernuth. Corby briefly returned to modeling in the early 1980s, but after her second child was born she left New York and the fashion world for good. She currently lives in Florida (where her husband's business was located). Her last public appearance was on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Currently, Corby works in Alumni Relations and Development at the University of Miami School of Business in Coral Gables, Florida.

Notes

1947 births
Living people
21st-century American women
Female models from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania

Colleen Corby


In computing and telecommunications, the payload is the part of transmitted data that is the actual intended message. Headers and metadata are sent only to enable payload delivery and are considered overhead.

In the context of a computer virus or worm, the payload is the portion of the malware which performs malicious action.

The term is borrowed from transportation, where payload refers to the part of the load that pays for transportation.

Networking
In computer networking, the data to be transmitted is the payload. It is almost always encapsulated in some type of frame format, composed of framing bits and a frame check sequence.  Examples are Ethernet frames, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) frames, Fibre Channel frames, and V.42 modem frames.

Programming
In computer programming, the most common usage of the term is in the context of message protocols, to differentiate the protocol overhead from the actual data. For example, a JSON web service response might be:
 { "data": { "message": "Hello, world!" } }
The string Hello, world! is the payload of JSON message, while the rest is protocol overhead.

Security
In computer security, the payload is the part of the private user text which could also contain malware such as worms or viruses which performs the malicious action; deleting data, sending spam or encrypting data. In addition to the payload, such malware also typically has overhead code aimed at simply spreading itself, or avoiding detection.

See also

References

Data transmission
Computer security exploits

Payload (computing)


The Great Waters Association of Vexillology (GWAV, pronounced gwave) is an organization devoted to vexillology, the scientific study of flags. GWAV has a particular focus on flags of the Midwestern United States.

The group was established May 11, 1991, in Kettering, Ohio, a suburb of Dayton.  Initially, the members met with the intent to establish a local chapter of the North American Vexillological Association (NAVA).  When NAVA decided to not have chapters, the group set out to be independent.

Initially, the group covered the US states of Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan and Ohio.  The name acknowledges the Great Lakes and Ohio River as vital components of this region.  In 2000, the State of Illinois was added.

The organization's flag was designed in 1991 and was modified with the addition of Illinois.  It currently depicts five inverted chevrons or "V"s on a blue background.  The chevrons (which resemble the letter V) represent vexillology, and alternate in color from white to red indicate each of the states covered by the group.

The group met semi-annually, normally in May and November, and from 1990 through 2012, published Flagwaver, a Journal of Vexillology (ISSN 2327-2368) each June and December. The journal featured articles about flags used within the five states comprising the organization.  Among those highlighted were the flags of Springfield, and Chicago in Illinois; Detroit and Grand Rapids in Michigan; Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky.

In May 1999, the membership established the Commodore Award and the Flying Colors Award.  The Commodore Award is given for significant individual contribution to the field of vexillology, especially in the GWAV states, and the Flying Colors Award is presented to a flag designer and adopting entity for excellence in flag design.  Through 2012, the Commodore Award has been presented twice and the Flying Colors Award once.

In 1999, GWAV became one of the 51 members of International Federation of Vexillological Associations, known by its French acronym FIAV (Fédération internationale des associations vexillologiques).

GWAV hosted the North American Vexillological Association's 1995 annual meeting in Covington, Kentucky, the 2000 annual meeting in Lansing, Michigan, the 2004 annual meeting in Indianapolis, Indiana, and the 2012 annual meeting in Columbus, Ohio.

On June 15, 2012, one of the charter members, Dr. John M. Purcell, died at the age of 79. Following this, interest in maintaining the group waned as membership had dropped to only four members and they decided to suspend operations on April 4, 2013.

Notes

External links
 GWAV at NAVA.org

International Federation of Vexillological Associations
Heraldic societies
Semiotics organizations
Vexillological organizations

Great Waters Association of Vexillology


Do You Know Claudia? () is a 2004 comedy film directed by Massimo Venier and starring Aldo, Giovanni & Giacomo.

Plot
Claudia and Giovanni have been married for 7 years, but they are going through a relationship crisis. Claudia convinces herself that to fix her problems, she has to help another person. She steals the medical chart of another patient, Giacomo, from her psychoanalyst's office and starts to date him platonically.  Giacomo, who is divorced and depressed, benefits a lot from Claudia's company and falls in love with her, with his mood improving dramatically.

Aldo, a taxi driver, is Claudia's lover and is convinced that Giovanni is onto him, seeing him everywhere. In the meanwhile, Giovanni becomes suspicious and starts following his wife around, erroneously concluding that Giacomo is her wife's lover.

Aldo, Giovanni and Giacomo get involved in a car crash, beginning to hang out together while Giovanni thinks Giacomo is his wife's lover and Aldo knows Giovanni is Claudia's husband. After having shared this knowledge between them, the three decides to drive to Calabria together, where Claudia has isolated herself, and ask her to choose one of them. During the journey, Aldo realises that there has been a case of mistaken identity. In fact, Claudia is not the same Claudia he was involved romantically with.

In the meanwhile, Giacomo realises he is not really in love with Claudia and decides to go back to his ex-wife, hoping in vain to get back together. Giovanni and Aldo get back with their respective Cladia, but the latter couple does not last for long. Aldo and Giovanni end up becoming good friends.

Cast
Aldo Baglio as Aldo
Giovanni Storti as Giovanni
Giacomo Poretti as Giacomo
Paola Cortellesi as Claudia
Sandra Ceccarelli as Silvia
Ottavia Piccolo as the psychoanalyst
Rossy de Palma as Claudia (Aldo's lover)
Marco Messeri as Vanni Maceria
Silvana Fallisi as Luciana
Ruffin Doh Zeneyoun as Taribo
Max Pisu as taxi's customer

References

External links

2004 comedy films
2004 films
Films directed by Massimo Venier
Italian comedy films
2000s Italian-language films

Do You Know Claudia?


Joseph Warren Phinney (born 1848, Nantucket – d. 1934) was an American printer, type designer, and business executive.  Phinney began his career at the Dickinson Type Foundry in Boston where he designed type and worked in management, eventually becoming owner.  He was a key player in arranging the merger of twenty-six large foundries to form the American Type Founders Company in 1892, becoming both manager of the Boston branch and head of the design department, where he oversaw the consolidation of type faces following the merger.  Though his own designs were largely derivative, Phinney took a great interest in type and its history and throughout his tenure at A.T.F. he sought to preserve and protect that company's legacy, as for instance, when he oversaw the re-introduction of Binny & Ronaldson's 1796 type design, Roman No. 1, as Oxford in 1892, or when he purchased Frederick W. Goudy's first type design, Camelot, in 1896.  He stayed with A.T.F. for the rest of his career, passing the role of design head to Morris Fuller Benton and becoming senior vice-president. Phinney retired shortly before the company fell upon hard times during the Great Depression and died in 1934.

Typefaces designed Joseph W. Phinney
In addition to many faces cut for the Dickinson Type Foundry, Phinney also cut these faces cast by American Type Founders.
 Jenson Series
 Jenson Oldstyle + italic (1893), based on William Morris's "Golden Type", matrices cut by John F. Cumming from drawings by Phinney.
 Jenson Heavyface (1899)
 Jenson Condensed + Bold Condensed (1901)
 Bradley Text (1895), developed from Will H. Bradley's lettering on the Christmas cover of Inland Printer Magazine by either Phinney or (more probably) Herman Ihlenberg.
 Satanick (1896), based on William Morris's Troy and Chaucer, matrices cut by John F. Cumming from drawings by Phinney.
 Taylor Gothic (1897), capitals only, lower-case based on Central Type Foundry of St. Louis' Quentell.  Later re-worked by either Morris Fuller Benton or Goudy as Globe Gothic.
 Devens Script (1898)
 Touraine Oldstyle Italic (1898)
 Lower-case letters for Goudy's Camelot (1900)
 Abbott Oldstyle (1901)
 Engravers Old English (1901), usually credited to Benton.
 Flemish Black (1902) An adaptation of Priory Text, an 1870s version of William Caslon's Caslon Text of 1734.
 Cheltenham Oldstyle + italic (1902), developed from Bertram Goodhue's architectural lettering by either Phinney or Benton.
 Cloister Black (1904), lower-case identical to Flemish Black, capitals usually credited to Benton.

References
 MacGrew, Mac, American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century, Oak Knoll Books, New Castle Delaware, 1993, .

American typographers and type designers
1848 births
1934 deaths
American printers
People from Nantucket, Massachusetts

Joseph W. Phinney


The Journal of Workplace Rights is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering labor-management relations, employment discrimination, and employment law. It covers the theoretical and practical sides of employment issues such as record keeping, occupational safety and health, fair employment practices, addicted workers, AIDS in the workplace, medical screening, employee surveillance, wage and hour standards, union-management relations, employment contracts, and dispute and grievance resolution. The journal is edited by Joel Rudin (Rowan University).

History
The Journal of Workplace Rights was established in 1992 as the Journal of Individual Employment Rights and obtained its current title in 2008.

Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Social Sciences Citation Index, Employee Relations Bibliography & Abstracts, Human Resources Abstracts, Left Index, Personnel Management Abstracts, Urban Affairs Abstracts, and Violence & Abuse Abstracts.

External links

Labour journals
Business and management journals
Quarterly journals
Academic journals established in 1992

Journal of Workplace Rights


The Cave of Pego do Diabo (also known as Loca do Gato or Cat's Den) is a small karst cave in a Turonian limestone outcrop located about 250 metres above sea level in the municipality of Loures, about 20 km north of Lisbon in Portugal. The erosion of the outcrop resulted in a set of openings in the rocks wide enough to be exploited by humans. Several archaeological studies have been conducted within the cave, which give insights into the duration of Neanderthal presence on the Iberian Peninsula and to the presence of carnivorous animals during the Paleolithic.

The cave consists of a narrow passage about 13 metres long and one metre wide, with a chamber at the end that is about two metres wide. First officially explored in 1965–66 by the Portuguese Speleological Society, it was surveyed in 1976 by the Grupo para o Estudio do Paleolitico Portugues (Group for the Study of the Portuguese Palaeolithic) and at the end of the 1980s by Prof. João Zilhão. About half of the accessible area of the cave has been studied.

The stratigraphic profile carried out by Zilhão identified six layers to a depth of about 1.4 metres. The upper layer (Layer A), which was only observed at the end of the cave, is indicative of probable use for funerals. Layer 1 contained a mixture of modern and Pleistocene items while Layer 2 contained artifacts of the Upper Paleolithic associated with animal remains. Layer 3 also had animal remains but with distinct colouration, possibly caused by manganese oxides. There were few archaeological materials in Layer 4 and Layer 5 was archaeologically sterile.

Zilhão's research using radiocarbon dating looked for evidence of Neanderthals during the late Aurignacian period (37000-33000 Before the Present). He believed his excavations established a secure terminus ante quem of 34500 years BP for the demise of Neanderthals in the area, although more recent research by Zilhão and others suggests it was earlier than that. This has important implications for the interpretation of the anatomy of the Lapedo child, a complete skeleton found by Zilhão near Leiria in Portugal and believed to be the result of interbreeding between a Neanderthal and a modern human. The dating of the last of the region's Neanderthals to five millennia before the child was borne counters suggestions that Neanderthals could have survived in southwest Iberia until as late as the Last Glacial Maximum (26500 BP). Crossbreeding between immediate ancestors has to be ruled out and the Neanderthal features of the child must represent admixture at the time of contact. Zilhao also considered that his findings had implications for the idea that Neanderthals remained in the Gibraltar area until ca.32-28000 BP. He believed that, as hunter-gatherers living at low population densities, residual Neanderthals could not have survived for several millennia as a separate biological entity.

Work by Maria João Valente analysed the fauna of Layers 1 and 2 associated with the Upper Paleolithic. She noted that the cave contained bones of humans, together with those of wolves, bears, and hyenas, the Iberian lynx and other small carnivores and birds of prey, and their prey such as rabbits. She hypothesised that there would have been competition between humans and animals for use of the cave and noted that the consecutive use of caves by human communities and carnivores had been identified elsewhere. However, an alternative interpretation was that human groups could have carried animal bones into the caves.

References

Caves of Portugal
Prehistoric sites in Portugal
Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe
Loures

Cave of Pego do Diabo


Bruno Bušić (Born in Vinjani Donji near Imotski, 6 October 1939 - Paris, 16 October 1978), an advocate of democratic, sovereign, and free Croatian. He was a patriot, dissident, writer, historical researcher, and a political leader of Croatian emigration.

Biography
Bušić was born in the Vinjani Donji village, Imotski county, Bosnia and Herzegovina. His political activities when he was a secondary school student, were seen by the communist regime as dangerous. As of 1957. he joined to Tiho group which goal was to fight for freedom, equal rights and establishment of free Croatia based on democracy. He was put on the watch list of the Yugoslav secret service UDBA. Along with other members of theTiho group he was expelled from the secondary school he attended.

During his college years at Zagreb University he started a journalist career at the Workers Movement History Institute, mentored by Franjo Tudjman

References

1939 births
1978 deaths
Assassinated people

Bruno Bušić


Conrad Felixmüller (21 May 1897 – 24 March 1977) was a German expressionist painter and printmaker. Born in Dresden as Conrad Felix Müller, he chose Felixmüller as his nom d'artiste.

Early life and career

He attended drawing classes at the Dresden School of Arts and Crafts in 1911–12 before studying under Carl Bantzer at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts. In 1917 he performed military service as a medical orderly, and became a founding member of the Dresden Expressionist group Expressionistische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Dresden. He achieved his earliest success as a printmaker. Felixmüller was a member of the Communist Party of Germany from 1918 to 1922. He published many woodcuts and drawings in left-wing magazines, and remained a prolific printmaker throughout his career. He was a close friend of the composer Clemens Braun of whom he produced a number of portraits and a woodcut depicting him on his deathbed. Another  subject of Felixmüller's was his friend and German expressionist poet Walter Rheiner. Felixmüller had done illustrations for many of Rheiner's works. In tribute following the news of Rheiner's death, Felixmüller's painting 'Der Tod des Dichters Walter Rheiner'pays homage to his deceased friend.

Felixmüller was one of the youngest members of the New Objectivity movement. His paintings often deal with the social realities of Germany's Weimar Republic.  He was mentor to the German Expressionist Otto Dix.

Felixmüller's work became more objective and restrained after the mid-1920s. He wrote in 1929:It has become increasingly clear to me that the only necessary goal is to depict the direct, simple life which one has lived oneself, also involving the design of colour as painting—in the manner in which it was cultivated by the Old Masters for centuries, until Impressionism and Expressionism, infected by the technical and industrial delusions of grandeur, rejected every affinity for tradition, ability and results, committing harakiri.

In the 1930s, many of his works were seized as degenerate art by the Nazis, and destroyed. In 1944, his studio in Berlin was bombed, resulting in more losses of his works.
From 1949 to 1962 Felixmüller taught at the University of Halle. He died in the Berlin suburb of Zehlendorf.

His 1924 watercolour Couple in a Landscape was found as part of the Munich Art Hoard.

See also
 List of German painters

Notes

References
Michalski, Sergiusz (1994). New Objectivity. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen.

External links

 Official site's biography

1897 births
1977 deaths
Artists from Dresden
Artists from the Kingdom of Saxony
German Expressionist painters
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German male painters

Conrad Felixmüller


Aloysius Laurence Cortie  (1859 – 1925) was an English Jesuit astronomer. He served as director of the Stonyhurst College Observatory and contributed to the study of the Sun, including through observing solar eclipses.

Life

Aloysius Cortie was born in London into a Catholic family. He was sent to study at the Catholic Stonyhurst College in Lancashire. He later taught mathematics and science at Stonyhurst, before training for the priesthood at St. Beuno's College in North Wales, leading to his ordination in 1892.

Cortie returned to Stonyhurst to teach, and spent the rest of his life serving the college. He had an interest in music and served as the college's director of music.

Cortie developed influenza in 1925, and his health deteriorated leading to his death some weeks later.

Scientific work

Aloysius Cortie specialised in observing the Sun. He studied sunspots, making daily observations over many years from Stonyhurst whenever weather permitted. He studied the correlation between magnetic storms on the Earth and sunspots, eventually arguing that effects produced by the Sun, and associated with sunspots, extended outwards from the Sun in various directions and sometimes caused terrestrial magnetic storms.

Cortie also specialised in observing solar eclipses and took part in a number of eclipse expeditions. He travelled to Spain in 1905, to Tonga in 1911, and to Sweden in 1914. His main objective was to photograph the spectrum of the outer part of the Sun's atmosphere.

Cortie observed novae from the Stonyhurst College Observatory. He examined their spectra and measured the spectral lines that were visible.

Aloysius Cortie became a prominent member of the British astronomical community. He often gave popular lectures about science.

Cortie acted as director of the Stonyhurst College Observatory from the death of Walter Sidgreaves in 1919 until his own death in 1925.

He became director of the Solar Section of the British Astronomical Association following the death of Elizabeth Brown in 1899, and served until 1910. He was president of the Manchester Astronomical Society from 1911 to 1925. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1891,
and a fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society in 1924.
He was appointed an associate of the Astronomical Society of Wales, a form of honorary membership.

References

1859 births
1925 deaths
19th-century British astronomers
20th-century British astronomers
Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society
Jesuit scientists
People educated at Stonyhurst College
Scientists from London
Jesuits from London
20th-century English Jesuits
19th-century English Jesuits
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

Aloysius Cortie


Ambrose Madden VC (; 1820 – 1 January 1863) was an officer in the British Army. Born in Cork he was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Details
He was about 34 years old, and a sergeant-major in the 41st Regiment of Foot, British Army during the Crimean War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.

On 26 October 1854, in the Crimea, at Little Inkerman, Sergeant Madden headed a party of men of the 41st Regiment which cut off and took prisoner one Russian officer and 14 privates, three of whom were personally captured by the sergeant.

Further information
Madden was commissioned into the 2nd West India Regiment in 1858 and promoted to lieutenant in 1861. He died in Jamaica on 1 January 1863.

See also
 Síol Anmchadha

References

The Register of the Victoria Cross (1981, 1988 and 1997)

Ireland's VCs  (Dept of Economic Development, 1995)
Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
Irish Winners of the Victoria Cross (Richard Doherty & David Truesdale, 2000)
The London Gazette, 24 February 1857

1820 births
1863 deaths
Military personnel from County Cork
19th-century Irish people
Irish officers in the British Army
Crimean War recipients of the Victoria Cross
Irish recipients of the Victoria Cross
West India Regiment officers
British Army personnel of the Crimean War
41st Regiment of Foot soldiers
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross

Ambrose Madden


The Sea Dogs were a group of English privateers and explorers authorised by Queen Elizabeth I to raid England's enemies, whether they were formally at war with them or not. Active from 1560 until Elizabeth's death in 1603, the Sea Dogs primarily attacked Spanish targets both on land and at sea, particularly during the Anglo-Spanish War. Members of the Sea Dogs, including Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, also engaged in illicit slave trading with Spanish colonies in the Americas.

Overview

"Sea Dogs" was an informal name bestowed upon English privateers who were authorised by Queen Elizabeth I to raid England's enemies, even during times of peace. Carrying letters of marque issued by the English Crown, the Sea Dogs frequently attacked both enemy shipping at sea and enemy outposts on land. The issuing of letters of marque was originally done to compensate for the numerical inferiority of the Tudor navy in comparison to its Spanish counterpart; as England lacked a standing navy which was powerful enough to challenge the Spanish Navy head on, the Sea Dogs served as a way to attack Spanish ships during times of peace. Once Elizabeth died in 1603, one year prior to the conclusion of the Anglo-Spanish War, many former Sea Dogs sought employment in the Barbary States, becoming corsairs and attacking European merchant shipping.

Notable Sea Dogs

John Davis (1550–1605)

Sir Francis Drake (1540–1596)

Sir Francis Drake was one of the most successful Sea Dogs of all time. As captain of Golden Hind, he served in the Tudor navy from 1563 to 1596 and rose to the rank of Vice-Admiral. Drake was trained from a young age for a career at sea by his cousin, fellow Sea Dog Sir John Hawkins. Drake also became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world, which started in 1577 and concluded in 1580. Drake had a huge range of coverage, raiding up the Spanish on the Pacific Coast all the way up to modern day San Francisco. In addition to his commandeering of ships, Drake would sail into ports in the Caribbean to put ransoms on cities, after which he would begin burning the city down until he received payment. Drake was awarded a knighthood in 1581. He later died of dysentery after an unsuccessful attempt to take San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Sir Martin Frobisher (1535–1594)

Sir Martin Frobisher was a seaman and privateer who made three voyages to the New World looking for the Northwest Passage. As a privateer, he plundered riches from French ships. He was knighted for his service in repelling the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1539–1583)

Sir Humphrey Gilbert was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, and involved in the first Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest. He was the first to establish the English colonial empire in North America when he took possession of Newfoundland for Queen Elizabeth I on 5 August 1583. He was a maternal half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville.

Sir Richard Grenville (1542–1591)

Sir Richard Grenville was lord of the manors of Stowe, Cornwall and Bideford, Devon. He subsequently participated in the plantations of Ireland specifically the Munster plantations, the English colonisation of the Americas and the repulse of the Spanish Armada. In 1591, Grenville died at the battle of Flores fighting against an overwhelmingly larger Spanish fleet near the Azores. He and his crew on board the galleon  fought against the 53-strong Spanish fleet to allow the other English ships to escape. Grenville was the grandfather of Sir Bevil Grenville, a prominent military officer during the English Civil War.

Sir John Hawkins (1532–1595)

Sir John Hawkins was born into a wealthy family where his father was a sea captain. Hawkins initially sailed with his father on trading trips, but by 1562 he turned to slave trading by using his fleet of three ships led by Jesus of Lübeck to abduct 400 Africans from modern-day Guinea and sell them in the Spanish West Indies. He engaged in slave trading for about five years, making three voyages to Sierra Leone and Guinea and selling 1,200–1,400 enslaved Africans to Spanish colonists in the Americas. He eventually served as Treasurer of the Navy and promoted several reforms. He died on November 12, 1595, on San Juan near Puerto Rico in a failed expendition to rescue his son, Richard, who had been captured by the Spanish.

Sir Richard Hawkins (1562–1622)

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552–1618)

Sir Walter Raleigh was a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, he received a title that allowed him to claim any land that he discovered in the name of England. During an expedition to the New World, he founded the colony of Roanoke, which later vanished. Raleigh became infatuated with the idea of a "city of gold" hidden somewhere in South America and set out on an expedition to find it. On his second expedition to find "El Dorado", he ended up in a bit of a predicament after men under his subordinate Lawrence Keymis sacked a Spanish outpost despite England and Spain being at peace. After this incident, Raleigh went back to England. The Spanish were displeased, as they were aware of what Raleigh's men did in violation of the extant peace treaties. As a compromise, Raleigh was executed in the reign of King James VI and I (1566–1625).

Sea Dogs and the Spanish Armada

After years of picking off and looting by English Sea Dogs, Philip II of Spain decided that he had had enough. Philip II mobilized an armada of 130 ships to sail into the English Channel and decided to attempt to end English sea-raiding for good. On 28 May 1588, the Armada under the command of Duke of Medina Sidonia set sail for the Netherlands, where it was to pick up additional troops for the invasion of England. As the armada sailed through the English channel, the English navy led by Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, and Francis Drake fought a battle of attrition with the Spanish from Plymouth to Portland and then to the Solent, preventing them from securing any English harbours. The Spanish were forced to withdraw to Calais. While the Spanish were at anchor there in a crescent-shaped defensive formation, the English used fireships to break the formation and scatter the Spanish ships. The Spanish ships were bigger and more heavily armed, but the English ships were smaller, faster, and more maneuverable. In the subsequent Battle of Gravelines the English navy inflicted a defeat on the Armada and forced it to sail northward in more dangerous stormy waters on the long way home. As they sailed around Scotland, the Armada suffered severe damage and loss of life from stormy weather. As they approached the West coast of Ireland more damaging stormy conditions forced ships ashore while others were wrecked. Disease took a heavy toll as the fleet finally limped back to port. They ended up retreating after losing more than half of their original ships.

Philip's invasion plans had miscarried partly because of unfortunate weather and his own mismanagement, and partly because the opportunistic defensive naval efforts of the English and their Dutch allies prevailed. The defeat of the Armada provided valuable seafaring experience for English oceanic mariners. While the English were able to persist in their privateering against the Spanish and continue sending troops to assist Philip II's enemies in the Netherlands and France, these efforts brought few tangible rewards. One of the most important effects of the event was that the Armada's failure was seen as a sign that God supported the Protestant Reformation in England. One of the medals struck to celebrate the English victory bore the Latin/Hebrew inscription Flavit יהוה et Dissipati Sunt (literally: "Yahweh blew and they were scattered"; traditionally translated more freely as: "He blew with His winds, and they were scattered".)

An English counter armada under the command of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norreys was prepared in 1589 to torch the Spanish Atlantic navy, which was refitting in Santander, Corunna, and San Sebastián in northern Spain. It was also intended to capture the incoming Spanish treasure fleet and expel the Spanish from Portugal (ruled by Philip since 1580) in favour of the Prior of Crato. The English fleet departed from Plymouth on April 13 but was then delayed for nearly two weeks by bad weather. Drake, as a result, had to bypass Santander where the majority of the Spanish fleet were being refitted.

On May 4, the English force eventually arrived at Corunna where the lower town was captured and plundered, and a number of merchant ships were seized. Norreys then won a modest victory over a Spanish relief militia force at Puente del Burgo. When the English pressed the attack on the citadel, however, they were repulsed. In addition, a number of English ships were captured by Spanish naval forces. With the failure to capture Corunna the English departed and headed towards Lisbon, but owing to poor organisation and lack of co-ordination (they had very few siege guns) the invading force also failed to take Lisbon. The expected uprising by the Portuguese loyal to Crato never materialised. With Portuguese and Spanish reinforcements arriving the English retreated and headed North where Drake sacked and burned Vigo. Sickness then struck the expedition, and finally, a portion of the fleet led by Drake headed towards the Azores, which was then scattered in a storm. Drake then took the best part of the fleet and plundered Porto Santo in Madeira before they limped back to Plymouth.

The English Armada was arguably misconceived and ended in failure overall. In the end, Elizabeth sustained a severe loss to her treasury.

References

Further reading

 Holmes, Richard. The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press. 2001.

Filibusters (military)
Elizabethan era

Elizabethan Sea Dogs


is a 2008 Japanese film. The film was directed by Katsuhide Motoki, and stars Rena Tanaka, Mayuko Fukuda and Etsushi Toyokawa. Rena Tanaka and Mayuko Fukuda play the adult and the young version of Akari Saito respectively, while actor Etsushi Toyokawa stars as Akari's father.

Based on a novel by Hare Kawaguchi, this film tells the story of Akari Saito and her dog named Socks. The pair supported each other as they grew up together. This story is closely tied to "The Ten Commandments of Dog Ownership", a list of ownership rules written from a dog's point of view.

10 Promises to My Dog was released in the Japanese box office on 15 March 2008. The film grossed a total of US$15,332,225 in 6 countries, and was the 19th-highest grossing Japanese film of 2008.

Plot
Akari is neglected by her father, a top surgeon who works long hours and puts his career before family. Her mother is hospitalized because of an incurable disease. Therefore, Akari longs for a dog who can keep her company. One day, a Golden Retriever puppy unexpectedly appears in the garden of Akari's house, and Akari immediately decides to adopt it. At her mother's suggestion, Akari christens it "Socks", because the puppy's white paws made it look like it was wearing white socks. Her mother also makes Akari promise that she will follow The Ten Commandments of Dog Ownership when she takes care of Socks. Akari also has a friend, Susumu, who is trained by his family to become a professional guitarist. Susumu soon forms an attachment with Socks as well.

A few months later, Akari's mother dies, and Akari grieves over her death for two days. After that, her neck becomes very stiff and she is unable to move it. With Socks' help, she realizes that this stiffness is actually due to her own imagination, and is thus "cured". She also finds out that Socks was actually placed in the garden by her mother. Not long after Akari's mother died, the family moves to Sapporo because her father was given a lecturer post at a university there. However, they cannot bring Socks along because their dormitory does not allow pets. Hence, Akari has to reluctantly entrust Socks to the care of Susumu.

Another problem surfaces when Susumu is accepted into a prestigious music school in Paris. On the day that he is leaving, Akari's father, who was supposed to be on leave that day, is suddenly called back to the hospital to do an "emergency" operation. This causes Akari to be late in seeing Susumu off. The "emergency" operation turns out to be a minor one, and he resigns after feeling guilty about disappointing his daughter. The family later moves back to their old home in Hakodate, and Socks comes back to stay with them. Akari's father later sets up a clinic in the home, which proves to be popular with the locals.

10 years later, Akari is a university student studying to become a vet. By chance, she happens to see a poster advertising Susumu's upcoming performance in the city. The pair have a tearful reunion, and they soon start dating. During this time, she starts to feel that Socks is a constrain to her. She starts to bemoan the sacrifices that she has to make because of Socks. After Akari graduates from university, she becomes a zookeeper at Asahiyama Zoo. Akari seldom returns to her home, and neglects Socks in the process. However, she is reminded of the good friend Socks was when the dog helps Susumu gain enough confidence to play the guitar again after his accident.

As time passes, Socks starts to age and becomes weaker. Akari is shocked at how much weaker Socks looks on one of her rare visits home, and promises to visit it often. However, due to her heavy workload, she is unable to fulfill that promise. One day, her father phones her urgently to tell her that Socks was dying. Managing to get away from her work, she rushes back just in time. As its energy saps away, Akari reads the Ten Commandments of Dog Ownership again to see if she had done what she had promised 10 years ago.

After Socks' death, Akari and her father find long-lost photographs of Socks, and a letter from her mother. The letter tells Akari that Socks was meant to replace herself, though she added that Socks will not live as long as Akari. Akari is also reminded of the fact that her father sacrificed his career for her. Not long after, Akari and Susumu get married together.

Cast
 Rena Tanaka as the adult Akari Saito, a veterinarian at the Asahiyama Zoo.
 Mayuko Fukuda as the young Akari Saito.
 Etsushi Toyokawa as Yuichi Saito, Akari's father
 Shota Sato as the young Susumu Hoshi, Akari's childhood friend
 Ryo Kase as the adult Susumu Hoshi, a distinguished guitarist who later opens his own music school. Susumu later married Akari.
 Chizuru Ikewaki as Yuko Inoue, Akari's best friend in university. She later become a sales clerk at a departmental store.
 Reiko Takashima as Fumiko Saito, Akari's mother. She died due to an incurable disease.
 Akira Fuse as Shinichi Hoshi, Susumu's father. He is a professional guitarist like his son.
  as Susumu's mother

 Takashi Sasano
 Pierre Taki as the zookeeper
 Mina Fujii as the passerby who takes a photo of Akari and her mother

Production
10 Promises to My Dog is based on a novel authored by Hare Kawaguchi. This novel was in turn inspired by a set of rules entitled "The Ten Commandments of Dog Ownership".

Reception
Kevin Ma, reviewer for Love HK Film.com, describes director Katsuhide Motoki's approach to the story "very low-key and matter-of-fact", and added that "it almost feels like he decided to tell the story in a way that any director-for-hire would". He also criticized some of the characters. In particular, he said that Rena Tanaka "barely registers as the central character" and that "Ryo Kase fares even worse [than Rena Tanaka], but mostly because of his poorly-written plot device of a character than his acting skills in general." However, he did praise the child actors, saying that Mayuko Fukuda gives "the best performance as the child Akari". He also praised the ending of the film, describing it as "emotionally powerful and yet brilliantly understated". Yahoo! Japan holds the film with a review of 3.30 points (stars) out of 738 reviews.

References

External links
 10 Promises to My Dog on TV Tokyo

Shochiku films
Films set in the 21st century
Films about dogs
Films about pets

10 Promises to My Dog


Crystal River Airport – Captain Tom Davis Field  is a public airport located three miles (5 km) southeast of the central business district of Crystal River, in Citrus County, Florida, United States. It is owned by Citrus County.

This airport is assigned a three-letter location identifier of CGC by the Federal Aviation Administration, but it does not have an International Air Transport Association (IATA) airport code (the IATA assigned CGC to Cape Gloucester Airport in Papua New Guinea).

Facilities and aircraft
Crystal River Airport – Captain Tom Davis Field covers an area of  which contains two runways: 9/27 with an asphalt surface measuring 4,555 x 75 ft (1,388 x 23 m) and 18/36 with a turf surface measuring 3,020 x 100 ft (920 x 30 m).

For the 12-month period ending May 9, 2002, the airport had 36,600 aircraft operations, an average of 100 per day: 98% general aviation, 1% air taxi and  1% military. There are 50 aircraft based at this airport: 86% single engine, 10% multi-engine, 2% helicopter and 2% glider.

A non-aviation Florida Army National Guard facility is located at the airport which periodically hosts visiting Florida Army National Guard aircraft from other FLARNG installations.

In December 2013, the Citrus County Board of County Commissioners passed a resolution modifying the airport's name to Crystal River Airport – Captain Tom Davis Field.  CAPT Tom Davis, USN (Ret), is an accomplished Naval Aviator out of the Navy's jet fighter community and a recipient of the Legion of Merit and the Distinguished Flying Cross.  Retiring from the Navy in 1978 following 33 years of service, CAPT Davis settled in Crystal River, starting a flight school at the airport that eventually became the facility's fixed-base operator (FBO).  CAPT Davis also volunteered to become the airport manager and oversaw numerous capital improvements, including the addition of the airport's 4,555 foot paved runway.  As of 2014, CAPT Davis had logged in excess of 24,000 military and civilian flight hours, is an FAA Designated Pilot Examiner and has received the FAA Master Pilot Award.

References

External links

Airports in Florida
Transportation buildings and structures in Citrus County, Florida
Crystal River, Florida

Crystal River Airport


Magdalena Heymair (variously Heymairin, Haymerin, Haymairus; c. 1535 – after 1586) was a teacher and Lutheran evangelical poet who wrote in the Middle Bavarian dialect. Born a Roman Catholic, she converted to evangelical Lutheranism. In her educational songs for children, she often emphasized the role of women in the Bible.  Magdalena Heymair is the first and only woman prior to the 18th century to publish pedagogical writings for elementary teaching. She is also the first woman to have her works listed as heretical in the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (1569).

Life
Magdalena Heymair was born in Regensburg and raised in the Roman Catholic faith. Little is known about her family of origin, her marriage, or her death. In her letters and her books she mentions her school-teacher husband, Wilhelm Heymair, and her son. She apparently became a teacher herself to supplement the family's meagre income.

Magdalene Heymair obtained a position teaching the daughters of Katharina von Degenberg (born von Freyberg, d. 9 January 1586) in Straubing. The family was wealthy and well-connected. Katharina was the widow of Hans VII, Herr zu Degenberg, Schwarzach, & Weissenstein (d. 1551), a chief judge.  One of her daughters, Katharina, married Ulrich III, Graf zu Ortenburg in 1558 and died 4 October 1570. A second daughter, Magdalena, married Johann Andreas von Wolfstein, Freiherr zu Obersulzburg (1541–1585) on 25 January 1569 and died 3 June 1597.  Another daughter, Maria, may have married Freiherr Georg von Maxlrain, Herr zu Hohenwaldeck in 1586 and died in 1610. Heymair's writings are dedicated to "numerous, mostly noble ladies" including Katharina von Degenberg, born von Freyberg, and Magdalena vom Wolffstein, born von Degenberg.

Katharina was also the daughter of Wolf von Freyberg, Herr zu Mickhausen, and was raised in the majority Protestant free imperial city of Augsburg. Katharina hosted a "Frauenzimmer" ("women's room") where women could read and discuss Lutheranism and evangelical ideas. Among those attending were Brigitta Weinzierl, a councilman's wife, and Magdalena Heymair. As a result of their meetings, the women ceased to attend Roman Catholic Mass, choosing instead to sing and read from Lutheran books. A number of the women, including Heymair, eventually had to flee from Straubing because of the negative public response to their conversion.

While Louis VI, Elector Palatine was governor of the Upper Palatinate, Lutheranism was preferred over Calvinism. Magdalena Heymair obtained a position as a schoolmistress at a girls' school in Cham. She and her husband Wilhelm Heymair lived there from 1566 to 1570.  She corresponded with Nicolaus Gallus, a leader of the Lutheran Reformation in Regensburg, and was a close friend of the town's preacher, Willibald Ramsbeck. While at Cham, Magdalena Heymair began to write poetry which she set to music and used in her lessons.

Magdalena Heymair used the settings of children's poet Nikolaus Herman as a model for her compositions. In the preface to her first book, she writes that she was inspired by Die sonntags-evangelia of Nikolaus Herman, Kantor in Joachimsthal. Finding that he had written at the request of a school teacher, she asked God for the grace to arrange the daily lessons for singing.  Her manuscript was completed by 1561, and published in 1568 as Die sontegliche Episteln über das gantze Jar in gesangsweis gestellt ('Sunday Epistles on the whole Year, put to the test'.)  Further editions followed in 1569, 1578, 1579 and 1733.

With this work, Magdalena Heymair became the first and only woman to publish pedagogical writings for elementary teaching prior to the 18th century. That she was able to publish is remarkable.  Her contemporary Josua Opitz wrote, in a preface to Heymair's second book, "This must be the end of time, when also women are publishing books".

Although the German school at Cham had been exclusively assured to Heymair with the support of the Lutheran Council, the succession of Elector Friedrich III resulted in the promotion of more Calvinist beliefs. A Calvinist teacher, Veit Wurtzer from Landshut, was allowed to establish a competing school. Although Magdalena Heymair appealed to superintendent Nicolaus Gallus in February 1570, arguing that the town was too small to support two schools, she was unsuccessful. The Heymairs had to leave Cham.  Wilhelm Heymair applied unsuccessfully for employment in Amberg, and it has been assumed that he died not long afterward.

By the end of 1570, Magdalena Heymair held a position as a schoolmistress in Regensburg. She continued to write and publish as well as teach. Many of her manuscripts were circulated in handwritten copies before they appeared in printed editions. In 1571, her second book, Das Buechlein Jesu Syrachs ('The  Book  of  Jesus Syrach') was printed, with further editions in 1572, 1573, 1578 (2x) and 1586. In 1573, Magdalena Heymair's third book Das Buch der Apostolischen Geschichten ('The Book of Apostolic Stories') was circulated in handwritten form. It appeared in handwritten form again in 1574, and was printed in 1586.
Das Buoch Tobiae ('The Book of Tobias') appeared in 1580 and was first printed in 1586.

In 1580 Magdalena Heymair was a governess in the household of Hans Rueber zu Pixendorf (1529–1584) and his wife Judith Rueber (born von Friedensheim, 1542–1588) at Grafenwörth. After Judith Rueber was widowed in 1586, she appointed Hieronymus Deubener (Peristerius), who Magdalena Heymair knew, as her court preacher. In 1586, Grafenwörth was leased. After this time Magdalena Haymair lived at one of the land-holdings of the Rueber family in Kaschau.

Works
Heymair's  major  works are
Die sontegliche Episteln ('Sunday  Epistles',  1568),
Das Buechlein Jesu Syrachs ('The  Book  of  Jesus Syrach', 1571),
Das Buch der Apostolischen Geschichten ('The Book of Apostolic Stories',  1573);
and Das Buoch Tobiae ('The Book of Tobias', 1580).

Magdalena Heymair wrote her works in the Middle Bavarian dialect. She was well-educated in both theology and literature. The phrasing and rhymes of her songs are partly influenced by the fact that she adapted the lyrics of her songs to predefined melodies, rather than composing her own settings.  She drew upon works of poets and composers such as  Ludwig Helmbold, Paul Hofhaimer, Heinrich Isaac, Jakob Regnart, Hans Sachs, Ludwig Senfl, and Johann Walter. She differed from others of her time in using secular as well as religious songs as settings for her religious verses.

Magdalena Heymair is the first and only woman whose pedagogical writings, specifically written for elementary teaching, were published before the 18th century. She took material from Biblical history and transformed it into a childlike rhyming form suitable for elementary teaching. She structured her songs into stanzas to make them easier to memorize. In the elementary schools in Protestant territories, pupils generally learned to read using primers, the Bible and the hymnal. It was a normal part of instruction to practice and sing well-known hymns and other songs used in liturgical contexts. Students commonly memorized songs and biblical passages as well as their catechism. Magdalena Heymair developed her own teaching materials, setting biblical passages to music. She wrote five books of biblical songs, and other songs for girls. She mediated the biblical texts, emphasizing women of the Bible and the role of women in the New Testament and the Book of Acts.

One of her short pieces, "Das Gaistliche A. B. C." encourages readers in alphabetical stanzas to live a godly life. The final stanza (translated as follows) gives a sense of her ability to communicate at a child's level:

Heymair justified her writing as an exercise of the priestly right and responsibility that, according to Lutheran belief, belonged to all Christians. She saw it as both an act of service to others, particularly "women, maidens, and children", and an act of thanksgiving to God. The impact of her writings, used to educate children in both homes and schools, was widespread. Preacher  Willibald Ramsbeck wrote of her:

Magdalena Heymair was the first woman whose works were placed on the Catholic  Index Librorum Prohibitorum.  She is listed as "Magdalena Haymairus" in the first class of heretical writers as early as 1569. Other women listed later include Anne Askew, Olympia Fulvia Morata, Ursula of Munsterberg (1491–1534), Veronica Franco, and Paola Antonia Negri (1508–1555).

References

16th-century Lutherans
German women poets
Christian hymnwriters
German Lutherans
German Protestant Reformers
People from Regensburg
Converts to Lutheranism from Roman Catholicism
Women hymnwriters
16th-century German writers
16th-century German educators
People of the Protestant Reformation
16th-century German women writers

Magdalena Heymair


North Wellington AFC is association football club based in the northern suburbs of Wellington, New Zealand. They currently compete in the Central Premier League.

History

Early history
It was founded in 1972 as an amalgamation of the Onslow (founded 1934) & Johnson Villa (1951) clubs with the club colours of sky blue & claret originating from the Johnson Villa (and the approach to Aston Villa FC, England to use their colours). In 1992 Newlands-Paparangi United (1968) folded and was merged within the club. The 2 local junior football clubs (Onslow Junior Football & North Wellington Junior Football) are affiliated to the club.

The club entered 19 (15 men & 4 women) teams in senior football in the Capital Football leagues for the 2014 season (21 in 2013), which commenced in early April and concluded on 31 August. The club's home ground is Alex Moore Park, Johnsonville, Wellington, a ground it shares with Johnsonville Softball Club. The men's senior team currently plays in the Capital One League, immediately below the Capital Premier League. The team played in the Central Premier League and its predecessors in 1992-2000 and 2005–2006, finishing second in 1996. North Wellington's best performance in the Chatham Cup came in 1997, when they reached the quarter-finals before losing to Mount Wellington 3-2. The following season they reached the fifth round (last 16 stage). Johnson Villa had previously reached the fourth round (last 32 stage) in 1970, as had Newlands-Paparangi in 1975.

2010s
For the 2013 season the club appointed Stephen Maclaren (to replace Iain MacIntyre) as coach of the Men's senior team which finished in 8th place of the 10-team Capital One league (which led to their relegation to Capital Two, however Capital Football Board decision re-instated the team in the 2014 Capital One league due to issues arising from a final round game involving Brooklyn and Miramar Rangers (which went to NZ Football level)). They finished in 4th place of the 10-team 2012 Capital One league, despite a latter season run of 9 wins in 10 games, and lost 2-0 in the 1st round of the Chatham Cup against Central league side Miramar Rangers who reached the semi-final stage. The club is also one of 5 local sports clubs working towards the development of a new clubroom facility on Alex Moore Park (resource consent granted in mid-2013 and the building timeframe scheduled for 3–5 years. The estimated project cost (as at April 2014) is $5m, and will benefit from the construction of an artificial playing surface on the lower level of Alex Moore Park (a Wellington City Council project which was officially opened by the Wellington City Council on Saturday 17 May 2014).

In the 2014 season the Men's senior team had a change of coach on 15 May with Stephen Maclaren resigning, after 4 league games in the Capital One League. The team finished in 3rd place of the 11 teams, narrowly missing promotion, with a season record of 14 wins, 1 draw and 5 losses. The Chatham Cup 1st round fixture (North Wellington 0 Wellington Olympic 12) on 10 May was the Club's 80th in this national club knock-out competition. The Women's senior team is coached by Darren Rewi in the Women's Premier League, and the team finished in 8th place of 8 teams with a season record of 0 wins, 1 draw and 13 losses.

The club currently play in the Capital Premier division, the highest Wellington only division.

Note: The club is not connected with the former team Wellington Northern, which is now part of Brooklyn Northern United.

References
Club website
Club website (Older WCC-provided)
UltimateNZSoccer website North Wellington page

Association football clubs in Wellington
Sport in Wellington City
1972 establishments in New Zealand

North Wellington AFC


Boron carbide is a chemical compound with the formula B4C. It is an extremely hard ceramic. It is often used as an abrasive, as armor, as a scratch-proof coating, as a neutron absorber in the control rods of nuclear reactors, and as an additive in the cut-resistant shackle in some padlocks.
Carbon compounds
Armour
Boron compounds

Boron carbide


The Lada Kalina is a low cost supermini caur sauld unner the Lada marque an produced bi the Roushie automaker AvtoVAZ. Its mass production began in November 2004, but it became available for purchase amaist a year later.

The three models developt are:
 Lada 1117 – 5-door station wagon (production began in 2007/2008)
 Lada 1118 – 4-door sedan (full production began in 2005/2006)
 Lada 1119 – 5-door hatchback (full production began in 2006)

Thare are twa petrol ingines, wi 81 an 91 hp (60 an 68 kW). The Kalina is exportit tae maist Wastren European markets wi a price o aboot € 7000-8000. It affers driver an passenger airbags, ABS, electric pouer steerin, air conditionin an rear seats that can be foldit sae that a horizontal platform is formed. On the ither haund, automatic transmission, electronic stability control an side airbags are no affered.

Its name is Kalina in maist countries, but in Finland it is marketed as Lada 119, acause "kalina" means "rattle" in Finnish. It is no sauld in certaint markets. A sportier version, the Lada Kalina GS Sport, is an aa produced. Its main competitors are caurs lik the Dacia Logan an Hyundai Accent.

Lada's parent company AvtoVAZ haes an aa released a Super 1600 concept caur, the Lada Kalina Hatchback Super 1600 which theoretically is a competitor tae the Dacia Logan Super 2000 or S2000. It uises the same 1.6 petrol as standard models but it is no naturally aspiratit. It uises a turbocharger or a supercharger. The racin caur's pouer range is ~200-~300 bhp, but the IAA concept haed a naturally aspiratit 1.6 ingine wi 120 bhp.

A Lada Kalina is uised as a "Reasonably-Priced Caur" in Top Gear Russia.

Ingines

 1.4 16V, straight-4, 1390 cc, 91 PS (67 kW)
 1.6 8V, straight-4, 1596 cc, 81 PS (60 kW)

Name

The name 'Kalina' comes frae the Roushie name for a teep o viburnum.

Gallery

See forbye
 AvtoVAZ
 Automobile model numberin system in USSR an Roushie
 Lada

Freemit airtins
 VAZ - VAZ offeecial wabsteid
 Kalina - Offeecial Kalina wabsteid
 Lada Kalina Club - Offeecial Lada Kalina Club
 Lada Kalina Club in Ukraine - Ukrainian community o Lada Kalina drivers
 Lada Cars reviews ,images , infos (in Inglis)

Kalina
Subcompact caurs
Vehicles introduced in 2004

Lada Kalina