Moses Brown (September 23, 1738 – September 6, 1836) was an American abolitionist and industrialist from New England who funded the design and construction of some of the first factories for spinning machines during the American industrial revolution, including the Slater Mill which was the first modern factory in America.

Early life
Moses Brown was born in Providence in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations on September 23, 1738, the son of James Brown II and Hope Power Brown. He was the grandson of Baptist minister James Brown (1666–1732), and his father was a prosperous merchant. The family firm was active in distilling rum, owned an iron furnace, and took part in a wide variety of merchant activities including sponsoring the ill-fated and notorious voyage of the slave ship Sally in 1764, in which at least 109 Africans died. Moses Brown's father died in 1739, and Moses was raised in the family of his uncle Obadiah Brown, who was primarily responsible for running the firm's spermaceti works. Obadiah died in 1762, and Moses served as executor of his estate. Shares in the farming and shipping business were divided among Moses and his brothers Nicholas, Joseph, and John, and the business was renamed Nicholas Brown & Co. The brothers were co-founders of the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, later renamed Brown University after Nicholas's son. The family was active in the Baptist community of Providence and were descendants of Chad Brown (c. 1600 – 1650), a Baptist minister who co-founded Providence Plantations with Roger Williams.

Brown married his cousin Anna Brown (daughter of his uncle Obadiah) in 1764. They had two surviving children: Sarah (1764–1794, married William Almy) and Obadiah (1771–1822), as well as a daughter who died young. Brown served as a deputy to the Rhode Island General Assembly from 1764 to 1771, and he served on a committee to oppose the Stamp Act in 1765. In 1769, he participated in efforts to move the college in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations to Providence from Warren, Rhode Island. The four Brown brothers donated family land passed down from Chad Brown for the new campus.

Brown's wife Anna died in 1773. He gradually retired from the family business and began his involvement with of the Quakers.

American Revolution
John Brown was arrested in the Gaspee affair which helped to trigger the American Revolutionary War. Moses and Joseph Brown delivered a proposal to the English in Boston that Rhode Island's preparations to resist royal authority would be stopped if John Brown was released.

Later life

In 1779, Brown married his second wife Mary Olney, a fellow Quaker. They were married for 18 years and had no children.

In 1788, Brown returned briefly to the business world, embarking on a textile venture in partnership with his cousin Smith Brown and his future son-in-law William Almy. Brown became interested in recent British attempts to use water power in their textile mills, and he hired English immigrant Samuel Slater to help build a similar mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. In 1793, the factory became the first water-powered spinning mill in America, a seminal event generally considered the birth of the American Industrial Revolution. Moses' son Obadiah Brown soon replaced Smith Brown as a partner, and Samuel Slater was taken in as well to create the firm of Almy, Brown & Slater. Brown soon withdrew from active involvement in the firm but remained a partner.

Brown then moved on to a variety of new activities. He played a role in Rhode Island's ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1790. He also became interested in agricultural experiments on his Providence farm, and helped found the Rhode Island Agricultural Society in 1800. He served on the first board of directors of the Providence Bank, and was treasurer of the Central Bridge Company. During the yellow fever epidemic of 1797, he was a strong advocate of sanitation practices. He later introduced smallpox vaccination to Rhode Island.

Brown's second wife Mary died in 1798, and he married widow Phebe (Waterman) Lockwood in 1799. Phebe died in 1809, and Brown remained unmarried for the last 27 years of his life.

Brown was a pacifist, and he was inspired by the War of 1812 to work on behalf of peace; he was instrumental in founding the Rhode Island Peace Society in 1818. He promoted the Quaker position that Quakers should resist war taxes.

Brown played an important role in collecting documents relating to colonial Rhode Island, many of them inherited through his own family. He collected biographical information about his contemporary and fellow abolitionist who was known as the Public Universal Friend. He was a founding member of the Rhode Island Historical Society, served as its chairman, and had most of his papers left there after his death. Brown was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815.

Brown died from gastroenteritis in Providence on September 6, 1836. He left few family members, having outlived three wives, all three of his children, and three of his four stepchildren. At his death, his only descendants were his granddaughter Anna (Almy) Jenkins (1790–1849) and her children. He also left much of his estate to the children of his stepdaughter Sarah (Lockwood) Harris (1773–1832) and to the Society of Friends. His son Obadiah had married but left no children. Brown is buried in the Quaker section of the North Burial Ground at 5 Branch Avenue, Providence, RI.

Abolitionist activity
Moses broke with his brothers and refused to continue any involvement in the slave trade. He began a long crusade against slavery after becoming a Quaker, and he became Rhode Island's leading opponent of the slave trade. He freed the last of his own slaves in 1773. He solidified his opposition to slavery during the Revolutionary War, in the company of ministers and teachers from the college in Providence which had closed temporarily because British troops were billeted in its campus. Brown renewed his efforts against the slave trade after the war ended. He unsuccessfully petitioned the General Assembly in 1783, wrote frequently in the local press, and helped distribute antislavery pamphlets throughout New England. He was instrumental in the 1787 passage of a law banning the participation of Rhode Islanders in the slave trade. In 1789, he helped found the Providence Society for Abolishing the Slave Trade with Quaker and non-Quaker associates to help enforce recently passed anti-slave trade legislation. He later helped pass a law in Congress to forbid foreign slave ships from being equipped in American ports.

In contrast, his brother John was one of the state's leading slave traders and the first person prosecuted under the federal laws prohibiting slave importation.

Moses Brown School

Brown played a significant role in the revival of the New England Yearly Meeting School. It had existed intermittently in the 1770s and 1780s, but died out through lack of interest. In 1814, Brown presented the Yearly Meeting School with 43 acres of land in Providence, and worked diligently toward the creation of a school on this land. He provided important financial assistance, and also donated his impressive book collection to the school library. His son Obadiah joined him as a major supporter of this effort until his untimely death in 1822. Moses Brown served as the school's treasurer until shortly before his own death in 1836 at the age of 98. The school was renamed in his honor in 1913 as the Moses Brown School, and remains a leading preparatory school in the U.S.

See also

 Brown Square
 Brown Square House
 Moses Brown School

References

Further reading
 Rhode Island Historical Society Moses Brown Papers
 Moses Brown School History
 Charles Rappleye, Sons of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade, and the American Revolution (Simon & Schuster, New York: 2006)

 Encyclopedia Brunoniana
 Brown University Charter
 John and Moses Brown reviewed in the Providence Journal with portraits of both
  Hidden in Plain Sight: Slavery and Justice in Rhode Island - an address by Brown President Ruth J. Simmons at St. John's College, Cambridge University on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Act of Parliament abolishing the British slave trade
 Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice

External links
 Emlen Family Papers from Swarthmore College Peace Collection

1738 births
1836 deaths
18th-century American inventors
Abolitionists from Rhode Island
American Christian pacifists
American manufacturing businesspeople
American Quakers
American slave owners
American slave traders
American tax resisters
Moses Brown
Brown University people
Converts to Quakerism
History of religion in the United States
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
People of colonial Rhode Island
Quaker abolitionists
Quaker slave owners
University and college founders
Inventors from Rhode Island
19th-century American merchants

Moses Brown


Ayça Elif Varlıer (born 7 May 1977) is a Turkish actress, singer, composer and TV presenter.

Born in 1977 in Ankara, while she was going to high school she moved to the United States and finished her education there. She later graduated from University of Hartford Hartt School. She worked in a number of plays during her time in the US and returned to Turkey in 2000. In 2004, she got her first television role in Karım ve Annem. Her breakthrough came in 2005 with her role in Gümüş. In 2007, she got a leading role in the play Hisseli Harikalar Kumpanyası. She had her first leading role on TV in Son Bahar (2008). In 2010, for her role in the musical Leyla'nın Evi she won an Afife Theater Award, a Sadri Alışık Award and a Vasfi Rıza Zobu Theater Award. In 2013, her first studio album Elif was released. In the following years she got main roles in the movies Taş Mektep (2013), Günce (2013), Olur Olur (2014) and Mavi Gece (2015). In 2015, for her performance in the play Fosforlu'nun Hikayesi she won another Sadri Alışık Award. As of 2017, Varlıer stars in the TV series Kalk Gidelim.

Early life and education
Varlıer was born on 7 May 1977 in Ankara as the second daughter of ballerina Duygu Varlıer and economist Oktay Varlıer. She has an older sister named Aslı. While at the second year of high school, she went to New Jersey as part of a student exchange program. After graduating from high school, she studied musical theater at University of Hartford Hartt School. Later she participated in a mutual program between Harvard University and Moscow Art Theatre School and studied acting for 4 months in Moscow.

Career

1998–2004: Early works
By the end of her studies, she was chosen by The Acting Company to work in a number of theater plays. Spring Awakening, Cher Molière, Man of La Mancha, Carnival, Guys and Dolls, Working, 42nd St., Henry IV, Battleship Potemkin and Virgin Trunk were among the musicals and plays in which she played a role. After September 11 attacks her visa was not renewed and she returned to Turkey. Following her return, she accompanied pianist Fahir Atakoğlu as a soloist. In 2004, she made her television debut with Kanal D's series Karım ve Annem as Doctor Buket.

2005–2010: Rise to fame and first leading roles
From January 2005 to June 2007 she portrayed the character of Pınar in Kanal D's series Gümüş. Due to the series popularity in the Arab World, she became a familiar name in the households. On 15 February 2005, she had portrayed the character of Anita in Leonard Bernstein's musical West Side Story, which was directed by Altan Günbay. In 2005, she portrayed Cinderella in an episode of Anlat İstanbul and also starred as Evrim in the movie O Şimdi Mahkum. In 2007, she portrayed Burcu in Turkmax's TV film Havva Durumu. She appeared on stage on 26 June 2007 in Haldun Dormen's musical Hisseli Harikalar Kumpanyası and played the character of Süheyla. On 13 August 2007, she appeared on stage again at Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre in the rock musical Rock Müzikaller. In 2008, she portrayed the character of Doctor Neşe in the second season of Show TV's Kurtlar Vadisi Pusu; during the same period, from March to June 2008, she played as Gizem in ATV's series Limon Ağacı. In August 2008, together with her family she found the WAMP management, organization and designing company.

In September 2008, she got her first leading role in TV as Sabiha Yılmaz in Star TV's Son Bahar. She played opposite Erkan Petekkaya and the series finished in October 2008. From 2009 to 2010, she portrayed the character of Doctor Hayat in a number of episodes of Kanal D's Geniş Aile. On 24 March 2010, she portrayed the character of an ill person with MS in Haldun Durmen's play Sil Baştan.

2010–2014: First studio album
On 6 May 2010, she started appearing on stage at Tiyatrokare as Roxy in the musical Leyla'nın Evi, based on Zülfü Livaneli's novel of the same name and directed by Nedim Saban. For her performance in this musical; on 21 March 2011, she won the Best Comedy and Musical Actress award at the 15th Afife Theater Awards. On 25 April 2011, she won the Best Actress award at the 16th Sadri Alışık Award, followed by another award at the Vasfı Rıza Zobu Theater Awards ceremony. She later got a role in Engin Alkan's musical Hekate'nin Şarkısı, which was organized by Istanbul City Theatres and first went on stage on 10 May 2010 at the 17th International Istanbul Theater Festival. She later recorded the song "Bir Zaman Hatası" for Emir Ersoy & Projecto Cubano's compilation album Yaşama Bir Şans Ver, which was released by Soulfulworks Records on 6 August 2010.

From 2010 to 2011, she portrayed the character of Bahar in a number of episodes of Star TV's Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi. From January to April 2012, she played opposite Bülent Emin Yarar as Buket in Star TV's series Kalbim 4 Mevsim. She later recorded the song "Sil Baştan" for Emir Ersoy & Projecto Cubano's new compilation album Karnaval which was released by TMC on 12 May 2012. On 6 February 2013, her first studio album Elif was released by TMC. The album contained 8 songs, 5 of which were composed by herself.

From February to April 2014 she portrayed the character of Yıldız Gökçener in Kanal D's Zeytin Tepesi. At the same year, she starred as Azra in Kerem Çakıroğlu's movie Olur Olur!. The following year, he played the role of Doctor Emel in Ahmet Hoşsöyler's Mavi Gece, a fantasy comedy movie in which she starred opposite Fırat Tanış. In 2015, she participated in a project for Hope Foundation for Children with Cancer and read Emre Kalcı's poet "Anlama Hâli" on the song "Zamansız", which was performed by Işın Karaca and included in the album Emre Kalcı Şiirleriyle... Aşkın On Hâli. It was released by DMC on 2 June 2015.

2015–present
In 2015, she portrayed the character of Fosforlu Cevriye in the musical Fosforlu'nun Hikayesi, based on Suat Derviş's novel Fosforlu Cevriye and directed by Serkan Üstüner. It was organized by Tuncer Cücenoğlu and went on stage at Tiyatrokare on 12 September 2015. For her performance, she won the Best Comedy and Musical Actress at the 21st Sadri Alışık Theater and Cinema Awards on 2 May 2016. From March to June 2016, she starred as Leyla Bozoğlu in ATV's series Kehribar. At the same year, she appeared as Ayla Öker in one episode of Mordkommission Istanbul, which aired on Das Erste in Germany. On Valentine's Day 2017, she released a music video for her song "Hoşçakal" on YouTube, which was written by herself. She later made a guest appearance in Kanal D's Hayat Şarkısı as the character Mahsa. On 24 April 2017, she presented the 21st Afife Theater Awards at Haliç Congress Center.

Since November 2017, she has been starring in TRT 1's series Kalk Gidelim as Nurcan Dal. She also appeared as Zühre, in the musical Tahir ile Zühre, which was directed by Onur Turan and written by Şefik Onat. The show first went on stage on 19 December 2017.

Personal life
She has an older sister named Aslı Varlıer Pelit. Varlıer lives with her family in a villa in Beykoz, Istanbul.

Theater

Filmography

Discography
Studio album
 Elif (2013, TMC)

Single
 "Hoşçakal" (2017)

As featured artist
 Yaşama Bir Şans Ver (2010, Emir Ersoy & Projecto Cubano, Soulfulworks Records)
 Karnaval (2012, Emir Ersoy & Projecto Cubano, TMC)
 Emre Kalcı Şiirleriyle... Aşkın On Hâli (2015, DMC)

References

External links

 WAMP official website

1977 births
Living people
Actresses from Ankara
Turkish film actresses
Turkish television actresses
21st-century Turkish actresses
Turkish stage actresses

Ayça Varlıer


Catanduanes, officially the Province of Catanduanes (), is an island province in the Philippines. It is in the Bicol Region in Luzon. Its capital is Virac. Previously part of Albay province, it gained provincial autonomy on September 26, 1945. Its population was 260,964 people in the 2015 census, covering an area of 3,915 square kilometers.

Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines

Catanduanes


Sir Kenneth Henry Grange  (born 17 July 1929, London) is a British industrial designer, renowned for a wide range of designs for familiar, everyday objects.

Career
Grange's career began as a drafting assistant with the architect Jack Howe in the 1950s. His independent career started rather accidentally with commissions for exhibition stands, but by the early 1970s he was a founding-partner in Pentagram, an interdisciplinary design consultancy.

Grange's career has spanned more than half a century, and many of his designs became – and are still – familiar items in the household or on the street. These designs include the first UK parking meters for Venner, kettles and food mixers for Kenwood, razors for Wilkinson Sword, cameras for Kodak, typewriters for Imperial, clothes irons for Morphy Richards, cigarette lighters for Ronson, washing machines for Bendix, pens for Parker, bus shelters, Reuters computers, and regional Royal Mail postboxes.

Grange was also responsible for the aerodynamics, interior layout and exterior styling of the nose cone of British Rail's High Speed Train (known as the InterCity 125) and also involved in the design of the 1997 LTI TX1 version of the famous London taxicab. He has carried out many commissions for Japanese companies.

One quality of much of Grange's design work is that it is not based on just the styling of a product. His design concepts arise from a fundamental reassessment of the purpose, function and use of the product. He has also said that his attitude to designing any product is that he wants it to be "a pleasure to use". Grange was a pioneer of user-centred design, aiming to eliminate what he sees as the "contradictions" inherent in products that fail to embody ease-of-use.

Since retiring from Pentagram in 1997, Grange continues to work independently. Recent work has included door handles for Ize Ltd., desk and floor lamps for Anglepoise, and a chair for the elderly for Hitch Mylius.

The First Production HST power car, 43 002, was repainted by Great Western Railway in to the original British Rail Inter-City livery, and then named in his honour by Grange on 2 May 2016 at St Philip's Marsh GWR HST depot in Bristol, on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the first passenger services of the Intercity 125. Grange later visited York in October 2016, and 'signed' power car 43 185 using spray paint. Grange is the Honorary President of the 125 Group which has restored the original prototype HST Power Car and aims to preserve operational examples of the subsequent production HST vehicles when they are finally retired from service. After withdrawal from GWR service, 43002 joined the National Collection in September 2019 and went on display at  Locomotion.

Honours
Grange was knighted for services to design in the 2013 New Year Honours. Grange's designs have won ten Design Council Awards,
the Prince Philip Designers Prize in 1963,
and in 2001 he was awarded the Prince Philip Designers Prize – an award honouring a lifetime achievement. He has won the Gold Medal of the Chartered Society of Designers, and is a member of the Royal Society of Arts' élite Faculty of 'Royal Designers for Industry'. Grange has been awarded honorary Doctorates by the Royal College of Art, De Montfort University, Plymouth University, Heriot-Watt University, and the Open University.

The Design Museum held a major retrospective exhibition of Grange's work, July–October 2011. The RSA has an audio recording of Grange in a discussion of his work.

In media
In April 2022 Grange was featured in the BBC Two series Secrets of the Museum.

References

External links
 The Brits Who Designed the Modern World Artsnight – Series 4: 7, BBC Two
 Sir Kenneth Grange PPCSD Anglepoise
Discussion with Grange on his design of the Signature Diamond loudspeakers for Bowers & Wilkins

1929 births
Living people
British industrial designers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
History of rail transport in the United Kingdom
Pentagram partners (past and present)

Kenneth Grange


Hermann Wassertrilling, or (Hebrew: Tzvi Hirsch ben Natan Wassertrilling; born in Boskowitz, Moravia) was an Austrian Hebraist who flourished in the 19th century.

He officiated as teacher in the Jewish school of Hotzenplotz, Silesia, about 1850, and later as rabbi of Bojanowo, Provinz Posen. The following is a list of his works, all published at Breslau:

Literary works
 "Hadrat Elisha'''" (1857), an epic poem in 9 cantos, describing the life of the prophet Elisha, and giving also a brief history of contemporary kings;
 "Nezer Hamudot" (1860), an epic poem in 8 cantos, being a history of Daniel and his contemporaries under the reign of the Babylonian, Median, and Persian kings until the return of the Israelites to Jerusalem, and the building of the Second Temple;
 "Mattenat Nahali'el" (part i., 1860; part ii., 1868), a collection of legends from the Talmud, Midrash, and the midrashic commentaries, arranged in verse in the order of the weekly lessons;
 "Torat ha-Berit''" (1869), a treatise in reply to a question on circumcision addressed to the synod of Leipzig by Max Engel (July, 1869).

Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography

Rabbis from Austria-Hungary
19th-century Czech people
Czech rabbis
Czech Hebraists
Austrian Hebraists
Jewish poets
Hebrew-language poets
Czech writers in German
Czech Jews
People from Boskovice
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
People of the Haskalah

Hermann Wassertrilling


Bannfoot (Irish: Bun na Banna) is a small village in the townland of Derryinver, County Armagh, Northern Ireland. It sits where the Upper Bann flows into Lough Neagh.

History
The surrounding area was originally known as Bun na Banna, and this name has been adopted as the modern Irish for Bannfoot. There was once a fort at the mouth of the Upper Bann known as Bun an Bhealaigh, meaning "end of foot of the road or pass". This fort has been anglicised in past as "Fort Bunvalle".

In 1760 reference is made of the "Bann Foot Ferry" (sic). Charles Brownlow (1st Baron Lurgan) began building the Bannfoot cottages, to be named Charlestown in the late 1820s. Brownlow, in sitting Charlestown at the mouth of the Bann, was relying on the continued commercial success of the water routes which criss-crossed the southern part of the Lough. Barge loads of turf were sent from the Montaighs to Portadown and from there on to Scarva, Poyntzpass, Gilford and Banbridge.

A permanent bridge over the river at the Bannfoot was to be an integral part of the Charlestown development for Brownlow as it would have been the first proper link between his Montaighs and Richmond Estates. The ferry at the Bannfoot which survived until 1984 linked the Lurgan-Derrytrasna Road with the Columbkille-Maghery Road and saved the traveler at least 12 miles of a detour. The proposed bridge would have been a permanent link between Lurgan and Charlestown in Oneiland West and the Manor of Richmond and Stewartstown in Oneiland West. It is claimed he intentionally erected it equidistant (seven miles) each from Portadown, Lurgan and Stewartstown.

The Grant Jury approved the plan for the bridge as well as the proposed toll charges but the bridge was never constructed. The Canal Company objected as they felt the presence of the bridge would restrict the amount and scope of the future boat traffic in Lough Neagh, the River Bann and Newry Canal. Little did they know when the railways arrived in 1841 their business would be greatly reduced anyway.

The plan for the bridge was so far advanced that the tolls for crossing were already agreed. A coach drawn by 6 horses would cost 1s 6d, a carriage and one horse would be 0s 3d and one man, woman or child would be charged a halfpenny

A ferry was operated by the Wilson family for most of the 20th century, but it no longer exists, and a bridge has never been constructed across the river, but there have been calls for a bicycle and pedestrian bridge as a means of boosting tourism.

References

Villages in County Armagh

Bannfoot


Breaking Point or The Breaking Point may refer to:

General
 Breaking point (psychology), a critical moment of personal stress
 Breaking strength, in engineering, the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture

Film
 The Breaking Point (1921 film), an American film by  Paul Scardon
 The Breaking Point (1924 film), an American film by Herbert Brenon
 The Breaking Point (1950 film), an American adaptation of Ernest Hemingway's To Have and Have Not
 The Breaking Point (1961 film), a British crime film by Lance Comfort
 Breaking Point (1975 film), a Swedish erotic horror film by Bo Arne Vibenius
 Breaking Point (1976 film), an American film by Bob Clark
 Breaking Point (1989 film), an American television remake of the 1965 suspense film 36 Hours
 Breaking Point (1993 film), a film starring Gary Busey
 Breaking Point (2005 film), a Canadian TV documentary about the 1995 Quebec sovereignty referendum
 Breaking Point (2009 film), an American action film starring Tom Berenger

Literature
 The Breaking Point (play), a 1923 play by Mary Roberts Rinehart
 The Breaking Point (short story collection), a 1959 short story collection by Daphne du Maurier
 Breaking Point (novel), a 2002 young adult novel by Alex Flinn
 The Breaking Point, a 1922 mystery novel by Mary Roberts Rinehart

Music
 Breaking Point (band), an American hard rock/alternative rock band

Albums
 Breaking Point (Central Line album) (1982)
 Breaking Point (Digital Summer album) (2012)
 Breaking Point!, a 1964 album by Freddie Hubbard or its title composition
 Breaking Point (Lunatic Calm album) (2002)
 Breakin' Point, a 2016 album by Peter Bjorn and John

Songs
 "Breaking Point" (Bullet for My Valentine song) (2013)
 "Breaking Point" (Keri Hilson song) (2010)
 "Breakin' Point" (song), a 2016 song by Peter Bjorn and John
 "Breaking Point", a 1989 song by The Alarm
 "Breaking Point", a 2011 song by Amaranthe from Amaranthe
 "The Breaking Point", a song by Bacharach & David, covered by Normie Rowe
 "Breaking Point", a 1984 song by Bourgie Bourgie
 "Breaking Point", a 2013 song by The Browning from Hypernova
 "Breaking Point", a 2011 song by Crown the Empire from Limitless
 "Breaking Point", a 2017 song by Dead by April from Worlds Collide
 "Breaking Point", a 1988 song by the Moody Blues from Sur la Mer
 "Breaking Point", a 2007 song by Parkway Drive from Horizons

Television

Series
 Breaking Point (1963 TV series), an American medical drama
 The Breaking Point (1991 TV series), a Hong Kong series
 Breaking Point (2010 TV series), a Discovery Channel Canada reality/documentary series
 Breaking Pointe, a 2012 American reality series

Episodes
 "Breaking Point" (Alias)
 "The Breaking Point" (Band of Brothers)
 "Breaking Point" (The Outer Limits)
 UFC 81: Breaking Point, a 2008 pay-per-view event
 WWE Breaking Point, a 2009 pay-per-view event

See also
 Break point, in tennis scoring
 Breakpoint (disambiguation)
 Nervous breakdown (disambiguation)
 Point Break, a 1991 action film
 Point of no return
 Psychotic break
 Ultimate tensile strength
 Yield (engineering)

Breaking Point


Peace Circle is a traffic circle in Washington, D.C., located at the intersection of Pennsylvania Avenue and First Street NW. At its center is the Peace Monument, also known as the Naval Memorial. It is a monument to the naval deaths during the American Civil War. The monument is topped by the allegorical sculptures of Grief and History. On the southeast side facing the United States Capitol there is a figure of Peace, and on the northwest side, there are figures of Victory and the babies Mars and Neptune. The monument is located on Capitol grounds adjacent to the Capitol Reflection Pool. The monument was sculpted by Franklin Simmons and completed in 1878. The monument was restored in the 1990s.

History of Monument
The monument atop Peace Circle is in honor of the sailors who lost their lives during the American Civil War. The monument was originally to be placed at Annapolis, but for an unknown reason was built in Washington D.C. instead. The idea was created by Admiral David D. Porter, he was so enthused with the project that he fundraised for it personally and sketched a draft for it himself, this draft was passed on to Franklin Simmons who ended up sculpting the structure, along with the Bonanni Brothers in Rome Italy. The structure fell into disrepair until the 1970s where the Architect of the Capitol (AOC) was assigned to take care of it, modern weathering such as acid rain and protestors climbing the statue caused even limbs to fall off of the statues. The AOC added a special layer of protective mineral solution in order to protect the marble from modern wear and tear.

See also
List of circles in Washington, D.C.
Peace Monument
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6

References

External links
Description and history of the Peace Monument at the Architect of the Capitol
Peace Monument location details at the Architect of the Capitol

Squares, plazas, and circles in Washington, D.C.
Peace monuments and memorials
Capitol Hill

Peace Circle


Sofia the First is an American animated television series that premiered on November 18, 2012, produced by Disney Television Animation for Disney Channel and Disney Junior. Jamie Mitchell is the director and executive producer and Craig Gerber serves as creator, story editor, and producer. The show follows the adventures of Sofia, voiced by Ariel Winter. Sofia becomes a princess when her mother, Miranda, marries King Roland II of Enchancia. The show features songs by John Kavanaugh and Erica Rothschild and a musical score by Kevin Kliesch. The show had its final episode on September 8, 2018.

2012 anime television series
2013 American television series debuts
2018 American television series endings
American children's television series
American fantasy television series
2010s American animated television series
Annie Award winners
Fictional princesses
Television series by Disney

Sofia the First


The Carrabasset Inn is a historic house at the northwest corner of the junction of Union Street (Maine State Route 234) and River Road (Maine State Route 8/U.S. Route 201A) in North Anson, Maine.  Built as a private residence c. 1850, the house was altered significantly for use as a hotel after a fire devastated North Anson's business district, and served in that role as the village's only hotel into the 1940s.  It now exhibits an architecturally distinctive blend of Greek Revival, Colonial Revival, and Craftsman styling.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.  It is now a private residence.

Description and history
The Carrabasset Inn is a tall -story wood-frame structure, four bays wide, with a front gable roof, and a porch that wraps around the east and south sides of the house.  A recessed two story ell extends to the west.  The main facade (facing Union Street to the south) has a Palladian window with stained and colored glass on the second level, and the main entrance is framed by pilasters and entablature.  Above the Palladian window a gable section rises into the roof line.  The corners of the building are highlighted by paired pilasters, and a broad entablature runs below the roof line.  The interior of the house was extensively altered during the conversion of the house to a hotel, and features high quality Craftsman styling, with box beam ceilings and the use of stained and colored glass.

The construction date of the house is uncertain.  Architectural assessment based on its Greek Revival features places it around 1850, and it had acquired many of its features by the time the first known photograph of it was taken in 1875.  At that time, then main entrance faced east, toward River Road, and included a porch that only extended across the eastern facade.  After the 1913 fire destroyed much of North Anson's central business district, including all of the area hotels, this house was immediately altered to serve as a hotel by N. W. Murphy, whose Somerset Hotel had been the community's largest.  From then until the 1940s, when it finally closed, it served as the community's only known lodging facility.  It was converted to a private residence thereafter, removing a portion of the rear wing to another site.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Somerset County, Maine

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Greek Revival houses in Maine
Colonial Revival architecture in Maine
Houses completed in 1913
Houses in Somerset County, Maine
1913 establishments in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Somerset County, Maine

Carrabasset Inn


106 & Park is  an American hip hop and R&B music video show, set up in a countdown format, that was broadcast on weekdays at 6:00 pm ET/5:00 pm CT on BET; it aired on a one-day delay on BET International. It was the network's highest-rated show throughout its run. On November 14, 2014, BET cancelled 106 & Park, with an alleged shift to a digital-only format, with occasional specials during network event programming, though the last time it was seen in any form was the 2016 BET Experience, and the digital-only program never aired.

The energy changed on the "Freestyle Friday" segment of the show in 2011/2012 when Payne Da Squad Boy landed on the show. His national debut came when he was signed up for Freestyle Friday (a weekly battle rap segment on pop culture's #1 Music Video show, BET's 106 & Park). Payne Da Squad Boy became the new Champion his first show, won the entire Wild Card Season, made the #8 seed & went all the way to the Final Four in the March Mayhem Competition. "One thing for sure... Payne Da Squad Boy is one of the best to ever do it on Freestyle Friday" says Pat Charles (the creator of Freestyle Friday). Participating on this show, Payne had the pleasure of meeting celebrities such as DJ Envy, Angela Yee, Charlamagne Tha God, Funk Master Flex, Sonny Digital, DJ Scream, E-40, Juelz Santana, Lil Scrappy, Gudda Gudda, 2 Chainz, The Game, 1017 Bricksquad Mafia, Cassidy, Alicia Keys, Bone Crusher, DJ Premier, Mac Miller, Malice, Young Jeezy, Superstar J, B-Rich, Lil Kim, Ron Browz, DJ Reymo and of course Terrence J & Rocsi.

Location
The show was originally produced in Harlem, New York City, and the title of the show is derived from the original studio location, NEP's Metropolis Studios, at East 106th Street and Park Avenue. In 2001, Viacom's acquisition of BET prompted a change to the CBS Broadcast Center at 524 West 57th Street between 10th & 11th Avenues, in the Hell's Kitchen section of Midtown Manhattan, turning its title into a misnomer for the rest of its history.

Hosts

A. J. & Free (2000–2005)
A. J. Calloway and Marie "Free" Wright were the first hosts of the show from September 11, 2000 until July 28, 2005, when Calloway announced that it would be his last show, as well as for Free (who spoke via phone), as the show was either presented by Calloway or Wright.

Julissa & Big Tigger (2005–2006)
On August 1, 2005, 106 & Park was presented by television personality and model Julissa Bermudez and Rap City: Tha Basement'''s Big Tigger until July 3, 2006 as temporary replacements for the show before they find another female co-host for Terrence J. Around this time, Terrence J would be guest co-host the show with Julissa. Celebrities (Bow Wow and Mýa) hosted the show as well.

Terrence J & Rocsi (2006–2012)
On July 6, 2006, Rocsi (Raquel Diaz), then an afternoon host for Chicago's radio station WPWX (92.3), and Terrence J (Terrence Jenkins) became the hosts after winning BET's "New Faces" contest. On May 29, 2012, Rocsi and Terrence J announced they would be leaving 106 & Park in 2012. Thus beginning a nationwide search for the next hosts of 106 & Park, which started on June 1, 2012 and ended on October 1, 2012. Terrence J and Rocsi's last episode as hosts was broadcast on September 28, 2012. The announcement for the new hosts of 106 & Park was broadcast on Monday.

The highly anticipated farewell episode aired on September 28, 2012, and was hosted by La La Anthony and Pooch Hall. In the taped video messages, several celebrities wish their farewell for Terrence J and Rocsi. They included Jim Jones, French Montana, Julissa and Big Tigger (former hosts of the show), 2 Chainz, Ace Hood, Alicia Keys, Amar'e Stoudemire, Big Sean, B.o.B, Bobby V., Brandy Norwood, Busta Rhymes, Cassidy, Ciara, Common, Doug E. Fresh, DMX, Dwyane Wade, Elle Varner, E-40, Future, Jacob Latimore, Keke Palmer, Mary J. Blige, MGK, Mike Epps, Ne-Yo, Shannon Brown and Monica, Stalley, Rick Ross, Robin Thicke, T.I., Wyclef Jean and Bow Wow (who later hosted with Miss Mykie for next month).

Bow Wow & "The Search" (2012–2013)
On October 1, 2012, the new hosts for 106 & Park were announced, including Shad "Bow Wow" Moss, Jordan "Shorty da Prince" Johnson, Kimberly "Paigion" Walker and Mykel "Miss Mykie" Gray. For the first time in the show's 12-year history, there were officially four hosts for 106 & Park, instead of two. On January 15, 2013, 106 & Park revealed a new set, graphics, logo, and theme music. On January 23, 2013, former host Rocsi Diaz made an unannounced appearance on the show. New segments included "The Mykie Report", "The Battle of the Sexes", "Girl Chat", "Inside the Rapper's Studio", "Virtually Famous" and other programs with 106 & Park guest correspondent "Franky J" in future works. On July 3, 2013, after several weeks of rumors and speculation about the fates of Johnson, Walker and Gray returning to the show, BET released a statement confirming the news that they would not return to the show. The hosts have never appeared on the show in the nearly two months since May 2013. Bow Wow remained as a permanent host on the show, along with Angela Simmons serving as a temporary co-host for the summer, her last day was on September 30, 2013, along with special guest co-hosts such as Adrienne Bailon.

Bow Wow & Keshia Chanté (2013–2014)
On September 27, 2013, Canadian rapper Drake made the official announcement that Bow Wow would be joined by another Canadian Keshia Chanté as the official new co-host, who would officially start on October 1, 2013. On November 14, 2014, BET cancelled 106 & Park. The show aired its final episode on December 19, 2014.

Broadcasting history
The show launched as an hour-long show until expanding to 90 minutes in 2001.
In New Year's Eve (for all years), the show introduces to its only holiday special, called 106 & Party, along with performances by all artists.
In 2008, the show was expanded to two hours with occasional 90-minute episodes during eventual weeks. The show celebrated its 2,000th episode on August 20, 2008.
From July 25, 2011 to September 2, 2011, the show was also expanded to three hours.

The show's "10th anniversary" special was on October 6, 2010. The previous hosts, A. J. Calloway & Free (original; 2000–2005), Julissa & Big Tigger (2005–2006) returned to the show to celebrate along with current hosts Terrence J and Rocsi.

The show's final episode ("The Final Act") was on December 19, 2014. The previous hosts, A. J. Calloway & Free (original; 2000–2005), Julissa & Big Tigger (2005–2006), Terrence J & Rocsi (2006–2012) and Shorty da Prince, Paigion and Miss Mykie of "The Search" (2012–2013) also returned to the show to honor with current hosts Bow Wow and Keshia Chanté with a special guest appearance by Keyshia Cole.

Freestyle Friday
Introduced in the mid-2000s, one popular segment is called Freestyle Friday, featured two aspiring rappers competing in a freestyle battle until the studio audience and celebrity judges, alternating for 30 seconds in each of two rounds.

BET Experience
The show returned during the 2015 BET Experience from Los Angeles. It was hosted by Ray J and Tinashe on June 26, 2015, along with Yara Shahidi, Marcus Scribner and Keshia Chanté on June 27, 2015. It returned again in 2016 for the last time.

106 & Park Video Hall of Fame
As with TRLs "Retirement Home", a video which appeared on the countdown 65 times would be retired from further countdown consideration and be placed into the "106 & Park Video Hall of Fame". This normally occurred frequently, and earned Bow Wow the permanent title of Mr. 106 & Park, and Aaliyah (died in 2001) the permanent title of Miss 106 & Park for having the most #1's of their respective genders. The final video to be retired was "Ridin'" by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone on December 19, 2014.

Reception
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook likes found that 106 & Park'' "is popular in the New York metro area, generally"

See also
 106 & Gospel (a short-lived, religious-themed spin-off that featured with gospel artists)

References

External links

 106 & Park Connect

2000 American television series debuts
2014 American television series endings
2000s American music television series
2010s American music television series
BET original programming
English-language television shows
Hip hop television
Pop music television series

106 & Park


Albert Sidney Johnston (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) served as a general in three different armies: the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in the Black Hawk War, the Texas-Indian Wars, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War, and the American Civil War.

Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of Robert E. Lee, he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. Johnston was the highest-ranking officer on either side killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston "was the turning point of our fate."

Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston.

Early life and education
Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis. Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826, Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry.

Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri. In August 1827 he participated in the expedition to capture Red Bird, the rebellious Winnebago chief. Johnston later wrote: "I must confess that I consider Red Bird one of the noblest and most dignified men I ever saw... He said: 'I have offended. I sacrifice myself to save my country.'" Johnston served in the brief Black Hawk War of 1832 as chief of staff to Brevet Brigadier General Henry Atkinson. The commander praised Johnston for "talents of the first order, a gallant soldier by profession and education and a gentleman of high standing and integrity."

Marriage and family

In 1829, he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston. They had three children, of whom two survived to adulthood. Their son, William Preston Johnston, became a colonel in the Confederate States Army. The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis.

After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas in 1838-40, Johnston resigned and went back to Kentucky. In 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wife's first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a large plantation in Brazoria County. Johnston named the property "China Grove". Here they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. A sixth child was born later when the family lived in Los Angeles, where they had permanently settled.

Texian Army
Johnson moved to Texas in 1836 and enlisted as a private in the Texian Army after the Texas War of Independence from the Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army.

On February 5, 1837, Johnston fought in a duel with Texas Brigadier General Felix Huston, who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion. Huston had been the acting commander of the army and perceived Johnston's appointment as a slight from the Texas government. Johnston was shot through the hip and severely wounded, requiring him to relinquish his post during his recovery.

Afterwards, Johnston said he fought Huston "as a public duty... he had but little respect for the practice of dueling." He believed that the "safety of the republic depended upon the efficiency of the army... and upon the good discipline and subordination of the troops, which could only be secured by their obedience to their legal commander. General Huston embodied the lawless spirit in the army, which had to be met and controlled at whatever personal peril."

Many years later, Huston said that the duel was "a shameful piece of business, and I wouldn't do it again under any circumstances... Why, when I reflect upon the circumstances, I hate myself... that one act blackened all the good ones of my life. But I couldn't challenge Congress; and President Houston, although a duelist, was too far above me in rank. Well, thank God, I didn't kill him."

On December 22, 1838, Mirabeau B. Lamar, the second president of the Republic of Texas, appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He defended the Texas border against Mexican attempts to recover the state in rebellion. In 1839, he campaigned against Native Americans in northern Texas during the Cherokee War of 1838-39. At the Battle of the Neches, Johnston and Vice President David G. Burnet were both cited in the commander's report "for active exertions on the field" and "having behaved in such a manner as reflects great credit upon themselves." In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky.

United States Army

When the United States declared war on Mexico in May 1846, Johnston rode 400 miles from his home in Galveston to Port Isabel to volunteer for service in Brigadier General Zachary Taylor's Army of Occupation. Johnston was elected as colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers but the enlistments of his soldiers ran out just before the army's advance on Monterrey, so Taylor appointed him as the inspector general of Brigadier General William O. Butler's division of volunteers. Johnston convinced a few volunteers of his former regiment to stay on and fight.

During the Battle of Monterrey, Butler was wounded and carried to the rear, and Johnston assumed an active leadership role in the division. Future U.S. general, Joseph Hooker, was with Johnston at Monterrey and wrote: "It was through [Johnston's] agency, mainly, that our division was saved from a cruel slaughter... The coolness and magnificent presence [that he] displayed on this field... left an impression on my mind that I have never forgotten." General Taylor considered Johnston "the best soldier he had ever commanded."

Johnston resigned from the army just after the battle of Monterrey in October 1846. He had promised his wife, Eliza, that he would only volunteer for six months' service. In addition, President James K. Polk's administration's preference for officers associated with the Democratic Party prevented the promotion of those, such as Johnston, who were perceived as Whigs:

He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president Zachary Taylor to the U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849 for a district of Texas encompassing the military posts from the upper Colorado River to the upper Trinity River. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours and traveling more than  annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at Fort Mason and elsewhere in the western United States.

In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern 5th U.S.), a new regiment, which he organized, his lieutenant colonel being Robert E. Lee, and his majors William J. Hardee and George H. Thomas. Other subordinates in this unit included Earl Van Dorn, Edmund Kirby Smith, Nathan G. Evans, Innis N. Palmer, George Stoneman, R.W. Johnson, John B. Hood, and Charles W. Field, all future Civil War generals. On the 31st of March 1856, Johnston received a promotion to temporary command of the entire Department of Texas. He campaigned aggressively against the Comanche, writing to his daughter that "the Indians harass our frontiers and the 2nd Cavalry and other troops thrash them wherever they catch them." In March 1857, Brigadier General David E. Twiggs was appointed permanent commander of the department and Johnston returned to his position as colonel of the 2nd Cavalry.

Utah War
As a key figure in the Utah War, Johnston took command of the U.S. forces dispatched to crush the Mormon rebellion in November 1857. Their objective was to install Alfred Cumming as governor of the Utah Territory, replacing Brigham Young, and restore U.S. legal authority in the region. As Johnston had replaced Brigadier General William S. Harney in command, he only joined the army after it had already departed for Utah. Johnston's adjutant general, and future U.S. general in the Civil War, Major Fitz John Porter wrote: "Experienced on the Plains and of established reputation for energy, courage, and resources, [Johnston's] presence restored confidence at all points, and encouraged the weak-hearted and panic-stricken multitude. The long chain of wagons, kinked, tangled, and hard to move, uncoiled and went forward smoothly."

Johnston worked tirelessly over the next few months to maintain the effectiveness of his army in the harsh winter environment at Fort Bridger, Wyoming. Major Porter wrote to an associate: "Col. Johnston has done everything to add to the efficiency of the command – and put it in a condition to sustain the dignity and honor of the country – More he cannot do… Don't let any one come here over Col. Johnston – It would be much against the wishes and hopes of everyone here – who would gladly see him a Brigadier General." Even the Mormons commended Johnston's actions, with the Salt Lake City Deseret News reporting that "It takes a cool brain and good judgment to maintain a contented army and healthy camp through a stormy winter in the Wasatch Mountains."

Johnston and his troops hoped for war. They had learned of the Mountain Meadows massacre and wanted revenge against the Mormons. However, a peaceful resolution was reached after the army had endured the harsh winter at Fort Bridger. In late June 1858, Johnston led the army through Salt Lake City without incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles distant. In a report to the War Department, Johnston reported that "horrible crimes… have been perpetrated in this territory, crimes of a magnitude and of an apparently studied refinement in atrocity, hardly to be conceived of, and which have gone unwhipped of justice." Nevertheless, Johnston's army peacefully occupied the Utah Territory. U.S. Army Commander-in-Chief, Major General Winfield Scott, was delighted with Johnston's performance during the campaign and recommended his promotion to brevet brigadier general: "Colonel Johns[t]on is more than a good officer – he is a God send to the country thro' the army." The Senate confirmed Johnston's promotion on the 24th of March 1858.

With regard to the relations established by Johnston with the Native American tribes of the area, Major Porter reported that "Colonel Johnston took every occasion to bring the Indians within knowledge and influence of the army, and induced numerous chiefs to come to his camp... Colonel Johnston was ever kind, but firm, and dignified to them... The Utes, Pi-Utes, Bannocks, and other tribes, visited Colonel Johnston, and all went away expressing themselves pleased, assuring him that so long as he remained they would prove his friends, which the colonel told them would be best for them. Thus he effectively destroyed all influence of the Mormons over them, and insured friendly treatment to travelers to and from California and Oregon."

In August 1859, parts of Johnston's Army of Utah were implicated as participants in an alleged massacre at Spring Valley, a retaliation against an Indian massacre of an emigrant train to California. There are conflicting reports of the event and Johnston only referenced it in a November 1859 report to Scott. He wrote: "I have ascertained that three [emigrant] parties were robbed, and ten or twelve of their members, comprising men, women, and children, murdered... The perpetrators of the robbery of the first party were severely chastised by a detachment of dragoons, under the command of Lieutenant Gay. The troops failed to discover the robbers of the last two parties that were attacked. They are supposed to be vagabonds from the Shoshonee (sic) or Snake and Bannack (sic) Indians, whose chiefs deny any complicity with these predatory bands. There is abundant evidence to prove that these robber bands are accompanied by white men, and probably instigated and led by them. On that account I am inclined to believe the disclaimer of the Indians referred to, of having any knowledge of the robberies or any share in the plunder." The only evidence of the massacre is the account of Elijah Nicholas Wilson (written in 1910, about 51 years after the incident) and oral histories.

In late February 1860, Johnston received orders from the War Department recalling him to Washington D.C. to prepare for a new assignment. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific.

Slavery
Johnston was a slave owner and a strong supporter of slavery. By 1846, he owned four slaves in Texas. In 1855, having discovered that a slave was stealing from the Army payroll, Johnston refused to have him physically punished and instead sold him for $1,000 to recoup the losses. Johnston explained that "whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit the [culprit], whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest." In 1856, he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolatrous, negro worshipping" in a letter to his son, fearing that the abolitionists would incite a slave revolt in the Southern states. Upon moving to California, Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another, Randolph or "Ran", who agreed to accompany the family on the condition of a $12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the American Civil War until the latter's death. Johnston's wife Eliza celebrated the absence of blacks in California, writing, "where the darky is in any numbers it should be as slaves."

American Civil War

At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific in California. Like many regular army officers from the Southern United States, he opposed secession. Nevertheless, Johnston resigned his commission soon after he heard of the Confederate states' declarations of secession. The War Department accepted it on May 6, 1861, effective May 3. On April 28, he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother John Griffin. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home in Los Angeles. His eldest son, Capt. Albert S. Johnston, Jr. was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty in Los Angeles in 1863.

Soon, Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch on May 27. He participated in their trek across the Southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona on July 4, 1861. His escort was commanded by Alonzo Ridley, Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed.

Early in the Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much territory as possible, distributing military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains. Aged 58 when the war began, Johnson was old by Army standards. He came east to offer his service for the Confederacy without having been promised anything, merely hoping for an assignment.

The most sensitive, and in many ways, the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed under the command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general. Their impolitic occupation of Columbus, Kentucky, on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Richmond, Virginia, after his cross-country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality. The majority of Kentuckians allied with the U.S. camp. Polk and Pillow's action gave U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of Paducah, Kentucky, without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-U.S. majority in the State legislature.

Confederate command in Western Theater
On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas. He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the Western Department or Western Military Department. Johnston's appointment as a full general by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis had already been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second-highest-ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead of him. After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He was permitted to call on Arkansas, Tennessee, and Mississippi governors for new troops. However, politics largely stifled this authority, especially concerning Mississippi. On September 13, 1861, Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer with 4,000 men to occupy Cumberland Gap in Kentucky to block U.S. troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with the United States after the occupation of Columbus by Polk. By September 18, Johnston had Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner with another 4,000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at Bowling Green, Kentucky.

Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price. Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from the governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had. As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months. Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused U.S. Brig. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he became paranoid and mentally unstable. Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces and was relieved by Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on November 9, 1861. However, in his Memoirs, Sherman strongly refutes this account.

Battle of Mill Springs
East Tennessee (a heavily pro-U.S. region of the southern U.S. during the Civil War) was occupied for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: Felix Zollicoffer, a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer, and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden, a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now Nancy, Kentucky), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of the scarcity of transport and proximity of U.S. troops. When U.S. Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the U.S. forces could unite. At the Battle of Mill Springs on January 19, 1862, the ill-prepared Confederates, after a night march in the rain, attacked the U.S. soldiers with some initial success. As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a U.S. bayonet charge, suffering 533 casualties from their force of 4,000 while Crittenden's conduct in the battle was so inept that subordinates accused him of being drunk. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct.

After the Confederate defeat at Mill Springs, Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, considered incompetent. He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated U.S. commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater. U.S. Army officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces.

Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville
Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had a vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats.

Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command, Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer, Lt. Joseph K. Dixon, to inspect the forts. After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them, and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command the forts, but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman as commander.

To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group, Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5,000 men to Fort Donelson. Pillow took up a position at nearby Clarksville, Tennessee, and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862. Alerted by a U.S. reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which were too late to be adequately carried out in any event.

Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, U.S. gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force, which had not been sent to Fort Donelson, before Grant's U.S. forces could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862.

Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision given his thought that the U.S. gunboats alone could take the fort. He ordered the fort commanders to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held. The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties, with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner. U.S. casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, and 224 missing.

Johnston, who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson based on seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison, took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of U.S. advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to an imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to U.S. forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out to avoid having them captured as well.

Concentration at Corinth
Johnston was in a perilous situation after the fall of Ft. Donelson and Henry; with barely 17,000 men to face an overwhelming concentration of Union force, he hastily fled south into Mississippi by way of Nashville and then into northern Alabama. Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command, the Army of Central Kentucky, from the vicinity of Nashville. With Beauregard's help, Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of Corinth, Mississippi, which he reached by a circuitous route. Johnston kept the U.S. forces, now under the overall command of Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck, confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected. He scraped together reinforcements from Louisiana, as well as part of Polk's force at Island No. 10, and 10,000 additional troops under Braxton Bragg brought up from Mobile. Bragg at least calmed the nerves of Beauregard and Polk, who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces, before Johnston's arrival on March 24, 1862.

Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which Beauregard had organized it on March 5.

Johnston's only hope was to crush Grant before Buell and others could reinforce him. He started his army in motion on April 3, intent on surprising Grant's force as soon as the next day. It was not an easy undertaking; his army had been hastily thrown together, two-thirds of the soldiers had never fired a shot in battle, and drill, discipline, and staff work were so poor that the different divisions kept stumbling into each other on the march. Beauregard felt that this offensive was a mistake and could not possibly succeed, but Johnson replied "I would fight them if they were a million" as he drove his army on to Pittsburg Landing. His army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862.

Battle of Shiloh and death
Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the U.S. camps, Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the U.S. camps and was outraged to see a young lieutenant among them. "None of that, sir", Johnston roared at the officer, "we are not here for plunder." Then, realizing he had embarrassed the man, he picked up a tin cup from a table and announced, "Let this be my share of the spoils today", before directing his army onward.

At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a U.S. camp near the "Peach Orchard", he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery, and his boot filled up with blood. No medical personnel were on the scene since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and U.S. prisoners earlier in the battle.

Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was Isham G. Harris, the Governor of Tennessee, who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: "General, are you wounded?" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and said his last words in a weak voice: "Yes... and I fear seriously." Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse, carried him to a small ravine near the "Hornets Nest", and desperately tried to aid the general, who had lost consciousness. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not apply a tourniquet to Johnson's wounded leg. A few minutes later, Johnston died from blood loss before a doctor could be found. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. Ironically, it was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died.Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket to not damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse, Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent for the remainder of the battle. P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army. He resumed leading the Confederate assault, which continued advancing and pushed the U.S. forces back to a final defensive line near the Tennessee river. With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone, Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours, figuring he could finish off the U.S. army the following morning. However, Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio during the night and led a successful counter-attack the following day, driving the Confederates from the field and winning the battle. As the Confederate army retreated to Corinth, Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours.

It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round, as many Confederates were firing at the U.S. lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. Alonzo Ridley of Los Angeles commanded the bodyguard "the Guides" of Gen. A. S. Johnston and was by his side when he fell.

Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him the best general in the country.

Legacy and honors

Johnston was survived by his wife, Eliza, and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. John Strother Griffin. Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, Albert Jr. was on his way out of San Pedro harbor on a ferry after taking home leave in Los Angeles. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident.

Upon his passing, General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government: accounts were published on December 20, 1862, and after that, in the Los Angeles Star of his family's hometown. Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in northeast Los Angeles, are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood.

Johnston was initially buried in New Orleans. In 1866, a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed Elisabet Ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at the grave site, installed in 1905.

The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's plantation. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the Daughters of The Republic of Texas and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederate States of America.

In 1916, the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans (including Johnston) with statues on its South Mall. On August 21, 2017, as part of the wave of confederate monument removals in America, Johnston's statue was taken down. Plans were announced to add it to the Briscoe Center for American History on the east side of the university campus.

Johnston was inducted to the Texas Military Hall of Honor in 1980.

In the fall of 2018, A. S. Johnston Elementary School in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Cedar Crest Elementary. Johnston Middle School in Houston, Texas, was also renamed Meyerland Middle School. Three other elementary schools named for Confederate veterans were renamed simultaneously.

See also

 Albert Sidney Johnston High School, a defunct public high school in Austin, Texas
 Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (Texas State Cemetery), a 1903 memorial sculpture by Elisabet Ney
 Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (University of Texas at Austin), a statue by Pompeo Coppini
 List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)
 List of Confederate monuments and memorials

Notes

References
 Beauregard, G. T. The Campaign of Shiloh. p. 579. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. I, edited by Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence C. Buel. New York: Century Co., 1884–1888. .

 Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. .

 Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .

 Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. .

Further reading

External links

Eliza Johnston, Wife Of Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston
Albert Sidney Johnston at Handbook of Texas Online

1803 births
1862 deaths

Confederate States of America military personnel killed in the American Civil War
Deaths from bleeding
Burials at Texas State Cemetery
Confederate States Army full generals
People from Washington, Kentucky
Military personnel from Texas
People of California in the American Civil War
People of Texas in the American Civil War
American people of the Black Hawk War
Transylvania University alumni
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
People of the Texas Revolution
People of the Utah War
Proslavery activists killed in the American Civil War
Slave owners killed in the American Civil War
United States politicians killed during the Civil War
Preston family of Virginia

Albert Sidney Johnston


Dillon v. Gloss, 256 U.S. 368 (1921), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that Congress, when proposing a constitutional amendment under the authority given to it by Article V of the Constitution, may fix a definite period for its ratification, and further, that the reasonableness of the seven-year period, fixed by Congress in the resolution proposing the Eighteenth Amendment is beyond question. Additionally, the Court, upon taking judicial notice that the Eighteenth Amendment became a part of the Constitution on January 16, 1919, when its ratification in the state legislatures was consummated, held that the National Prohibition Act, known informally as the Volstead Act, entered into force on January 16, 1920.

Background
Dillon had been arrested pursuant to the National Prohibition Act, title 2, § 3, and was in custody under § 26.  He was denied his petition for a writ of habeas corpus, and appealed the denial. Dillon claimed that the Eighteenth Amendment, which Title 2 of the act was adopted to enforce, was invalid, because the Congress, in declaring that it should be inoperative unless ratified within seven years, had acted outside its constitutional authority; and, secondly, that, in any event, the law he was charged with violating, and under which he was arrested, had not gone into effect at the time of the asserted violation nor at the time of his arrest on January 17, 1920.

Syllabus
 Article V of the Constitution implies that amendments submitted thereunder must be ratified, if at all, within some reasonable time after their proposal. This was modified in 1939 by Coleman v. Miller, which ruled that proposed amendments with no specified expiration pend ratification before the States indefinitely.
 Under Article V, Congress, in proposing an amendment, may fix a reasonable time for its ratification.
 The period of seven years, fixed by Congress in the resolution proposing the Eighteenth Amendment was reasonable.
 The Eighteenth Amendment became a part of the Constitution on January 16, 1919, when, as the Court notices judicially, its ratification in the state legislatures was consummated, not on January 29, 1919, when the ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State.
 As the Eighteenth Amendment, by its own terms, was to go into effect one year after being ratified, §§ 3 and 26, Title II, of the National Prohibition Act, which, by § 21, Title III, were to be in force from and after the effective date of the Amendment, were in force on January 16, 1920. P. 256 U. S. 376.

The lower court's ruling was upheld.

See also
Coleman v. Miller
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 256

References

External links

1921 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the White Court
United States Constitution Article Five case law
Prohibition in the United States
United States Eighteenth Amendment case law

Dillon v. Gloss


Madison (originally Madison Station) is a former settlement, now a suburban neighborhood of northeast Nashville, in the U.S. state of Tennessee. It is incorporated as part of the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County.

The population of Madison's 37115 zip code as of the  US Census Bureau 2016 estimates was 40,146.

Location
Madison is only 8.2 miles north at its closest point to downtown Nashville. Ellington Parkway serves as a direct connection from downtown Madison to downtown Nashville with exits to Inglewood and East Nashville.  Madison is located close to major highways and parkways: 65, 40, 24, Briley and local access roads St. Route 45 (Old Hickory) and Dickerson Road.  It begins at Briley Parkway and extends to the Hendersonville line in Rivergate, from Dickerson Road to the Cumberland River.

Madison is one of 14 Community Plan areas in the Metro Nashville-Davidson County area for which zoning and land use planning is done.  The 2015-updated Community Plan for Madison, an 89-page document adopted by the Metropolitan Planning Commission, was updated in 2015 as part of NashvilleNext's long-term planning.

Madison has two major centers:  Downtown Madison and Rivergate.  The area between the two centers is called Motor Mile.  Madison services several surrounding communities: East Nashville, Inglewood, Whites Creek, Joelton, Old Hickory, Hendersonville, Hermitage and more.

Madison is one of about 26 suburban neighborhoods of Nashville.

History
Madison Station post office was opened in 1857, when Madison Station was about eight miles from Nashville proper, roughly half way between Nashville and Goodlettsville. In the 20th century, Madison acted as a connecting suburb until being annexed into Nashville in 1963 due to the consolidation with Davidson County. Madison funnels traffic to Goodlettsville, Hendersonville, Gallatin, Inglewood, and downtown Nashville.

Old Hickory Boulevard (State Route 45) is a section of the Trail of Tears, the route of the forced removal of Cherokee Indians  from North Carolina to Oklahoma, directed by U.S. President Andrew Jackson. This route passes directly by Jackson's estate, The Hermitage, in the neighboring community of Old Hickory, Tennessee.

Madison was once home to the "Hillbilly Day" festival. This festival was created as a fundraiser to benefit schools within the area. This fundraising festival included costumes, school events, and a parade. Madison's first "Hillbilly Day" was in 1952.

Madison is also home to Amqui train station that was built by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and serviced by the company until 1979. After L&N Railroad vacated the station, country music legend Johnny Cash purchased it and moved it from Madison to his home in nearby Sumner County. The station was later returned to Madison after the passing of Cash and his wife June Carter Cash. Today, it houses a museum and visitor center for the town.

Education

Public education in Madison falls under the supervision of Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools. Zoned schools in the Madison area send students through the Hunters Lane cluster, named after the area high school, Hunters Lane High School. Prior to the opening of Hunter's Lane, the public high school for the area was Madison High School, which is now Madison Middle Prep. Three private schools are also located within Madison: Goodpasture Christian School, Madison Academy and Saint Joseph School.

Recreation
Three public parks are within Madison: Madison Park is located in the center of State Route 45, Delaware Avenue, and North Dupont Avenue. Peeler Park is located off of Neelys Bend Road at the end of Overton Road. Cedar Hill Park is located at the corner of Old Hickory Boulevard and Dickerson Pike.

Another source of recreation for the Madison community is Rivergate Mall, which is located at the corner of Conference Drive and Gallatin Pike North. This mall houses over 130 different stores, including mainstream department stores.

The Madison Branch Library opened in 1977, and is part of the Nashville Public Library.  A new facility, themed after the book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, opened in 2000. Meeting rooms, group study rooms, and public computers are available.

Transportation

Madison is a unique town in Nashville because of its easy accessibility via several major roads and interstates.

Major roads running through Madison are Old Hickory Boulevard (State Rt. 45) and Gallatin Pike (U.S. Route 31E).  Dickerson Road runs along the west border of Madison.  Briley Parkway (State Route 155), with easy access to Interstates 24 and 40, runs along the south border of Madison. Interstate 65 has two main exits into Madison, one at Old Hickory Blvd, and the other at Rivergate shopping area.  Ellington Parkway connects downtown Nashville to downtown Madison with exits along the way to key areas of East Nashville and Inglewood.  Vietnam Vets Parkway is accessible off Conference Drive directly off Gallatin which links Madison and Goodletsville to Hendersonville and Gallatin.

Madison is on the rapid transit Metro bus lines.   Madison boasts extensive walkability with several miles of sidewalks.  Bike lanes were added in some of the newer asphalt in Madison and plans have been made to build a pedestrian and bike extension from Peeler Park to Stones River Park, which will connect Peeler key greenways leading to downtown Nashville.

Cemeteries
Madison is the location of the Nashville National Cemetery. The Nashville National Cemetery covers around 64 acres and holds nearly 33,000 veterans as well as their spouses, and dependents. According to the National Park Service, the entrance to the cemetery is marked by a monumental arch which is, "one of five in the national cemetery system." It and Spring Hill Cemetery, across Gallatin Pike, delineated the generally accepted boundary between Madison and Inglewood prior to the construction of nearby Briley Parkway.

Population

The population in Madison, as of 2020, was 41,723. The total number of households was 17,024.  Average household income was $59,429.

However, because Madison features two major centers, Downtown Madison and Rivergate, the demographic study includes several surrounding communities in addition to the population information for Madison only.

Notable people
Notable residents that were born or reside in Madison, Tennessee include :
 William S. Harney (1800–1889), Union general, born in Madison
 Tom Willett (born 1938), convicted child molester,  actor, record producer, singer-songwriter, and YouTuber, resides in Madison (originally from Chenaultt, Kentucky)
 Patrick Turner , former football player for the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins.
 Jim Reeves , (1923-1964), U.S. country singer, lived at 400 Westchester Drive from 1958 until his death in 1964

References

External links
Official website

Madison-Rivergate Area Chamber of Commerce
Amqui Station & Visitor Center

Neighborhoods in Nashville, Tennessee

Madison, Tennessee


Umm Kulthum Ibrahim es-Sayyid el-Beltagi , (4 May 1904 – 3 February 1975) was an Egyptian singer, songwriter and actress in the Arab world of the 20th century. She is seen as a national icon of Egypt. She became known as "The Voice of Egypt" and "Egypt's Fourth Pyramid". Kulthum was given the honorific title "Kawkab el-charq." It means 'Star of the East'. She performed over 320 songs. These include "al-atlal". It was ranked one of the top 100 songs of the 20th century. Her funeral was attended by four million people in the streets of Cairo.

Biography

Umm Kulthum's exact date of birth is not known. According to birth records of the Daqahliyaa Province, it is thought to be on 4 May 1904, . She had a sister and a brother. Her sister was named Sayyida. She was ten years older than Umm. Her brother was named Khalid. He was one year older than Umm. Umm Kulthum came from a very humble background. Her mother, Fatma al-maliji, took care of the children and the house. Her father - Al-Shaykh Ibrahim Al-Sayyid Al-Baltaji- was a local Imam in the village of Tammay al-Zahayra. When she was five years old, her father sent her to a religious school - al-Kuttab- to learn to recite the Qur'an. Umm Kalthoum's father Al-Baltaji, used to sing religious songs in weddings and ceremonies - such as the Prophet's birth and the Islamic New Year-  in neighboring villages as a way of generating income. Commemorating such events by reciting the Qur'an was part and parcel of the peasant society where Umm Kulthum grew in. To listen to a good Qur'anic chanter was "one of the few means at the "fallah's" (peasant) disposal which was not censored, punished, taxed or confiscated, unlike everything else he owned". Al-Baltaji, first discovered Umm Kulthum's voice when she recited the songs he taught to his son Khalid. Afterwards, Umm Kulthum started tagging along her father's trips and became part of the ensemble. In the beginning, and due to the conservative society where they were living, her father dressed her up like a boy while preforming together on stage. However, her father was compelled to accept the idea of his daughter singing in front of an audience because the family needed the money. Umm Kulthum recounted: "at first, I was like a parrot. What my father sang, I sang" and shortly after became known as "the little girl with the powerful voice". The daughter of the Egyptian village "bint il-rif" moved with her family to Cairo in the 1920's in pursuit of a better life. With their move to Cairo, they noticed that religious songs were not cherished as before while nightclubs and cabarets were becoming more and more popular. Umm Kulthum noted: "when I first came to Cairo, religious songs had declined in popularity. British soldiers crowded the nightclubs that grew up to accommodate them. ... Singers held a low-esteem but the most famous ones had great influence even with members of the Government".

Professional Career
When Umm Kulthum first moved to Cairo, she continued singing religious songs in concerts and celebrations but did not find much appreciation for this type of music. Afterwards, she started singing poems "qasa'id" as well as "muwashahat" and eventually moved to love songs and "mawawil".  Al-Kashkul Egyptian magazine noted this shift in her music; which went from praising the Prophet to praising the lover and attributed it to "the desire to satisfy the people, to stoop all to all of their passions and whims!". Umm Kulthum gave a concert on the first Thursday of each month among other celebrations and ceremonies. Odeon Records noticed her popularity rising and first approached with a job offer in 1923 and her initial recordings were written by Ahmad Sabri al-Najridi. Her records sold everywhere and with her recordings the company made large profits. In fact, many of the people who bought her recordings were her past rural audience whom she grew popular among, but also Egyptians of all walks of life waited in line to buy her recordings. Nevertheless, what facilitated her debut as a professional singer was the mentoring she received on the hands of the poet Ahmad Rami. Slowly but steadily, she became acquainted with Egypt's elites and politicians and became an esteemed guest at their residences and this increased her success, power and position in the Egyptian society. It is said that the year 1926 was the turning point which transformed Umm Kulthum from a famous singer to an illuminous star in Egypt. This pivotal moment was aided by her decision to employ a professional orchestra rather than her relative instrument players.. Her success drew more and more critics and enemies but this only heightened her popularity. The 1940's were deemed the "golden age" of Umm Kulthum due to having reached the height of her vocal powers and becoming a mature singer. Moreover, Umm Kulthum started experimenting with new "qasa'id" and populist songs. Her Thursday concerts were not only anticipated in Egypt but all throughout the Arab world, listeners would tune in on the radio and enjoy a night of enchantment "tarab".

Political Value

Umm Kulthum is seen as a national icon of Egypt and defined the Arabic music all over North Africa and the Middle East in the 20th century. She became known as "The Voice of Egypt", "Star of the East" and "Egypt's Fourth Pyramid". Her music spans a time period of around fifty years (1924-1973), whereby mass cultural and political shifts were experienced in North Africa and the Middle East. Not alone did Umm Kulthum's music attribute to the cultural heritage of the region, her music also evolved with the changing political dynamics in Egypt. Umm Kulthum herself was thereby active in challenging the position of women in music and in the country and contributed to the forming of a national identity of the Egyptians after post-colonial rule.

Challenging the position of women
Umm Kulthum challenged the position of women within Egyptian society by starting her professional singing in a time period when women performing was a taboo. During her whole career, she undermined traditional gender norms by making her own business deals and often singing to an audience mostly filled by men. Besides that, she also fulfilled the role of presidency within the Musicians Union for seven years, despite being opposed by many because of her gender. Umm Kulthum also resisted to give up her singing career for a family life and she had two unconventional marriages. Her first marriage ended within days, while her second marriage – at the age of 50 – was with a younger man with children from an ex-wife.

Umm Kulthum's music often covered topics regarding longing, love, loss and romance. However, her songs also appointed controversial topics. With her music, she pushed for gender boundaries and dictated women's desires, sexuality and political thought.

Contributing to the vision of Pan-Arabism
Umm Kulthum contributed to the shaping of a pan-Arabic identity in anti-colonial movements within North Africa and the Middle East. She became a symbol of nationalism in Egypt as a supporter of the Nasserist Revolution. The line of Umm Kulthum's love song "al-Atlal": "Give me my freedom, release my hands" became a famous slogan against colonial rule and Israeli occupation.

Her support for Gamal Abdel Nasser was a mutually beneficial relationship. Nasser nationalised radio, music and all forms of public media and he was aware of the unifying power of Umm Kulthum's music in creating the vision of Pan-Arabism. He granted her an entire radio station and Umm Kulthum had the honor of performing before and after his public speeches.

Remembrance

Umm Kulthum died on 3 February 1975, at the age of 76. She experienced several health problems during most of her lifetime, for which her problems with her eyes forced her to wear sunglasses. Later, this became her signature mark as an artist. Her death led to an outburst of hysterical grief and millions of people lined the streets of Cairo for her funeral.

Decades after her death, Umm Kulthum remained one of the best-selling singers of the Arab world. The Kawkab al-Sharq Museum in Cairo was established by the Egyptian government in 2001 to honor and celebrate her life and accomplishments.

At the Winter in Tantora festival in Al-'Ula in January 2019, Umm Kulthum appeared as a hologram during a live concert.

References

Other websites

 [ Biography] at AllMusic
 The Star of the East at Østfold College, Halden, Norway from almashriq.hiof.no

Contraltos
Egyptian singers
1904 births
1975 deaths
Singer-songwriters
Egyptian actors

Umm Kulthum