Allied health professions are health care professions that provide a range of diagnostic, technical, therapeutic, and support services in connection with health care. Their services are allied with and support the work of a number of other professions not considered allied health professions, such as medicine, nursing, dentistry, optometry, pharmacy, and others listed below as "excluded professions".

Definition

In 2012, the International Chief Health Professions Officers defined the allied health professions:

Professions

Depending on the country and local health care system, a limited subset of the following professions (professional areas) may be represented, and may be regulated:

The precise titles, roles and requisites of allied health professionals may vary considerably from country to country. A generic definition for the United States is in the Public Health Service Act.

Excluded professions

The Association of Schools of Allied Health Professionals uses wording from the Public Health Service Act to list those who are and are not allied health professionals in the United States. Those professionals who are excluded are those who possess degrees, or an equivalent degree, in the following:

Training and education

Some allied health professions are more specialized, and so must adhere to national training and education standards and their professional scope of practice. Often they must prove their skills through degrees, diplomas, certified credentials, and continuing education. Other allied health professions require no special training or credentials and are trained for their work by their employer through on-the-job training (which would then exclude them from consideration as an allied health profession in a country like Australia). Many allied health jobs are considered career ladder jobs because of the opportunities for advancement within specific fields.

Allied health professions can include the use of many skills. Depending on the profession, these may include basic life support; medical terminology, acronyms and spelling; basics of medical law and ethics; understanding of human relations; interpersonal communication skills; counseling skills; computer literacy; ability to document healthcare information; interviewing skills; and proficiency in word processing; database management and electronic dictation.

History

The explosion of scientific knowledge that followed World War II brought increasingly sophisticated and complex medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. Increasing public demand for medical services combined with higher health care costs provoked a trend toward expansion of service delivery from treating patients in hospitals to widespread provision of care in physician's private and group practices, ambulatory medical and emergency clinics, and mobile clinics and community-based care. In the developing world, international development assistance led to numerous initiatives for strengthening health workforce capacity to deliver essential health care services. What followed has been an increase in the need for skilled health care delivery personnel worldwide.

Changes in the health industry and emphasis on cost-efficient solutions to health care delivery will continue to encourage expansion of the allied health workforce. The World Health Organization estimates there is currently a worldwide shortage of about 2 million allied health professionals (considering all health workers aside from medical and nursing personnel) needed in order to meet global health goals.

In recognition of the growth of the number and diversity of allied health professionals in recent years, the 2008 version of the International Standard Classification of Occupations increased the number of groups dedicated to allied health professions. Depending on the presumed skill level, they may either be identified as "health professionals" or "health associate professionals". For example, new categories have been created for delineating "paramedical practitioners"—grouping professions such as clinical officers, clinical associates, physician assistants, Feldshers, and assistant medical officers—as well as for community health workers; dietitians and nutritionists; audiologists and speech therapists; and others.

Employment projections

Projections in the United States and many other countries have shown an expected long-term shortage of qualified workers to fill many allied health positions. This is primarily due to expansion of the health industry due to demographic changes (a growing and aging population), large numbers of health workers nearing retirement, the industry's need to be cost efficient, and a lack of sufficient investment in training programs to keep pace with these trends.

Studies have also pointed to the need for increased diversity in the allied health workforce to realize a culturally competent health system in the United States and elsewhere.

Workforce and health care experts anticipate that health services will increasingly be delivered via ambulatory and nursing care settings rather than in hospitals. According to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), the health care industry consists of four main sub-sectors, divided by the types of services provided at each facility:
 Hospitals: primarily provides inpatient health services and may provide some outpatient services as a secondary activity.
 Ambulatory health care settings: primarily provides outpatient services at facilities such as doctors' offices, outpatient clinics and clinical laboratories.
 Nursing and residential care facilities: provides residential care, such as community care for the elderly or mental health and substance abuse facilities.
 Social Assistance: provides services for the elderly and/or disabled, services for the homeless and poor, vocational rehabilitation, or child day care services.

In the US, a larger proportion of the allied health care workforce is already employed in ambulatory settings. In California, nearly half (49.4 percent) of the allied health workforce is employed in ambulatory health care settings, compared with 28.7 percent and 21.9 percent employed in hospital and nursing care, respectively. One source reported allied health professionals making up 60 percent of the total US health workforce.

In the United Kingdom there are 12 distinct professions who are considered allied health professionals; in combination they account for about 6% of the NHS workforce. In 2013 the annual expenditure on services provided by allied health professionals amounted to around £2 billion, although there is a lack of evidence around the extent to which these services improve the quality of care.

Advancements in medical technology also allow for more services that formerly required expensive hospital stays to be delivered via ambulatory care. For example, in California, research has predicted the total consumption of hospital days per person will decline from 4 days in 2010 to 3.2 days in 2020 to 2.5 days in 2030. In contrast, the number of ambulatory visits per person will increase from 3.2 visits per person in 2010 to 3.6 visits per person in 2020 to 4.2 visits in 2030.

In developing countries, many national human resources for health strategic plans and international development initiatives are focusing on scaling up training of allied health professions, such as HIV/AIDS counsellors, clinical officers and community health workers, in providing essential preventive and treatment services in ambulatory and community-based care settings.

With this growing demand for ambulatory health care, researchers expect to witness a heavier demand for professions that are employed within the ambulatory sector and other non-hospital settings—in other words, allied health.

See also

 Health care providers
 Human resources for health
 Paramedicine
 Unlicensed assistive personnel

References

External links

AMA Allied health professionals
Association of Schools of Allied Health Professions (ASAHP)
Allied Health Professionals on NHS Careers (UK)

Allied health professions


Gunnlaugr Leifsson (died 1218 or 1219) was an Icelandic scholar, author and poet. He was a Benedictine monk at the Þingeyraklaustur monastery (Icelandic Þingeyrarklaustur) in the north of Iceland. Many sources (including Þorvalds þáttur víðförla) refer to him simply as Gunnlaugr munkr or Gunnlaugr the Monk.

Biography
Little is known about Gunnlaugr's family or life, but a miracle in Jóns saga helga hin elsta describes how Gunnlaugr the Monk's "disciple and relative" Leifr recovers from a dangerous illness after drinking holy water touched by the relics of Bishop Jón Ögmundarson of Hólar. The miracle is dated to the episcopy of Guðmundur Arason of Hólar (between 1203 and 1237).

Gunnlaugr composed a Latin biography of King Óláfr Tryggvason (see Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar). This work is now lost but it is believed to have been an expansion of the Latin Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar written by his monastic brother, Oddr Snorrason. Snorri Sturluson made use of Gunnlaugr's work when composing his Heimskringla and sections of Gunnlaugr's work were incorporated into Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta.

Gunnlaugr also wrote a Latin vita of Bishop Jón Ögmundarson. This work is also lost but Old Norse sagas of Jón of Hólar are still extant. Gunnlaugr also composed the original Latin version of Þorvalds þáttr víðförla but it is only preserved in an Old Norse translation. Gunnlaugr was also involved in the collection of Þorlákr helgi's miracles. According to several medieval sources, Gunnlaugr composed a work on Saint Ambrose. One study hypothesizes that the extant Old Norse translation of Vita sancti Ambrosii, Ambrósíus saga, may be Gunnlaugr's work, although Gunnlaugr's nova historia sancti Ambrosii is generally identified as a Latin office of St Ambrose, Ambrósíustíðir.

Gunnlaugr is likewise credited with the poem Merlínússpá, a Norse translation of Prophetiae Merlini by Geoffrey of Monmouth. The imagery in Gunnlaugr's translation testifies to his extensive knowledge of skaldic poetry. The poem is preserved in Hauksbók and consists of a total of 171 fornyrðislag stanzas.

See also
Karl Jónsson

References

Other sources
 Eysteinn Björnsson (2002). Index of Old Norse/Icelandic Skaldic Poetry. Published online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20060923215712/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/skindex.html See in particular "Gunnlaugr Leifsson" at https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082236/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/gleifs.html from the editions of Finnur Jónsson and E. A. Kock.
 Gottskálk Jensson (2012). "*Revelaciones Thorlaci Episcopi – Enn eitt glatað latínurit eftir Gunnlaug Leifsson munk á Þingeyrum" in Gripla 23:133–175.
 Guðrún Nordal (2001). Tools of Literacy : The Role of Skaldic Verse in Icelandic Textual Culture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. University of Toronto Press.  pp. 168–169.
 Katrín Axelsdóttir (2005). "Gunnlaugur Leifsson og Ambrósíus saga" in Skírnir, Autumn 2005:337-349. ISSN 0256-8446
 Oddr Snorrason (translated by Theodore M. Andersson) (2003). The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason. Cornell University Press.
 Simpson, Jacqueline (2004). "Olaf Tryggvason versus the Powers of Darkness" in The Witch Figure: Folklore Essays by a Group of Scholars in England, pp. 165–187. Routledge.

External links
Þorvalds þáttur víðförla

1210s deaths
13th-century Icelandic poets
Icelandic writers
Icelandic Benedictines
Kings' sagas
Skalds
Year of birth unknown
Icelandic male poets

Gunnlaugr Leifsson


Sainte Anne Island is the largest (2.27 km²) of eight islands in Ste Anne Marine National Park of the Seychelles. These islands are part of the Mont Fleuri District of the Seychelles. It is 4 km off the east coast of Mahé and has abundant tropical vegetation. The highest peak on Sainte Anne is .

The French explorer Lazare Picault first discovered the island in 1742, on the day of Saint Anne, and the first French settlement in the Seychelles was established here in 1770. In the early 20th century the St. Abbs Whaling Company briefly maintained a whaling station on the island, the ruins of which can still be found.

In 2002, the Beachcomber Sainte Anne Resort & Spa, with 87 luxury villas, was opened on the southwest point.

The village of Sainte Anne is located next to the hotel. It contains the park rangers' quarters, dive shop, and restaurants. Some hotel staff and other employees live in the village, which has 40 people; some of the hotel staff do a daily trip from Victoria.

Tourism
Today, the island's main industry is tourism. It has 6 big beaches:
 Grande Anse, located at the southwest, where hotel Beachcomber Sainte Anne resort & spa is present.
 Anse Royale, where sea turtles lay their eggs from late November to February.
 Anse Tortues.
 Anse Cimitiere
 Anse Manon (accessible only by foot).
 Anse Cabot

Image gallery

References

External links

 Sainte Anne - Seychelles

 Mahe Map 2015
 Info on the island
 Sainte Anne to be developed in order to pay bills

Islands of Mont Fleuri
Whaling stations

Ste. Anne Island


Clemenceau is a neighborhood of the city of Cottonwood in Yavapai County, Arizona, United States.  It was built as a company town in 1917 to serve the new smelter for James Douglas, Jr.'s United Verde Extension Mine (UVX) in Jerome. The town was originally named Verde after the mine, but it was changed to Clemenceau in 1920 in honor of the French premier in World War I, Georges Clemenceau, a personal friend of Douglas. Clemenceau would later leave a vase designed by the French potter Ernest Chaplet to the town in return.

History
Originally named Verde, the town was renamed Clemenceau in 1920, both to honor Georges Clemenceau and to avoid possible confusion with nearby Camp Verde. Though now a part of the city of Cottonwood, Verde as it was known had its own post office and station on the Clarkdale branch of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. "Actual construction of Verde, the United Verde Extension's smelter town in the valley, will probably be under way by January 1," the Jerome News reported on November 9, 1917. "The company will not begin work on its proposed Hogback town, at the east edge of Jerome, before summer at the earliest, and probably not then. So stated General Manager George Kingdon today in a general discussion of the U. V. Extension building plans."

The smelter town had homes for workers, a school, bank, and a clubhouse, and its population varied between 1,000 and 5,000. To deliver ore to the smelter from Jerome, Douglas built the Arizona-Extension Railway, a two-branch shortline railroad. The western branch ran between Clemenceau and the eastern portal of the  Josephine Tunnel, which connected to the UVX Mine. The eastern branch ran between Clemenceau and Clarkdale.

On July 16, 1918, Verde was the scene of a violent confrontation when a handful of Mexican laborers collided with area lawmen attempting to enforce the War Department's so called "work or fight order" during World War I. Former Yavapai County Sheriff James R. Lowry, then serving as a deputy sheriff at the smelter, was shot and killed during the incident. His assailant was later killed during an exchange of gunfire with an off-duty peace officer near Camp Verde.

The Clemenceau smelter closed in 1937. Most residents then left the area. When Cottonwood was incorporated in 1960, Clemenceau and the Clemenceau Airport were included in its boundaries.

With the exception of the school, the bank/post office and the smelter slag pile, little remains of the original town of Clemenceau. A largely invisible remnant is the Clemenceau Water Company, which still serves the area of the old town of Clemenceau. The town of Cottonwood bought the company in 2004, but it still operates as a separate entity, as of 2006.

Clemenceau Heritage Museum
The Clemenceau Heritage Museum occupies most of the old Clemenceau School, which operated from 1924 through 1986. The 1918 Clemenceau Bank and Post Office building is also part of the museum. The museum has displays on mining, ranching, and farming in the Verde Valley, and preserves archives and artifacts from the area. An elaborate working model-railroad display depicts the nine railroads that once operated in the region.

Douglas and Clemenceau
James Douglas, Jr., bought an apartment in Paris for his friend, Georges Clemenceau, in 1926, for his retirement home. This building later became the Musée Clemenceau.

Notable residents and visitors
Jack Frye's personal airplane, a TWA Lockheed Model 10 Electra with tail number NC18137, was frequently based at the Clemenceau Airport. Frye had a vacation ranch near Sedona, now Red Rock State Park.

References

External links
 Official Clemenceau Heritage Museum website
 Archives at Clemenceau Heritage Museum
 Clemenceau – ghosttowns.com

Company towns in Arizona
Georges Clemenceau
Clemenceau Heritage Museum
Museums in Yavapai County, Arizona
Mining museums in the United States
Mining in Arizona
Neighborhoods in Arizona
Populated places in Yavapai County, Arizona
Populated places established in 1917

Clemenceau, Cottonwood


The Crowning with Thorns is a painting by the Italian painter Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Made probably in 1602/1604 or possibly around 1607, it is now located in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.  It was bought in Rome by the Imperial ambassador, Baron Ludwig von Lebzelter in 1809, but did not arrive in Vienna until 1816.

History
According to Caravaggio's biographer Giovanni Bellori a Crowning with Thorns was made for Caravaggio's patron Vincenzo Giustiniani, and this painting can be traced convincingly to the Giustiniani collection. An attribution to Giustiniani would place it in the period before 1606, when Caravaggio fled Rome, but Peter Robb dates it to 1607, when the artist was in Naples.

The painting depicts a crown of thorns being forced onto the head of Jesus before his crucifixion, to mock his claim to authority.  The twisted body of Christ was influenced by the Belvedere Torso.  The painting was designed as a supraporte, to be hung over a doorway.

Style
Caravaggio's patron Vincenzo Giustiniani was an intellectual as well as a collector, and late in life he wrote a paper about art in which he identified twelve grades of accomplishment. In the highest class he named just two artists, Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci, as those capable of combining realism and style in the most accomplished manner. This Crowning with Thorns illustrates what Giustiniani meant: the cruelty of the two torturers hammering home the thorns is depicted as acutely observed reality, as is the bored slouch of the official leaning on the rail as he oversees the death of God; meanwhile Christ is suffering real pain with patient endurance; all depicted within a classical composition of contrasting and intersecting horizontals and diagonals.

The theme of pain and sadism is central to the work. John Gash points to the way the two torturers ram the crown down with the butts of their staffs, "a rhythmic and sadistic hammering."  Robb mentions that the painting is about "how ... to give pain and feel pain, and how close pain and pleasure sometimes were, how voluptuous suffering could be on a golden afternoon."

See also
 The Crowning with Thorns, c.1604 painting of the same subject, attributed to Caravaggio
List of paintings by Caravaggio

References

Further reading

External links

1600s paintings
Paintings by Caravaggio
Paintings in the Kunsthistorisches Museum
Caravaggio

The Crowning with Thorns (Caravaggio, Vienna)


Prince Aimone, 4th Duke of Aosta (Aimone Roberto Margherita Maria Giuseppe Torino; 9 March 1900 – 29 January 1948) was a prince of Italy's reigning House of Savoy and an officer of the Royal Italian Navy. The second son of Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta he was granted the title Duke of Spoleto on 22 September 1904. He inherited the title Duke of Aosta on 3 March 1942 following the death of his brother Prince Amedeo, in a British prisoner of war camp in Nairobi.

From 18 May 1941 to 31 July 1943, he was designated king of the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH) though he never ruled there. He formally accepted the position and took the name Tomislav II, after the first Croatian king. Later, however, he refused to assume the kingship in protest of the Italian annexation of the Dalmatia region, and is therefore referred to in some sources as king designate. Regardless, many sources refer to him as King Tomislav II and the nominal head of the NDH during its first two years (1941–1943).
After the dismissal of Mussolini on 25 July 1943, the prince abdicated on 31 July as king on the orders of Victor Emmanuel III.

Early life
Prince Aimone Roberto Margherita Maria Giuseppe Torino of Savoy-Aosta was born in Turin the second son of Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (eldest son of Prince Amedeo, 1st Duke of Aosta (and sometime "King Amadeo I of Spain") by his wife, née Vittoria dal Pozzo, Principessa della Cisterna) and Princess Hélène of Orléans (daughter of Philippe, comte de Paris, and Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans). As his patrilinal great-grandfather was King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, he was a member of the House of Savoy.

With his brother Amedeo, he was educated at St  David's College, Reigate, Surrey, England, and Aimone later went to study at the naval academy in Livorno.  On 1 April 1921, Prince Aimone became a member of the Italian Senate. Princes of the House of Savoy became members of the Senate at age 21, obtaining the right to vote at age 25.

In 1929, twenty years after his uncle Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi had attempted to climb K2 in Karakoram, Prince Aimone led an expedition to Karakorum. A member of the expedition was Ardito Desio. Due to the failure to climb K2 twenty years earlier, Prince Aimone's expedition concentrated solely on scientific work. He was afterwards awarded the 1932 Royal Geographical Society's Patron's Medal for his work.

Marriage and issue
After being romantically linked with Infanta Beatriz of Spain, the daughter of King Alfonso XIII, he married, on 1 July 1939 at the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, daughter of King Constantine I and Princess Sophie of Prussia.

They had one son, Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, born in 1943.

War years

Croatian throne

On 18 May 1941, in a ceremony at the Quirinal Palace, to which Ante Pavelić, the leader of the nazist Ustaše movement that had assumed power in Croatia in April 1941 after the invasion of Yugoslavia, led a delegation of Croats requesting that Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III name a member of the House of Savoy as king of Croatia. The Independent State of Croatia was a fascist puppet state that was partly under Italian and German control, covering most of present-day states of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, but its leaders tried to assert their legitimacy by instating a monarchy that would resemble the medieval Croatian state.

Aimone was then officially named king by his cousin Victor Emmanuel III.  On assuming the Crown of Zvonimir he took the regnal name Tomislav II. Originally on learning that he had been named king of Croatia, he told close colleagues that he thought his nomination was a bad joke by his cousin King Victor Emmanuel III, though he accepted the crown out of a sense of duty. The Italian Foreign Minister and Benito Mussolini's son in law, and Count Ciano's informants said of Aimone "The Duke doesn't give a damn about Croatia and wants only money, money and more money." Ciano's diary noted a conversation between Aimone and himself, where Aimone was "proud of having been chosen King of Croatia, but has no exact idea of what he is supposed to do and is vaguely uneasy about it".

He was due to be crowned in Duvno (Tomislavgrad), in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, but he refused to go to there due to the "Dalmatian question" which arose due to Italy taking some of Dalmatia's coastal territory. Aimone felt that Dalmatia "was a land that could never be Italianized" and was an obstacle to Italo-Croatian reconciliation. Other reasons why he never went to Croatia were because of an ongoing insurgency, and that his safety could not be guaranteed. Because of this he exercised what little power he had from Italy and Hungary, however he never held any real authority throughout his reign as the Ustaše government had deprived the monarchy of most powers and reduced the status of the king to that of a figurehead. Count Gyula Cseszneky was the counsellor to the king for Croatian affairs. Prince Aimone also established a Croatian office in Rome where he received confidential reports, official documents, and military, political and economic information from Croatia.

After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, Aimone abdicated as king of Croatia on 31 July 1943 on the orders of Victor Emmanuel III.

Prince Aimone succeeded to the title duke of Aosta on 3 March 1942, following the death of his elder brother Prince Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta, in a British prisoner of war camp in Kenya.

In the autumn of 1942, Aimone contacted Allied forces via his courier, the consul general Alessandro Marieni, about the possibility of a peace settlement between Italy and Allied forces. Secret talks would continue into 1943, motivated in part by the aim of preserving the royal dynasty of Savoy.

Aftermath

In the latter months of World War II, he became the commander of the Italian Naval Base of Taranto but he was dismissed from his post for his criticism of the judges that had found General Mario Roatta guilty of war crimes. During his naval career he reached the rank of Squadron Admiral.

Death
In 1947 following the birth of the Italian Republic the previous year, Prince Aimone left Italy for South America. Just a year after his arrival, he suddenly died on 29 January 1948 in his temporary residence, a private suite at the Alvear Palace Hotel in the French Borough of Recoleta in Buenos Aires, while his entourage was arranging his permanent residency documents and the purchase of his new home in Argentina. The claim to the Aosta ducal title passed to his son Prince Amedeo.

Honours

National
 : Sovereign Knight Commander of the Military Order of the Iron Trefoil, 1st Class
 : Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir, Special Class
 : Sovereign Recipient of the Medal of the Crown of King Zvonimir
  Italy: Knight Grand Collar of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
  Italy: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
  Italy: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown of Italy
  Italy: Knight Grand Cordon of the Military Order of Savoy
  Italy: Knight of the Civil Decoration of Savoy
  Italy: Recipient of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
  Italy: Recipient of the Bronze Medal of Military Valor
  Italy: Recipient of the Medal of Military Valor
  Italy: Recipient of the Medal of Honour for Long-time Maritime Navigation
  Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Justice of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, 1st Class

Foreign
  Spain: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
  Greece: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
  Iran: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Pahlavi
  Romania: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I
  United Kingdom: Recipient of the Victory Medal

Ancestry

References

External links

Dukes of Aosta
Military personnel from Turin
1900 births
1948 deaths
Princes of Savoy
Italian princes
Nobility from Turin
Recipients of the Bronze Medal of Military Valor
Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of Savoy
Italian admirals
Independent State of Croatia
Burials at the Basilica of Superga
Princes della Cisterna
Recipients of the War Cross for Military Valor
Collaboration with Fascist Italy
Collaboration with Nazi Germany
Regia Marina personnel of World War II
Exiled royalty

Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta


Kenneth Allen Taylor (1954 – December 2, 2019) was an American philosopher and radio personality. He was known for being the co-host (with John Perry) of the radio program Philosophy Talk. Taylor was born in Sandusky, Ohio.

Taylor died on December 2, 2019 of a heart attack in Stanford, California at the age of 65.

References

1954 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
American philosophers
American radio personalities
Writers from Ohio

Kenneth Allen Taylor


Phosgene is an organic chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic, colorless gas; in low concentrations, its musty odor resembles that of freshly cut hay or grass. It can be thought of chemically as the double acyl chloride analog of carbonic acid, or structurally as formaldehyde with the hydrogen atoms replaced by chlorine atoms. Phosgene is a valued and important industrial building block, especially for the production of precursors of polyurethanes and polycarbonate plastics.

Phosgene is extremely poisonous and was used as a chemical weapon during World War I, where it was responsible for 85,000 deaths. It is a highly potent pulmonary irritant and quickly filled enemy trenches due to it being a heavy gas.

It is classified as a Schedule 3 substance under the Chemical Weapons Convention. In addition to its industrial production, small amounts occur from the breakdown and the combustion of organochlorine compounds, such as chloroform.

Structure and basic properties
Phosgene is a planar molecule as predicted by VSEPR theory. The C=O distance is 1.18 Å, the C−Cl distance is 1.74 Å and the Cl−C−Cl angle is 111.8°. Phosgene is a carbon oxohalide and it can be considered one of the simplest acyl chlorides, being formally derived from carbonic acid.

Production
Industrially, phosgene is produced by passing purified carbon monoxide and chlorine gas through a bed of porous activated carbon, which serves as a catalyst:
 (ΔHrxn = −107.6 kJ/mol)

This reaction is exothermic and is typically performed between 50 and 150 °C. Above 200 °C, phosgene reverts to carbon monoxide and chlorine, Keq(300 K) = 0.05. World production of this compound was estimated to be 2.74 million tonnes in 1989.

Phosgene is fairly simple to produce, but is listed as a Schedule 3 substance under the Chemical Weapons Convention. As such, it is usually considered too dangerous to transport in bulk quantities. Instead, phosgene is usually produced and consumed within the same plant, as part of an "on demand" process. This involves maintaining equivalent rates of production and consumption, which keeps the amount of phosgene in the system at any one time fairly low, reducing the risks in the event of an accident. Some batch production does still take place, but efforts are made to reduce the amount of phosgene stored.

Inadvertent generation

Atmospheric chemistry
Simple organochlorides slowly convert into phosgene when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation in the presence of oxygen. Before the discovery of the Ozone hole in the late 1970s large quantities of organochlorides were routinely used by industry, which inevitably led to them entering the atmosphere. Phosgene levels in the troposphere were around 20-30 pptv at the time (peak 60 pptv), however these levels had not decreased significantly nearly 30 years later, despite organochloride production becoming restricted under the Montreal Protocol.

Phosgene in the troposphere can last up to about 70 days and is removed primarily by hydrolysis with ambient humidity or cloudwater. Less than 1% makes it to the stratosphere, where it is expected to have a lifetime of several years, since this layer is much drier and phosgene decomposes slowly through UV photolysis. Consequently, it does play a minor part in ozone depletion.

Combustion
Carbon tetrachloride () can turn into phosgene when exposed to heat in air. This was a problem as carbon tetrachloride is an effective fire suppressant and was formerly in widespread use in fire extinguishers. There are reports of fatalities caused by its use to fight fires in confined spaces. Carbon tetrachloride's generation of phosgene and its own toxicity mean it is no longer used for this purpose.

Biologically
Phosgene is also formed as a metabolite of chloroform, likely via the action of cytochrome P-450.

History
Phosgene was synthesized by the Cornish chemist John Davy (1790–1868) in 1812 by exposing a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to sunlight. He named it "phosgene" from Greek  (, light) and  (, to give birth) in reference of the use of light to promote the reaction. It gradually became important in the chemical industry as the 19th century progressed, particularly in dye manufacturing.

Reactions and uses
The reaction of an organic substrate with phosgene is called phosgenation. Phosgenation of diols give carbonates (R = H, alkyl, aryl), which can be either linear or cyclic:

An example is the reaction of phosgene with bisphenol A to form polycarbonates. Phosgenation of diamines gives di-isocyanates, like toluene diisocyanate (TDI), methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), and isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI). In these conversions, phosgene is used in excess to increase yield and minimize side reactions. The phosgene excess is separated during the work-up of resulting end products and recycled into the process, with any remaining phosgene decomposed in water using activated carbon as the catalyst. Diisocyanates are precursors to polyurethanes. More than 90% of the phosgene is used in these processes, with the biggest production units located in the United States (Texas and Louisiana), Germany, Shanghai, Japan, and South Korea. The most important producers are Dow Chemical, Covestro, and BASF. Phosgene is also used to produce monoisocyanates, used as pesticide precursors (e.g. methyl isocyanate (MIC).

Aside from the widely used reactions described above, phosgene is also used to produce acyl chlorides from carboxylic acids:

For this application, thionyl chloride is commonly used instead of phosgene.

Laboratory uses
The synthesis of isocyanates from amines illustrates the electrophilic character of this reagent and its use in introducing the equivalent synthon "CO2+":
, where R = alkyl, aryl
Such reactions are conducted on laboratory scale in the presence of a base such as pyridine that neutralizes the hydrogen chloride side-product.

Phosgene is used to produce chloroformates such as benzyl chloroformate:

In these syntheses, phosgene is used in excess to prevent formation of the corresponding carbonate ester.

With amino acids, phosgene (or its trimer) reacts to give amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides. More generally, phosgene acts to link two nucleophiles by a carbonyl group. For this purpose, alternatives to phosgene such as carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) are safer, albeit expensive. CDI itself is prepared by reacting phosgene with imidazole.

Phosgene is stored in metal cylinders. In the US, the cylinder valve outlet is a tapered thread known as "CGA 160" that is used only for phosgene.

Alternatives to phosgene
In the research laboratory, due to safety concerns phosgene nowadays finds limited use in organic synthesis. A variety of substitutes have been developed, notably trichloromethyl chloroformate ("diphosgene"), a liquid at room temperature, and bis(trichloromethyl) carbonate ("triphosgene"), a crystalline substance.

Other reactions
Phosgene reacts with water to release hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide:

Analogously, upon contact with ammonia, it converts to urea:

Halide exchange with nitrogen trifluoride and aluminium tribromide gives  and , respectively.

Chemical warfare

It is listed on Schedule 3 of the Chemical Weapons Convention: All production sites manufacturing more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared to the OPCW. Although less toxic than many other chemical weapons such as sarin, phosgene is still regarded as a viable chemical warfare agent because of its simpler manufacturing requirements when compared to that of more technically advanced chemical weapons such as tabun, a first-generation nerve agent.

Phosgene was first deployed as a chemical weapon by the French in 1915 in World War I. It was also used in a mixture with an equal volume of chlorine, with the chlorine helping to spread the denser phosgene. Phosgene was more potent than chlorine, though some symptoms took 24 hours or more to manifest.

Following the extensive use of phosgene during World War I, it was stockpiled by various countries.

Phosgene was then only infrequently used by the Imperial Japanese Army against the Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Gas weapons, such as phosgene, were produced by the IJA's Unit 731.

Toxicology and safety
Phosgene is an insidious poison as the odor may not be noticed and symptoms may be slow to appear.

The odor detection threshold for phosgene is 0.4 ppm, four times the threshold limit value (time weighted average). Its high toxicity arises from the action of the phosgene on the ,  and  groups of the proteins in pulmonary alveoli (the site of gas exchange), respectively forming ester, amide and thioester functional groups in accord with the reactions discussed above. This results in disruption of the blood–air barrier, eventually causing pulmonary edema. The extent of damage in the alveoli does not primarily depend on phosgene concentration in the inhaled air, with the dose (amount of inhaled phosgene) being the critical factor. Dose can be approximately calculated as "concentration" × "duration of exposure". Therefore, persons in workplaces where there exists risk of accidental phosgene release usually wear indicator badges close to the nose and mouth. Such badges indicate the approximate inhaled dose, which allows for immediate treatment if the monitored dose rises above safe limits.

In case of low or moderate quantities of inhaled phosgene, the exposed person is to be monitored and subjected to precautionary therapy, then released after several hours. For higher doses of inhaled phosgene (above 150 ppm × min) a pulmonary edema often develops which can be detected by X-ray imaging and regressive blood oxygen concentration. Inhalation of such high doses can eventually result in fatality within hours up to 2–3 days of the exposure.

The risk connected to a phosgene inhalation is based not so much on its toxicity (which is much lower in comparison to modern chemical weapons like sarin or tabun) but rather on its typical effects: the affected person may not develop any symptoms for hours until an edema appears, at which point it could be too late for medical treatment to assist. Nearly all fatalities as a result of accidental releases from the industrial handling of phosgene occurred in this fashion. On the other hand, pulmonary edemas treated in a timely manner usually heal in the mid- and longterm, without major consequences once some days or weeks after exposure have passed. Nonetheless, the detrimental health effects on pulmonary function from untreated, chronic low-level exposure to phosgene should not be ignored; although not exposed to concentrations high enough to immediately cause an edema, many synthetic chemists (e.g. Leonidas Zervas) working with the compound were reported to experience chronic respiratory health issues and eventual respiratory failure from continuous low-level exposure.

If accidental release of phosgene occurs in an industrial or laboratory setting, it can be mitigated with ammonia gas; in the case of liquid spills (e.g. of diphosgene or phosgene solutions) an absorbent and sodium carbonate can be applied.

Accidents
The first major phosgene-related incident happened in May 1928 when eleven tons of phosgene escaped from a war surplus store in central Hamburg. Three hundred people were poisoned, of whom ten died.
In the second half of 20th century several fatal incidents implicating phosgene occurred in Europe, Asia and the US. Most of them have been investigated by authorities and the outcome made accessible to the public. For example, phosgene was initially blamed for the Bhopal disaster, but investigations proved methyl isocyanate to be responsible for the numerous poisonings and fatalities.
 Recent major incidents happened in January 2010 and May 2016. An accidental release of phosgene gas at a DuPont facility in West Virginia killed one employee in 2010. The US Chemical Safety Board released a video detailing the accident. Six years later, a phosgene leak occurred in a BASF plant in South Korea, where a contractor inhaled a lethal dose of phosgene.
2023 Ohio train derailment: A freight train carrying vinyl chloride derailed and burned in East Palestine, Ohio, releasing phosgene and hydrogen chloride into the air and contaminating the Ohio River.

See also

Carbonyl bromide
Carbonyl fluoride
Oxalyl chloride
Thiophosgene
Thionyl chloride
Perfluoroisobutene
Bis(trifluoromethyl) disulfide

References

External links
Davy's account of his discovery of phosgene
International Chemical Safety Card 0007
CDC - Phosgene - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
U.S. CDC Emergency Preparedness & Response
U.S. EPA Acute Exposure Guideline Levels
Regime For Schedule 3 Chemicals And Facilities Related To Such Chemicals, OPCW website
CBWInfo website
Use of Phosgene in WWII and in modern-day warfare
US Chemical Safety Board Video on accidental release at DuPont facility in West Virginia

Acyl chlorides
Inorganic carbon compounds
Nonmetal halides
Oxychlorides
Carbon oxohalides
Pulmonary agents
Reagents for organic chemistry
World War I chemical weapons

Phosgene


Kyphosus vaigiensis, the brassy chub, brassy drummer, long-finned drummer, low-finned drummer, Northern silver drummer, Queensland drummer, Southern drummer, blue-bronze sea chub, brassy rudderfish, yellow seachub, large-tailed drummer, low-finned chub or long-finned rudderfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a sea chub from the family Kyphosidae. It is a largely herbivorous species which has a circumglobal distribution. Studies in the 21st Century appear to have shown that some other species in the genus Kyphosus are junior synonyms of this taxon.

Description
Kyphosus vaigiensis has an elongate and oval-shaped body with a moderately emarginate caudal fin. The head is small with a short snout and a small, terminal mouth which has small incisor-shaped teeth, there are also teeth on the roof of the mouth and on the tongue. The dorsal and anal fins are not high. The dorsal fin has 10-11 spines and 13-15 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines and 12-14 soft rays. The dorsal fin can fold into a sheath. The presence of scales in the interorbital region is an identifying feature. The colour of body is silvery with a bluish shine, marked with 23-29 golden horizontal lines along the body with those above the lateral line curving parallel to it. There is a golden streak below the eye which runs from the snout to just beyion the front edge of the eye. The fins are grey or a slightly darker grey than the colour of the body. The maximum total length recorded is , although a more common total length is around .

Distribution
Kyphosus vaigiensis has a distribution that encompasses most of the warmer seas and oceans of the world. In the Pacific Ocean it is found from the western coast of the Americas west coast from Mexico to Panama and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Easter Island, Polynesia, Tahiti, Micronesia as far as Japan and Australia, with records from Hauraki Gulf in New Zealand. In the Indian Ocean it occurs through to the Red Sea, eastern coast of Africa and off Madagascar. In the eastern Atlantic Ocean its range includes the Ascension Island,  St Helena and São Tomé Island while in the western Atlantic it is found off the Yucatan, the Caribbean, Bermuda and Trindade and Martin Vaz. It has been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea, the first record in Spain in 1998 and it has been recorded off Sicily, Cyprus, Israel and Turkey. It is thought that these originated in the Atlantic and entered the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar but as it occurs in the Red Sea some may have arrived in the Mediterranean by Lessepsian migration through the Suez Canal. It may be establishing a permanent breeding population in the Mediterranean.

Habitat and biology
Kyphosus vaigiensis adults congregate over the hard, algal coated substrates of exposed surf-swept outer reef flats, lagoons, and seaward reefs. It occurs to a maximum depth of . It is found in exposed areas around rocky reefs, and adults usually stay close to the shoreline, while juveniles are recorded among flotsam and may be found in the open ocean near the surface. The juveniles feed on small crustaceans while the adults are carnivorous during the summer and autumn but feed on Petalonia binghamiae in the winter. They tend to be solitary at higher latitudes and more social in the tropics where they will form mixed schools with K. bigibbus, K. cinerascens and K. sectatrix.

Taxonomy
Kyphosus vaigiensis was first formally described as Pimelepterus vaigiensis in 1825 by Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard with the type locality given as Waigeo in modern West Papua. Kyphosus analogus of the eastern Pacific Ocean and Kyphosus incisor of the Atlantic Ocean were found to fall within the morphological and molecular variation of K. viagiensis which had previously been thought to be confined to the Indo-Pacific.

References

Fish described in 1825
vaigiensis

Kyphosus vaigiensis


A Moment of Imperfect Clarity is the fourth album by the Christian rock band Spoken. It was their first to be released on Tooth & Nail Records.

Critical reception

Awarding the album two stars for AllMusic, Rick Anderson writes, "this is nothing more than solid, competent, and forgettable stuff." Scott Heisel, giving the album one and a half stars at Punknews.org, states, "Completely forgettable." Reviewing the album from Exclaim!, Sam Sutherland describes, "A Moment of Imperfect Clarity delivers on its promise — not perfection, but respite from the mirthless nature of so many of today's emo acts." Ben Lilford, rating the album a six out of ten from Cross Rhythms, says, " It doesn't deserve to but it will probably sell millions."

Indicating in a four star review by Christianity Today, Russ Breimeier describes, "Spoken makes a triumphant emotionally charged return on A Moment of Imperfect Clarity." Josh Taylor, signaling in a four star review at Jesus Freak Hideout, comments, "This is Spoken's best work to date, period." Assigning the album a five out of five for The Phantom Tollbooth, Len Nash replies, "Before people start to shun Spoken, taking some time to check out the new sound and reading some of the lyrics will allow the listener to make the best educated decision possible." Josh Marihugh, allocating a four and a half out of five review from The Phantom Tollbooth, responds, "While this CD may not be quite as musically groundbreaking as Echoes, it's definitely a fine album, full of well-crafted melodic modern rock and beautiful lyrics."

Track listing

References

Spoken (band) albums
2003 albums
Tooth & Nail Records albums
Albums produced by Garth Richardson

A Moment of Imperfect Clarity


The American Shorthair is a breed of cat. This breed was first used as ship's cats that sailed from Europe to North America with early settlers. They kept the ships free of mice and rats and protected the food and cargo. Even the Mayflower carried several cats to hunt the ship's rats, in 1620. The cats who were still alive after landing in the New World had kittens. Over time, the breed changed so the cats could survive better in their new land and climate.

Appearance
The American Shorthair is a working cat.  It has a large and strong body.  It is usually healthy, calm and loving with its owners.  This cat is friendly and not shy with strangers. Males weigh eleven to fifteen pounds. Females weigh eight to twelve pounds.  It takes three or four years for them to become adult cats.  With a good diet and good care, they can live 15 years or longer.

The American Shorthair comes in more than eighty different colors and patterns. These include a brown-patched tabby, a blue-eyed white, shaded silvers, smokes and calicos. Some even come in deep shades of black or brown. Only hybrid cats that are chocolate, sable, lavender, lilac, or a Siamese pattern are not allowed in cat shows.

Behavior
American Shorthairs are intelligent cats who are interested in what is happening around them. They will watch outdoor birds, other animals and other activity from an inside window perch. These cats are calm but playful. Some enjoy sitting in laps. They get along with children, so they make good family pets. American Shorthairs are social cats, but still like to have their own way. They use their hunting skills to catch insects or pests that come into the house.

History
In the early 20th century, a breeding program was started to develop the best qualities of these cats who came from Europe. Before, there had not been a lot of mixed breeds that had the American Shorthair background.

The American Shorthair cat now has standards set by cat fanciers of the breed. The breed is accepted by all North American cat registries. In 1966, the breed was given the name "American Shorthair". This was to separate the pure breed cat from the many mixed domestic short-haired cats that live all over North America.  All these short haired cats are called "working cats" because they were used to catch rodents on ships and farms.

References

Other websites

Cat breeds
Natural cat breeds

American Shorthair


Jean Morzadec (25 February 1953 – 13 November 2020) was a French singer-songwriter, writer, and journalist. In 2005, he began running the website "Le Choix de Librairies" in partnership with 20 minutes, France Info, France Culture, Lire, FIP, and France 5.

Biography
Morzadec lived in England, Guatemala, and Greece, surviving off of small jobs. He joined France Inter in 1975 as a director and producer, alongside Claude Sérillon, Marcel Jullian, Jacques Chancel, Stéphane Bern, and others. In 1998, he became director of 98 Radio France, which covered the 1998 FIFA World Cup, following his appointment by Michel Boyon, President of Radio France. In 1999, he was appointed director of programming for France Inter by Jean-Marie Cavada and Jean-Luc Hees. During his tenure, an increased focus on musical programming was undertaken by the radio station.

In 2006, Morzadec created the website www.lechoixdeslibraires.com, in partnership with France Inter and Le Monde. He also created the Agence audiovisuelle du livre, which created written cultural content, as well as audio and video related to the publication and selling of books. In 2011, he created an app for iOS and Android from his website, in partnership with Orange S.A.

In 2013, filmmaker Olek Yaromova encouraged Morzadec to sing his songs at the Théâtre de Nesle in Paris. The show, titled "Le Fleuve tendre", was filmed by Yaromova and accompanied by pianist Alceo Passeo and cellist Chloé Boyaud. On YouTube, Morzadec would pay tribute to his supporters and those who encouraged him to sing. On 17 March 2015, he sang and recorded a concert with the Alliance française for a CD album.

Jean Morzadec died on 13 November 2020 at the age of 67.

Books
Lettres à mon libraire (2009)
Les écrivains préférés des libraires (2011)

Discography
Le Fleuve Tendre (2014)

References

External links

1953 births
2020 deaths
French male singers
French journalists
French male singer-songwriters
French singer-songwriters

Jean Morzadec


Marc Marie Jean Baptiste Delmas (28 March 188530 November 1931) was a French Expressionist composer and writer.

Life and career
Marc Delmas was born in Saint-Quentin, Aisne, France, and studied at the Conservatoire de Paris with Xavier Leroux and Paul Vidal. He won the Prix Rossini in 1911 with Anne Marie, Second Grand Prix de Rome with his cantata Le et la Fée Poète and later the Prix Cressent and  Prix Ambroise-Thomas. In 1914 Delmas and Marcel Dupré were tied for first prize on the first ballot of the Prix de Rome, and Camille Saint-Saëns was called in to break the tie. He voted for Dupré, and Delmas took second prize.

Delmas taught music in Paris, and was a biographer of noted musicians. He took part in the choral movement and participated in the Conseil Superieur de la Musique Populaire. He died in Paris at the age of 46.

Works
Delmas was a prolific composer, known primarily for his stage works, but he was also author of choral, solo and chamber music. Selected works include:

Laïs, opera 1908
Sylvette, operetta 1932
Camille, opera comique
Balade féerique for French Horn and piano
Promenade for Clarinet and Piano (1920)
Lusacienne, rhapsody for violin and orchestra (1928)
Choral et Variations Op.37 for trumpet and piano
Messe de requiem
Le Masque for solo voice
Fantaisie Italienne for clarinet and piano

His music was used in the film The Little Thing in 1923, and recorded and issued on CD including:
Recital Favorites for Clarinet and Piano by Eugene Bozza, Gabriel Grovlez, Andre Bloch, Philippe Gaubert and Marc Delmas (2005)
Musique Française pour Cuivres et Piano by Andre Chpelitch, Marc Delmas, Henri Dutilleux, Pierre Gabaye and Pierick Houdy (2007)
Solos de Concours II: Music from the Premier Prix by Charles-Marie Widor, Arthur Coquard, Charles Edouard Lefebvre, Max D'Ollone and Marc Delmas (2005)

Delmas also wrote books including:
Gustave Charpentier et le Lyrisme Francais (1931)
Georges Bizet, 1838-1875 (1930)

References

External links

French operetta composers
People from Saint-Quentin, Aisne
1885 births
1931 deaths
French opera composers
Male opera composers
Prix de Rome for composition
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
French music educators
20th-century classical composers
French male writers
20th-century French composers
20th-century French male musicians
French male classical composers
20th-century French male writers

Marc Delmas


Stone Bridge Press, Inc. is a publishing company distributed by Consortium Book Sales & Distribution and founded in 1989. Authors published include Donald Richie and Frederik L. Schodt. Stone Bridge publishes books related to Japan, having published some 90 books on a wide variety of subjects: anime and manga, calligraphy, and origami; guides on Japanese customs, culture, and aesthetics; Japanese language books, Japan-related fiction, poetry, and nonfiction. Recently, Stone Bridge has broadened its subjects to more of Asia, and have published books on Korea and China, as well.

History
Stone Bridge Press was founded in 1989 by Peter Goodman. Seventeen years later in 2005, Goodman sold the press to Japanese book distributor Yohan Inc. Shortly before Yohan Inc. announced their bankruptcy in July 2008, Stone Bridge was bought by IBC (Intercultural Book Company) Publishing of Tokyo, a former Yohan subsidiary. In Fall 2009, Goodman reacquired Stone Bridge from IBC. They are now an independent press.

Published authors
 Jonathan Clements
 Liza Dalby
 Naoki Inose
 Helen McCarthy
 Donald Richie
 Hiroaki Sato
 Frederick L. Schodt

Notable publications
 The Astro Boy Essays
 The Donald Richie Reader
 Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga
 The Four Immigrants Manga
 Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima

Notes

External links

Book publishing companies based in Berkeley, California
Publishing companies established in 1989
1989 establishments in California
Japan in non-Japanese culture

Stone Bridge Press


In biology and botany, the receptacle is the swollen basal part of the flower. It can also be made as the top of the stalk or pedicel. When the stalk of the plant, the part which connects flower to the plant, gets flattened and the other parts of the flower including the 4 whorls (calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium) start, that flattened part is called the receptacle. It is the end part of the stalk or pedicel.

In some fruits like a strawberry, it is the thing that becomes the main fleshy edible part of the fruit. The fruit species, rubus, has a conical receptacle with a cluster of seeds (droplets) on top of it.

When a raspberry is picked, the receptacle gets separated from it, but it is just the opposite case in blackberry where it remains attached.

In phycology, they are the structures at the end of the branches of algae mainly brown algae. There, they act as specialized structures having reproductive organs and also help in storage.

Plant anatomy

Receptacle (botany)


Giambattista Pittoni (or Giovanni Battista Pittoni; 6 June 1687 – 6 November 1767) was an Italian painter. His paintings are from the late Baroque or Rococo period. He was among the people who started the Academy of Fine Arts of Venice.

Pittoni was born in Venice on 6 June 1687. He worked there for most of his life. He travelled to France in 1720. It was around this time that his style of painting changed. His style became influenced by French styles. Pittoni joined a Venetian guild of painters in 1716. He served as president of the Academy of Fine Arts of Venice from 1758 to 1760 and from 1763 to 1764. He was in high demand all across Italy during his life.

Loaves and fishes
The miracle of the loaves and fishes is a 1725 painting by Pittoni. It is in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria, Victoria, Australia.
The story is recorded in all four gospels. Pittoni's depiction is of the gospel of John (6:3–13): 'Jesus went into the mountains … a great multitude followed him, He bade them sit down, took five loaves and two fishes and, giving thanks, broke them and the disciples distributed them'.

Works

 Bacchus and Ariadne of the Senate (1730s), Senate of the Republic (Italy), Palazzo Madama, Sala Cavour, Rome
 In the Louvre Museum, Paris:
 Christ grants Keys of Paradise to St Peter
 Continence of Scipio (1733–1735)
 Susanna and the Elders (1723–1725)
 Tombeau allégorique de l'archevêque John Tillotson (1630–1694) (1726–1727)
 Bacchus and Ariadne (1720–1725)
 Venus and Mars (1720–1725)
 Sacrifice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles
 Dido founds Carthage
 Holy family, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 The Annunciation, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice; Oil on Canvas
 Hagar in Desert, Church of Frari, Venice; Oil on Canvas
 Justice and Peace, Palazzo Pesaro, Venice; fresco
 Nativity (1740), National Gallery, London
 Susanna and the Elders (1720), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
 St Elizabeth distributing Alms (1734), Szépmûvészeti Múzeum, Budapest; Oil on canvas, 72 x 43 cm
 The family (1720), Oil on canvas, 60 x 73 cm, private collection
 Sacrifice of Isaac (1720), Church of San Francesco della Vigna, Venice; Oil on Canvas, 118 x 155 cm
 Descent from the Cross (c. 1750), Palace of Legion of Honor, San Francisco, California
 Sacrifice of Polyxena (1733–1734), Getty Museum, Los Angeles
 Christ and St Peter, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
 Annunciation (1758), Accademia, Venice
 Death of Joseph, Berggruen Museum in Charlottenburg Palace, National Gallery (Berlin), Berlin; Oil on canvas, 97 x 79 cm
 St Jerome and St Peter of Alcantara (1725), National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh; Oil on canvas, 275 x 143 cm
 Penitent Magdalene (1740) Accademia, Venice, Oil on canvas, 48 x 38 cm
 Sacrifice of Polyxena, Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg; Oil on canvas, 129 x 94 cm
 Vision of St Anthony of Padua (1730), San Diego Museum of Art, Balboa Park, California; 35 1/2 in. x 23 1/4 in.
 David and Bathsheba, 74x64 cm
 Finding of Moses (c. 1730), Portland Art Museum, Oregon
 Miracle of the loaves and fishes (1725), National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne; oil on canvas, 120.1x178.5 cm
 Martyrdom of St Thomas, Church of San Stae, Venice
 Death of Sophonisba, Pushkin Museum, Moscow; oil on canvas, 165 x 214 cm
 Rest on the Flight into Egypt (1725), Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid; oil on canvas, 108 x 135 cm
 St Roch (1727), Szépmûvészeti Múzeum,  Budapest; oil on canvas, 42 x 32 cm
 Allegorical monument to the glory of Isaac Newton (c. 1727–29), Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
 Nativity, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Quimper; oil on canvas, 74 × 56 cm
 Stoning of St Stephen, 2nd left picture of the Church's altar of S. Maria Diessen
 Death of Agripina and Death of Seneca, Dresden Gallery
 Eliezer and Rebecca (c. 1725), Musée des Beaux-arts, Bordeaux
 Enthroned Madonna and Child venerated by Saints Peter and Pius V (1723–1724), Church of Santa Corona, Vicenza
 Madonna with Saints, Church of San Germano dei Berici
 Diane and Acteon (c. 1725), Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza;  oil on canvas, 147 x 197.5 cm
 Sacrifice by Jephthah, Museo di Palazzo Reale, Genoa
 Portrait of Cardinal Bartolomeo Roverella, Accademia dei Concordi, Rovigo
 Jupiter protect Justice, The Peace and the Science, Plafonds decoration, Ca' Pesaro, Venice
 Saints presenting a devout Woman to Virgin and Child, Cleveland Museum of Art
 Allegory of Painting and Sculpture, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
 Annunciation,  Städelsches Kunstinstitut
 Madonna of Sorrows, Museum Gemäldegalerie (Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz)
 Martyrdom of St Clement: Sketch for Altar at Clemenskirche, Muenster, displayed at Uppsala Universitet Konstsamling
 St Peter, Kunsthalle

Death

Pittoni died in Venice on 6 November 1767. He is buried in the church of San Giacomo dell'Orio. His reputation quickly faded after his death. Interest in him was revived in the 20th century.

Related pages
 List of Italian painters

References

1687 births
1767 deaths
Italian painters
People from Venice

Giambattista Pittoni


Paul Krüger (Krueger) (12 October 1871 – 7 August 1939) was a German chess master.

He lived in Hamburg. At the beginning of his career, he shared 2nd at Dresden 1892 (the 7th DSB Congress, Hauptturnier C), won at Danzig 1898, tied for 2nd-3rd at Berlin 1899/1900, tied for 4-5th at Munich 1900 (the 12th DSB–Congress, Hauptturnier A, Rudolf Swiderski won), took 11th at Haarlem 1901 (Adolf Georg Olland won), won at Breslau 1912 (the 18th DSB–Congress, Hauptturnier B), won at Hamburg 1913, and tied for 15-16th at Mannheim 1914 (interrupted the 19th DSB–Congress, Alexander Alekhine won).

After World War I, he tied for 5-7th at Hamburg 1921 (the 21st DSB–Congress, Ehrhardt Post won), took 7th at Bad Oeynhausen 1922 (the 22nd DSB–Congress, Post won), took 7th at Frankfurt 1923 (the 23rd DSB–Congress, Ernst Grünfeld won), tied for 6-7th  at Bremen 1927 (Efim Bogoljubow won), shared 3rd at Hamburg 1927, won twice in Salzuflen in 1925 and 1930, and took 4th at Bad Pyrmont 1931 (Bogoljubow won).

References

External links

1871 births
1939 deaths
German chess players

Paul Krüger (chess player)


The Buick Roadmaster is an automobile that was built by Buick from 1936 until 1942, from 1946 until 1958, and then again from 1991 until 1996. Roadmasters produced between 1936 and 1958 were built on Buick's longest non-limousine wheelbase and shared their basic structure with the entry-level Cadillac Series 65, the Buick Limited, and after 1940, the Oldsmobile 98. Between 1946 and 1957 the Roadmaster served as Buick's flagship.

When it was resurrected for the 1991 through 1996 model years, it became the marque's largest vehicle. The Roadmaster sedan, a C-body vehicle over its eight previous generations, shared the B-body for the first time in its history. It was  longer with a  greater wheelbase than the C-body Buick Park Avenue. It was also larger both in wheelbase () and overall length () than the K-body Cadillac DeVille.

A Buick Roadmaster Estate station wagon first appeared in 1947, and was manufactured in several generations through 1996.

1931–1933

The 1932 Series 80 was the first Buick with the  OHV Buick Straight-8 engine developing  at 2800 rpm. It was positioned as an upper category trim package and shared with the Series 90. The Series 80 was a new approach for Buick by marketing a luxury sedan with an eight-cylinder engine - that became expected from luxury brands - comparably as the Oldsmobile L-Series on the GM C platform. The 1932 models introduced a new high-performance engine developing . In 1933, the styling of all Buicks was updated with a new, corporate "streamlined" appearance shared with all GM cars for that year as influenced to GM's Art and Color Studio headed by Harley Earl.

The 1933 models were the first year all GM vehicles were installed with optional vent windows that were initially called "No Draft Individually Controlled Ventilation" that were later renamed "Ventiplanes" for which a patent application was filed on November 28, 1932. The patent was assigned to the Ternstedt Manufacturing Company, a GM subsidiary making components for Fisher Body

At the end of 1933, the 80 series was discontinued after 24,117 units were produced. In 1936, the model changed its name to "Series 80 Roadmaster".

Body style choices were limited to a 2-door coupe or 4-door sedan in 1931 capable of seating either 5- or 7-passengers, then replacing the coupe with a Victoria 5-passenger coupe in 1932. The 1933 model year saw convertibles for both the coupe and 4-door sedan convertible reviving the "phaeton" nameplate again, and additional manufacturing locations opened across the country under the Buick-Oldsmobile-Pontiac Assembly Division. The equipment levels and refinement of materials used were on par with the top-level Limited and was a contender with the Packard Eight.

1936–1937

The origins of the Roadmaster name date to 1936 when Buick added names to its entire model lineup to celebrate the engineering improvements and design advancements over their 1935 models. Buick's Series 40 was named the Special, the Series 50 became the Super, the Series 60 was named the Century and the Series 90 — Buick's largest and most luxurious vehicle — was named the Limited. The Series 50 was retired, but new for the model year was the Series 80 Roadmaster. The 1936 Buick sales brochure describes "It literally named itself the first time a test model leveled out on the open highway." The terminology "Series 60" and "Series 70" were shared with Cadillac, while "Series 60", "Series 70", "Series 80", and "Series 90" were shared with Oldsmobile.

The Roadmaster was introduced in a year when Buick's overhead valve straight-eight engines were heavily revised. Buick reduced the number of engines from four sizes to two: a 233-cubic-inch, 93-horsepower version for the Special, and a 320.2-cubic inch, 120-horsepower engine for the other series. Buick also adopted an all-steel "turret top" and hydraulic brakes. Coil springs were used in the front.

The Roadmaster sedan weighed 4,098 pounds, about 88 pounds more than Cadillac's new Series 60. The sedan sold for $1,255 ($ in  dollars ), $440 ($ in  dollars ) less than the least expensive Cadillac. The only other body style was a four-door convertible phaeton, priced at $1,565 ($ in  dollars ) (a total of 1,064 were produced), at a time when a Cadillac in the same body style sold was priced from $2,745 ($ in  dollars ). Buick sales went from just over 48,000 to nearly 158,000, with the new Series 80 Roadmaster contributing 16,049 units to that total.

Buick was the only GM car, along with the Chevrolet Standard, to retain the basic 1934 styling for 1935, thus the 1936 re-style brought Buick up with the rest of the GM marques. For 1937, Buick moved to newly re-styled bodies along with all other GM cars. The Roadmaster gained a divided grille with horizontal bars. The center section of the grille was painted to match the body of the car. Fenders became squared off and the headlight shells were streamlined. Overall height was reduced by  while keeping the same interior space. A new carburetor and revised camshaft raised engine horsepower to 130. The engine also received a new intake manifold, oil pump, cooling system, and a quieter overhead valve mechanism. A Formal Sedan, featuring a roll-down glass partition between the front and rear compartments, was added to the Roadmaster line for US$1,641 ($ in  dollars ), of which 452 were sold. The price of the sedan was raised to US$1,518, and that of the phaeton to US$1,856 ($ in  dollars ). Overall Roadmaster sales increased to 16,129.

1938–1939

Styling changes for 1938 were modest, with a longer hood extending to a now nearly vertical grill, taller bumper guards, and redesigned hubcaps. Changes were made to both engine and chassis. The ride was improved by replacing the rear leaf springs with coil springs and incorporating double-acting shock absorbers that were four times the size of others. The frame X-member was changed from I-beam to channel construction and all wood structural elements were replaced with steel. The engine combustion chambers were redesigned and new "turbulator" pistons raised the compression ratio from 5.9 to 6.5:1, resulting in an increase in horsepower to 141.

The 4-door convertible phaeton changed from the built-in trunk design to a "fastback" rear appearance. The Limited continued to be offered, and a new fastback sedan was added to the line with 466 being sold. The Roadmaster sedan price was increased to US$1,645 ($ in  dollars ). The overall automobile market decreased for the year, but Buicks share increased even with Roadmaster sales falling to 5,568 and now making up 3.3% of Buick's total output from its previous 7.3%.

Styling for 1939 featured a new two-piece "waterfall" grille with thin vertical bars. The hood was narrower, front door pillars were narrower and hubcaps were larger. The window area increased substantially with the rear window changing to a one-piece design. All the major gauges were relocated directly in front of the driver and the gear shift was changed to a steering column mount. The 4-door phaeton could now be ordered with the built-in trunk appearance or as a fastback, but only three of the latter were sold. Although prices were reduced to US$1,545 ($ in  dollars ), sales only rose to 6,097, with Roadmaster's share of Buick's total sales falling to 2.9%.

1940–1941

In 1940 the Series 80 was renamed Buick Limited. The Roadmaster name was transferred to the new Series 70, which was introduced at the same time as a brand new Series 50 Super. The Roadmaster featured a cutting-edge "torpedo" C-body. The new C-body that the 1940 Buick Roadmaster shared with the Super, the Cadillac Series 62, the Oldsmobile Series 90, and the Pontiac Torpedo featured shoulder and hip room that was over  wider, the elimination of running boards and exterior styling that was streamlined and 2-3" lower. When combined with a column-mounted shift lever the cars offered room for six-passengers.

The 1940 Roadmaster had a shorter wheelbase, was lighter, and was less expensive than the previous year's model. The formal and fastback sedans were discontinued. A 2-door coupe body style was newly introduced, and 3,991 units were sold. The coach-building firm of Brunn designed several custom-bodied Buicks for the Series 70, 80, and 90. Only one Roadmaster example is known to have been produced in 1940, an open-front town car, that was dubbed "Townmaster". Overall sales more than tripled to 18,345.

Styling updates for 1941 were modest, but there were mechanical changes. The compression ratio was raised from 6.6:1 to 7.0:1, the "turbulator" pistons were redesigned, smaller spark plugs were new, and "Compound Carburetion" was introduced. This Compound Carburetion was the forerunner of the modern four-barrel carburetor and consisted of twin two-barrel carburetors. One unit operated all of the time, while the other operated only under hard acceleration. The new engine delivered 165 horsepower. With five more horsepower than a senior Packard, 15 more than any Cadillac, and 25 more than the largest Chryslers, it was the most powerful engine available that year on an American car.

A new body style for this year was a two-door convertible, which sold 1,845 units. There was also a Brunn-designed convertible, but no orders materialized because of the $3,500 price ($ in  dollars ). Overall Roadmaster sales were 15,372.

1942, 1946-1948

The 1942 Roadmaster was longer, lower, wider, and roomier than before (a Harley Earl trademark), due in part to a longer wheelbase. There was also a new vertical-bar grille and "Airfoil" fenders that swept back to the rear fenders, which in subsequent generations became the chromed "Sweepspear". Both features became a Buick icon exhibited in one way or another for years to come, and were influenced by the concept car called the Buick Y-Job. The 4-door phaeton was discontinued. Coupes adopted the Sedanet fastback style that was introduced on 1941 on the Century and Special. The new one-piece hood was double-hinged so that either side of the engine compartment could be opened, while in later updates the hood would open at the front and extend up and towards the passenger compartment.

At the beginning of 1942, new automobiles were available only to those in occupations deemed essential to the war effort. By mid-January, cars with no exterior chrome trim apart from the bumpers were being produced. By February passenger car production was shut down completely. Despite the abbreviated model year, a total of about 8,400 were sold.

When postwar automobile production resumed in the 1946 model year, chrome was more sparingly applied, swept-back fenders were fitted to sedans as well as coupes, and a war-inspired "bombsight" hood ornament was adopted. The instrument panel was two-toned with woodgrain facings except on convertibles which used body-colored panels. Series identification was found on cloisonne emblems centered in the bumper guard front and rear. Compound Carburetion was discontinued and the compression ratio was reduced to 6.60:1. The 1946 Roadmaster's horsepower rating went from 165 to 144. Torque on the other hand was not affected. Nevertheless, Roadmaster's I-8 still produced more horsepower than a top-of-the-line Chrysler's. Owing to wartime inflation, prices were substantially higher than those of pre-war models. The biggest change was in sales proportions. Roadmaster increased its share of Buick sales from 4% in 1941 to 20% in 1946, with a total of about 31,400 sold.

In 1947 a new stamped grille with a separate upper bar was used. The Roadmaster name appeared in red-filled script on a chrome button within the bumper guard crossbars, front, and rear. All new was an Estate wagon body style. It sold 300 units and became the top of the line in the station wagon market.

In 1948 a series script appeared on the front fenders and the white Tenite steering wheel that had been used previously was replaced with a black version. This also matched the change from a two-tone woodgrain instrument panel to a two-tone gray instrument panel, with silver-finished instruments. A new optional custom trim option was offered, consisting of cloth upholstery with leather bolsters with the robe cord cover and lower door panels trimmed in leatherette. Convertibles acquired power windows, seat, and top as standard equipment. The Dynaflow was introduced, the first passenger car torque converter transmission. Optional on Roadmaster in its first year, it became standard equipment for 1949. Overall sales were just under 80,000 in both 1947 and 1948, over four times greater than in any prewar year.

1949–1953

The Roadmaster received its first major postwar restyling in 1949. Its wheelbase and overall length were reduced but its weight was marginally increased. The biggest change was a much larger two-piece, curved glass windshield that the sales brochure described as like an "observation car." It was also in 1949 that Buick introduced "VentiPorts." Four were displayed on each of the Roadmaster and Century's front fenders, with three on the fenders of the Super and Special to denote junior level products. The sales brochure noted that VentiPorts helped ventilate the engine compartment, and possibly that was true in early 1949, but sometime during the model year they became plugged.

The idea for VentiPorts grew out of a modification Buick styling chief Ned Nickles had added to his own 1948 Roadmaster. He had installed four amber lights on each side of his car's hood wired to the distributor to flash on and off as each cylinder fired, simulating the flames from the exhaust stack of a fighter airplane. Combined with the bombsight mascot, VentiPorts put the driver at the controls of an imaginary fighter airplane. Upon seeing this, Buick chief Harlow Curtice was so delighted that he ordered that (non-lighting) VentiPorts be installed on all 1949 Buicks, with the number of VentiPorts (three or four) corresponding to the relative displacement of the straight-eight engine installed.

Dynaflow was now standard equipment, and engine horsepower was increased to 150 through a slight increase in the compression ratio. This contributed in conjunction with the now-standard Dynaflow in giving the new Buicks a top speed of . In the middle of the year, the Riviera joined the body style lineup selling 4,314 units. Featuring power windows as standard equipment, the 2-door Buick Roadmaster Riviera, along with the Cadillac Series 62 Coupe de Ville and the Oldsmobile 98 Holiday, was among the first hardtop coupes produced. The Riviera Hardtop was conceived by taking the convertible and welding a steel roof in place, which simplified manufacture and the appearance.

The Riviera was also notable for its popular optional "Sweepspear" chrome body side molding, which would soon become a Buick trademark. This chrome-plated strip started above the front wheel, after which it gently curved down nearly to the rocker panel just before the rear wheel, and then curved around the rear wheel in a quarter of a circle to go straight back to the tail-light. The "Riviera trim", as it was initially called, was also made available on the Roadmaster convertible late in the model year. With a total of 88,130 sold, the all-time annual record for Roadmaster, the model accounted for 27% of all Buick sales, a high proportion despite its price that was only slightly less than a Cadillac Series 61.

The 1950 restyling featured a "toothy" grille. The Sweepspear design was made standard on most body styles at the beginning of the 1950 model year, and on the station wagon and a new long-wheelbase sedan mid-year. The long-wheelbase sedan was lengthened by ). Like the convertibles, the Riviera and the long-wheelbase sedan came with power windows and power seats as standard equipment. Overall Roadmaster sales fell to 75,034, with Roadmaster's share of total Buick output plummeting to 12%.

In 1951 the long-wheelbase sedan was also called a Riviera although it was not a hardtop. The Sedanet and regular wheelbase sedan were discontinued.

Styling changes were minimal in 1951 and 1952. Power steering was added as an option in 1952 and horsepower climbed to 170 primarily to a new four-barrel carburetor. Sales continued to decrease to about 66,000 in 1951 and totaled 51,000 units in 1952.

A new V8 engine was introduced for 1953, Buick's Golden Anniversary year. Although the Nailhead (as it was popularly called) was nearly identical in displacement to the straight-eight Fireball (322 versus 320 cubic inches), it was  shorter, four inches (102 mm) lower, and  lighter, but with , it was 11% more powerful. The compression ratio increased from 7.50:1 to 8.50:1 and torque increased from .

The compact dimensions of the V8 engine enabled Buick to reduce Roadmaster's wheelbase by  across the line, although styling differences behind the engine cowl, apart from new V-8 emblem hubcaps, were largely nonexistent. Buick also introduced a new "Twin-Turbine" Dynaflow as a companion for the V8 engine. Estimated to increase torque at the wheels by 10 percent, the new transmission provided faster and quieter acceleration at reduced engine speeds. Both power steering and power brakes were made standard. Air conditioning was a new option and, years before many other makes, a 12-volt electrical system was adopted.

A new body style for 1953 was the Skylark convertible. The Buick Roadmaster Skylark was one of three specialty convertibles produced in 1953 by General Motors, the other two being the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and the Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado. The Skylark featured open wheel wells, a drastically lowered beltline, a four-inch-chop from the standard Roadmaster's windshield, the absence of VentiPorts, and a new Sweepspear that anticipated Buick's 1954 styling. Kelsey-Hayes wire wheels and a solid boot cover were standard. At US$5,000 ($ in  dollars ) only 1,690 units were produced. The following year, and for one year only, it would become its own series built on the all-new  Century chassis. This was the last year for the Roadmaster Estate, and it was the last wood-bodied station wagon mass-produced in the United States. Its body was a product of Ionia Manufacturing that built all Buick station wagon bodies between 1946 and 1964. Priced at US$4,031 ($ in  dollars ), the Estate was second in price only to the Skylark, with 670 being sold. Overall Roadmaster sales went up to 79,137.

1954–1956

In 1954 Buick Roadmaster and Super shared with Cadillac and Oldsmobile 98 the new General Motors C-body, adopting the new "ponton" appearance, and the addition of "Dagmar bumpers" to the front. These were large, roomy cars, as much as five and a half inches longer in wheelbase and more than nine inches (229 mm) longer overall than in 1953. Roadmaster script was placed on the rear quarter panels and within the rear deck ornament. Rear fenders had a blunted fin at the rear edge, with dual "bullet" taillamps below. A new panoramic windshield with vertical side pillars was used. Seats had chrome bands on 2-door models and rear seats had an armrest on 4-door models. The front suspension was refined and Roadmaster's horsepower was increased to 200, while the pillared coupe and the Estate wagon were no longer offered as body styles. Overall sales dropped to 50,571 (which was 11% of model year production). and the Roadmaster Convertible was listed at US$3,521 ($ in  dollars ). Air conditioning was provided by Frigidaire optionally on sedans and hardtops, which consisted of a self-contained unit that was retrofitted at the customers' request.

In 1955 broad lower rear fender bands, gold-colored Roadmaster deck script and hood ornament, bars on the hubcaps, and a gold-accented grille were added to distinguish Roadmaster. Horsepower was increased to 236, and a new variable-pitch Dynaflow, in which the stator blades changed pitch under hard acceleration, provided quicker off-the-line getaway. Back-up lights were now standard. Overall sales were 64,527 (which was 8% of the model year production). and the Roadmaster Convertible replaced the exclusive Roadmaster Skylark convertible.

In 1956 Roadmaster had a shallower Sweepspear that did not dip down to the rocker panel as on other models. Twin chrome strips were on the decklid with Roadmaster spelled out between them. Roadmaster script was positioned on the doors beneath the vent windows. Fender tip dual bombsights were standard. Two stator wheels were adopted as an improvement to Dynaflow. A brand new 4-door Riviera hardtop, proved to be the most popular Roadmaster, with 24,770 units sold and beating the pillared sedan by more than two-to-one. Overall sales were 53,427 (which was 9% of model year production). A padded dash became standard.

1957–1958

A lower body graced the 1957 Roadmaster with an even more panoramic windshield equipped with reverse slanted pillars. A red-filled Sweepspear lined the bodysides and a chromed rear fender lower panel filled the area between the wheelhouse and the bumper end, continuing to offer "Dagmar bumpers" at the front. A new centered fuel filler was located in the rear bumper, the ends of which the single or optional dual exhaust passed through. Roadmaster script was placed within the deck and grille emblems. Two-door models had a trio of chevrons on the rear quarters while the four-door models had a Roadmaster emblem nestled within the Sweepspear dip. Interiors featured a padded dashboard and were broadcloth and nylon in 4-doors, nylon in 2-doors, and leather in convertibles. Front hip room was 65.3-in.

A new 364-cubic-inch engine was rated at 300 horsepower. A new ball-joint suspension system improved handling. The 4-door Riviera hardtop proved popular the previous year so that the pillared sedan was dropped from the model lineup. Also, new was a mid-year production (March 1957) Roadmaster designated as Model 75 that featured standard power seats and windows, carpeted lower doors, a one-piece rear window (instead of a three-piece that was a design feature of the smaller Special and Century models), Deluxe hubcaps, and a Series 75 script identification on the rear quarter body panel of the Roadmaster coupes and the rear door panels on the Roadmaster 4-doors, thus replacing the standard 3 chevrons found in the same location on the standard full model year Roadmaster model lines. Overall Roadmaster sales dropped to about 33,000. The overall economy was in a recession starting in late 1956 and extending into 1958.

For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.

In 1958, the Roadmaster was available in the well-equipped "75" version, and the body was adorned with bulkier and more heavily chromed styling while the top trim package Limited was the most expensive and fully optioned vehicle. A new "drawer pull" grille was used that Buick called "Fashion-Aire Dynastar", made up of rectangular chrome squares. For the first time since 1948, there were no distinguishing VentiPorts on the front fenders. On the rear deck, the Roadmaster name was spelled out in block lettering beneath a Buick emblem housing the trunk lock keyway. Wheelhouses had bright moldings, rocker panels had an ebbed molding and a large rear fender bright flash with ribbed inserts replaced the previous year's chromed rear fender lower panel. Four headlamps were standard. New brakes featured cast-iron liners in aluminum drums. Sales fell further to about 14,000.

There was a complete restyling for 1959, but this time the names of the various series were changed. Not until 1991 would there again be a big Buick known as the Roadmaster; the largest Buick models were renamed the Electra.

1991–1996

The Roadmaster name returned to the Buick line for the 1991 model year after a 33-year absence, with the third generation Buick Estate wagon becoming the Roadmaster Estate. A four-door sedan was added to the Roadmaster line for the 1992 model year, the first rear-wheel drive Buick sedan since 1985. Combined sales showed an over tenfold increase over 1991 thanks in part to an extended production run which had 1992 models going on sale in March 1991.

Chassis
As with its precursor, the new Roadmaster Estate wagon was based on GM's full-size rear-wheel drive B platform, which was closely related to the GM C-body and D-body chassis reserved for top of the line Buicks and Cadillacs. It rode on the same 115.9-inch wheelbase in use since the wagon series was downsized from the C-body in 1977, yet was three inches shorter than the 1990 model.

The Roadmaster sedan, a C-body vehicle over its eight previous generations, shared the B-body for the first time in its history. Nonetheless, it stood not only as the largest Buick, a full 10 inches longer with a 5 inch greater wheelbase than the apparent top-of-the-line C-bodied Buick Park Avenue, but larger both in wheelbase (2 inches) and overall length (6 inches) than the K-body Cadillac Sedan de Ville.

Powertrain
The standard engine for the 1991 wagon was a  5.0 L L03 Chevrolet small-block V8. It was replaced a year later with a  5.7 L L05 Chevrolet small-block V8 shared by both wagon and sedan. In 1994 both received a substantial power and performance boost with an upgrade to a modified version of the advanced 5.7 L sequential point fuel-injection LT1 V8 introduced two years earlier in the C4 Corvette.  Coupled with standard dual exhaust, it increased output to .

This version of the LT1 was shared with a limited range of B-and D platform luxury and performance cars such as the Chevrolet Caprice Police Package and Cadillac Fleetwood, as well as specialty versions of GM's two F-bodied pony cars, the Chevrolet  Camaro Z28 and Pontiac Firebird Trans Am. Engines used in luxury cars had iron instead of aluminum heads for durability, camshafts tuned for increased low-end torque, and intake silencers to decrease engine noise.

While installed in part to better comply with emissions and fuel-economy standards, the LT1 V8 not only offered an 80 hp power increase but raised rated fuel economy by 1 mpg, to 17 mpg city/25 mpg highway. As a result of this significantly boosted engine output General Motors limited the softer-riding Roadmaster (which ran on lower speed-rated tires than used on the Corvette) to a top speed of . For 1996, the LT1 became OBD-II compliant.

All three Roadmaster V-8s were paired to a four-speed automatic transmission. In 1994, the hydraulically-controlled 4L60 (700R4) transmission was replaced by the electronically controlled 4L60E.

When ordered with the factory towing package, the 1994-1996 Roadmaster was rated to tow up to . For the station wagon, this could be raised to 7,000 pounds with the use of a weight-distributing hitch, dual sway controls, setting rear tire pressure to 35 PSI, and disabling the Electronic Level Control. The towing package added 2.93 rear-axle gears and a limited-slip differential, heavy-duty cooling system including oil and transmission coolers, and a factory-installed self-leveling rear suspension called Dynaride, which consisting of air shocks, a height sensor between the rear axle and body and an on-board air compressor. Most visibly, a pair of electric fans offset to the left under the hood was replaced by the combination of one conventional fan-driven mechanically from the engine alongside one electric fan.

Body
The Roadmaster Estate wagon shared its body with the Caprice Estate and Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser; common styling features included the Caprice's headlights and the Custom Cruiser's 2nd-row "Vista Roof" with a sunroof. Simulated woodgrain sides were standard, though the treatment could be removed for credit. All three wagons offered an optional rear-facing third-row seat, bringing seating capacity to eight. The Roadmaster sedan had a distinct fascia, featuring its own grille and headlights stacked above running lights and turn signals. It shared a formal sedan roofline with the Cadillac Fleetwood, but was nine inches shorter in length and six inches in wheelbase. The 1995-1996 sedan models no longer had the Roadmaster emblem installed on the quarter panels.

The interior received a redesign for the 1994 model year which included new dual airbags, moving some instrument panel gauges closer to the steering wheel, and revisions to the radio and climate controls. The side-view mirrors were changed in 1995, changing from a "Lolipop" style mirror mounted on the door skin, to a new folding design mounted on the sail panel. The 1995 Roadmaster retained its skirted rear wheels (removed from the Caprice/Impala SS), while the sedan was updated with new bodyside moldings. Station wagons saw a shade for the Vista Roof along with a cargo cover. In 1996 automatic climate control became standard, and the rear seatbelts were redesigned with a "cinching" feature.

Discontinuation
In spite of a production run of over 200,000 Roadmasters in a six-year span, a combination of overcrowding among Buick's high-end sedans and pressure from full-size SUVs on the Estate wagon led to GM focusing on higher profit margin vehicles, such as pickups and the truck-bodied Chevrolet Suburban. In 1996 the Arlington Assembly facility in Texas was converted to assemble both SUVs and pickup trucks, leaving the Roadmaster without an assembly line. The final vehicle was produced on December 13, 1996. All 1996 Roadmaster Estates received a "Collector's Edition" hood ornament in place of the traditional tri-shield Buick badge.

With Ford stopping production of its Country Squire and Colony Park station wagons in 1991, the discontinuation of the Roadmaster Estate and Chevrolet Caprice Estate marked the end of the full-size station wagon until the introduction of the 20" shorter, 5" inch narrower LX-bodied Dodge Magnum wagon in 2005.

Production Figures:

References

External links

Consumer guide to the 1991-96 Buick Roadmaster

Roadmaster
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Station wagons
Sedans
Coupés
Convertibles
1950s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Flagship vehicles
Luxury vehicles

Buick Roadmaster


Eugenio De Signoribus (born 1947) is an Italian poet. He was born and lives in Cupra Marittima in the province of Ascoli Piceno, Italy. He was winner in 2002 of the Castelfiorentino Literature Prize and in 2008 of the Viareggio Prize.

Swedish Academician Kjell Espmark has described him as "a more severe and rigorous voice than those to which we are accustomed. His powerfully visionary poetry frees itself from every casual or superfluous element to give emphasis to the primary conditions of existence."

He is a co-editor of the Istmi literary journal.

Works
Case perdute, 1976–1985 (il lavoro editoriale,1989).
Istmi e chiuse, 1989–1995 (Marsilio, 1996)
Principio del giorno, 1990–1999 (Garzanti, 2000)
Altre educazioni, 1980–1999 (Crocetti, 2001)
Memoria del chiuso mondo (Quodlibet, 2002)
Ronda dei conversi (Garzanti, 2005)
Poesie (1976–2007) (Garzanti, 2008)
Nessun luogo è elementare (Alberto Tallone Editore, 2010)
Trinità dell'esodo, 2005–2010 (Garzanti, 2011)
Veglie genovesi (Il Canneto Editore, 2013)
 Stazioni 1994-2017 (Manni, Lecce, 2018)

Poems by De Signoribus have appeared in the following English translations:

 by Christopher Whyte in Lines Review, 1994
 by Emanuel di Pasquale in New Italian Poetry: an anthology, 2006
 by Christopher Whyte and V. Joshua Adams in The FSG Book of Twentieth Century Italian Poetry, 2012
 by Johanna Bishop, Damiano Abeni and Moira Egan in Canone Inverso, Anthology of Contemporary Italian Literature, 2014
 by Richard Dixon in Nuovi Argomenti, 2013; The Journal of Italian Translation, 2013; Almost Island, 2014; Italian Contemporary Poets: an anthology, 2016;The Journal of Italian Translation, 2018

His poetry has also been translated into French and Swedish.

References

1947 births
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Viareggio Prize winners
Living people
People from the Province of Ascoli Piceno
Place of birth missing (living people)

Eugenio De Signoribus