The Kingdom of Scotland (; , ) was a sovereign state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the northern third of the island of Great Britain, sharing a land border to the south with the Kingdom of England. During the Middle Ages, Scotland engaged in intermittent conflict with England, most prominently the Wars of Scottish Independence, which saw the Scots assert their independence from the English. Following the annexation of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles from Norway in 1266 and 1472 respectively, and the capture of Berwick by England in 1482, the territory of the Kingdom of Scotland corresponded to that of modern-day Scotland, bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, joining Scotland with England in a personal union. In 1707, during the reign of Queen Anne, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union.

The Crown was the most important element of Scotland's government. The Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Crown remained at the centre of political life and in the 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the 1603 Union of Crowns. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European monarchical states of the time and developed a Privy Council and great offices of state. Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life. In the early period, the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords—the mormaers and toísechs—but from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace and Commissioners of Supply helped to increase the effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds.

Scots law developed in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh. In 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage. After the union of the Scottish and English crowns in 1603, the Pound Scots was reformed to closely match sterling coin. The Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Acts of Union 1707; however, Scotland has retained unique banknotes to the present day.

Geographically, Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands. The Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was even shorter during the Little Ice Age. Scotland's population at the start of the Black Death was about 1 million; by the end of the plague, it was only half a million. It expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the medieval kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French; but by the early modern era Middle Scots had begun to dominate. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century. In the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk. There were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, but often relied on privateers and fought a guerre de course. Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century; and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown.

History

Origins: 400–943

From the 5th century on, north Britain was divided into a series of petty kingdoms. Of these, the four most important were those of the Picts in the north-east, the Scots of Dál Riata in the west, the Britons of Strathclyde in the south-west and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia (which united with Deira to form Northumbria in 653) in the south-east, stretching into modern northern England. In 793, ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries such as those at Iona and Lindisfarne, creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of north Britain. Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen. These threats may have sped up a long-term process of Gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish kingdoms, although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or vice-versa. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) as "king of the Picts" in the 840s (traditionally dated to 843), which brought to power the House of Alpin. When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900, one of his successors, Domnall II (Donald II), was the first man to be called rí Alban (King of Alba). The Latin term Scotia would increasingly be used to describe the heartland of these kings, north of the River Forth, and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would be referred to, in English, as Scotland. The long reign (900–942/3) of Donald's successor Causantín (Constantine II) is often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba/Scotland, and he was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church.

Expansion: 943–1513

Máel Coluim I (Malcolm I) (  943–954) is believed to have annexed the Kingdom of Strathclyde, over which the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later 9th century. His successor, Indulf the Aggressor, was described as the King of Strathclyde before inheriting the throne of Alba; he is credited with later annexing parts of Lothian, including Edinburgh, from the Kingdom of Northumbria. The reign of David I has been characterised as a "Davidian Revolution", in which he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, established the first royal burghs in Scotland and the first recorded Scottish coinage, and continued a process of religious and legal reforms. Until the 13th century, the border with England was very fluid, with Northumbria being annexed to Scotland by David I, but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157. The Treaty of York (1237) fixed the boundaries with England close to the modern border. By the reign of Alexander III, the Scots had annexed the remainder of the, Norwegian held, western seaboard after the stalemate of the Battle of Largs and the Treaty of Perth in 1266. The Isle of Man fell under English control, from Norwegian, in the 14th century, despite several attempts to seize it for Scotland. The English briefly occupied most of Scotland, under Edward I. Under Edward III, the English backed Edward Balliol, son of King John Balliol, in an attempt to gain his father's throne and restore the lands of the Scottish lords dispossessed by Robert I and his successors in the 14th century in the Wars of Independence (1296–1357). The king of France attempted to thwart the exercise, under the terms of what became known as the Auld Alliance, which provided for mutual aid against the English. In the 15th and early 16th centuries, under the Stewart Dynasty, despite a turbulent political history, the Crown gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords and regained most of its lost territory to around the modern borders of the country. The dowry of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, by the Norwegian crown, in 1468 was the last great land acquisition for the kingdom. In 1482 the border fortress of Berwick—the largest port in medieval Scotland—fell to the English once again; this was the last time it changed hands. The Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513 and the death of the King James IV. A long period of political instability followed.

Consolidation and union: 1513–1707

In the 16th century, under James V of Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, the Crown and court took on many of the attributes of the Renaissance and New Monarchy, despite long royal minorities, civil wars and interventions by the English and French. In the mid-16th century, the Scottish Reformation was strongly influenced by Calvinism, leading to widespread iconoclasm and the introduction of a Presbyterian system of organisation and discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish life.

In the late 16th century, James VI emerged as a major intellectual figure with considerable authority over the kingdom. In 1603, he inherited the thrones of England and Ireland, creating a Union of the Crowns that left the three states with their separate identities and institutions. He also moved the centre of royal patronage and power to London.

When James' son Charles I attempted to impose elements of the English religious settlement on Scotland, the result was the Bishops' Wars (1637–1640), which ended in defeat for the king and a virtually independent Presbyterian Covenanter state in Scotland. It also helped precipitate the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, during which the Scots carried out major military interventions.

After Charles I's defeat, the Scots backed the king in the Second English Civil War; after his execution, they proclaimed his son Charles II king, resulting in the Third English Civil War against the emerging republican regime of Parliamentarians in England led by Oliver Cromwell. The results were a series of defeats and the short-lived incorporation of Scotland into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653–1660).

After the 1660 restoration of the monarchy, Scotland regained its separate status and institutions, while the centre of political power remained in London. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, in which James VII was deposed by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange in England, Scotland accepted them under the Claim of Right Act 1689, but the deposed main hereditary line of the Stuarts became a focus for political discontent known as Jacobitism, leading to a series of invasions and rebellions mainly focused on the Scottish Highlands.

After severe economic dislocation in the 1690s, there were moves that led to political union with England as the Kingdom of Great Britain, which came into force on 1 May 1707. The English and Scottish parliaments were replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain, which sat in Westminster and largely continued English traditions without interruption. Forty-five Scots were added to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the 190 members of the House of Lords. It was also a full economic union, replacing the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade.

Government

The unified kingdom of Alba retained some of the ritual aspects of Pictish and Scottish kingship. These can be seen in the elaborate ritual coronation at the Stone of Scone at Scone Abbey.

While the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, Scone remained one of its most important locations, with royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later Middle Ages before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century.

The Crown remained the most important element of government, despite the many royal minorities. In the late Middle Ages, it saw much of the aggrandisement associated with the New Monarchs elsewhere in Europe. Theories of constitutional monarchy and resistance were articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan, in the 16th century, but James VI of Scotland advanced the theory of the divine right of kings, and these debates were restated in subsequent reigns and crises. The court remained at the centre of political life, and in the 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the Union of the Crowns in 1603.

The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, including High Steward, Chamberlain, Lord High Constable, Earl Marischal and Lord Chancellor. The King's Council emerged as a full-time body in the 15th century, increasingly dominated by laymen and critical to the administration of justice. The Privy Council, which developed in the mid-16th century, and the great offices of state, including the chancellor, secretary and treasurer, remained central to the administration of the government, even after the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in England from 1603. However, it was often sidelined and was abolished after the Acts of Union 1707, with rule direct from London.

The Parliament of Scotland also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy. By the end of the Middle Ages it was sitting almost every year, partly because of the frequent royal minorities and regencies of the period, which may have prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy. In the early modern era, Parliament was also vital to the running of the country, providing laws and taxation, but it had fluctuating fortunes and was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England.

In the early period, the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords of the mormaers (later earls) and toísechs (later thanes), but from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In the 17th century, the creation of justices of the peace and the Commissioner of Supply helped to increase the effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds.

Law

Scots law developed into a distinctive system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Knowledge of the nature of Scots law before the 11th century is largely speculative, but it was probably a mixture of legal traditions representing the different cultures inhabiting the land at the time, including Celtic, Britonnic, Irish and Anglo-Saxon customs. The legal tract, the Leges inter Brettos et Scottos, set out a system of compensation for injury and death based on ranks and the solidarity of kin groups. There were popular courts or comhdhails, indicated by dozens of place names in eastern Scotland. In Scandinavian-held areas, Udal law formed the basis of the legal system and it is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland measure. Althings were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the Jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all "free men". At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints adjudicated.

The introduction of feudalism in the reign of David I of Scotland would have a profound impact on the development of Scottish law, establishing feudal land tenure over many parts of the south and east that eventually spread northward. Sheriffs, originally appointed by the King as royal administrators and tax collectors, developed legal functions. Feudal lords also held courts to adjudicate disputes between their tenants.

By the 14th century, some of these feudal courts had developed into "petty kingdoms" where the King's courts did not have authority except for cases of treason. Burghs also had their local laws dealing mostly with commercial and trade matters and may have become similar in function to sheriff's courts. Ecclesiastical courts had exclusive jurisdiction over matters such as marriage, contracts made on oath, inheritance and legitimacy. Judices were often royal officials who supervised baronial, abbatial and other lower-ranking "courts". However, the main official of law in the post-Davidian Kingdom of the Scots was the Justiciar who held courts and reported to the king personally. Normally, there were two Justiciarships, organised by linguistic boundaries: the Justiciar of Scotia and the Justiciar of Lothian, but sometimes Galloway also had its own Justiciar. Scottish common law, the jus commune, began to take shape at the end of the period, assimilating Gaelic and Britonnic law with practices from Anglo-Norman England and the Continent.

There is some evidence that, during the period of English control over Scotland, Edward I of England attempted to abolish Scottish laws in opposition to English law as he had done in Wales. Under Robert I in 1318, a parliament at Scone enacted a code of law that drew upon older practices. It codified procedures for criminal trials and protections for vassals from ejection from the land. From the 14th century, there are surviving examples of early Scottish legal literature, such as the Regiam Majestatem (on procedure at the royal courts) and the Quoniam Attachiamenta (on procedure at the barons court), which drew on both common and Roman law.

Customary laws, such as the Law of Clan MacDuff, came under attack from the Stewart Dynasty which consequently extended the reach of Scots common law. From the reign of King James I a legal profession began to develop and the administration of criminal and civil justice was centralised. The growing activity of the parliament and the centralisation of administration in Scotland called for the better dissemination of Acts of the parliament to the courts and other enforcers of the law. In the late 15th century, unsuccessful attempts were made to form commissions of experts to codify, update or define Scots law. The general practice during this period, as evidenced from records of cases, seems to have been to defer to specific Scottish laws on a matter when available and to fill in any gaps with provisions from the common law embodied in Civil and Canon law, which had the advantage of being written.

Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with a royal Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases. In 1514, the office of justice-general was created for the Earl of Argyll (and held by his family until 1628). In 1532, the Royal College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers. The Court of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from influence, including from the king, and superior jurisdiction over local justice. Its judges were increasingly able to control entry to their own ranks. In 1672, the High Court of Justiciary was founded from the College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal.

Coinage

David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage. There were soon mints at Edinburgh, Berwick and Roxburgh. Early Scottish coins were similar to English ones, but with the king's head in profile instead of full face. The number of coins struck was small and English coins probably remained more significant in this period. The first gold coin was a noble (6s. 8d.) of David II. Under James I pennies and halfpennies of billon (an alloy of silver with a base metal) were introduced, and copper farthings appeared under James III. In James V's reign the bawbee ( d) and half-bawbee were issued, and in Mary, Queen of Scot's reign a twopence piece, the hardhead, was issued to help "the common people buy bread, drink, flesh, and fish". The billon coinage was discontinued after 1603, but twopence pieces in copper continued to be issued until the Act of Union in 1707.

Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from  onwards their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than their English counterparts. Between 1300 and 1605, Scottish coins lost silver value at an average of 12 percent every decade, three times higher than the English rate. The Scottish penny became a base metal coin by  and virtually disappeared as a separate coin from  onwards. In 1356, an English proclamation banned the lower quality Scottish coins from being circulated in England. After the union of the Scottish and English crowns in 1603, the Pound Scots was reformed to closely match coins of the pound sterling, with £12 Scots equal to £1 sterling. The Parliament of Scotland enacted proposals in 1695 to set up the Bank of Scotland. The bank issued pound notes from 1704, which had the face value of £12 Scots. Scottish currency was abolished after the 1707 Act of Unions, with Scottish coins in circulation being drawn in to be re-minted according to English standards.

Geography

At its borders in 1707, the Kingdom of Scotland was half the size of England and Wales in area, but with its many inlets, islands and inland lochs, it had roughly the same amount of coastline at . Scotland has over 790 offshore islands, most of which are to be found in four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, subdivided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level. The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east. The highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen. The Lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands, which included the Cheviot Hills, over which the border with England ran. The Central Lowland belt averages about  in width and, because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications, could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional government. However, the Southern Uplands, and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern.

Its east Atlantic position means that Scotland has very heavy rainfall: today about 700 mm per year in the east and over 1000 mm in the west. This encouraged the spread of blanket bogs, the acidity of which, combined with high level of wind and salt spray, made most of the islands treeless. The existence of hills, mountains, quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power. The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively short growing season, in the extreme case of the upper Grampians an ice free season of four months or less and for much of the Highlands and Uplands of seven months or less. The early modern era also saw the impact of the Little Ice Age, with 1564 seeing thirty-three days of continual frost, where rivers and lochs froze, leading to a series of subsistence crises until the 1690s.

Demography

From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the 10th century until before the Black Death arrived in 1349, estimates based on the amount of farmable land suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million. Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague, there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades. If the pattern followed that in England, then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the 15th century.

Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later Highland Clearances and the Industrial Revolution, these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly half living north of the River Tay. Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the later medieval period, mainly in the east and south. They would have had a mean population of about 2000, but many would have been much smaller than 1000 and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of over 10,000 by the end of the Medieval era.

Price inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food, suggests that the population probably expanded in the first half of the 16th century, levelling off after the famine of 1595, as prices were relatively stable in the early 17th century. Calculations based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1,234,575, but this figure may have been seriously effected by the subsequent famines of the late 1690s. By 1750, with its suburbs, Edinburgh reached 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the same time were Glasgow with 32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with 12,000.

Language

Historical sources, as well as place name evidence, indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic, Old English and later Norse in the Early Middle Ages. By the High Middle Ages, the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language, then simply called Scottish, or in Latin, lingua Scotica. In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn, which lingered until the end of the 18th century, and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides. French, Flemish and particularly English became the main languages of Scottish burghs, most of which were located in the south and east, an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English. In the later part of the 12th century, the writer Adam of Dryburgh described lowland Lothian as "the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots". At least from the accession of David I, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French, as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles, literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language.

In the Late Middle Ages, Early Scots, then called English, became the dominant spoken language of the kingdom, aside from in the Highlands and Islands and Galloway. It was derived largely from Old English, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England, it became a distinct dialect from the late 14th century onwards. It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the 15th century, it was the language of government, with acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the Tay, began a steady decline. Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second-class, rustic and even amusing language, helping to frame attitudes towards the Highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the Lowlands.

From the mid-16th century, written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England. With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England, most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion. Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI generally despised Gaelic culture. Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, he increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611, the Kirk adopted the 1611 Authorized King James Version of the Bible. In 1617, interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because as Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald describes James as creating a "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top".

Religion

The Pictish and Scottish kingdoms that would form the basis of the Kingdom of Alba were largely converted by Irish-Scots missions associated with figures such as St Columba, from the 5th to the 7th centuries. These missions tended to found monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas. Partly as a result of these factors, some scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity, in which abbots were more significant than bishops, attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there were some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity, particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter. Most of these issues had been resolved by the mid-7th century. After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland from the 10th century, Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom.

In the Norman period, the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations. With royal and lay patronage, a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed. Large numbers of new foundations, which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism, began to predominate and the Scottish church established its independence from England, developed a clearer diocesan structure, becoming a "special daughter of the see of Rome", but lacking leadership in the form of Archbishops. In the late Middle Ages, the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the 15th century. While some historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in the late Middle Ages, the mendicant orders of friars grew, particularly in the expanding burghs, to meet the spiritual needs of the population. New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated. Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the 14th century, and some evidence of heresy in this period, the Church in Scotland remained relatively stable before the 16th century.

During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook, severely reducing the powers of bishops, although not abolishing them. The teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars who had visited continental and English universities. Particularly important was the work of the Lutheran Scot Patrick Hamilton. His execution with other Protestant preachers in 1528, and of the Zwingli-influenced George Wishart in 1546, who was burnt at the stake in St Andrews, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Wishart's supporters seized St Andrews Castle, which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to be galley slaves, helping to create resentment of the French and martyrs for the Protestant cause. Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in 1557. By 1560, a relatively small group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560. The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the Medieval church. This gave considerable power within the new Kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly, iconoclasm. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution.

In 1635, Charles I authorised a book of canons that made him head of the Church, ordained an unpopular ritual and enforced the use of a new liturgy. When the liturgy emerged in 1637 it was seen as an English-style Prayer Book, resulting in anger and widespread rioting. Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant on 28 February 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations. The king's supporters were unable to suppress the rebellion and the king refused to compromise. In December of the same year, matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis. Victory in the resulting Bishops' Wars secured the Presbyterian Kirk and precipitated the outbreak of the civil wars of the 1640s. Disagreements over collaboration with Royalism created a major conflict between Protesters and Resolutioners, which became a long term divide in the Kirk.

At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, legislation was revoked back to 1633, removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops' Wars, but the discipline of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods were renewed. The reintroduction of episcopacy was a source of particular trouble in the south-west of the country, an area with strong Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many of the people here began to attend illegal field assemblies led by excluded ministers, known as conventicles. In the early 1680s, a more intense phase of persecution began, in what was later to be known in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time". After the Glorious Revolution, Presbyterianism was restored and the bishops, who had generally supported James VII, abolished. However, William, who was more tolerant than the kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution. The result was a Kirk divided between factions, with significant minorities, particularly in the west and north, of Episcopalians and Catholics.

Education

The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language. Monasteries served as repositories of knowledge and education, often running schools and providing a small educated elite, who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society. In the High Middle Ages, new sources of education arose, with song and grammar schools. These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in the developing burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns. There were also petty schools, more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education. Some monasteries, like the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss, opened their doors to a wider range of students. The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s. They were almost exclusively aimed at boys, but by the end of the 15th century, Edinburgh also had schools for girls, sometimes described as "sewing schools", and probably taught by lay women or nuns. There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers. The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne". All this resulted in an increase in literacy, but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite, with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period.

Until the 15th century, those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent, and just over a 1,000 have been identified as doing so between the 12th century and 1410. Among these the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus, who studied at Oxford, Cambridge and Paris and probably died at Cologne in 1308, becoming a major influence on late medieval religious thought. The Wars of Independence largely closed English universities to Scots, and consequently continental universities became more significant. This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1451 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495. Initially these institutions were designed for the training of clerics, but they were increasingly used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in the government and law. Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go abroad. The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early 16th century, of which John Mair was probably the most important figure. By 1497, the humanist and historian Hector Boece, born in Dundee, returned from Paris to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen. These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life.

The humanist concern with widening education was shared by the Protestant reformers, with a desire for a godly people replacing the aim of having educated citizens. In 1560, the First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible. In the burghs the old schools were maintained, with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools. Schools were supported by a combination of kirk funds, contributions from local heritors or burgh councils and parents that could pay. They were inspected by kirk sessions, who checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal purity. There were also large number of unregulated  "adventure schools", which sometimes fulfilled a local needs and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools. Outside of the established burgh schools, masters often combined their position with other employment, particularly minor posts within the kirk, such as clerk. At their best, the curriculum included catechism, Latin, French, Classical literature and sports.

In 1616, an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school "where convenient means may be had", and when the Parliament of Scotland ratified this with the Education Act of 1633, a tax on local landowners was introduced to provide the necessary endowment. A loophole which allowed evasion of this tax was closed in the Education Act of 1646, which established a solid institutional foundation for schools on Covenanter principles. Although the Restoration brought a reversion to the 1633 position, in 1696 new legislation restored the provisions of 1646. An act of the Scottish parliament in 1696 underlined the aim of having a school in every parish. In rural communities these obliged local landowners (heritors) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education. In many Scottish towns, burgh schools were operated by local councils. By the late 17th century, there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas.

The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women, vied with a desire, intensified after the Reformation, for women to take personal moral responsibility, particularly as wives and mothers. In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible, but most commentators, even those that tended to encourage the education of girls, thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys. In the lower ranks of society, they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation, but were usually outnumbered by boys, often taught separately, for a shorter time and to a lower level. They were frequently taught reading, sewing and knitting, but not writing. Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 percent, from the late 17th to the early 18th centuries and perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750, compared with 35 per cent for men. Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women, of which Mary, Queen of Scots is the most obvious example.

After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville, who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574. He placed an emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged. He introduced new specialist teaching staff, replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum. Metaphysics were abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year followed by Aramaic, Syriac and Hebrew, launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival, but students now began to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. The University of Edinburgh developed out of public lectures were established in the town 1440s on law, Greek, Latin and philosophy, under the patronage of Mary of Guise. These evolved into the "Tounis College", which would become the University of Edinburgh in 1582. The results were a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe. Under the Commonwealth, the universities saw an improvement in their funding, as they were given income from deaneries, defunct bishoprics and the excise, allowing the completion of buildings including the college in the High Street in Glasgow. They were still largely seen as a training school for clergy, and came under the control of the hard line Protestors. After the Restoration there was a purge of the universities, but much of the intellectual advances of the preceding period was preserved. The universities recovered from the upheavals of the mid-century with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry.

Military

Navy

There are mentions in Medieval records of fleets commanded by Scottish kings including William the Lion and Alexander II. The latter took personal command of a large naval force which sailed from the Firth of Clyde and anchored off the island of Kerrera in 1249, intended to transport his army in a campaign against the Kingdom of the Isles, but he died before the campaign could begin. Records indicate that Alexander had several large oared ships built at Ayr, but he avoided a sea battle. Defeat on land at the Battle of Largs and winter storms forced the Norwegian fleet to return home, leaving the Scottish crown as the major power in the region and leading to the ceding of the Western Isles to Alexander in 1266.

Part of the reason for Robert I's success in the Wars of Independence was his ability to call on naval forces from the Islands. As a result of the expulsion of the Flemings from England in 1303, he gained the support of a major naval power in the North Sea. The development of naval power allowed Robert to successfully defeat English attempts to capture him in the Highlands and Islands and to blockade major English controlled fortresses at Perth and Stirling, the last forcing Edward II to attempt the relief that resulted in English defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Scottish naval forces allowed invasions of the Isle of Man in 1313 and 1317 and Ireland in 1315. They were also crucial in the blockade of Berwick, which led to its fall in 1318. After the establishment of Scottish independence, Robert I turned his attention to building up a Scottish naval capacity. This was largely focused on the west coast, with the Exchequer Rolls of 1326 recording the feudal duties of his vassals in that region to aid him with their vessels and crews. Towards the end of his reign he supervised the building of at least one royal man-of-war near his palace at Cardross on the River Clyde. In the late 14th century, naval warfare with England was conducted largely by hired Scots, Flemish and French merchantmen and privateers. James I took a greater interest in naval power. After his return to Scotland in 1424, he established a shipbuilding yard at Leith, a house for marine stores, and a workshop. King's ships were built and equipped there to be used for trade as well as war, one of which accompanied him on his expedition to the Islands in 1429. The office of Lord High Admiral was probably founded in this period. In his struggles with his nobles in 1488 James III received assistance from his two warships the Flower and the King's Carvel also known as the Yellow Carvel.

There were various attempts to create royal naval forces in the 15th century. James IV put the enterprise on a new footing, founding a harbour at Newhaven and a dockyard at the Pools of Airth. He acquired a total of 38 ships including the Great Michael, at that time, the largest ship in Europe. Scottish ships had some success against privateers, accompanied the king on his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts in Scandinavia and the Baltic, but were sold after the Flodden campaign and after 1516 Scottish naval efforts would rely on privateering captains and hired merchantmen. James V did not share his father's interest in developing a navy and shipbuilding fell behind that of the Low Countries. Despite truces between England and Scotland there were periodic outbreaks of a guerre de course. James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542. The chief use of naval power in his reign was a series of expeditions to the Isles and France. After the Union of Crowns in 1603 conflict between Scotland and England ended, but Scotland found itself involved in England's foreign policy, opening up Scottish shipping to attack. In 1626, a squadron of three ships was bought and equipped. There were also several marque fleets of privateers. In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy and accompanying contingents of burgh privateers participated in the major expedition to Biscay. The Scots also returned to the West Indies and in 1629 took part in the capture of Quebec.

During the Bishop's Wars the king attempted to blockade Scotland and planned amphibious assaults from England on the East coast and from Ireland to the West. Scottish privateers took a number of English prizes. After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard". The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649–1651 and the Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth fleet. Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment by English men of war, but a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast burghs during the second half of the 17th century. Royal Navy patrols were now found in Scottish waters even in peacetime. In the Second (1665–1667) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–1674) between 80 and 120 captains, took Scottish letters of marque and privateers played a major part in the naval conflict. In the 1690s, a small fleet of five ships was established by merchants for the Darien Scheme, and a professional navy was established for the protection of commerce in home waters during the Nine Years' War, with three purpose-built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. After the Act of Union in 1707, these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy.

Army

Before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the mid-17th century, there was no standing army in the Kingdom of Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages, war in Scotland was characterised by the use of small war-bands of household troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare. By the High Middle Ages, the kings of Scotland could command forces of tens of thousands of men for short periods as part of the "common army", mainly of poorly armoured spear and bowmen. After the "Davidian Revolution" of the 12th century, which introduced elements of feudalism to Scotland, these forces were augmented by small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights. These armies rarely managed to stand up to the usually larger and more professional armies produced by England, but they were used to good effect by Robert I at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish independence. After the Wars of Scottish Independence, the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France played a large part in the country's military activities, especially during the Hundred Years' War. In the Late Middle Ages, under the Stewart kings forces were further augmented by specialist troops, particularly men-at-arms and archers, hired by bonds of manrent, similar to English indentures of the same period. Archers became much sought after as mercenaries in French armies of the 15th century in order to help counter the English superiority in this arm, becoming a major element of the French royal guards as the Garde Écossaise. The Stewarts also adopted major innovations in continental warfare, such as longer pikes and the extensive use of artillery. However, in the early 16th century one of the best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled still met with defeat at the hands of an English army at the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513, which saw the destruction of a large number of ordinary troops, a large section of the nobility and the king, James IV. In the 16th century, the crown took an increasing role in the supply of military equipment. The pike began to replace the spear and the Scots began to convert from the bow to gunpowder firearms. The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies and the Scots fielded relatively large numbers of light horse, often drawn from the borders. James IV brought in experts from France, Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun foundry in 1511. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture from the mid-15th century.

In the early 17th century, relatively large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years War. As armed conflict with Charles I in the Bishop's Wars became likely, hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service, including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and these veterans played an important role in training recruits. These systems would form the basis of the Covenanter armies that intervened in the Civil Wars in England and Ireland. Scottish infantry were generally armed, as was almost universal in Western Europe, with a combination of pike and shot. Scottish armies may also have had individuals with a variety of weapons including bows, Lochaber axes, and halberds. Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords, although there is some evidence that they included lancers. Royalist armies, like those led by James Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1643–1644) and in Glencairn's rising (1653–1654) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot. Montrose's forces were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry.

At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of several infantry regiments and a few troops of horse and there were attempts to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East. Pikemen became less important in the late 17th century and after the introduction of the socket bayonet disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock. On the eve of the Glorious Revolution, the standing army in Scotland was about 3,000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in the major garrison towns. After the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into King William II's continental wars, beginning with the Nine Years' War in Flanders (1689–1697). By the time of the Act of Union, the Kingdom of Scotland had a standing army of seven units of infantry, two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards, besides varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh, Dumbarton, and Stirling, which would be incorporated into the British Army.

Flags

The earliest recorded use of the Lion Rampant as a royal emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222. It is recorded with the additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies during the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286). This emblem occupied the shield of the royal coat of arms which, together with a royal banner displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots until the Union of the Crowns in 1603. Then it was incorporated into both the royal arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in order to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. Although now officially restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal residences, the Royal Standard of Scotland continues to be one of Scotland's most recognisable symbols.

According to legend, the apostle and martyr Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, was crucified on an X-shaped cross at Patras (Patrae) in Achaea. Use of the familiar iconography of his martyrdom, showing the apostle bound to an X-shaped cross, first appears in the Kingdom of Scotland in 1180 during the reign of William I. This image was again depicted on seals used during the late 13th century; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland, dated 1286. Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew which does not depict his image, namely the saltire, or crux decussata (from the Latin crux, 'cross', and decussis, 'having the shape of the Roman numeral X'), has its origins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on their person, both in front and behind, for the purpose of identification. The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew's Cross as a flag is to be found in the Vienna Book of Hours,  1503, where a white saltire is depicted with a red background. In the case of Scotland, use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century, with the first certain illustration of a flag depicting such appearing in Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount's Register of Scottish Arms,  1542.

Following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, commissioned new designs for a banner incorporating the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England. In 1606, a Union Flag was commissioned, combining the crosses of Saint George (the Flag of England), with that of Saint Andrew. There was also a Scottish version of this flag, in which the cross of Saint Andrew overlaid the cross of St George. This design may have seen limited, unofficial use in Scotland until 1707, when the English variant of the same, whereby the cross of St George overlaid that of St Andrew, was adopted as the flag of the unified Kingdom of Great Britain.

See also
 Falkland Palace
 Linlithgow Palace
 List of monarchs of Scotland
 Obsolete Scottish units of measurement
 Royal Consorts of Scotland
 Scottish monarchs family tree
 Scottish Term Day

Notes

References

Cited works

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Further reading
 Ash-Irisarri, Kate. "Scotland and Anglo-Scottish Border Writing." Medieval Historical Writing: Britain and Ireland, 500-1500 (2019): 225-243. online
 Brown, Keith M. Kingdom Or Province?: Scotland and the Regal Union 1603-1715 (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1992).
 Lang, Andrew. The History of Scotland–Volume 4: From the massacre of Glencoe to the end of Jacobitism (Jazzybee Verlag, 2016).
 Macinnes, Allan I. A history of Scotland (Bloomsbury, 2018).
 Moffat, Alistair. The Faded Map: The Lost Kingdoms of Scotland (Birlinn, 2011).
 Oram, Richard. "'The worst disaster suffered by the people of Scotland in recorded history': climate change, dearth and pathogens in the long 14th century." Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Vol. 144. (2015). online
 Reid, Norman. "The kingless kingdom: the Scottish guardianships of 1286-1306." Scottish Historical Review 61.172 (1982): 105-129.
 Taylor, Alice. The shape of the state in medieval Scotland, 1124-1290 (Oxford University Press, 2016).
 Whatley, Christopher A. "The Union of 1707." in Modern Scottish History: Volume 1: The Transformation of Scotland, 1707-1850 (2022).
 Wormald, Jenny, ed. Scotland: a history (Oxford University Press, 2011).

1707 disestablishments in Scotland
Scottish monarchy
States and territories established in the 840s
States and territories disestablished in 1707
States and territories disestablished in 1654
States and territories established in 1660
Scotland
Former monarchies of Europe
Former countries in the British Isles
843 establishments
9th-century establishments in Scotland
Scotland

Kingdom of Scotland


The Côte d'Azur Pullman Express was a French de luxe train which ran from 9 December 1929 until May 1939.  The service was operated by the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits and the Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée (known as the PLM).

The route was from Paris Gare de Lyon to Ventimiglia just inside the Italian border. During the winter of 1932 the train terminated at Menton, on the French side of the border. The following winter it terminated at Lyon.

The train was scheduled to leave Paris at 08:50, arriving at Ventimiglia at midnight, some 15 hours 10 minutes later.

References

History of rail transport in France
Named passenger trains of France

Côte d'Azur Pullman Express


Sarah Breedlove (December 23, 1867 – May 25, 1919), known as Madam C. J. Walker, was an American entrepreneur and philanthropist. She was said to be the first female self-made millionaire in America. When she died her estate was worth  $600,000 (worth about $8 million today). So this may not have been entirely true. She made her fortune in the hair care business. Her own hair loss caused her to look for "hair-growing" solutions. She developed and marketed a successful line of beauty and hair products for black women. She started the company Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company. She died May 25, 1919 of hypertension in Irvington, New York at the age of 51.

Early life
On December 23, 1867, Sarah Breedlove was born on a plantation near the village of Delta, Louisiana. She was the fifth child born to recently freed slaves, Owen and Minerva. She was their first child born free. Her mother died in 1874 and her father died in 1875. She went to live with her sister Louvinia and her husband. In 1877 they moved to Vicksburg, Mississippi where Sarah picked cotton. At age 14 she married Moses McWilliams. He died two years later. Breedlove and her daughter A'Lelia went to St. Louis. Two of her brothers were barbers there. She worked washing clothes for $1.50 USD a day. She also attended night school. In 1894 Breedlove married for the second time to John Davis. But the marriage failed as he was unfaithful to her.

Early career
In the 1890s Breedlove began losing her hair due to a scalp condition. She began experimenting with home made cures. At the 1904 World's Fair Breedlove met Annie (Turnbow) Malone. By 1905 she was selling Malone's products. Breedlove moved to Denver where she married her second husband, Charles Joseph Walker. In a dream it came to her what to mix up for a hair product. One of the ingredients was only available in Africa so she sent for some. Her hair started growing again. She started her own business selling a product she developed "Madam Walker's Wonderful Hair Grower" It was designed as a scalp healer and hair conditioner. As Mrs C.J. Walker she changed her business name to Madam C.J. Walker. in 1906, her daughter A'Lelia graduated from college and came to work managing her mother's company. This freed Walker to begin selling her product door-to-door. She gave presentations to church groups wherever she could. In 1908 she started her own college in Pittsburgh to train her salespeople.

Self-made success

In 1910 she incorporated her company. She could not attract big investors so she used $10,000 of her own money to start her school and factory in Indianapolis. She was the sole shareholder of the Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company. Sarah Walker was a serious business women. She began mixing herbs and shampoos. Her products where especially for black women. In a short time she had trained 40,000 salespeople, her "Walker Agents". Her agents learned her system of vegetable shampoos, witch hazel, cold creams and diets. She didn't invent the hot comb, for straightening hair. But she improved it with wider teeth just for black women's hair.

Walker attended the National Negro Business League Thirteenth Annual Convention in 1912. No women were included on the schedule of speakers. Walker got up and took the podium from Booker T. Washington who was moderating. She told her story and why women should be included. At the fourteenth convention she was on the schedule of speakers. She had the ability to inspire others.

Walker was a leader and a role model in the black community. She was one of the first female African Americans to create hair care products for black women. This was at a time when almost all products where for white people. The goal of her starting her business was to make female African Americans feel better about themselves. They could feel better about their appearance by using her products. Walker re-invented hair straightening just for black people. Her way of making money helped her and also got her employees out of poverty. Whenever they would make a sale for her they would get a certain percentage of the money. She did get some criticism from other black leaders. Booker T. Washington criticized her for making black women look like white women. He did not like skin bleaching and straightened hair. But she stated that the crucial ingredients for her hair care products came from Africa. Madam C. J. Walker died on May 25, 1919.

Notes

References

1867 births
1919 deaths
African-American people
American billionaires
American inventors
American philanthropists
Deaths from hypertension

Madam C. J. Walker


King Andrianjafy (before -1787) also known as Andrianjafinandriamanitra and Andrianjafinjanahary, was the king of Imerina Avaradrano, the northern part of the central highlands of Madagascar with its capital at Ambohimanga. His father Andriambelomasina bequeathed him the rule of Avaradrano while designating his nephew Ramboasalama to follow Andrianjafy in the order of succession. Andrianjafy did not accept this decree, instead preferring that his own son succeed him, and sought retribution against citizens of Avaradrano who acknowledged the latent authority of his nephew.

In order to prevent Ramboasalama from rising to power, Andrianjafy devised a series of failed plans to kill his nephew. The king's ineffectiveness as a ruler and despotic behavior contributed to declining popularity among the people of Avaradrano. Popular support for Ramboasalama produced a coup d'état in which he replaced Andrianjafy as King Andrianampoinimerina. Andrianjafy fled to Ilafy, where he rallied an army and tried unsuccessfully to recapture the throne. He was put to death in 1787 by followers of Andrianampoinimerina.

Early life
Andrianjafy was a son of King Andriambelomasina of Imerina Avaradrano and his first wife, Rasoherimananitany. When he was born, an astrologer made an unfavorable prediction, declaring, "This child will not possess what Andrianjakanavalomandimby and Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana left - he will fritter it away." As a young man he married Ranavalondrajaka of Ilafy, with whom he had two sons, Ralaitokana and Ratsiantahana, and one daughter, Ratsimiantanasoa.

Before his death, King Andriambelomasina assigned his sons to govern four fiefs within the territory, giving the largest and easternmost territory of Avaradrano to Andrianjafy. At the same time he designated his sister's son Ramboasalama to follow Andrianjafy in the order of succession, stating "Ramboasalama will succeed Andrianjafy, because today I give the right to rule to Andrianjafy, but tomorrow and at the end it will belong to Ramboasalama."

Reign
In 1770 Andrianjafy succeeded upon the death of his father, who was one of many victims of a major famine in Imerina. Oral histories recount that Andrianjafy felt his authority was threatened by his nephew Ramboasalama, who frequently made promises to the populace regarding his future reign. Andrianjafy's jealousy prompted him to put to death citizens of his territory who engaged his nephew in such promises. Andrianjafy occasionally displayed his power in despotic fashion, such as by engaging the armies of a Sakalava prince to attack Hiaramy and Faliary, two communities already under his control, and massacring the inhabitants without provocation.

Andrianjafy failed to consistently apply the law in his realm, particularly in regard to the punishment of criminals. The resulting increase in impunity and decline in security in Avaradrano contributed to declining popular support of his rule. The king's public image was further tarnished by his increasingly hostile behavior toward Ramboasalama, in disregard of the wishes of Andrianjafy's father, Andriambelomasina. Oral history describes him as prone to anger and violence, which he did not hesitate to inflict against women and children. He is also said to have frequently seized the property and valuables of his people for his own use without justification or compensation.

Dethronement
Initially, Andrianjafy may have been willing to accept his father's declared order of succession. This most likely changed when Ranavalondrazaka, Andrianjafy's wife, unexpectedly gave birth to a son. She persuaded Andrianjafy to disregard his father's decree and name their own son Ralaitokana as successor in place of Ramboasalama. Andrianjafy agreed to this proposal and devised a series of ruses to kill his nephew and clear the path to the throne for his son. In one instance, Andrianjafy invited his nephew to listen to music from a nearby cliff, intending to push him over the edge; Andriantsimitovizainitrimo, Andrianjafy's brother, warned his nephew of the plot, and Ramboasalama declined the invitation on the pretext of illness. In another instance, Andrianjafy claimed to be ill and sent for Ramboasalama with the intention of murdering him once they were alone together, but once again Andrianjafy's brother warned his nephew of the danger. The king then planned to have Ramboasalama murdered during a planned excursion through a nearby swamp, but Ramboasalama was warned and stayed behind.

Andrianjafy became bolder and decided to send a group of assassins to Ramboasalama's residence in Ambohimanga; confident of his plan, he showed the funeral goods he had prepared for Ramboasalama to his brother, and then departed his stronghold at Ambohimanga for a circumcision ceremony to be held at Ilafy. Andriantsimitovizainitrimo promptly sent a messenger to his nephew instructing him to flee. Rather than leave Ambohimanga, Ramboasalama followed the advice of an elder who instructed him to sacrifice a ram to invoke ancestral protection. The elder then gathered the twelve most respected men of Ambohimanga and thirty soldiers, and rallied them to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina by overthrowing Andrianjafy and swearing allegiance to Ramboasalama, who took the throne name Andrianampoinimerina. The support of the Tsimahafotsy, inhabitants of Ambohimanga, ensured the defense of the city against efforts by Andrianjafy to reclaim his capital and his authority. Enraged, Andrianjafy took revenge against his brother Andriantsimitovizainitrimo, whom he murdered by pulling him from his bed, which was raised in the traditional style over fifteen feet above the ground.

Andrianjafy rallied the people of his home village of Ilafy to fight against those of Ambohimanga. Both sides were armed with spears and firearms. An initial battle at Marintampona saw the Ilafy army defeated. Both sides regrouped for a second confrontation at Amboniloha, which took place at night and did not end in a definitive win for either side. In the morning, Andrianjafy moved his army north of Anosy and the two sides clashed again in a battle that lasted two days. The Ilafy army lost the skirmish and retreated to their village.  After losing these battles, the residents of Ilafy decided to submit to Andrianampoinimerina. To rid themselves of Andrianjafy, the people encouraged him to travel to Antananarivo and Alasora to seek allies in the defense of their town. Once he had departed, the villagers barred the town gates and announced their desire to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina. Seeking support to recapture the throne, Andrianjafy traveled to Antananarivo, Ambohipeto, Alasora and Anosizato, but each time he was rebuffed.

Death
Having failed to rally an army to retake Ambohimanga, in 1787 Andrianjafy was approached by messengers who claimed they regretted their betrayal and wished to reinstate him as king. The messengers carried him on a royal palanquin to their village in the north, using a circuitous route that disoriented him. He realized too late that the porters had taken him deep into Andrianampoinimerina's territory; they bound him with rope and brought him to his nephew. Andrianampoinimerina was prepared to let his uncle go free after submitting, but the people of Ambohimanga desired vengeance for the violence and injustices the fallen king had inflicted upon them and their families. Andrianampoinimerina took a walk to distract himself while his followers carried Andrianjafy to a nearby location where he was put to death.

Oral history provides different accounts of Andrianjafy's death. He is said to have died either by strangling or by being placed head-first in a vat of rice. His place of death has been given as a valley east of Ambohimanga called Antsahafady, or at the sacred stone of Ambatolava in Ambohimanga village. His body was wrapped in a red lambamena shroud. Different traditions give his place of entombment as Ambohimanatrika in Ilafy, or Isoraka in Antananarivo.

His daughter, who first married King Andrianamboatsimarofy of Imerinatsimo, remarried upon her first husband's death in 1796 with King Andrianampoinimerina.

References

Bibliography

Malagasy monarchs
1787 deaths
1770 births

Andrianjafy


The Right Brothers were an American conservative band, consisting of Aaron Sain and Frank Highland of Nashville, Tennessee. They received international attention in 2006 for their song "Bush Was Right", which expressed support for President George W. Bush and the Iraq War. The song received international press coverage, including in the United States, Britain, Poland, Switzerland, Argentina, and Denmark.

Career
In January 2004, RightMarch.com posted their first song, the country-flavored "Hey Hollywood," on their website, and in 72 hours it received 15,000 downloads. Within a few weeks the number was over 35,000. Later, a new song and video surfaced, the anti-abortion and pro-adoption "I Want To Live"  and received over 1 million views.

Their song "Bush Was Right" was a topic on cable news, such as MSNBC's Countdown with Keith Olbermann.

Before releasing their latest CD, The Right Brothers compiled a special 10-song disc to honor American troops. In 2006, the band opened for Sean Hannity at a rally for Georgia Lieutenant Governor candidate Ralph Reed.

The Right Brothers have appeared on various venues, such as The Michael Medved Show, Maxim Radio, The Hugh Hewitt Show, The Lars Larson Show, C-SPAN, Sound-off Connecticut with Jim Vicevich, The Kirby Wilbur Show in Seattle, Washington, The Liddy & Hill Show in Phoenix, Arizona, The Martha Zoller Show, RightMarch Radio, Take a Stand with Adam McManus, and others. Their music also has been heard on The G. Gordon Liddy Show, as well as National Public Radio.

As of 2011, the Right Brothers were no longer producing music.

Discography
For My Country (June 2004)
II (February 2005)
Remember: A Military Appreciation Project (June 2006)
No Apologies (December 5, 2006)

Singles
Hey Hollywood (January 2004)
I Want to Live
Bush Was Right (October 2005)
Dear Rosie (June 3, 2007)
One Life (January 4, 2006)

Videos
Bush Was Right (2006)
I Want To Live
Half of Her Heart (February 19, 2007)

References

External links
The Right Brothers homepage (captured by the Wayback Machine)

Conservative media in the United States
Musical groups from Nashville, Tennessee
Political music groups

The Right Brothers


The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 were a series of shark attacks along the coast of New Jersey between July 1 and July 12, 1916. Four people were killed and one injured.

Since 1916, scholars have debated which shark species was responsible and the number of animals involved. The Great white shark and the Bull shark are mostly thought to be the shark species being blamed for the attack. The attacks happened during a deadly summer heat wave and polio epidemic in the Northeastern United States. It drove thousands of people to the seaside resorts of the Jersey Shore.

The shark attack led many meetings about public awareness in congress by the United States House of Representatives and by President of the United States Woodrow Wilson.

Shark attacks on the Atlantic Coast of the United States outside the semitropical states of Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas were rare, but scholars believe that the increased presence of sharks and humans in the water led to the attacks in 1916.

1916 in the United States
20th century in New Jersey

Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916


Ramón Rubial Cavia (28 October 1906 – 24 May 1999) was a Spanish socialist leader. He was a main leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party in the Basque Country and in Spain.

Revolutionary action
Born in Erandio, Biscay, Rubial was a metal worker. He joined the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) in 1920 and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in 1922. In 1934, he was arrested for revolutionary activities during the Asturian miners' strike of 1934, for which he was detained for seven months on a prisoner ship. He was then sentenced to seven years in prison for sedition, but pardoned after the Popular Front victory in the 1936 Spanish general election.

During the Spanish Civil War he defended the Second Spanish Republic, becoming a commissar in the XV Bridage. He was captured in February 1937 and imprisoned in Asturias, before being sentenced in 1940 to fourteen years in jail.

Rubial was released in August 1956, and started to reorganize the PSOE and UGT in the Basque Country and in Spain working underground. President of the PSOE since 1976, he was elected senator for Biscay in the first democratic elections of 1977. He was the Second Vice President of the Spanish Senate.

On 7 February 1978, Rubial was elected President of the General Basque Council, which prepared the Basque Country for the return to autonomous government. He held this position until 1979, when Carlos Garaikoetxea was elected.

Personal life
In 1944 he married Emilia Cachorro, a former civil servant in the agriculture ministry, by special license. They remained married until her death in 1982. Their daughter Lentxu was born in 1944, but he did not meet her until 1956.

Rubial died in Bilbao in 1999 at the age of 92.

References

1906 births
1999 deaths
People from Erandio
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party politicians
Members of the 1st Senate of Spain
Politicians from the Basque Country (autonomous community)
Leaders of political parties in Spain
Unión General de Trabajadores members
Spanish military personnel of the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction)
Members of the 2nd Senate of Spain
Members of the 3rd Senate of Spain
Members of the 4th Senate of Spain
Members of the 5th Senate of Spain
Members of the 6th Senate of Spain
Basque prisoners and detainees
Spanish prisoners of war
People convicted of sedition

Ramón Rubial


Karl Willetts (born 21 September 1966) is an English death metal vocalist, best known as the lead singer of Bolt Thrower and Memoriam.

Biography
Willetts joined the British death metal band Bolt Thrower in 1988. Before that, he drove the backline of the band. He stayed with Bolt Thrower until 1994, after the recording of ...For Victory. He left the band mainly because he wanted to go back to university and finish his degree.

Willetts rejoined as a session vocalist for the recording of Mercenary and left shortly thereafter because of financial reasons and lack of commitment. In the meantime, he got a job as a salesman of insurances besides other jobs. He resides in Solihull. Rumours persisted he had returned in 2001, but he did not. However, in November 2004, he actually did re-join Bolt Thrower after the departure of Dave Ingram. Willetts now has a degree in Cultural Studies from the Birmingham University. Willetts stayed in Bolt Thrower until the band broke up in 2016, following the death of drummer Martin Kearns the year before.

Willetts also did some guest vocals with UK punk band Doom on their Peel Sessions album and UK death metal band Benediction on two accounts; one on "Jumping at Shadows" which appears on The Grand Leveller and Dark is the Season; the other on "At the Wrong Side of the Grave", which is a cover of The Accüsed and appears on the Transcend the Rubicon album.

Willetts was a vegetarian for a long while, but started eating meat prior to 2006.

Discography

Bolt Thrower
 In Battle There Is No Law! (1988)
 Realm of Chaos (1989)
 Cenotaph (1991)
 War Master (1991)
 The Peel Sessions 1988–90 (1991)
 The IVth Crusade (1992)
 Spearhead (1993)
 ...For Victory (1994)
 War (1994)
 Mercenary (1998)
 Who Dares Wins (1998)
 Those Once Loyal (2005)

Memoriam
 For the Fallen   (2017)
 The Silent Vigil (2018)
 Requiem for Mankind   (2019)
 To the End   (2021)
 Rise to Power (2023)

H Drive Project
 H Drive Project (2022)

References

English male singers
Bolt Thrower members
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
English heavy metal singers
Living people
1966 births

Karl Willetts


A flageolet is an old woodwind instrument.  It belongs to the end-blown flute family.  It started to be used in the 16th century for folk music.  There are two types: the French type and the English type.    The French flageolet had four holes in the front and two in the back.  The English flageolet had six holes in the front.

The flageolet is quite similar to the recorder. In the 18th century it changed because a narrow mouthpiece made of ivory or bone was added at the top.  This led into another section which bulged out.  There was a soft sponge at the end of this.  Sometimes this instrument was called the "flautino".  The piccolo developed from it.  Another instrument that developed from it was the tin whistle.

Henry Purcell and George Frideric Handel both wrote pieces for it.

Small versions of this instrument, called bird flageolets were also made and were used for teaching birds to sing.

References
The illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments;

Other websites
 flageolets.com – information about the flageolet

Flutes

Flageolet


The Ruins is a 2008 natural horror film directed by Carter Smith in his feature film directorial debut, and written by Scott B. Smith, based on his 2006 novel of the same name. The film stars Jonathan Tucker, Jena Malone, Shawn Ashmore, Laura Ramsey, and Joe Anderson. The story follows a pair of couples on vacation in Mexico who join a tourist to visit a remote Mayan ruin, that unfortunately is inhabited by a carnivorous vine growth. Stuart Cornfeld, Jeremy Kramer, and Chris Bender produce, with Ben Stiller serving as an executive producer.

The Ruins was released by DreamWorks/Paramount Distribution on 4 April 2008. The film received mixed reviews from critics, and was a box-office bomb; only earning $22.9 million at the worldwide box office against a budget of $25 million.

Plot
In a brief prologue, a woman crouches alone in darkness, and screams for help before she is dragged by an unseen force. Two young American couples — Jeff, Amy, Eric, and Stacy go on vacation to Mexico. They meet Mathias, a German tourist, who is looking for his brother Heinrich. His last known location is an archaeological dig at a remote Mayan ruin in the jungle. They are also joined by Dimitri, Mathias' friend. The group reaches the ruins of a Mayan temple, and are confronted by Mayan villagers armed with knives, bows, arrows, and a gun. Mathias tries to explain their purpose, but the villagers do not understand Spanish or English. When Amy accidentally steps on some vines, the villagers become extremely agitated. Dimitri approaches the villagers, hoping to appease them, but they shoot and kill him. The rest of the group flees up the steps of the ruins.

At the top, they find an abandoned camp and a shaft in the center. They hear a phone ringing from somewhere inside the ruins. The group lowers Mathias down the shaft with a rope, but it breaks and Mathias falls, becoming paralyzed. Amy and Jeff descend the temple steps hoping to reason with the Mayans, but to no success. In anger, Amy throws a clump of vines which hit a young boy, whom the Mayans promptly kill. They realize the Mayans are afraid of the vines, and will not let them leave as they have all touched them. Later, Stacy and Amy descend the shaft to rescue Mathias.

The next morning, Stacy sees a tendril of vine has crept into a wound on her leg. The vines have also wrapped themselves around Mathias' lower legs and eaten them down to the bone. Eric and Jeff are barely able to remove the vines from Stacy, but cannot get them off of Mathias. The phone is heard again from deep in the shaft so Stacy and Amy descend again. In a small, vine-covered room, the two find the body of the young archaeologist, Heinrich's friend, and a broken phone. They then realize that the ringing sound was made by the flowers of the vine. As Amy touches one flower, the vines attack and the two barely escape.

As Mathias' condition worsens, Jeff amputates his legs to avoid an infection. Stacy becomes jealous at Eric comforting a distraught Amy and accuses them of having sex. While the four argue, the vines suffocate Mathias.

In the morning Eric brings Amy and Jeff into the tent and tells Stacy to show them the vines underneath her skin. Jeff uses a knife to remove the vine from her leg and spine. Stacy tries to take the knife, claiming that the vines are in her head. The rest of the group watches her as a vine moves under the skin in her forehead, revealing that her fears are true.

The next morning, Stacy awakens and leaves the tent where the rest of the group is sleeping. She finds a backpack, which contains a knife. Jeff hears moans coming from outside and goes to see what is going on, and finds Stacey covered in open wounds slicing her body open to get the vines out.  He touches her and she flails the knife at him, slicing his palm. Eric also tries to calm her, but she spins around and fatally stabs him in the chest. While the rest try to restrain Stacy, Eric is dragged away by the vines. Overcome with remorse, Stacy begs Amy to kill her, and Jeff kills her as an act of mercy.

Jeff makes a plan for Amy to escape. He smears Stacy's blood all over her, then carries her to the bottom of the temple and lays her on the ground. He then provokes and berates the Mayans, drawing their attention away from Amy. The Mayans eventually shoot Jeff with arrows. Amy gets up and runs through the jungle with the Mayans chasing after her. Jeff is killed by the Mayan leader with a gunshot to the head. After escaping from the Mayans, Amy reaches the Jeep and manages to drive away.

After Amy's escape, Dimitri's two Greek friends are seen walking through the woods and come up to the temple, looking for him.

Alternate ending
In the unrated version, as Amy manages to drive away in the jeep, a close shot of her face is shown crawling with moving vines, indicating she too is infected. An extended version of this ending exists as a deleted scene. Following the previous scene, a caretaker is seen walking among the headstones in a cemetery sometimes later, whistling "Frère Jacques". When he hears the same tune coming from a grave, he goes forward to investigate and the camera follows, revealing the grave to be Amy's and several red flowers around the headstone. As the caretaker reaches for one, the music surges and the scene cuts to black.

Director Carter Smith told an interviewer, "We shot a bunch of different stuff to see which one would work best with the finished film. There's a testing process you go through with a studio movie and as frustrating as it can be, it also really gives you a good sense of how an audience feels about an ending. Our final decision was informed by what audiences found the most satisfying after watching a really punishing film. I love the ending of the book, but if the movie had ended the same way, the audience would have wanted to kill themselves."

Cast

Production
The shooting of this film took place in Queensland, Australia. According to The Miami Herald, "Smith was two-thirds done with the book when Ben Stiller's production company, Red Hour Films, bought the screen rights based on an outline. 'They told me they wanted me to write the screenplay, too,' Smith says. 'So while I was writing the last third of the book, I already knew I'd be adapting it for the movies.'"

Director Carter Smith said, "If the audience is going to buy that this vine moves and can get into your body and all that, the world of the film has to be absolutely realistic. We took elements from lots of different real-life plants when designing our vine. It's in practically every single shot in the film after the characters reach the hill, so it has to look like something that could really be growing there. But it also has to look menacing once you realize what it is capable of doing."

Release
The teaser trailer was released in December 2007. A red band trailer was aired on 21 February 2008. It was released on 20 June 2008 in the UK.

Box office
The Ruins was released in the US on 4 April 2008. In the US box office it debuted at #5 making $8,003,421. After 3 weeks it exited the top 10. It has grossed $17,432,844 domestically and $22,818,256 worldwide.

Critical reception

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Ruins holds an approval rating of 48%, based on 95 reviews, and an average rating of 5.35/10. The site's consensus reads, "Despite a solid cast and truly frightening source material, The Ruins flounders, thanks to a weak script and an excess of gore." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

James Berardinelli gave the film three stars out of four, saying, "The Ruins does what a good psychological horror movie should do: rely on tension rather than gore to achieve its aims. This bleak, edgy motion picture isn't concerned with appealing to the masses that flock to multiplexes to enjoy the spatterings of the latest serial slasher or the hollow weirdness of a PG-13 ghost story."

The Miami Herald gave a mixed review: "The Ruins is, with one major caveat, about as good an adaptation of Scott Smith's bestselling novel as Hollywood was ever going to make...except for a stray shot here and there – like a glimpse of the vine's tendrils making off with a severed foot – the great potential for unintentional guffaws is mostly avoided."

Home media
The Ruins was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 8 July 2008 in both R-rated and unrated versions. It debuted at #4 on the DVD Sales Chart, selling 189,128 copies. As of 3 August 2008, The Ruins has sold 343,414 copies. The R-rated edition includes a commentary by director Carter Smith and editor Jeff Betancourt, three featurettes (Making The Ruins, Creeping Death, Building The Ruins), additional scenes (Rain, Celebration, Going Over The Escape Plan, Alternate Ending), and trailers. The unrated edition includes the theatrical cut and extra material, and also an alternate ending and optional commentary with additional scenes.  An unrated Blu-ray Disc edition is also available with identical features.

References

External links

 Human Lab Rat  (Viral marketing Justin.tv channel)

2008 films
Australian natural horror films
DreamWorks Pictures films
Spyglass Entertainment films
Films about plants
Films about vacationing
Films set in Mexico
2008 horror films
Films scored by Graeme Revell
Red Hour Productions films
Films based on American horror novels
American natural horror films
American survival films
American supernatural horror films
Australian supernatural horror films
American body horror films
Adventure horror films
Films shot at Village Roadshow Studios
Films set in jungles
Works by Scott Smith
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

The Ruins (film)


The Sackville Ward is a large residential precinct in the suburb of Kew in Melbourne, Australia.

The Sackville Ward was an electoral ward a part of the City of Kew.

Geography

Bounded to the east by Burke Road to the north by Cotham Road (Maroondah Highway) and to the south by Barkers Road, its western boundary is technically Glenferrie Road but more often deemed to be east of Edgevale or even Davis Streets. The Ward takes its name from the broad east–west avenue running through its centre.

History

Land in the area was purchased during the mid-1840s Government land sales by developers, two of whom were Edward Dumaresq and Peter Davis. Dumaresq (a Captain in the East India Company and one-time Surveyor General of Tasmania, then Van Diemen's Land) subsequently named some of the streets in the area after his sons, Rowland, Edward, John, Alfred and Thomas.

In the resultant economic boom created by the Victorian gold rush, many grand mansions were constructed in the ward, most of which remain to this day. Dumaresq himself lived in Alfred Street and helped develop St Hilary's Church of England, opening in 1889 and rebuilt in 1939. A brick house at 34 Rowland Street was constructed in 1890 to serve as the vicarage.

There was further development when land adjacent to the Kew Reservoir (near the corner of Burke and Cotham Roads) was subdivided in the early twentieth century, and this area is home to some fine examples of Edwardian and Federation architecture.

Sackville Ward was created as a ward of the City of Kew in 1988, being put forward as a ward name by then sitting councillor, Philip Barnes. This occurred as a result of the reduction from 15 councillors representing the whole of Kew to 12 councillors, and a reduction from 5 wards to 4 wards with 3 councillors representing each ward. Sackville Ward included the previously named College Ward and adjacent areas. After the 1994 council amalgamations, council functions are now administered by the City of Boroondara.

Today

The ward is now sought-after due to its proximity to reputable private schools such as Carey Baptist Grammar School (1923), Methodist Ladies' College (1882), Ruyton Girls' School (1879), Trinity Grammar School (1902), Genazzano FCJ College (1889), Xavier College (1878) and the alternative education school Preshil.

In August 2008 an IT executive paid more than $12 million in an off-market sale for La Verna, a 120-year-old mansion built in the Italianate style. The sale was the highest in value for Melbourne for the year to date and created at the time, a new record for Kew.

The La Verna sale was for a property much reduced in size. Controversially, what had previously been a Catholic monastery and retreat for Franciscan Friars with 1.2 hectare gardens and stables was sold by the Church in 2002 to developer Phillip Watts for $8.3 million. In February 2004 150 local residents lobbied the Booroondarra Council in an attempt to save the gardens of the estate by attempting to create a site-specific heritage overlay.

At that time the estate also had a significant frontage to leafy Rowland Street. The remaining land was however subdivided into seven large blocks and all have since been developed with large residential dwellings. What were originally the stables for the property (also fronting Rowland Street) have now been sympathetically developed into a coachouse-style accommodation. Photographs of the La Verna development can be found on the Walking Melbourne website dedicated to discovering and protecting Melbourne's mansions.

Prior to the La Verna sale, the previous record had been $6.6 million at auction for 19 Grange Road Kew to businessman and politician Evan Thornley and his wife Tracey Ellery (founders of internet company LookSmart). Thornley is now an ALP member of the Upper House in the Victorian State Government and the property has been extensively redeveloped.

In spite of the global economic crisis of the time, Kew as a whole recorded a 44.8% increase in median values for the year
to 31 July 2008 (to $1.495million) buoyed largely by sales in the Sackville Ward. The exclusive nature of the ward notwithstanding, there are a number of facilities within the area aimed at the elderly and the homeless. Prague House in Sackville Street is operated by the Sisters of Charity caters for homeless men and was redeveloped in 2006 using both funds from the Federal Department of Health and Ageing and donors (who contributed $200,000 for furniture and fittings). The Yarralee Residential Aged Care Facility is located at 48 Sackville Street.

References

Further reading
 Chen, Lovell (2005) Boroondara Heritage Review B Graded Buildings (specifically for dwellings 'Hermon' at 2 John Street, 34 Rowland Street and 12 Grange Road, Kew, notable for their architectural and historic importance).

Geography of Melbourne
City of Boroondara

Sackville Ward


A propane burnisher is a type of rotary floor burnisher, a floor buffing (polishing) device, that is powered by propane. It is designed to rotate in speeds in excess of 1200-1800 RPM. It typically has a series of interchangeable pads that promote the cleaning, along with different types of abrasives and solvents available to buff the floor to a shine.

References

Cleaning tools
Burnisher

Propane burnisher


The Aphelion Imaging Software Suite is a set of computer programs for image processing and image analysis. It includes three base products: Aphelion Lab, Aphelion Dev, and Aphelion SDK.

The Aphelion software product can be used to prototype applications using the graphical user interface. It provides a set of tools for programmers which have to develop software with image analysis needs.

Applications
The Aphelion Imaging Software Suite is used by students, researchers, engineers, and software developers in application domains requiring image processing and computer vision, such as:
 security (surveillance, object tracking)
 remote sensing
 quality control for the industry and inspection applications
 materials science
 life sciences (medicine and biology)
 earth science (geology)
 theory (image processing, machine learning and optimization)

Specifications

All products of the Aphelion Imaging Software Suite can be run on  equipped with Windows (Vista, 7, 8, 8.1, or 10) 32 or 64 bits.
An online help and video tutorials are available to the user.

Software extensions
Below is a list of Aphelion optional extensions:
 3D Image Processing and 3D Image Display: A set of extensions to display and process 3D images. The 3D display extension is based on the  software product.
 3D Skeletonization: Extension to compute the 3D skeleton.
 Image Registration: Image registration extension to register images coming from different acquisition devices.
 Classification Tools: Classification extension including a « Fuzzy Logic » (fuzzy logic classification),« Neural Networks » (classification based on neural networks), and « Random Forest » (classification based on random forests, derived from the R software product)
 Kriging: Specific extension to remove image noise using geostatistics techniques.
 Camera interface drivers and microscope interface software
 Virtual Image Capture and Virtual Image Stitcher: Two software products to capture mult-field images and stitch them into one single and very large image in the fields of optical and electron microscopy (image stitching).
 Stereology Analyzer: Software to analyze a very large image using stereology. This extension is mainly used in the field of biology on images acquired by a scan microscope.
 VisionTutor: Online image processing course including all the theory and application macro commands that are compatible with Aphelion.

The Aphelion user can add his/her own macro-commands in the user interface that have been automatically recorded to process a batch of images. He/she can also add plugins and libraries in the  that have been developed outside the Aphelion environment.

Software versions

Notes and references

Other references

Miscellaneous

Materials science applications

Life sciences applications

Earth science applications

Theory applications

Other websites

Graphics software

Aphelion (software)