Agustín Aznar Gerner (18 August 1911 – 2 May 1984) was a Spanish medical doctor, political activist with the Falange and a leading figure during the Spanish Civil War. Aznar was part of a radical element within the followers of Francisco Franco and at times represented a challenge to his leadership.

Early years
The son of the academic , Aznar studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid, where his father was a sociology lecturer. He specialised in haematology and would ultimately serve as Chief Professor of the Central Laboratory and the Haematological Service.

Aznar's political involvement also began in his student days and in 1935 he was the founder and leader of the Falangist student union, the Sindicato Español Universitario. Known as a burly adventurer who held the Greco-Roman wrestling title in Castille, he was appointed chief of the Madrid section of the Falange militia and took part in several bloody street-fights with leftist opponents. With the Falange outlawed in March 1936, Aznar began the civil war in prison but was quickly released when Nationalists took charge of the area.

At the beginning of the civil war Aznar was appointed jefe of the national militias in succession to Luis Aguilar who had been killed. In this role he was close to Hans Joachim von Knobloch, the German consul in Alicante and in 1936 the two co-operated in a scheme to secure the release of the captured Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera through bribery. The plan failed and Aznar narrowly escaped capture himself, although the scheme was typical of his adventuring reputation. He also campaigned vigorously to prevent the incorporation of the Falangist militias into a proposed united Nationalist force under Juan Yagüe, being suspicious of the Carlism of Yagüe and the other generals.

Power struggle
Following the execution of Primo de Rivera, Aznar became one of the leading figures in a power struggle in the Falange. Along with Sancho Dávila y Fernández de Celis he formed the leadership of a group known as the legitimistas who were opposed to the leadership of Primo de Rivera's chosen successor Manuel Hedilla. In an attempt to secure his position Hedilla organised an extraordinary meeting of the Falange, although trouble was promised as both he and Aznar organised their own militias in the run-up to the meeting. It was Aznar who struck first, using his militia to seize to depose Hedilla on April 16, 1937, and instead placing at the head of the Falange a triumvirate made up of himself, Sancho Dávila and their ally José Moreno.

Hedilla hit back however, enlisting the help of Finnish Nazi Carl von Haartman, who led Hedilla's troops in capturing the Falangist Headquarters from Aznar's forces. With the struggle threatening to impact the war effort Franco stepped in to publicly back Hedilla and ensure the arrest of Aznar, Sancho Dávila and the others. However, Franco used the opportunity to effectively neutralise the Falange by immediately announcing the formation of the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, effectively making the post of head of the Falange little more than ceremonial. Aznar was briefly imprisoned although he was soon released and appointed to the by then weakened Falangist National Council.

Return to politics
Despite his personal loss of face Aznar, who was released from prison very soon afterwards, was quickly reconciled to Franco's new movement and was appointed to the post of assessor of militias. A member of the group's 12-man Junta Politica, Aznar joined with Fernando González Vélez in 1938 in an attempt to radicalise the movement along the lines of Italian fascism and Nazism and to make the party more important. The proposals of the Aznar group, delivered to the Junta by his ally Dionisio Ridruejo, sparked another possible schism, this time with the monarchist faction of Pedro Sainz Rodríguez who were repulsed by what they saw as the republicanism of fascism. Again Franco sided against Aznar and had both he and González Vélez imprisoned for the plot. Franco's decision had been aided by an earlier intelligence report he had received which stated that Aznar and González Vélez were plotting against him, although there is little evidence to suggest that this was true. He was released in November 1939 and allowed to return to some prominence within the party.

Pro-Nazi activity
Disenchanted by the conservative path adopted by the Franco regime Aznar, along with the likes of Ridruejo and other original Falangists such as the García-Noblejas brothers, joined the Blue Division during the Second World War. Also serving in the fairly minor role of National Delegate for Health in the government, Aznar became associated with the efforts of José Luis de Arrese to increase ties with the Nazis following his war service. Combining his two roles Aznar instigated a scheme by which Spanish doctors could work in German hospitals and this programme continued until late 1944.

Post-war
Like most of the pro-Nazis within the Franco government, Aznar was sidelined in 1945 as a new pro-western and anti-communist policy was adopted by El Caudillo. Nonetheless, he retained a post on the Falange's Junta Politica until 1958, having first been appointed to the body in the 1930s. He was appointed to the Cortes Españolas, a largely ceremonial body with little real power, in 1961 and remained in place in 1976 when he was one of the deputies to vote against the lifting of the ban on political parties.

His political involvement ended with the restoration of constitutional monarchy and he served as head of the blood transfusion service in a Madrid hospital.

References

1911 births
1984 deaths
Spanish Falangists
Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (National faction)
20th-century Spanish physicians
Spanish male sport wrestlers
Spanish hematologists
Members of the Cortes Españolas
Blue Division personnel
Prisoners and detainees of Spain

Agustín Aznar


Brûlé Lake is a lake in western Alberta, Canada. It is formed along the Athabasca River, immediately east of Jasper National Park and 30 km west of Hinton. According to one tradition, the lake was named for a burnt () tract of woods near the site.

The Brûlé Lake sand dunes are a popular place for all-terrain vehicle driving.

The main line of the Canadian National Railway—which is also used by Via Rail's Canadian passenger train—passes on the western side of the lake, while the Yellowhead Highway passes on the eastern side.

The lake lies at an elevation of 984 m, is 10 km long, and has a maximum width of 2 km. The total water area is 14.5 km2.

Between 1799 and 1801, Hudson's Bay Company had a trading post established on the shores of the lake.

References

See also
Lakes of Alberta

Lakes of Alberta
Yellowhead County

Brûlé Lake (Alberta)


A firearm is said to fire from an open bolt if, when ready to fire, the bolt and working parts are held to the rear of the receiver, with no round in the chamber. When the trigger is actuated, the bolt travels forward, feeds a cartridge from the magazine or belt into the chamber, and fires that cartridge in the same movement. Like any other self-loading design, the action is cycled by the energy released from the propellant, which sends the bolt back to the rear, compressing the mainspring in readiness for firing the next round.  In an open-bolt gun firing semi-automatically, the bolt is caught and held at this point by the sear after each shot; and in automatic open-bolt fire, it's caught and held in this manner whenever the trigger is released. In contrast to this, in closed-bolt guns, the trigger and sear do not affect the movement of the bolt directly.

Generally, an open-bolt firing cycle is used for fully automatic weapons and not for semi-automatic weapons (except some semi-automatic conversions of automatic designs). Firearms using advanced primer ignition blowback inherently fire from open bolt only.

Advantages
Compared to a closed-bolt design, open-bolt weapons generally have fewer moving parts. The firing pin is often part of the bolt, saving on manufacturing costs; the inertia of the bolt closing also causes the fixed firing pin to strike a blow on the primer, without need for a separate hammer/striker and spring. In automatic weapons, an open bolt helps eliminate the dangerous phenomenon known as "cook-off", in which the firing chamber becomes so hot that rounds spontaneously fire without trigger input. However, it will not continue to cycle the gun, contrary to popular belief. Open-bolt designs typically remain much cooler in operation than closed-bolt types due to the airflow allowed into the chamber, action and barrel during pauses between bursts; moreover, unlike in the case of the closed-bolt format, the initial round in a burst is not introduced into the chamber until the moment before firing, and is thus only exposed to the residual heat for a fraction of a second. These two features combine to make open-bolt operation more suitable for weapons such as machine guns, which are intended to be capable of prolonged automatic fire.

Disadvantages
Firstly, the bolt retention mechanism may fail, resulting in a spontaneous discharge (i.e. without prior trigger input), with potentially dangerous consequences. Some simple submachine gun designs, such as the Sten, can discharge spontaneously when dropped onto a hard surface --even when uncocked-- as the collision can jolt the bolt backward far enough that on returning it will pick up a round from the magazine, chamber it and fire it; the risk is intrinsic to hand-held open-bolt guns unless safety features are included in the design.

Another shortcoming of the open-bolt principle is that there is a brief delay between the trigger-pull and the firing of the cartridge because the (rather inert) bolt has to move forward a significant distance between the two events. Since after the first shot an open-bolt firearm operates effectively indistinguishable from a closed-bolt firearm, this latency problem is generally less of a concern in full automatic fire and mostly applies to semi-automatic mode. The issue was most problematic in the use of forward-firing open-bolt machine guns and autocannon in (tractor configuration single-engine) fighters during the piston engine era. Given the highly dynamic nature of aerial combat the aforementioned intrinsic firing delay of open-bolt guns is particularly undesirable. The inertia and latency inherent to the open bolt design negatively affects predictability and control and makes fitting open-bolt designs with synchronization gear to fire through the propeller blades difficult and often requiring extensive modification (but not impossible).

Furthermore, with unlocked simple blowback action designs, calibers over 9×19mm Parabellum become increasingly less practical because of the need for correspondingly heavier bolts as the chamber pressure increases. In simple blowback open-bolt designs, even in such relatively low-power calibers, the movement of the heavy bolt mass within the gun negatively affects aim and accuracy in two ways:

 In sustained automatic fire, it is difficult to keep the gun on target;
 In semi-automatic fire, or at the beginning of each automatic burst, the "latency problem" described above is exacerbated (due to the greater inertia of the heavier bolt).

While the latency is unavoidable with the open-bolt design, more sophisticated delayed-blowback open-bolt designs do allow for use of a lighter bolt, thus reducing the gap in performance between open and closed bolt types. However, these designs are uncommon due to economics and complexity.

Lastly, unless an ejection port cover is used, breech and action internals' exposure to the elements renders open-bolt designs universally vulnerable to contamination with dirt and dust through the open ejection port. Some versions of the open-bolt M3 submachine gun utilized a hinged sheet metal ejection port cover that doubled as a safety; when closed, it both covered the ejection port and blocked the bolt from closing. When ready to fire, the user simply flipped the cover down, opening the ejection port and unblocking the bolt.

Other characteristics

An open-bolt weapon will typically have a higher rate of automatic fire than a comparable closed-bolt weapon as the bolt simply needs to return forwards in order for the weapon to fire again, while a closed-bolt design has the additional step of the hammer striking the firing pin. Having a higher fire rate can be both an advantage and disadvantage depending on the situation. For handheld weapons, typically a lower rate of fire is desirable, as this will conserve ammunition and help keep the level of recoil more manageable. For vehicle-mounted weapons or fixed emplacements, however, a higher rate of fire is often desirable. In these situations, ammunition and recoil are less of a concern and the higher rate of fire will increase the likelihood of a round hitting the target, particularly when employed against fast-moving targets such as aircraft.

Many movies and video games portray open-bolt weapons as needing to be cycled after reloading. This is not generally true, however, as open-bolt weapons send the bolt carrier back into a cocked position via the excess gas after the last round is fired. The exception to this is if the weapon is fully automatic and the trigger is held down after the last round was fired (and the gun does not have a "last round bolt hold open" mechanism) at which point the bolt will fly forward once more and stay there. In this case, the bolt merely needs to be retracted to the rearward position and does not return forward as is sometimes portrayed.

Another feature of open-bolt designs is that the magazine simply needs to be removed to completely unload the weapon. A closed bolt requires the second step of cycling the action to remove the last round in the chamber (unless the weapon features an automatic hold-open device). It is essential to remove a loaded magazine before performing maintenance, or trying to cycle or close the bolt (as is often done to keep the weapon clean when not in use). If one were to close the bolt (say by pulling the trigger and riding the bolt to the closed position), as soon as the bolt closes it will fire if a loaded magazine was left in the gun. This may be true with weapons utilizing a striker, but not with a weapon using a fixed firing pin, which relies on the momentum of the bolt to impart the energy to ignite the primer. This is a common feature in basic submachine guns like the Sten gun or M3 "Grease Gun", and even some machine guns. With a fixed firing pin, when the bolt is closed gently, without the momentum of the bolt closing at normal speed, there is not enough force imparted to the firing pin to ignite the primer. In this circumstance there will be a round in the chamber and a firing pin pressing on it with some force, but not enough to ignite the primer, which requires a sharp, focused impact. However, the weapon would be at risk of firing if dropped, much like the danger of loading spitzer bullets into a weapon with a tube magazine. A related issue is that the safety of an open-bolt weapon must be designed to lock the bolt in the rearward position. Often safeties only block the movement of the trigger, so, as explained above, if the weapon is dropped or if the sear becomes worn, the bolt can slam home, firing the weapon (although this issue is true to a degree in closed-bolt firearms as well).

Uses

Closed-bolt designs are often used in rifles. The improved accuracy of closed-bolt weapons is more desirable, while the poorer heat dissipation is less of an issue for slower-firing weapons. In contrast, open-bolt designs are more often used in automatic weapons, such as machine guns. For fast-firing automatic weapons, heat will rapidly build up from sustained firing, but accuracy is of less importance. Thus, the improved heat dissipation of open-bolt designs is generally more desirable in automatic weapons. Submachine guns were for much of their life designed with open bolts such as the Thompson submachine gun, MP-40 and the Uzi, mainly for the simplicity and economical advantages, and their rates of fire and close-range nature mitigated the reduced accuracy of the design. SMGs used and built in the current day, such as the H&K MP5 series, have almost universally moved to closed bolt designs for their practical advantages.

Examples

Open-bolt

Alpha GPI
APS underwater rifle
AA-12 Shotgun
Browning Automatic Rifle
Bren light machine gun
Carl Gustav M/45
CETME Ameli
Chauchat machine rifle
Cobray M11
Degtyaryov machine gun
F1 submachine gun
FBP submachine gun
FN MAG and variants (including the M240)
FN Minimi and variants (including the M249)
Gevarm A6
Halcón M-1943
Intratec KG-9
Jatimatic
Kk 62
Lahti-Saloranta M/26
Lanchester submachine gun
Lewis gun
M3
M56
M60
M231 FPW
MAC-10 and variants (including the MAC-11)
MAC-58
Madsen M-50
MAT 49
MG34
MG42
Mk-19
MP18
Minebea PM-9
MP40
Nikonov machine gun
Owen Gun
PK machine gun
PM-63 RAK
PPS submachine gun
PPSh-41
PPS-43
Ranger-34a
Rheinmetall MG3
RPD
SG-43
SIG MG710
Smith & Wesson Model 76
Star Model Z-45
Sten submachine gun
Sterling submachine gun
Steyr AUG (LMG configuration)
Stoner 63 (LMG configuration)
Thompson submachine gun
Type 100 submachine gun
UKM-2000
Ultimax 100
Uzi
Vigneron submachine gun
Voere 2005/1
MP3008

Mixed-mode
Examples of mixed mode firearms (capable of operating from either an open bolt or closed bolt) include:

CETME Model A
FG 42
FN SCAR - Heat Adaptive Modular Rifle
Johnson LMG
LWRC IAR - M6A4

Legality

Under United States federal law, fully automatic firearms are restricted under the National Firearms Act and other laws. In 1982 and 1983, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives ruled that certain semi-automatic open-bolt firearms manufactured after the date of the rulings are to be treated as fully automatic because they were "designed to shoot" automatically. The aforementioned weapons are the KG-9 pistol, SM-10 pistol, SM-11A pistol, SAC Carbine, and the YAC Sten MK II. Around the time of these rulings, the manufacture of new open-bolt semi-automatic firearms became uncommon in the United States. The open bolt semi-automatic versions of certain guns are often as costly as their fully automatic counterparts. This is because prior to the Hughes Amendment in 1986 most semi-automatic open bolt Mac-10s, Mac-11s and several other models were lawfully converted to full auto making these rare semi-automatic open bolts even more rare and desirable as collector items.
However, there are many open-bolt firearms, that were designed from start to be a single-shot semiautomatic guns, that are not classified as machineguns. The Fox Carbine is one such example of an open-bolt firearm that was ruled to not be a machine gun.

See also
Closed bolt
Action (firearms)

References

External links
 How Does it Work: Open Bolt vs Closed Bolt Firearms

Firearm actions

Open bolt


The term collapsology is a neologism used to designate the transdisciplinary study of the risks of collapse of industrial civilization. It is concerned with the general collapse of societies induced by climate change, as well as "scarcity of resources, vast extinctions, and natural disasters." Although the concept of civilizational or societal collapse had already existed for many years, collapsology focuses its attention on contemporary, industrial, and globalized societies.

Background
The word collapsology has been coined and publicized by  and Raphaël Stevens in their essay:  (How everything can collapse: A manual for our times), published in 2015 in France. It also developed into a movement when Jared Diamond's text Collapse was published. Since then, use of the term has gradually spread, although it is still seldom used by English-speaking academics.

Collapsology is based on the idea that humans impact their environment in a sustained and negative way, and promotes the concept of an environmental emergency, linked in particular to global warming and the biodiversity loss. Collapsologists believe, however, that the collapse of industrial civilization could be the result of a combination of different crises: environmental, but also economic, geopolitical, democratic, and others.

Collapsology is a transdisciplinary exercise involving ecology, economics, anthropology, sociology, psychology, biophysics, biogeography, agriculture, demography, politics, geopolitics, bioarchaeology, history, futurology, health, law and art.

Etymology
The word collapsology is a neologism invented "with a certain self-mockery" by Pablo Servigne, an agricultural engineer, and Raphaël Stevens, an expert in the resilience of socio-ecological systems. It appears in their book published in 2015.

It is a portmanteau derived from the Latin , 'to fall, to collapse' and from the suffix , logos, 'study', which is intended to name an approach of scientific nature.

Since 2015 and the publication of How everything can collapse in French, several words have been proposed to describe the various approaches dealing with the issue of collapse: collapso-sophy to designate the philosophical approach, collapso-praxis to designate the ideology inspired by this study, and collapsonauts to designate people living with this idea in mind.

Religious foundations

Unlike traditional eschatological thinking, collapsology is based on data and concepts from contemporary scientific research, primarily human understanding of climate change as caused by human economic and geopolitical systems. It is not in line with the idea of a cosmic, apocalyptic "end of the world", but makes the hypothesis of the end of the human current world, the "thermo-industrial civilization".

This distinction is further stressed by historian Eric H. Cline by pointing out that while the whole world has obviously not ended, civilizations have collapsed over the course of history which makes the statement that "prophets have always predicted doom and been wrong" inapplicable to societal collapse.

Scientific basis
As early as 1972, The Limits to Growth, a report produced by MIT researchers, warned of the risks of exponential demographic and economic growth on a planet with limited resources.

As a systemic approach, collapsology is based on prospective studies such as The Limits of Growth, but also on the state of global and regional trends in the environmental, social and economic fields (such as the IPCC, IPBES or Global Environment Outlook (GE) reports periodically published by the Early Warning and Assessment Division of the UNEP, etc.) and numerous scientific works as well as various studies, such as "A safe operating space for humanity"; "Approaching a state shift in Earth's biosphere", published in Nature in 2009 and 2012, "The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration", published in 2015 in The Anthropocene Review, and "Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene", published in 2018 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.
There is evidence to support the importance of collective processing of the emotional aspects of contemplating societal collapse, and the inherent adaptiveness of these emotional experiences.

History

Precursors (278 B.C.–2013)
Even if this neologism only appeared in 2015 and concerns the study of the collapse of industrial civilization, the study of the collapse of societies is older and is probably a concern of every civilization. Among the works on this theme (in a broad sense) one can mention those of Berossus (278 B.C.), Pliny the Younger (79 AD), Ibn Khaldun (1375), Montesquieu (1734), Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834), Edward Gibbon (1776), Georges Cuvier, (1821), Élisée Reclus (1905), Oswald Spengler (1918), Arnold Toynbee (1939), Günther Anders (1956), Samuel Noah Kramer (1956), Leopold Kohr (1957), Rachel Carson (1962), Paul Ehrlich (1969), Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1971), Donella Meadows, Dennis Meadows & Jørgen Randers (1972), René Dumont (1973), Hans Jonas (1979), Joseph Tainter (1988), Al Gore (1992), Hubert Reeves (2003), Richard Posner (2004), Jared Diamond (2005), Niall Ferguson (2013).

Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975)
In his monumental (initially published in twelve volumes) and highly controversial work of contemporary historiography entitled A Study of History (1972), Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975) deals with the genesis of civilizations (chapter 2), their growth (chapter 3), their decline (chapter 4), and their disintegration (chapter 5). According to him, the mortality of civilizations is trivial evidence for the historian, as is the fact that they follow one another over a long period of time.

Joseph Tainter (born 1949)
In his book The Collapse of Complex Societies, the anthropologist and historian Joseph Tainter (born 1949) studies the collapse of various civilizations, including that of the Roman Empire, in terms of network theory, energy economics and complexity theory. For Tainter, an increasingly complex society eventually collapses because of the ever-increasing difficulty in solving its problems.

Jared Diamond (born 1937)
The American geographer, evolutionary biologist and physiologist Jared Diamond (born 1937) already evoked the theme of civilizational collapse in his book called Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, published in 2005. By relying on historical cases, notably the Rapa Nui civilization, the Vikings and the Maya civilization, Diamond argues that humanity collectively faces, on a much larger scale, many of the same issues as these civilizations did, with possibly catastrophic near-future consequences to many of the world's populations. This book has had a resonance beyond the United States, despite some criticism. Proponents of catastrophism who identify themselves as "enlightened catastrophists" draw from Diamond's work, helping build the expansion of the relational ecology network, whose members believe that man is heading toward disaster. Diamond's Collapse approached civilizational collapse from archaeological, ecological, and biogeographical perspectives on ancient civilizations.

Modern collapsologists
Since the invention of the term collapsology, many French personalities gravitate in or around the collapsologists' sphere. Not all have the same vision of civilizational collapse, some even reject the term "collapsologist", but all agree that contemporary industrial civilization, and the biosphere as a whole, are on the verge of a global crisis of unprecedented proportions. According to them, the process is already under way, and it is now only possible to try to reduce its devastating effects in the near future. The leaders of the movement are Yves Cochet and Agnès Sinaï of the Momentum Institute (a think tank exploring the causes of environmental and societal risks of collapse of the thermo-industrial civilization and possible actions to adapt to it), and Pablo Servigne and Raphaël Stevens who wrote the essay How everything can collapse: A manual for our times.

Beyond the French collapsologists mentioned above, one can mention: Aurélien Barrau (astrophysicist), Philippe Bihouix (engineer, low-tech developer), Dominique Bourg (philosopher), Valérie Cabanes (lawyer, seeking recognition of the crime of ecocide by the international criminal court), Jean-Marc Jancovici (energy-climate specialist), and Paul Jorion (anthropologist, sociologist).

In 2020 the French humanities and social science website Cairn.info published a dossier on collapsology titled The Age of Catastrophe, with contributions from historian François Hartog, economist Emmanuel Hache, philosopher Pierre Charbonnier, art historian Romain Noël, geoscientist Gabriele Salerno, and American philosopher Eugene Thacker.

Even if the term remains rather unknown in the Anglo-Saxon world, many publications deal with the same topic (for example the 2017 David Wallace-Wells article "The Uninhabitable Earth" and 2019 bestselling book of the same name, probably a mass-market collapsology work without using the term). It is now gradually spreading on general and scientific English speaking social networks. In his book Anti-Tech Revolution: Why and How, Ted Kaczynski also warns of the threat of catastrophic societal collapse.

See also

 Climate change and civilizational collapse

References

Civilizations
Societal collapse
Secondary sector of the economy
Sociological terminology

Collapsology


Hermeneric was a Suevic King of Galicia according to a now lost document described by the priest Antonio de Yepes. According to Yepes, the king reigned around 485, which falls within a century-long period (469–c.560) of obscurity during which the Sueves were predominantly Arian Christians. Hermeneric was said to be a destroyer of churches and persecutor of Catholic Christians.

Sources

Arias, Jorge C. "Identity and Interactions: The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans." University of Virginia: Spring 2007.

5th-century Suebian kings

Hermeneric


Diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC), also called diethyl dicarbonate (IUPAC name), is used in the laboratory to inactivate RNase enzymes in water and on laboratory utensils. It does so by the covalent modification of histidine (most strongly), lysine, cysteine, and tyrosine residues.

DEPC-treated (and therefore RNase-free) water is used in handling of RNA in the laboratory to reduce the risk of RNA being degraded by RNases.

Water is usually treated with 0.1% v/v DEPC for at least 2 hours at 37 °C and then autoclaved (at least 15 min) to inactivate traces of DEPC. Inactivation of DEPC in this manner yields CO2 and ethanol. Higher concentrations of DEPC are capable of deactivating larger amounts of RNase, but remaining traces or byproducts may inhibit further biochemical reactions such as in vitro transcription. Furthermore, chemical modification of RNA such as carboxymethylation is possible when traces of DEPC or its byproducts are present, resulting in impaired recovery of intact RNA even after buffer exchange (after precipitation).

DEPC is unstable in water and susceptible to hydrolysis to carbon dioxide and ethanol, especially in the presence of a nucleophile. For this reason, DEPC cannot be used with Tris or HEPES buffers. In contrast, it can be used with phosphate-buffered saline or MOPS. A handy rule is that enzymes or chemicals which have active -O:, -N: or -S: cannot be treated with DEPC to become RNase-free, as DEPC reacts with these species. Furthermore, DEPC degradation products can inhibit in vitro transcription.

DEPC derivatization of histidines is also used to study the importance of histidyl residues in enzymes.  Modification of histidine by DEPC results in carbethoxylated derivates at the N-omega-2 nitrogen of the imidazole ring.  DEPC modification of histidines can be reversed by treatment with 0.5 M hydroxylamine at neutral pH.

DEPC can also be used for probing the structure of double-stranded DNA.

See also
 DEC

References

External links
DEPC at OpenWetWare life scientist wiki
RNase and DEPC Treatment

Carbonate esters
Dicarbonates
Ethyl esters

Diethyl pyrocarbonate


Tottempudi Krishna (1 September 1950 – 21 October 1986) was an Indian film director and screenwriter who worked in Telugu cinema. Known for directing revolutionary films, his notable works include Pratighatana, Repati Pourulu, and Neti Bharatham, which have won the Filmfare Best Films Telugu. He won four Nandi Awards and was the founder of Eetaram Films.

His last film Repati Pourulu was released in 1986, after his death. His son Gopichand is a Telugu film actor.

Early life
T. Krishna was born on 1 September 1950 in Kakuturivaripalem of present-day Prakasam district (then in Guntur district), Andhra Pradesh to Rathamma and Venkata Subbaiah. Krishna completed his B.A. from CSR Sharma College in Ongole.

Career
He directed Neti Bharatam (1983) starred by Suman, Vijayashanti; Vande Maataram (1985) starred by Vijayashanti, Rajasekhar, Rajendra Prasad; Devaalayam (1985) starred by Late Sobhan Babu and many more.

His film Pratighatana (1985) was the story of a woman's (Vijayashanti) fight against corruption and criminalization of politics in India. This film was later remade in Hindi as Pratighaat starred by Sujata Mehta and Nana Patekar. His last film Repati Pourulu (1986) starred by Vijayashanti and Rajasekhar was released after his death. He was the co-founder of the banner Eetharam Films with his partner Babu Rao Pokuri.

Personal life
Krishna married Koteswarmma and the couple had two sons and a daughter. One of his sons, Premchand, was an aspiring director but died in a car accident in 1995 while directing his first film. His second son Gopichand is also a notable Telugu film actor. Gopichand started his career playing the role of villain but in later films, played the hero. His daughter is a Dentist.

Krishna died on 21 October 1986 due to ill-health. He took treatment in the United States for two months before his death at the Apollo Hospital, Madras.

Filmography
Director & Actor

Producer
 Puttadi Bomma Poornamma (1981): Documentary film

Awards
Nandi Awards
 Best Documentary Film – Puttadi Bomma Poornamma (1981)
 Best Screenplay Writer – Neti Bharatam (1983)
 Best First Film of a Director – Neti Bharatam (1983)
 Best Story Writer – Pratighatana (1986)

References

External links

Malayalam film directors
Telugu film directors
1987 deaths
Telugu screenwriters
Film directors from Andhra Pradesh
People from Krishna district
20th-century Indian film directors
20th-century Indian screenwriters
1927 births

T. Krishna


Radio Niederösterreich is the regional radio for Lower Austria, and is part of the Österreich 2 group. It is broadcast by the ORF, and the programs from Radio Niederösterreich are made in the ORF Niederösterreich Studio.

The radio is mostly heard by the 60+ age group and has a traditionally high listenership in Vienna. It mostly plays old hit-songs, as well as some international music. In the evening, Radio Niederösterreich produces a one-hour show focusing on folk music. The radio offers detailed coverages from live-events and information from all over Austria and positions itself as a "service radio".

In the last few years, many programs were merged with large broadcasting lines, whereby Radio Niederösterreich followed the trend to a format radio.

Since Radio Wien advanced to being a modern hit radio, Radio Niederösterreich was also able to position itself on the highly competitive Viennese radio market, next to Radio Arabella and Radio Burgenland. Looking at market shares, in Vienna Radio Wien is only 5% ahead of Radio Niederösterreich.

The ORF Niederösterreich Studio is located in Sankt Pölten, but has 4 little offices across the state, which are in Amstetten (Studio Mostviertel), Gmünd (Studio Waldviertel), Hollabrunn (Studio Weinviertel) and in Wiener Neustadt (Studio Industrieviertel). With this, all 4 state districts are covered and faster news coverages are possible.

In the ORF Niederösterreich Studio, the daily "Niederösterreich heute" news are also produced for TV, as well as other coverages for the TV channel ORF 2.

Frequency
Radio Niederösterreich is available in Lower Austria and Vienna, on the frequencies 91,5 MHz (Sankt Pölten 1-Jauerling 100 kW ERP) and 97,9 MHz (Wien 1-Kahlenberg 100 kW ERP). It is also possible to receive Radio Niederösterreich over internet stream or satellite.

External links

Radio stations in Austria
Sankt Pölten
ORF (broadcaster)
Radio stations established in 1967
1967 establishments in Austria

Radio Niederösterreich


Marius Mircu (June 9, 1909 – September 2008) was a Romanian journalist and memoirist.

Born into a Jewish family in Bacău, he graduated from the law faculty of the University of Bucharest in 1935. His brothers were mathematician Solomon Marcus and writer Marcel Marcian. From 1935 to 1938, he was editing secretary at Ion Pas' Gazeta; from 1946 to 1949, he held a similar post at George Călinescu's Națiunea. He also worked with N. D. Cocea.

Mircu was active in the Jewish community from 1942 to 1986, first handling documents and then setting up and heading the Museum of Romanian Jewish History, which was founded on the initiative of Chief Rabbi Moses Rosen. In 1987, he emigrated to Israel, where he published his memoirs.

Notes

1909 births
2008 deaths
People from Bacău
Romanian Jews
University of Bucharest alumni
Romanian magazine editors
Romanian emigrants to Israel

Marius Mircu


The Solway Plain or Solway Basin is a coastal plain located mostly in northwest Cumbria in England, extending just over the Scottish border to the low-lying area around Gretna and Annan. It lies generally north and west of Carlisle along the Solway Firth, and is drained by the rivers Esk and Lyne. It is associated with the westernmost part of Hadrian's Wall. In medieval times, clay houses known as dabbins were commonly built on the Solway Plain. The Solway coast has been designated an "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty".

The plain is known for its archaeological heritage. Archaeological finds that are mentioned in Hodgson and Brennand include urned cremation cemeteries at Ewanrigg, evidence suggesting an ancient domestic settlement at Plasketlands, and evidence suggesting pre-Roman occupation at Ewanrigg, Wolsty Hall and Boustead Hill (among other sites). Salta Moss, where a Bronze Age rapier was discovered, boasts flora that is unusual for a mire on the Solway Plain, and has been designated a "Site of Special Scientific Interest" since 1982. As the presence of Hadrian's Wall attests, the Solway Plain is also known for its history as a disputed borderland, control of which was often fought over — from the Roman occupation of Britain to the Border Reivers and Anglo-Scottish conflicts in the Middle Ages.

Geography
The vast and flat Solway Plain lies inland from the Solway Coast, which has been designated as both an "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" and a "Special Area of Conservation", due to its salt marshes, sand dunes, and wetlands, which have given rise to marked and distinctive biodiversity. Agriculturally, like much of Northern England, the Solway Plain is dominated by pastoral agriculture, as evidenced by its popular beef and dairy markets. It is also known for its mostly protected bogland and its stores of peat. Its major rivers are the Ellen in the west, and the Sark, Esk, and Eden in the east. In the hillier regions toward the southeastern part of the plain, further from the coast, woodlands are common and river valleys are pronounced. The plain is also home to the cathedral city of Carlisle, which was historically a strategically important city.

Proposed nuclear waste facility

In June 2012, it became clear that the Solway Plain between Silloth, Abbeytown and Westnewton has been identified as a potential site for a Geological Disposal Facility for the UK's high-level nuclear waste. Two other sites have also been identified - Eskdale and the Ennerdale. The Solway Plain wasn't named by the Managing Radioactive Waste Safely (MRWS) Partnership, rather they referred to the 'Low permeability sedimentary rocks associated with the Mercia Mudstone Group (MMG)'. This was in (publicly available) document 285 of the West Cumbria MRWS in a report written by Dr Dearlove, the consultant geologist recruited by MRWS.

See also

Stanegate

References

Landforms of Cumbria
Plains of England

Solway Plain


Richard Gridley (3 January 1710 – 21 June 1796) was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He was a soldier and engineer who served for the British Army during the French and Indian Wars and for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.

Early life and military career
Gridley married Hannah Deming 25 February 1730. They had nine children. He served as a military engineer during the French and Indian Wars from the reduction of Fortress Louisbourg in 1745 to the fall of Quebec. For his services he was awarded a captain's commission in 65th, or Shirley's Regiment of Foot, a grant of the Magdalen Islands,  of land in New Hampshire, and a life annuity. Placed on half-pay in 1749, he was colonel of a Massachusetts provincial regiment during William Johnson's 1755 expedition against Fort Saint-Frédéric. In John Winslow's failed 1756 expedition against Fort Saint-Frédéric, he served as provincial colonel of artillery and chief engineer. He vehemently supported Winslow's resistance against a merger of the regular and provincial forces.

Gridley sided with the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolutionary War and was made Chief Engineer in the New England Provincial Army. He laid out the defenses on Breed's Hill and was wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill. When the Continental Congress first created a Continental Army under command of George Washington in 1775 Gridley was named to Chief Engineer (artillery). He directed the construction of the fortifications on Dorchester Heights which forced the British to evacuate Boston in March 1776. When Washington moved his army south, Gridley remained as Chief Engineer of the Eastern Department.

Later life and death
Gridley retired in 1781 at age 70. He died from blood poisoning induced by cutting dogwood bushes, in Stoughton, Massachusetts, and is buried in Canton, Massachusetts, at the Canton Corner Cemetery. He was buried within a small enclosure near his house in what is now Canton, off Washington Street. In this spot his body rested until 28 October 1876, when a committee disinterred his remains and removed them to his final resting place in the Canton Corner Cemetery. A small queue (braided hair) was removed and pocketed during the exhumation and today is on display at the Canton Historical Society.

Legacy
The monument to Gridley at Canton Corner is of Quincy Granite and the dado of Randolph Granite are faced with polished tablets bearing several inscriptions including "I shall fight for justice and my country", "I love my God, my country, and my neighbor as myself.", and a quote by General Washington: "I know of no man better fitted to be Chief Engineer than General Gridley." The whole monument is surmounted by a cannon in the imitation of "Hancock" or "Adams," - one of the guns Gridley served with his own hands at Bunker Hill.

Gridley is widely to be understood as one of the most distinguished military characters of New England, renowned for personal bravery, skilled artillerist, a scientific engineer, and a contemporary of Prescott and Putnam and Knox, of Warren and Washington.

The United States Army Corps of Engineers considers Gridley 'America's First Chief Engineer.

Notes
This article contains public domain text from

References

External links

1710 births
1796 deaths
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
Military personnel from colonial Massachusetts
United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers

Richard Gridley


Rod Cameron (born Nathan Roderick Cox; December 7, 1910 – December 21, 1983) was a Canadian film and television  actor whose career extended from the 1930s to the 1970s. He appeared in horror, war, action and science fiction movies, but is best remembered for his many westerns.

Early years
Cameron was born in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and grew up in New Jersey. He played on his high school basketball team and on a semi-professional football team. Despite those activities and others such as swimming and playing ice hockey, he couldn't join the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in Canada as a young man because he failed the physical examination.

Films
Cameron moved to Hollywood as a young man and started out as a stuntman and bit player for Paramount Pictures as well as a stand-in for Fred MacMurray. His early films include Heritage of the Desert with Donald Woods and Russell Hayden, Rangers of Fortune with Fred MacMurray, North West Mounted Police and Henry Aldrich for President with Jimmy Lydon. He also played bit roles at Universal Pictures, including in If I Had My Way, starring Bing Crosby and Gloria Jean. He appeared in a horror film The Monster and the Girl and played Jesse James in The Remarkable Andrew for Paramount.

In 1943, Cameron gained star status in action serials for Republic Pictures. As crime-busting federal agent Rex Bennett, Cameron battled enemy terrorists in 15 weekly episodes of G-Men vs. the Black Dragon. He was already working in another serial when audience reaction to Black Dragon made him a hit. He appeared in another Rex Bennett adventure, Secret Service in Darkest Africa, with Cameron again battling against Axis agents.

When cowboy star Johnny Mack Brown left Universal Pictures for Monogram Pictures, Cameron replaced him as Universal's western series star. Universal soon gave him straight character roles in feature films, including Salome, Where She Danced and River Lady both co-starring fellow Canadian Yvonne De Carlo.

During World War II Cameron played in Commandos Strike at Dawn and played a US Marine in Wake Island (1942) and Gung Ho! (1943).

Universal reorganized as Universal-International and downsized its activities in 1947, leaving Cameron and other contract players unemployed. He was hired by Monogram Pictures for a long string of outdoor action pictures. In 1948, he starred in Panhandle (a movie with a script co-written by Blake Edwards) for Allied Artists.

In 1949, Cameron appeared with Bonita Granville in the comedy film Strike It Rich. He then appeared in many westerns and other films for Republic Pictures including Santa Fe Passage (1955), and later The Gun Hawk (1963), Requiem for a Gunfighter (1965) and The Bounty Killer (1965).

Cameron traveled to Europe in 1964 to play the lead in Spaghetti Westerns such as Bullets Don't Argue (1964) and Bullet in the Flesh (1965).  He later appeared in such films as The Last Movie (1971), Evel Knievel (1971) and Psychic Killer (1975).

Television
Cameron starred in three syndicated television series: City Detective (1953–1955), State Trooper (1956–1959), and the Coronado 9 (1960–1961). In City Detective, Cameron appeared as the tough New York City police Lieutenant Bart Grant. In State Trooper, a 1950s-style western-themed crime drama, Cameron starred as Lieutenant Rod Blake of the Nevada State Police. In Coronado 9, set in the San Diego area, Cameron appeared as Dan Adams, a private detective.

Hal Erickson, in his book, Syndicated Television: The First Forty Years, 1947–1987, cited Cameron's business sense in confining his work in TV series to syndication: "A canny businessman, Cameron knew that his City Detective residuals wouldn't have been as fat had a major television network been claiming a percentage of the action, and as a result the actor vowed to remain in syndication for the rest of his TV career. By 1960, Cameron was drawing over $200,000 per annum in residuals [from his three syndicated programs]..."

Cameron himself guest starred in many westerns, including six appearances on NBC's Laramie, with John Smith and Robert Fuller. In "Drifter's Gold" (November 29, 1960), Cameron plays Tom Bedloe, an outlaw who has started the rumor of a nearby gold strike. When series lead Slim Sherman, played by John Smith, comes to Laramie to buy supplies, he finds the town nearly deserted and must pretend to be an outlaw to survive. Meanwhile, Bedloe is looking for Marcie Benson, the daughter he has never seen, played by Judi Meredith. Gregory Walcott plays Duke, Bedloe's partner in crime.

In another Laramie episode, "Broken Honor" (April 9, 1963), Cameron and Peggy McCay portray Roy and Martha Halloran, a farm couple who stumbles upon $30,000 in money found inside a strong box on their property. The loot had been seized in a stagecoach heist and hidden away for later retrieval.  Roy, who is reliant on a wheelchair, insists on keeping the money until Jess Harper arrives amid grave danger to all of their lives from the bandits searching about for the missing money. One of the bandits is played by Don "Red" Barry, best remembered from the 1940 film Adventures of Red Ryder. Cameron also guest starred in the NBC's western Bonanza in 1966: he portrayed Curtis Wade in the two-part episode "Ride The Wind". Cameron also guest starred in season 6 episode 18 of western TV series "The Tales of Wells Fargo".

Cameron guest starred in such dramatic series as Crossroads, in which he portrayed Dr. Ervin Seale in the 1956 episode "Deadly Fear." He guest starred too on CBS's Perry Mason, with Raymond Burr, as defendant Grover Johnson in the 1963 episode, "The Case of the Bouncing Boomerang." He continued to work in motion pictures and television into the 1970s. He appeared in season 2 of James Garner's NBC detective series, The Rockford Files. Cameron also appeared in two episodes of ADAM-12 in 1975.

Comic book
Cameron's western persona was popular enough that it attracted a comic book deal with Fawcett Publications. The Rod Cameron Western series ran from February 1950 to April 1953, ending with issue No. 20. As seen in issue No. 17 (Oct. 1952), the comic book featured two Rod Cameron stories, plus a one page humorous strip featuring the character Ambling Andy, and a story featuring Sam the Sheriff.

Personal life
Cameron was married three times. His married his second wife, Angela Alves-Lico, in 1950. They divorced in 1960 so that he could marry her mother, actress Dorothy Alves-Lico ( Dorothy Eveleigh), though they kept the marriage a secret until 1961. Director William Witney publicly acclaimed Cameron as the bravest man that he had ever seen.

In the 1970s, Cameron became involved with efforts to treat alcoholism. He was active in the Alcoholism Council of San Fernando Valley in Van Nuys, California, and he spoke to groups about problems related to alcoholism.

In his later years, he lived on Lake Lanier in northern Georgia. After an extended battle with cancer, Cameron died in a hospital in
nearby Gainesville, aged 73.

He was posthumously awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Selected filmography

References

External links

1910 births
1983 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male television actors
Canadian expatriate male actors in the United States
Male actors from Calgary
Male film serial actors
Paramount Pictures contract players
20th-century Canadian male actors
Western (genre) television actors

Rod Cameron (actor)


The National, originally titled for sponsorship reasons as the AT&T National and later as the Quicken Loans National, was a professional golf tournament on the PGA Tour from 2007 to 2018. It was hosted by Tiger Woods and benefited the Tiger Woods Foundation. It was usually held either in late June or during the Fourth of July weekend in the Washington, D.C. area, except for 2010 and 2011 when it was held near Philadelphia.

The National was a 72-hole stroke play tournament. It was one of a few events given "invitational" status by the PGA Tour and consequently had a field of only 120 players, as opposed to 156 players at most full-field tournaments.

The first edition of The National in 2007 was held July 5–8 on the Blue Course at the Congressional Country Club in Bethesda, Maryland, northwest of Washington. The event returned to Congressional in 2008 and 2009 when it was held midway between the U.S. Open and The Open Championship to ensure a strong field of competitors. The National was part of the Open Qualifying Series that gave non-exempt players a chance to compete in The Open.

History
The event was officially announced on March 7, 2007, to replace The International, which tour officials had abruptly cancelled four weeks earlier on  The National was a standard 72-hole stroke play event, and did not use the modified Stableford scoring system used by The International in Colorado.

The D.C. area had hosted a regular tour event for over a quarter century; the Kemper Open arrived in 1980, but was terminated after the 2006 event. It was played at Congressional from 1980 to 1986, then moved to the nearby TPC at Avenel in 1987. Later renamed the Booz Allen Classic, it returned to Congressional in 2005, to give Avenel time to undergo renovations, which did

Congressional originally agreed to host the event for the first two years, and after opting out of hosting the 2009 U.S. Amateur, agreed to host the event in 2009 as well. The Aronimink Golf Club in Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, hosted the 2010 and 2011 events, due to Congressional being reconfigured for the 2011 U.S. Open.  The tournament was played at Congressional from 2012 to 2014 and returned in 2016. It was played in Virginia at Robert Trent Jones Golf Club in Gainesville in July and August 2015 and was played at TPC Potomac at Avenel Farm in Potomac in 2017.

Other courses that were originally considered for the new tournament were in the Kansas City, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, and Portland areas. Possible sites for the 2010 and 2011 events were the TPC at Avenel (now TPC Potomac at Avenel Farm, former site of the Booz Allen Classic) and Robert Trent Jones Golf Club, (four-time host of the Presidents Cup). CBS Sports and Golf Channel currently carry the Quicken Loans National on television.

After the 2017 tournament, the Quicken Loans sponsorship deal ended leaving The National with no sponsor for  scheduled for June 28 to July 1. The PGA Tour also announced that it would be buying out the remaining two years of its contract with Congressional Country Club to host the 2018 and 2020  Despite a lack of title sponsor and host course, PGA Tour commissioner Jay Monahan confirmed that the event would occur in 2018, stating, "We made the commitment. Our players are going to be showing up there and we're going to be playing for that amount of money." On May 30, less than a month before the event, Quicken Loans agreed to sponsor for a fifth consecutive year. On July 10, 2018, it was announced that the Detroit Golf Club would host the Rocket Mortgage Classic in 2019, replacing The National.

Field
The National was one of a few tournaments given "invitational" status by the PGA Tour, and consequently it had a reduced field of only 120 players (as opposed to most full-field open tournaments with a field of 156 players). Other tournaments with invitational status include the Arnold Palmer Invitational, the RBC Heritage, the Fort Worth Invitational, and the Memorial Tournament.

Invitational tournaments have smaller fields (between 100 and 132 players), and have more freedom than full-field open tournaments in determining which players are eligible to participate in their event, as invitational tournaments are not required to fill their fields using the PGA Tour Priority Ranking System.  Furthermore, unlike full-field open tournaments, invitational tournaments do not offer open qualifying (aka Monday qualifying).  The Los Angeles Open was converted to an invitational in 2020, inheriting the National's format.

The field consisted of 120 players invited using the following criteria:
 Quicken Loans National winners from past five years
 The Players Championship and major championship winners in the last five years
 The Tour Championship and World Golf Championships winners in the past three years
 Arnold Palmer Invitational and Memorial Tournament winners in the past three years
 Tournament winner in past 12 months
 Prior year U.S. Amateur winner
 Current PGA Tour members who were playing members on last named U.S. Ryder Cup team, European Ryder Cup team, U.S. Presidents Cup team, and International Presidents Cup team
 Top 125 from prior year FedEx Cup points list
 Top 10 from the current FedEx Cup points list (as of Friday prior)
 8 sponsors exemptions – 2 from Web.com Tour finals, 2 members not otherwise exempt, and 4 unrestricted
 Remaining positions filled from current year FedEx Cup point list

Winners

Note: Green highlight indicates scoring records.

References

External links

Coverage on the PGA Tour's official site

Former PGA Tour events
Golf in Maryland
Golf in Virginia
Golf in Pennsylvania
Tiger Woods
Recurring sporting events established in 2007
Recurring sporting events disestablished in 2018
2007 establishments in Maryland
2018 disestablishments in Maryland

The National (golf)


The airport apron, apron, flight line, or ramp is the area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled, boarded, or maintained. Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public, and a permit may be required to gain access. An apron's designated areas for aircraft parking are called aircraft stands.

By extension, the term apron is also used to identify the air traffic control position responsible for coordinating movement on this surface at busier airports. When the aerodrome control tower does not have control over the apron, the use of the apron may be controlled by an apron management service (also known as apron control or apron advisory) to provide coordination between the users. Apron control allocates aircraft parking stands (gates) and communicates this information to tower or ground control and to airline handling agents; it also authorises vehicle movements where they could conflict with taxiing aircraft such as outside of painted road markings. The authority responsible for the aprons is also responsible for relaying to ATC information about the apron conditions such as water, snow, construction or maintenance works on or adjacent to the apron, temporary hazards such as birds or parked vehicles, systems failure etc. Procedures should be established for a coordinated information provision between the aircraft, vehicle, apron control unit and ATC to facilitate the orderly transition of aircraft between the apron management unit and the aerodrome control tower.

The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the maneuvering area but included in the movement area. Aircraft stand taxilanes (providing access to aircraft stands) and apron taxiways (taxi routes across the apron) are located on the apron. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as apron traffic.

Other terms

Flight line
The US military typically refers to the apron area as the flight line. The RAAF also uses the term flight line.

Tarmac
The apron at airports is sometimes informally called the tarmac, even though most of these areas are paved with concrete, not tarmac. Specific materials used include asphalt concrete (which itself is often inexactly called "tarmac", adding to the confusion), porous friction course, and Portland cement concrete.

Ramp
In the United States, the word ramp is an older term for an area where pre-flight activities were done; an apron was any area for parking and maintenance. Passenger gates are the main feature of a terminal ramp. The word apron is the ICAO and FAA terminology (the word ramp is not), so the word ramp is not used with this meaning outside the US, Canada, the Maldives, and the Philippines. IATA cites ramp as an equivalent term to apron.

For seaplanes, a ramp is used to access the apron from the water.

See also
 Pavement Classification Number (PCN)
 Hardstand

References

External links

 Challenges to airport ramp and runway debris control

Airport infrastructure

Airport apron