The Bahian Conspiracy, also known as Revolt of the Tailors (after the trade of many of the leaders) and recently also called Revolt of Buzios, was a late eighteenth century slave rebellion in the then Captaincy of Bahia, in the State of Brazil. Unlike the Inconfidência Mineira of 1789, it was a separatist movement with a popular base and extensive black participation.

The objectives of the rebelling baianos were, according to Clóvis Moura, "much more radical," and the proposal to liberate the slaves was one of the main goals. Its leaders and members included "freed blacks, black slaves, pardo slaves, freed pardos, artisans, tailors; those who were from the most oppressed or discriminated classes of Bahia colonial society". With many slaves living in Bahia, the probability of revolts and rebellions ran high. The elites of the area were frightened that if rebellion or revolts did happen, they would be similar to the Haitian Revolution. Because of the significant participation of Bahia's lower classes, the revolt has also been called "The First Brazilian Social Revolution".

Background
The revolt's beginnings were established in the city of Salvador by a group of disenfranchised workers seeking to initiate an uprising against Portuguese authority. These marginalized groups resented the Portuguese "for their domination of the country, as well as the apparent wealth that had been accumulated by a handful of free Brazilians". This revolt was influenced by principles of the Enlightenment and the successful independence movements that resulted. To add to the narrative of civil discontent were the various accusations of corruption and wrongdoing made toward the Relação, Salvador's High Court, which Portuguese authorities failed to properly investigate. It was during this period characterized by internal and external conflict that a conspiracy of rebellion developed. Current evidence suggests that the initial plot began through conversation in 1797 between Francisco Moniz Barreto, Lucas Dantas d'Amorim Tôrres, and Manuel de Santa Anna. The ideology of the rebellion spread via a forty-four line poem authored by Barreto.

On August 12, 1798 a proclamation was posted to a church door in Salvador, Bahia that read: "Be encouraged People of Bahia because the time of our Liberty is approaching. The time when all will be brothers. The time when all will be equal." It was this written proclamation with no identified author that brought the conspiracy to the attention of Bahia's authorities.

The conspiracy, largely inspired by the events of the French Revolution, had three specific demands: "full independence, the creation of a republic, racial equality, and the complete abolition of slavery". The revolt included members of many different racial backgrounds. Poor whites, freed-men, slaves, interracial artisans, and radical members of the upper class were among those who joined in the uprising. Lucas Dantas do Amorim Tôrres, a mulatto soldier who was captured and tried for his involvement in the revolt, is quoted explaining to the judges during his trial: "We want a republic in order to breathe freely because we live subjugated and because we're colored and we can't advance and if there was a republic there would be equality for everyone." These demands for equality threatened to undermine Brazil's race-based hierarchy for political and social privileges and were swiftly repressed by crown authorities.

At the onset of the revolt in 1798, there was no organized plan of action. According to Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, one of the revolt's coconspirators, the goal was to convince the governor to become the president of the new republic through means of minimal violence.

The 1798 Revolt of the Tailors was appropriately named due to the participation of tailors as well as other members of Bahia's skilled workers such as "soldiers, artisans, [and] carpenters". Most of the rebels were not slaves but free mulattoes who lived in extreme poverty.

Economic and Political Factors
Brazil during the eighteenth century was characterized by revolts taking place in many of its cities, notably Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, and Salvador. The northeastern state of Bahia was the center of Brazil's Afro-Brazilian culture during this period, and hosted a large population of slaves. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Bahia was experiencing economic decline.

From as early as 1504, the French were engaged in trade with communities in Bahia. Roughly four years before, Pedro Alvarés Cabral had first landed at Porto Seguro. At first, the French did not choose to establish formal communities within Bahia, instead establishing truchements, which were where residents of France lived in already-established communities in Bahia in order to facilitate trade between the two countries. This trade was based around the French desire for "brazilwood", which could be used to make anything from furniture to dye for cloth. It is, in fact, the cloth industry that made the French want to be involved with the Bahian economy. This later led to the creation of the first French colony in Brazil.

The truchements started out very friendly, with the French and natives teaching each other their own language and culture. Some Brazilians were even taken to France, where they were warmly welcomed. The relations between the two countries prompted humanists, during the Renaissance, to wonder about the idea of equality in friendship. The French, unlike the Portuguese, allowed the natives to participate in dialogues and create their own speeches. There are also records in France that contain the language of some of the Brazilian natives, and vice versa. Soon enough, the French decided to set up their own colony in Brazil. The way some French citizens justified a colony in Brazil was by pointing out how, along the Brazilian coast, you could find people speaking Portuguese, Spanish, and French, and they seemed to have more favorable relationships with the Frenchmen than they did with the Portuguese.

João de Deus (a leader in the rebellion), would one day speak of the port in his town, saying that "this port will be free to all Foreign Nations to come and trade, bringing cloth and all merchandise to be exchanged for sugar, tobacco and other crops of the land without need of Portugal". He said this in hopes that France would be the main country to take advantage of the new trade policy.

Main Actors
The four identified leaders of the revolt were Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens, a soldier, João de Deus do Nascimento, a tailor, Lucas Dantas d'Amorim Torres, a soldier, and Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, a tailor. All four were mulattoes and poor. There was a second group (white and of high social status) that authorities did not prosecute, and they were Cipriano Barata de Almeida, Francisco Moniz Barreto d'Aragão, and Lieutenants Hermogenes Francisco d'Aguilar and José Gomes de Oliveira Borges. Lieutenant d'Aguilar, Luís Gonzaga and Lucas Dantas were known to have actively attempted to destabilize the military by recruiting members to the revolutionary movement. These efforts were met with some success. Borges and d'Aguilar were assigned to guard M. Larcher, who was a Frenchman allowed to stay in Salvador as long as he agreed to be under military watch. Larcher inspired both d'Aguilar and Borges and their political views. Larcher was the founder of the Knights of Light, a prominent masonic society that was formally established on July 14, 1797. Most of the original propaganda spread from this organization. The full involvement of the Knights of Light cannot be completely traced, though. It is vague in some spots, and has completely disappeared in others.

On the 8 of November 1799, the government proceeded to the execution of those sentenced for the beginning of the revolt to capital punishment by hanging, in the following order: soldier Lucas Dantas Amorim Torres, an apprentice tailor Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira, soldier Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens and master tailor João de Deus Nascimento.

Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens

Luís Gonzaga dos Virgens was a soldier and a leader of the rebellion. He was arrested on August 22 for the spreading of propaganda. When he got to prison, he did not confess, but he did say that "the propaganda was an excellent way to initiate the projected revolution because in this way the people would be encouraged and they would become accustomed little by little to the ideas of liberty and independence". He was part of the five men sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt. The fifth is not included in this list, as his sentence was later reduced due to him not being as prominent a member of the revolt as the rest.

João de Deus do Nascimento

João de Deus do Nascimento was a tailor and a leader of the rebellion. He was a strong advocate for free trade, and was against the high taxes and various tributes that the Portugal government had imposed. He was sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt.

Lucas Dantas d'Amorim Torres

Lucas Dantas d'Amorim Torres was a soldier and a leader of the rebellion. The meetings to plan for the revolution were usually held at his home, since he was the leader by practicality. He was active within his regiment, constantly spreading propaganda. He was actively, yet quietly, trying to destabilize the military. He was also sentenced to death after the failure of the revolt; he refused his last rites.

Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira

Manuel Faustino dos Santos Lira was a tailor and a leader of the rebellion. He was a critic of the church, due to them defending slavery. He was the third to be sentenced to death after the revolt, and refused his last rites.

Cipriano Barata de Almeida

Cipriano Barata de Almeida was a surgeon that graduated from the University of Coimbra; he was a member of the Knights of Light, and spread propaganda throughout the lower classes, despite his own status. For some reason, he tried and was able to convince two people to give up on the conspiracy. He was acquitted after the failure of the revolt, due to his influence in the community.

Francisco Moniz Barreto d'Aragão

Francisco Moniz Barreto d'Aragão was a teacher; he was a member of the Knights of Light. He wrote poems supporting the ideologies of independence, equality, liberty, and the importance of reason. He was not in Salvador during the end of the revolt, and therefore did not face any punishment.

Hermogenes Francisco d'Aguilar

Hermogenes Francisco d'Aguilar was a Lieutenant in the army, and was assigned to guard M. Larcher. He was a member of the Knights of Light. Along with Torres, he was trying to destabilize the military. He was sentenced to one year in prison after the failure of the revolt.

José Gomes de Oliveira Borges

Outcomes of the Revolt
It took less than two weeks for authorities to apprehend and charge forty people tied to the revolt. Out of these forty, thirty-six were brought to trial. Of these there was one university graduate, one of noble heritage, two junior officers in the army, eight military men, and the remainder self-employed artisans including ten tailors. Twenty-four of the forty seized were of mulatto heritage and "almost all were native-born Brazilians". Those tried were charged with conspiring against the Crown, pillaging, and planning to murder government officials. Seventeen of the accused were absolved, four were given prison sentences, eight were exiled to Africa, two slaves involved were sold and discharged from the military, and five were sentenced to death. On November 8, 1799, four leaders of the conspiracy were publicly hanged.

"The plot and resultant repression demonstrates the divergent goals that previously silent social groups were bringing to the foreground, and the importance of class position in determining the depth of commitment of individual insurgents."

Further reading
 Allen, Judith Lee. "Tailors, Soldiers, and Slaves: The Social Anatomy of a Conspiracy." M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1987.
 Galván, J. (2007). Tailors' revolt. In Encyclopedia of emancipation and abolition in the Transatlantic world. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/sharpeeman/tailors_revolt/0
 Maxwell, Kenneth R. Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750–1808. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
Meade, Teresa A History of Modern Latin America 1800 to the Present, United Kingdom, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2016. Print.
 Morton, F. W. O. "The Conservative Revolution of Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics in Bahia, 1790–1840." Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, Oxford, U.K., 1974.
 Schwartz, Stuart B. Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550-1835. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

References

Slave rebellions in Brazil
Colonial Brazil
History of Bahia

1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates


Roxbury Community College (RCC) is a public community college in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. RCC offers associate degrees in arts, and sciences, as well as certificates. RCC has transfer agreements with Curry College, Northeastern University, Emerson College, Lesley University, and other four-year schools. RCC credits transfer to all public colleges and universities in Massachusetts through the MassTransfer Program.

RCC's students are primarily Boston residents who identify as people of color: 80% of students identify as Black, LatinX or two or more races, over 50% reside in Boston, and 83% receive Pell Grants.

History

Founded in 1973, the 16-acre, 6-building campus houses classrooms in addition to specialized science and computer laboratories. In 1984 the Boston Business School, founded in 1914, merged with the school. The campus also operates the Reggie Lewis Track & Athletic Center and the RCC Media Arts Center.

After several years of planning, Roxbury Community College opened its doors on September 10, 1973, to 400 students. The first temporary home of RCC was located at 460 Blue Hill Avenue, in a building that used to be the home of a car dealership.
In December 1982, Brunetta Wolfman was elected as RCC's first female president and was inaugurated on April 16, 1983.
The college's current location, 1234 Columbus Avenue, opened on April 11, 1988. Campus construction began in 1985.
Haitian president Jean Bertrand Aristide came to Roxbury on April 29, 1992. Aristide received an honorary degree during a ceremony held at RCC.
In June 2012, Roxbury's president Terrence Gomes agreed to resign in the wake of an ongoing audit by the U.S. Department of Education, "questionable allocations in a review of financial aid records" conducted by the state auditor, and allegations of underreported crimes on campus.
In June 2019, The Massachusetts Board of Registration in Nursing decided to withdraw the accreditation of the nursing program due to a series of leadership and financial issues at the college.
In 2020, RCC developed a new nursing program. The program was provisionally approved by BORN in October 2020; a new student cohort is joining the program in Fall 2021.
In 2021, RCC was named the second most influential community college in the nation.

President Valerie Roberson resigned in November 2021 under accusations of mismanagement, a steep drop in enrollment, and a slow mass resignation of staff. Accusations included failure to sign contracts with faculty, late payroll payments, overpayment and underpayment of employees, and failure to perform sex offender registry checks.

In 2021, the Department of Education classified Roxbury Community College as a Predominately Black Institution (PBI): "in 2021 the federal Department of Education classified [RCC] as a Predominately Black Institution, or PBI. That means they receive formula grants to specifically target Black students' educational success."

In February 2022, Jackie Jenkins-Scott became the interim president of RCC.

In May 2022, philanthropist Robert Hale and his wife, Karen, provided $1,000 to each graduate of Roxbury Community College during the college's 45th commencement exercises.

In 2023, as part of the college's 50th-anniversary celebration, RCC commemorated the community activism that played a pivotal role in the state's decision to dismiss the proposed 8-mile extension of Interstate 95 from Canton to the South End back in 1972. This commemoration was marked by a large banner displaying the following message: "If It Wasn't For Community Activism, You'd Be On A Highway Right Now".

Karilyn Crockett, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the author of People Before Highways, highlighted the significance of the anti-highway movement during an interview with The Boston Globe. She noted that this movement had a profound impact, giving rise to a generation of local civic leaders. Among them were Fred Salvucci, who later served as the Massachusetts transportation secretary, and Gloria Fox, who held the position of a state representative for approximately 30 years.

Academics

Roxbury Community College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

Athletics

Sports offered at RCC include: Men's Basketball, Women's Basketball, Men's Soccer, Men's Indoor Track and Field, Women's Indoor Track and Field, Men Outdoor Track and Field, and Women's Outdoor Track and Field.

Notable alumni and faculty
Marita Golden, African American novelist, professor
Calvin Hicks, African American journalist, activist, music educator
David Updike, professor, author, and son of John Updike

Gallery

See also
 List of colleges and universities in Massachusetts

References

External links
 Official website

Community colleges in Massachusetts
Universities and colleges established in 1973
Roxbury, Boston
Universities and colleges in Boston
NJCAA athletics
1973 establishments in Massachusetts

Roxbury Community College


Lake Siegel Bell (born March 24, 1979) is an American actress, director, and screenwriter. She has starred in various television series, including Boston Legal, Surface, How to Make It in America and Childrens Hospital, and in films, including Over Her Dead Body, What Happens in Vegas, and It's Complicated.

Bell was born in New York.

1979 births

Lake Bell


Michael Phillip Lulume Bayigga is a Ugandan physician and politician. He served as the Acting Secretary General of the Democratic Party from 2007 until 2010. He is also the Member of Parliament representing Buikwe South Constituency, in Buikwe District. and Director Kampala International Medical Centre Kansanga -Kampala.

Background and education
He was born on 1 May 1970. Lulume Bayiga attended St. Paul's Boys Primary School in Nkokonjeru, for his elementary education. He studied at Kyambogo College School in Kyambogo, Kampala for both his O-Level and A-Level studies. In 1991 he entered Makerere University School of Medicine, graduating in 1996 with the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB). In 2004, he graduated from the Southern African Regional Institute for Policy Studies, at the University of Zimbabwe, with the degree of Master of Policy Studies.

Work experience
In 1997, he began to work at "Nsambya General Clinic", a private medical practice, as the Deputy Director, a position he still holds today. That same year, he was elected executive director of the Uganda Medical Volunteers' Association, an NGO, a position he still serves in today. He first entered politics in 2006 when he unsuccessfully contested for the Buikwe County South constituency seat against one Anthony Mukasa of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) party. Bayiga however petitioned the courts and the Uganda Supreme Court nullified the results on account of Mukasa having bribed voters. In the by-elections held in May 2008, Bayigga trounced his opponent and was sworn in as the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency on Wednesday May 7, 2007. He was re-elected in 2011.

Other considerations
Dr. Lulume Bayiga is married. He is reported to enjoy debating, table tennis and practicing medicine. He sits on the parliamentary committee on foreign affairs and on the committee for the budget.

See also
 List of political parties in Uganda
 List of hospitals in Uganda
 Parliament of Uganda

References

External links
Website of Buikwe District
Interview With Dr. Lulume Bayigga In 2007

1970 births
Living people
Baganda
People from Buikwe District
Ugandan activists
Members of the Parliament of Uganda
Buikwe District
21st-century Ugandan physicians
Makerere University alumni
University of Zimbabwe alumni
Democratic Party (Uganda) politicians
Ugandan Roman Catholics
20th-century Ugandan physicians
21st-century Ugandan politicians

Michael Lulume Bayigga


There was a tram system in Biel, Switzerland, from 1877 to 1948. As the idea of having trams was not popular, there was only one route from Bözingen to Nidau.
The tram was originally a horse carriage on rails. There were only a few carriages from other tram systems. Although it was very small there were summer and winter carriages.
After Biel City bought the system in 1901, it became electrical with more carriages and a bigger route. The tram was not very popular and the owner did not earn much money. This was the reason why only very few routes were built.
All the four routes started at the train station in Biel, today known as 'Zentralplatz'. The tram to Meinisberg went through Mett but because there was a big distance between Biel and Meinisberg, there were only a few stations.
Biel City started to reduced the system in 1930. First, route 1 and 2 became route 1. Then, in 1940, routes 2 and 3 were replaced by buses and finally, route 1 became a bus route, too.

Today

Biel has a well-organized bus system since 1948. It grew more and more and is quite large, with over 15 different routes today. Some of them use the old tram routes but more were added, especially in the last 20 years. There are also different bus types today. Some are electrical, others run on fuel.

Biel
Transport in Switzerland
Biel/Bienne, Switzerland

Trams in Biel


Kizomba is a dance and musical genre that originated in Angola in 1984.

Kizomba means "party" in Kimbundu, a Bantu language spoken by the Ambundu in Angola.

Origin and evolution

Music genre
The origins of kizomba can be traced to late-1970s Africa, with influences variably attributed to Angola. Kizomba is characterized by a slower, romantic, more sensuous rhythm than the traditional Angolan semba music. Kizomba music emerged as a fusion of Semba, Angolan Merengue, Kilapanga, and further Angolan music influences: It slowed down the cadence of songs and added a stronger bass line to the composition of instruments. Eduardo Paim is internationally recognized as the "father/creator of Kizomba music", as he and his band were taking a major role in the development of the music style creation. Most kizomba songs are sung in Portuguese or a dialect from the various Portuguese-speaking, African cultures.

Dance genre

Semba has been danced in the 1950s in Angola. In the 1990s, when the actual kizomba music got more and more popular, Angolan semba dancers started to adapt their semba steps according to the tempo and flavor of the Kizomba beats. The Kizomba dance is a couple dance, in which the torso and right arm of the leader will guide the follower across the dance floor. It is the goal to synchronize perfectly as a couple with the music and express it through elegant footwork, smooth body movement, and attitude, called Ginga (for women) and Banga (for men).

Confusion with cola-zouk
Cape Verdean immigrants who moved to France in the 1980s were exposed to Zouk music. They blended it with a traditional Cape Verde style called the coladeira, thus creating cola-zouk, similar to kizomba and typically sung in Cape Verdean Creole. It is this rhythm that was confused with kizomba and was heard in Portugal when Eduardo Paim arrived there and released his first record with kizomba music.

Cultural influences
The influence of kizomba is felt in most Portuguese-speaking African countries, but also in Portugal (especially in Lisbon and surrounding suburbs such as Amadora or Almada), where communities of immigrants have established clubs centered on the genre in a renewed kizomba style. The São Tomean kizomba music is very similar to the Angolan, Juka being the most notable among the Sãotomeans, and also one of the most notable performers in the genre.

In Angola, most clubs are based in Luanda. Famous Angolan kizomba musicians include Neide Van-Dúnem, Don Kikas, C4 Pedro, Calo Pascoal, Irmãos Verdades, Anselmo Ralph, among many others, but Bonga is probably the best known Angolan artist, having helped popularize the style both in Angola and Portugal during the 1970s and 1980s.

Popularity
Kizomba is known for having a slow, insistent, somewhat harsh yet sensuous rhythm as the result of electronic percussion. It is danced accompanied by a partner, very smoothly, slowly and sensuously, and with neither tightness nor rigidity. There are frequent simultaneous hip rotations coordinated between dance partners, particularly in the quieter refrains of the music. Several individuals with a love of the Kizomba culture have been promoting it in other countries.

Famous Angolan kizomba singers include Bonga, André Mingas, Liceu Vieira Dias, Neide Van-Dúnem, Don Kikas, Calo Pascoal, Heavy C., Puto Portugues, Maya Cool, Matias Damasio, Rei Helder, Pérola, Anselmo Ralph and Irmãos Verdades.

Famous Angolan teachers such as kota José N'dongala (founder of the Kizombalove Academy) and Mestre Petchu (founder of the Tradicional Kilandukilu Ballet) have been giving Kizomba and Semba teachers courses for years to further popularize their Angolan cultural values in Africa, Europe and in America.

Cape Verde
Cape Verdean singers and producers with kizomba compilations include Suzanna Lubrano, Atim, Nilton Ramalho, Johnny Ramos, Nelson Freitas, Mika Mendes, Manu Lima, Cedric Cavaco, Elji Beatzkilla, Loony Johnson, Klazzik, Mark G, To Semedo, Beto Dias, Heavy H, Marcia, Gilyto, Kido Semedo, Ricky Boy, Klaudio Ramos, M&N Pro, Gilson, Gil, G-Amado, Philip Monteiro, Gama, Juceila Cardoso and Denis Graça, Z-BeatZ Pro AudioHustlin'. Original influential music styles from Cape Verde are funaná, morna, coladeira and batuque. Thanks to the French Antilles konpa promoted as Zouk love and the strong influence of semba (from Angola), Cape Verdean singers have developed significantly kizomba and zouk (mixing it with coladeira) known as Cabo love or cola-dance. Moreover, every lusophone country has developed its own Kizomba music flavor.

Brazil
In Brazil, kizomba became famous when the pop artist Kelly Key released the album No Controle, on February 3, 2015. Key left the dance-pop/R&B songs to introduce the kizomba in Brazil. In an interview Key said she sought originality and new styles: "I'm running this responsibility of being predictable. I wanted to record Kizomba for 13 years! Now I feel mature and have knowledge of movement".

China
Kizomba is growing in popularity in some major Chinese cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen. Some teachers of kizomba are Chinese while others are foreign. Every year, different Latin dance festivals are organized and presented such as Shanghai Bachata/Kizomba Festival.

References

External links

African dances
Partner dance
Angolan music
Articles containing video clips

Kizomba


The West Shore Railroad was the final name of a railroad that ran from Weehawken, New Jersey, on the west bank of the Hudson River opposite New York City, north  to Albany, New York, and then west to Buffalo.  It was organized as a competitor to the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, but was soon taken over by that company.

History

The first part of the line was built as the Saratoga and Hudson River Railroad, incorporated April 16, 1864 and opened in spring 1866. After only about a year of independent operation, the line served as a branch of the New York Central Railroad (NYC), splitting at Athens Junction near Schenectady and running southeast and south along the west side of the Hudson River to Athens, New York. Early plans included acquiring the Saratoga and Schenectady Railroad as a northern extension. The Saratoga and Hudson River was bought and merged into the New York Central as its Athens Branch on September 9, 1867.

The terminal at Athens was destroyed by fire in 1876. The line ran intermittently from then into the 1880s, with its tracks being torn up for good in 1888. It had been called the "White Elephant" Railroad for most of its existence because it quickly outlived whatever usefulness it may have had. Today,  a row of brick houses known as the Brick Row Historic District, which was built in 1850 for the workers of the failed railroad, stand in Athens as the only remaining structure related to the "White Elephant" Railroad project.

At the south end of the route, the Ridgefield Park Railroad was incorporated April 4, 1867. This was planned as a branch of the New Jersey Rail Road, splitting at Marion Junction and running north on the west side of the New Jersey Palisades via Ridgefield Park to the state line at Tappan, New York.

Across the state line, the Rockland Central Railroad was incorporated on May 23, 1870, to continue the line to Haverstraw, and the Rockland Central Extension Railroad, incorporated May 29, 1872, was to continue farther north along the west side of the Hudson River. The Rockland Central and Rockland Central Extension merged on July 29, 1872, to form a new Rockland Central Railroad, and that company merged with the Ridgefield Park to form the Jersey City and Albany Railroad on June 24, 1873, with the intention of building a full line from Jersey City to Albany.

The line first opened in 1872 as a spur of the New Jersey Midland Railway, which had built the section south of Ridgefield Park. At that time, the northern terminus was at Tappan; the extension north to Haverstraw, New York opened in 1879.

Bankruptcy struck soon, and the New York section of the line was sold on September 28, 1877, and reorganized on October 12, 1878, as the Jersey City and Albany Railway. The part in New Jersey was sold on August 17, 1878, and reorganized with the same name, and the two companies merged in January 1879 to form a consolidated Jersey City and Albany Railway.

The North River Railway was incorporated on April 3, 1880, to extend the line north to Albany, with a branch to Schenectady and a connection to the New York, Ontario and Western Railway (O&W) at Cornwall, New York. The North River Railway was consolidated with the Jersey City and Albany on May 5, 1881, to form the North River Railroad, again forming a single planned line between Jersey City and Albany.

The Hudson River West Shore Railroad was incorporated on February 16, 1867, and the West Shore Hudson River Railroad was incorporated on October 28, 1867, absorbing the Hudson River West Shore on February 16, 1867. This was a second proposed line on the west shore of the river from New Jersey to Albany. The New York, West Shore and Chicago Railroad was incorporated July 13, 1870 and absorbed the West Shore Hudson River on July 21, 1877, with a planned line not only to Albany but then west along the south bank of the Mohawk River to Buffalo. That company was sold and reorganized as the New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway on February 18, 1880, and on June 14, 1881, the North River Railroad was merged into it, forming one company in charge of the whole route from New Jersey to Buffalo.

In 1883, the newly-formed company inaugurated service between Newburgh and Jersey City, at the Pennsylvania Railroad Depot, where passengers transferred to ferries across the river.

A new alignment was built along the east side of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (formerly the New Jersey Midland) to North Bergen. By 1886, service operated to Weehawken Terminal through a tunnel under Bergen Hill that had been built in the three preceding years.

The company leased the Athens Branch of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, the old Saratoga and Hudson River Railroad, and incorporated it into its main line between Coxsackie and Fullers. At Ravena, along the Athens Branch, the main line turned northwest towards Schenectady, while a new branch continued north to Kenwood Junction on the Albany and Susquehanna Railroad in Albany. This full line formed an immediate threat to the NYC monopoly.

In addition to its owned trackage, the West Shore (WS) also had trackage rights over the Suspension Bridge and Erie Junction Railroad and Erie International Railroad, providing a route from Buffalo to Ontario. After the New York Central took over the West Shore this was useless, as the New York Central had a parallel line, the Buffalo and Niagara Falls Railroad.

The West Shore also had relations with the Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western Railway (BHT&W), which would have run from the Hoosac Tunnel in Massachusetts west to Buffalo. Instead the BHT&W built only to Rotterdam Junction, west of Schenectady; it was later taken over by the Fitchburg Railroad and, after that, by the Boston and Maine Railroad.

In 1881, the WS had been planned as a link in a new cross-country line from New York to San Francisco, using the Nickel Plate Road, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, Northern Pacific Railroad and Oregon Navigation Company.  However, William Henry Vanderbilt of the NYC bought the Nickel Plate in 1882, killing that plan. The NYC then proceeded to drive the New York, West Shore and Buffalo into bankruptcy via a brutal rate-war that the WS could not financially withstand

The Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) recognized that the WS would make a great addition to its system, allowing it to penetrate deep into NYC territory. At the same time, the NYC was building the South Pennsylvania Railroad across southern Pennsylvania: deep in the Pennsylvania Railroad's territory. A destructive rate-war loomed, which was anathema to top railroad financier J.P. Morgan. His personal intervention with these two railroads' presidents, aboard his steam yacht "Corsair" in New York Harbor, forced the PRR and NYC railroads into an agreement under which the NYC would buy the WS and stop building the South Pennsylvania (sections of which were reused much later for the Pennsylvania Turnpike, in 1940.) The NYC bought the New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway on November 24, 1885, and reorganized its
new acquisition as the West Shore Railroad on December 5, leasing it for 475 years from January 1, 1886.

In many sections, the WS ran on a straighter path than the NYC, and was thus used for through freight. For instance, between Oneida and Utica, the WS followed the general line of the never-built Syracuse and Utica Direct Railroad, which had been merged into the NYC.

Named trains and route stations

Several named trains traveled north from Weehawken to Albany including the Storm King Limited and the West Pointer.

Main stops between Albany Union Station and Weehawken Terminal included Ravena, Coxsackie, Catskill, Saugerties, Kingston, Highland, Marlboro, Newburgh, Cornwall, West Point, Haverstraw, Congers, West Nyack, Orangeburg and Tappan, all in New York, and Dumont, Teaneck, Bogota and Ridgefield Park in New Jersey.

Station gallery

Current use
Passenger service on the line ended to Albany in 1958 and to West Haverstraw in 1959, ending direct New York Central passenger train service on the west side of the Hudson River. The line became part of Penn Central in 1968, and passed to Conrail in 1976 after Penn Central's 1970 bankruptcy. When Conrail was divided between CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern, in 1999, the West Shore Railroad, along with most of the old New York Central lines, became part of CSX.

It became CSX's River Subdivision, which begins west of the Hudson Palisades at North Bergen Yard in Hudson County, New Jersey. Proceeding north it passes through Bergen County and Rockland County, New York, and up the west side of the Hudson River to Selkirk Yard, from which there are connections to points west and east. South of North Bergen Yard it connects to the Northern Running Track, part of Conrail. The tunnel under the Palisades is part of the Hudson Bergen Light Rail which emerges at the Hudson Waterfront at Weehawken Port Imperial.

West Shore Regional Proposal
Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, New Jersey Transit, the main provider of contemporary rail and bus service in the locale, expressed interest in potentially restoring passenger service to the line due to ever-increasing ridership on the local bus lines.

In 1997, a $3.97 million grant was given to New Jersey Transit by the Federal Transit Administration. At the time, many towns along the line supported the idea, and went as far as conducting zoning procedures to allow room for the new additions the railroad would bring. Considering the current line is not under proprietorship of New Jersey Transit, a new right-of-way would be installed parallel to the existing freight line.

However, funding remained an issue, as did disagreement with CSX. Ultimately, focus on the project was dropped in favor of progress on the Northern Branch Corridor Project and Meadowlands Rail Line (completed in 2009). An official status on the project has not since been noted.

See also

 Highland Falls station
 Kingston, New York railroad stations
 Milton station (New York)
 Weehawken Terminal

References

Bibliography

External links

 Railroad History Database
 The New York, West Shore and Buffalo
 New York Central Historical Information
 West Shore Railroad
 Existing Railroad Stations in New York State

Predecessors of the New York Central Railroad
Defunct New Jersey railroads
Defunct New York (state) railroads
Erie Canal
Hudson River
Railway companies established in 1885
Railway companies disestablished in 1952
Subdivisions of the New York Central Railroad
Weehawken, New Jersey
Transportation in Hudson County, New Jersey
Transportation in Rockland County, New York
Defunct railroads in Syracuse, New York
Railroads controlled by the Vanderbilt family
Rail lines in Rockland County, New York

West Shore Railroad


Markus Hinterhäuser (born 30 March 1958 (1959 according to other sources) in La Spezia, Italy) is an Austrian pianist and the current artistic director of the Salzburg Festival. He studied music at the Vienna Conservatory under Elisabeth Leonskaja and the Mozarteum University of Salzburg under Oleg Maisenberg. As a chamber musician, he has performed with several notable performers, including the Arditti Quartet and singer Brigitte Fassbaender. As a piano soloist he is particularly known for his performances of the works of the Second Viennese School and 20th century works by composers like John Cage, Luigi Nono, Morton Feldman and Galina Ustvolskaya. Since 2006 he has served as the Concert Director of the Salzburg Festival, a post he is scheduled to leave after the 2011 summer festival.

Sources
Salzburg Festival, Biography: Markus Hinterhäuser

1958 births
Living people
Austrian pianists
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna alumni
Mozarteum University Salzburg alumni
21st-century pianists

Markus Hinterhäuser


The MacTaggart-Stewart Baronetcy, of Southwick in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, and Blairderry in the County of Wigtown, was a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 7 October 1892 for Mark John Stewart, who represented Wigtown Burghs and Kirkcudbrightshire in the House of Commons. The title became extinct on the death of the second Baronet in 1948.

MacTaggart-Stewart baronets, of Southwick and Blairderry (1892)
Sir Mark John McTaggart-Stewart, 1st Baronet (1834–1923)
Sir Edward Orde McTaggart-Stewart, 2nd Baronet (1883–1948)

References

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.

Extinct baronetcies in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom

MacTaggart-Stewart baronets


In the mathematical field of knot theory, the Jones polynomial is a knot polynomial discovered by Vaughan Jones in 1984.  Specifically, it is an invariant of an oriented knot or link which assigns to each oriented knot or link a Laurent polynomial in the variable  with integer coefficients.

Definition by the bracket

Suppose we have an oriented link , given as a knot diagram.  We will define the Jones polynomial  by using Louis Kauffman's bracket polynomial, which we denote by . Here the bracket polynomial is a Laurent polynomial in the variable  with integer coefficients.

First, we define the auxiliary polynomial (also known as the normalized bracket polynomial)

where  denotes the writhe of  in its given diagram.  The writhe of a diagram is the number of positive crossings ( in the figure below) minus the number of negative crossings (). The writhe is not a knot invariant.

 is a knot invariant since it is invariant under changes of the diagram of  by the three Reidemeister moves.  Invariance under type II and III Reidemeister moves follows from invariance of the bracket under those moves.  The bracket polynomial is known to change by a factor of  under a type I Reidemeister move.  The definition of the  polynomial given above is designed to nullify this change, since the writhe changes appropriately by  or  under type I moves.

Now make the substitution  in  to get the Jones polynomial .  This results in a Laurent polynomial with integer coefficients in the variable .

Jones polynomial for tangles

This construction of the Jones polynomial for tangles is a simple generalization of the Kauffman bracket of a link. The construction was developed by Vladimir Turaev and published in 1990.

Let  be a non-negative integer and  denote the set of all isotopic types of tangle diagrams, with  ends, having no crossing points and no closed components (smoothings). Turaev's construction makes use of the previous construction for the Kauffman bracket and associates to each -end oriented tangle an element of the free -module , where   is the ring of Laurent polynomials with integer coefficients in the variable .

Definition by braid representation

Jones' original formulation of his polynomial came from his study of operator algebras.  In Jones' approach, it resulted from a kind of "trace" of a particular braid representation into an algebra which originally arose while studying certain models, e.g. the Potts model, in statistical mechanics.

Let a link L be given.  A theorem of Alexander states that it is the trace closure of a braid, say with n strands.  Now define a representation  of the braid group on n strands, Bn, into the Temperley–Lieb algebra  with coefficients in  and .  The standard braid generator  is sent to , where  are the standard generators of the Temperley–Lieb algebra.  It can be checked easily that this defines a representation.

Take the braid word  obtained previously from  and compute  where  is the Markov trace. This gives , where   is the bracket polynomial.  This can be seen by considering, as Louis Kauffman did, the Temperley–Lieb algebra as a particular diagram algebra.

An advantage of this approach is that one can pick similar representations into other algebras, such as the R-matrix representations, leading to "generalized Jones invariants".

Properties
The Jones polynomial is characterized by taking the value 1 on any diagram of the unknot and satisfies the following skein relation:

where , , and  are three oriented link diagrams that are identical except in one small region where they differ by the crossing changes or smoothing shown in the figure below:

The definition of the Jones polynomial by the bracket makes it simple to show that for a knot , the Jones polynomial of its mirror image is given by substitution of  for  in . Thus, an amphicheiral knot, a knot equivalent to its mirror image, has palindromic entries in its Jones polynomial. See the article on skein relation for an example of a computation using these relations.

Another remarkable property of this invariant states that the Jones polynomial of an alternating link is an alternating polynomial. This property was proved by Morwen Thistlethwaite in 1987. Another proof of this last property is due to Hernando Burgos-Soto, who also gave an extension to tangles of the property.

The Jones polynomial is not a complete invariant. There exist an infinite number of non-equivalent knots that have the same Jones polynomial. An example of two distinct knots having the same Jones polynomial can be found in the book by Murasugi.

Colored Jones polynomial

For a positive integer , the -colored Jones polynomial  is a generalisation of the Jones polynomial. It is the Reshetikhin–Turaev invariant associated with the -irreducible representation of the quantum group . In this scheme, the Jones polynomial is the 1-colored Jones polynomial, the Reshetikhin-Turaev invariant associated to the standard representation (irreducible and two-dimensional) of . One thinks of the strands of a link as being "colored" by a representation, hence the name.

More generally, given a link   of  components and representations  of , the -colored Jones polynomial  is the Reshetikhin–Turaev invariant associated to  (here we assume the components are ordered). Given two representations  and , colored Jones polynomials satisfy the following two properties:
,
, where   denotes the 2-cabling of  .
These properties are deduced from the fact that colored Jones polynomials are Reshetikhin-Turaev invariants.

Let  be a knot. Recall that by viewing a diagram of  as an element of the Temperley-Lieb algebra thanks to the Kauffman bracket, one recovers the Jones polynomial of . Similarly, the -colored Jones polynomial of  can be given a combinatorial description using the Jones-Wenzl idempotents, as follows:
consider the -cabling  of ;
view it as an element of the Temperley-Lieb algebra;
insert the Jones-Wenzl idempotents on some  parallel strands.
The resulting element of  is the -colored Jones polynomial. See appendix H of  for further details.

Relationship to other theories

Link with Chern–Simons theory
As first shown by Edward Witten, the Jones polynomial of a given knot  can be obtained by considering  Chern–Simons theory on the three-sphere with gauge group , and computing the vacuum expectation value of a Wilson loop , associated to , and the fundamental representation  of .

Link with quantum knot invariants

By substituting  for the variable  of the Jones polynomial and expanding it as the series of h each of the coefficients turn to be the Vassiliev invariant of the knot . In order to unify the Vassiliev invariants (or, finite type invariants), Maxim Kontsevich constructed the Kontsevich integral. The value of the Kontsevich integral, which is the infinite sum of 1, 3-valued chord diagrams, named the Jacobi chord diagrams, reproduces the Jones polynomial along with the  weight system studied by Dror Bar-Natan.

Link with the volume conjecture

By numerical examinations on some hyperbolic knots, Rinat Kashaev discovered that substituting the n-th root of unity into the parameter of the colored Jones polynomial corresponding to the n-dimensional representation, and limiting it as n grows to infinity, the limit value would give the hyperbolic volume of the knot complement. (See Volume conjecture.)

Link with Khovanov homology

In 2000 Mikhail Khovanov constructed a certain chain complex for knots and links and showed that the homology induced from it is a knot invariant (see Khovanov homology). The Jones polynomial is described as the Euler characteristic for this homology.

Detection of the unknot
It is an open question whether there is a nontrivial knot with Jones polynomial equal to that of the unknot.  It is known that there are nontrivial links with Jones polynomial equal to that of the corresponding unlinks by the work of Morwen Thistlethwaite. It was shown by Kronheimer and Mrowka that there is no nontrivial knot with Khovanov homology equal to that of the unknot.

See also

HOMFLY polynomial
Alexander polynomial
Volume conjecture
Chern–Simons theory
Quantum group

Notes

References

 (explains the definition by bracket polynomial and its relation to Jones' formulation by braid representation)

External links

 Links with trivial Jones polynomial by Morwen Thistlethwaite

Knot theory
Polynomials
Knot invariants

Jones polynomial


The Lake Pleasant View System Important Bird Area comprises three shallow freshwater lakes, about five kilometres apart from each other.  The lakes lie near the town of Manypeaks, and 35 km north-east of Albany, in the Great Southern region of south-west Western Australia.

Description
The lakes include Lake Pleasant View, with North Sister East and North Sister West Lakes.  They are characterised by closed communities of sedges forming freshwater marshes on peat substrates. The lake margins support other species of wetland plants as well as saltwater paperbark open shrubland.

Birds
The three lakes, with a collective area of , have been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because they support a population of the endangered Australasian bittern, with up to ten breeding pairs present.  The IBA supports large numbers of little grassbirds, while western rosellas, red-capped parrots, red-winged fairy-wrens, western thornbills, western spinebills and red-eared firetails occur in the surrounding bushland.

References

Great Southern (Western Australia)
Pleasant View
Important Bird Areas of Western Australia


Voronina Island or Voronina Islands (Russian: Острова Воронина, Ostrova Voronina or Остров Воронина, Ostrov Voronina) is an isolated two-island group composed of a larger island and a narrow island on its northern side separated by a 3 km wide sound.

The main Voronina Island is about 9 km long and 6 km wide and is covered with tundra vegetation and ice. The northern islet is narrow, about 5 km in length and little more than 500 metres in width. These islands are located in the northeastern regions of the Kara Sea, about 130 km west of Severnaya Zemlya's shores and 72 km NNE of Kirova Island of the Kirov group.

The sea surrounding these lonely two islands is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer, which lasts barely two months. The climate is so severe that there are years where at Voronina Island's latitude the surrounding waters of the Kara Sea don't melt and remain frozen solid through the summer.

This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation. Voronina is also a breeding ground for polar bears and a wildlife refuge part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of the Russian Arctic.

The Voronina Islands have been named after Soviet Navy Captain Vladimir Voronin. Since "Voronina" is a Russian genitive, the combination "Voronina Islands" is technically incorrect. Even so, the name "Voronina Island" (or "Islands") has become popular and its use has been widespread in this manner for many decades and in many modern maps and atlases. "Voronin Islands", which would be the grammatically correct way of naming these islands in English, is very rarely used.

See also
Kara Sea

References

External links
Location
Geographic data
Nature Reserve

Islands of the Kara Sea

Polar bears in popular culture
Islands of Krasnoyarsk Krai

Voronina Island


Lathyrus sylvestris, the flat pea or narrow-leaved everlasting-pea, is a species of flowering plant in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is native to parts of Africa, Europe, and Asia.

The narrow-leaved everlasting-pea forms a mat of herbage. The stems are winged. Each leaf is made up of two elongated leaflets. The flowers are pink. The fruit is a legume pod about 2 inches long.

Description

The narrow-leaved everlasting-pea is a perennial plant which can grow  by climbing with its tendrils. Without any support it can reach about  tall. The stem is floppy and flat with wide wings. The leaves are alternate with short winged stalks and stipules. The leaf blades are pinnate with a single pair of narrow lanceolate leaflets with entire margins and three tendrils. The inflorescence has a long stem and three to ten pinkish-red flowers. These have five sepals and five petals and are irregular. The uppermost petal is known as the "standard", the lateral two as the "wings" and the lowest two are joined to form the "keel". There are ten stamens and a single carpel. The fruit is a long pod containing five to fifteen seeds.

Distribution and habitat
The narrow-leaved everlasting-pea is native to parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. Its natural habitat is forest edges, sparse broad-leaved hillside forests, dry hillside meadows, hedgerows, embankments and waste ground. It uses its tendrils to scramble over plants, shrubs and the lower branches of trees.

Uses
This plant is sometimes used to control erosion and for this purpose it is generally planted along with a grass species. It can do well in highly disturbed habitat. There is a cultivar called 'Lathco'.

References

External links

sylvestris
Flora of Africa
Flora of Asia
Flora of Europe
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Lathyrus sylvestris


The Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site, previously known as the Benjamin Harrison Home, is the former home of the 23rd president of the United States, Benjamin Harrison. It is in the Old Northside Historic District of Indianapolis, Indiana. Harrison's 16-room house was built from 1874 to 1875. It was from the front porch of the house that Harrison instituted his famous Front Porch Campaign in the 1888 United States presidential campaign, often speaking to crowds on the street. In 1896, Harrison renovated the house and added electricity. He died there in a second-story bedroom in 1901. Today it is owned by the Arthur Jordan Foundation and operated as a museum to the former president by the Benjamin Harrison Foundation.

History

Benjamin Harrison arrived in Indianapolis in 1854 in order to begin a career as a lawyer. In 1867, following his service in the military, he bought a double lot from an auction, on what was then the outskirts of town, on North Delaware Street, just north of present-day Interstate 65. Construction of a house on the property commenced in 1874 and was completed in 1875 at a cost of $24,818.67 (equal to $ today). The Harrison family's move to 1230 Delaware Street set in motion the northward migration of prominent Indianapolis residents. When built, the property featured many elm and oak trees. Except for the time Benjamin Harrison served as United States Senator from Indiana (1881–1887), and his time as President of the United States (1889–1893), he lived at the home for the rest of his life. Benjamin Harrison died in the master bedroom of the house on March 13, 1901. While running for president in 1888, Benjamin Harrison issued campaign speeches to listeners on the street outside his home, in what were called "front-porch speeches". The front porch was not built until 1896, three years after he left the presidency.

After Benjamin Harrison's death, his widow Mary Lord Dimmick Harrison owned the property. In 1939, Mary Lord Harrison sold the house to the Arthur Jordan School of Music (now located at Butler University as the Jordan College of Fine Arts), with the proviso that the house would always serve as a memorial to Benjamin Harrison. The Arthur Jordan School renovated the house, turning the second and third floors into a dormitory for the school's female students and converting the first floor into a museum. Until 1974, tours were provided by appointment. The Benjamin Harrison Home became a National Historic Landmark in 1966. That same year, the nonprofit Benjamin Harrison Foundation was incorporated to manage and operate the museum. Regular daily tours began in 1974 after the Arthur Jordan Foundation completed a second renovation completing its conversion into a house museum. The Arthur Jordan Foundation continues to lease the house to the Benjamin Harrison Foundation.

Structure

The Italianate Benjamin Harrison House was built at 1230 Delaware Street from 1874 to 1875, using the plans of architect Herman T. Brandt. The red brick house has sixteen rooms. The bracketed cornices and three-story bay window are indicative of the Italianate architecture style. Interior features include an oak-trimmed walnut staircase, butternut woodwork, and parquet floors. Many renovations took place in 1896, which included electricity and the front porch.

Today
Presently, the house is open for tours throughout the week. Ten of the sixteen rooms are open for visitors, all decorated in the Victorian style typical of Benjamin Harrison's time at the residence. 75% of the 3,700 pieces of memorabilia actually belonged to Benjamin Harrison and his family, and the books in the museum number 2,440. Besides archives regarding Benjamin Harrison, the house also features archives of the Daughters of the American Revolution. The front parlor is set to look as it did when Benjamin Harrison brought his new bride to the house.

See also
List of residences of presidents of the United States
List of attractions and events in Indianapolis
Presidential memorials in the United States

References

External links

Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Website
National Park Service site on the Benjamin Harrison Home
"Life Portrait of Benjamin Harrison", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, broadcast from the Benjamin Harrison Home, August 20, 1999

Houses completed in 1875
Historic house museums in Indiana
National Historic Landmarks in Indianapolis
Harrison, Benjamin
Museums in Indianapolis
Benjamin Harrison
Italianate architecture in Indiana
Houses in Indianapolis
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums

Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site


George Ellery Hale (June 29, 1868 – February 21, 1938) was an American astrophysicist, best known for his discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots, and as the leader or key figure in the planning or  construction of several world-leading telescopes; namely, the 40-inch refracting telescope at Yerkes Observatory, 60-inch Hale reflecting telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory, 100-inch Hooker reflecting telescope at Mount Wilson, and the 200-inch Hale reflecting telescope at Palomar Observatory.  He played a key role in the foundation of the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research and the National Research Council, and in developing the California Institute of Technology into a leading research university.

Early life and education
George Ellery Hale was born on June 29, 1868, in Chicago, Illinois, to William Ellery Hale and Mary Browne. He is descended from Thomas Hale of Watton-on-Stone, Hertfordshire, England, whose son emigrated to America about 1640. His father acquired a considerable fortune manufacturing and installing passenger elevators during the reconstruction of Chicago, which had been destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The oldest of three children who lived past childhood, George received strong encouragement from his father, who supported the boy's active mind and curiosity, and his mother, who inculcated in him a love of poetry and literature.

He spent his youth fascinated by the books and machinery given to him by his parents—one of his most prized possessions was a small microscope. With his father's encouragement, he built a small shop in their house that turned into a laboratory. The microscope led to his interest in optics. At the age of fourteen, George built his first telescope. His father later replaced it with a second-hand Clark refractor that they mounted on the roof of their Kenwood house. Soon he was photographing the night skies, observing a partial eclipse of the sun, and drawing sun-spots.

As an avid reader with a strong interest in the budding field of astrophysics, Hale was drawn to the writings of William Huggins, Norman Lockyer, and Ernest Rutherford. His fascination with science, however, did not preclude interests more typical of a normal boy, such as fishing, boating, swimming, skating, tennis, and bicycling. He was an enthusiastic reader of the stories of Jules Verne—particularly drawn to the tales of adventure set in the mountains of California. Hale spent summers at his grandmother's house in the old New England village of Madison, Connecticut, where he met his future wife, Evelina Conklin.

After graduating from Oakland Public School in Chicago, Hale attended the Allen Academy, where he studied chemistry, physics, and astronomy. He supplemented his practical home experience by attending a course in shop-work at the Chicago Manual Training School. During these years, Hale developed a knowledge of the principles of architecture and city planning with the help of his father's friend, well-known architect Daniel Burnham. Upon Burnham's advice and encouragement, Hale decided at the age of seventeen to continue his education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

Hale was educated at MIT, at the Harvard College Observatory, (1889–90), and in Berlin (1893–94) where he was a PhD student but never finished his degree.  At the time he already had an appointment as a professor at the recently established University of Chicago.  As an undergraduate at MIT, he is known for inventing the spectroheliograph,  with which he made his discovery of solar vortices.

Research

In 1890, he began research at the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory, which Hale's father had built for him; he was professor of astrophysics at Beloit College (1891–93); associate professor at the University of Chicago until 1897, and full professor (1897–1905).    He was coeditor of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1892–95, and after 1895 editor of the Astrophysical Journal.  He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1921 to 1923.

In 1908, he used the Zeeman effect with a modified spectroheliograph to establish that sunspots were magnetic.  Subsequent work demonstrated a strong tendency for east-west alignment of magnetic polarities in sunspots, with mirror symmetry across the solar equator; and that the polarity in each hemisphere switched orientation from one sunspot cycle to the next. This systematic property of sunspot magnetic fields is now commonly referred to as the "Hale–Nicholson law," or in many cases simply "Hale's law."

Hale spent a large portion of his career trying to find a way to image the solar corona without the benefit of a total solar eclipse, but this was not achieved until the work of Bernard Lyot.
In October 1913, Hale received a letter from Albert Einstein, asking whether certain astronomical observations could be done that would test Einstein's hypothesis concerning the effects of gravity on light.  Hale replied in November, saying that such observations could be done only during a total eclipse of the sun.

Founding and organizing of institutions
Hale was a driven individual, who worked to found a number of significant astronomical observatories, including Yerkes Observatory, Mount Wilson Observatory, Palomar Observatory, and the Hale Solar Laboratory.  At Mount Wilson, he hired and encouraged Harlow Shapley and Edwin Hubble toward some of the most significant discoveries of the time.  He was a prolific organizer who helped create a number of astronomical institutions, societies and journals.  Hale also played a central role in developing the California Institute of Technology into a leading research university. After retiring as director at Mount Wilson, he built the Hale Solar Laboratory in Pasadena, California, as his office and workshop, pursuing his interest in the sun.

From early youth, Hale had been internationally oriented, travelling widely throughout Europe in his younger years. Having long realized the value of an international organization to coordinate scientific research, he pursued, as chairman of a committee of the National Academy of Sciences of the US, the formation of an international organization for solar research. The society's inaugural meeting was held at the St. Louis Exposition of 1904 and included representatives from 16 national scientific societies, but notably not from the Prussian Academy of Sciences, which had declined the invitation. Instead, German delegates from the German Physical Society were present.

The delegates proceeded to appoint a committee that was to create the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research as a permanent international scientific organization; the new union had its first constituted meeting at Oxford in England a year later. Further meetings were held in Paris in 1907 and at Mount Wilson in 1910, where the purview of the Union was enlarged to include stellar research, in keeping with Hale's emphasis on the Sun as just one among the many other stars. Shortly after the last meeting in Bonn in 1913, World War I broke out, which effectively put an end to the Union's activities. Work continued after the 1919 founding of the International Astronomical Union.

During the war, Hale played a key role in founding the National Research Council to support the government in using science for its policy aims, in particular to further its military ends. In 1922, he was appointed at the League of Nations' Committee on Intellectual Cooperation but had to resign after a few months because of health problems. He was replaced by his colleague Robert Andrew Millikan.

Personal life
Hale suffered from neurological and psychological problems, including insomnia, frequent headaches, and depression. The often-repeated myth of  schizophrenia, alleging he claimed to have regular visits from an elf who acted as his advisor, arose from a misunderstanding by one of his biographers. He occasionally took time off to spend a few months at a sanatorium in Maine. These problems forced him to resign as director of Mount Wilson. He died at the Las Encinas Sanitarium in Pasadena in 1938.

Honors and awards
 1894 Janssen Medal from the Paris Academy of Sciences
 1902 Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts & Sciences
1902 Elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society
 1904 Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences
 1904 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
 1916 Catherine Wolfe Bruce Gold Medal from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
 1917 Prix Jules Janssen from the French Astronomical Society
 1919 Elected an associate of Académie des Sciences, Institut de France
 1920 Galileo Medal from the University of Florence
 1921 Actonian Prize from Royal Institution of London
 1926 Elliott Cresson Medal in Physics from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia
 1926 Arthur Noble Medal from the City of Pasadena
 1927 Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia
 1932 Sir Godfrey Copley Medal from the Royal Society of Great Britain
 1935 Frederic Ives Medal from the Optical Society of America
 Foreign Member of the Royal Society
 Medal of Merit of the Order of Leopold from Belgium
 Order of the Crown of Italy
 Honorary Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences

Legacy

 100 inch telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory
 Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin
 Hale telescope at Palomar Observatory
 22-year solar Hale cycle
 1024 Hale asteroid
 Mount Hale, , the 55th highest peak in the Sierra Nevada
 Hale lunar crater
 Hale Martian crater
 George Ellery Hale Middle School, Woodland Hills, California
 Hale House, Shoreland Hall, University of Chicago
 Hale Building, Pasadena, California
 George Ellery Hale Prize, awarded by the Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society

Popular culture
Fox Mulder uses the pseudonym "George E. Hale" on several occasions in the TV series The X-Files, most notable in Season 2, Episode 1 "Little Green Men", and Season 2, Episode 4 "Sleepless".

Check It Out! with Dr. Steve Brule has an episode on "space" which references a real fact about Hale in passing.

References
Notes

Bibliography

External links

 National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
 George Ellery Hale Papers, Caltech Archives

 Bruce Medal
 Awarding of the Bruce Medal: PASP 28 (1916) 12
 Awarding of the RAS gold medal: MNRAS 64 (1904) 388
 The Journey to Palomar, 2008 PBS documentary
 Guide to the George Ellery Hale Papers c.1889-1950 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

1868 births
1938 deaths
American astronomers
American astrophysicists
People from Chicago
Harvard University alumni
American male journalists
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Recipients of the Bruce Medal
California Institute of Technology faculty
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Beloit College faculty
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Journalists from Illinois
American people of English descent
Harvard College Observatory people
The Astrophysical Journal editors
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
Recipients of Franklin Medal
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni

George Ellery Hale


4Music is a British music television channel owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation that launched on 15 August 2008.

The original incarnation, replacing The Hits television channel, showed a mix of music and entertainment programming. On 29 June 2022, the channel was replaced by E4 Extra, a new sister channel and extension of E4. On that date, 4Music was relaunched as a full-time music channel and a replacement for Box Hits, which would cease broadcasting the same day.

History

Launch and Early years

The channel launched in 2008 with a ten-minute, on-screen countdown. During the countdown, clips from popular music videos were faded through the screen, including clips from promotions for the channel. The channel then launched at 7 pm with a promotional advert before fading into "Davina (McCall) and Steve (Jones)'s 20 Big Ones"; the first song at number 20 being "The Pretender" by Foo Fighters, and Kylie Minogue's "Can't Get You Out of My Head" at number 1.

Kylie Minogue's KYLIEX2008 tour was broadcast, and completing the launch night line-up was Big Brother Live, where Rachel Rice was given a 'favourite things party' for surviving that night's eviction. She and her chosen favourite housemate, Kathreya Kasisopa, were taken to a private room where Rachel's top 10 favourite songs were played. Live coverage of the 2008 V Festival was shown on 16 and 17 August and highlights were shown on subsequent days. These highlights sparked complaints, however, as to the overall quality of coverage, due to the main headliners not getting their full sets played out.

Despite the arguments between Davina and Steve as to whose face appeared first on the channel, the first face seen on 4Music was Kylie Minogue, introducing her live concert at 9 pm on the launch night (as they later explained).

The launch also saw a new Digital on-screen graphic appear on the screen, and new idents with a woman swivelling on a chair with the channel's logo in the background. The concept for the channel's on-air presentation was similar to the previous idea The Hits had, with a TV suddenly filling with colour throughout the room.

2013–present
On 2 April 2013, all Box Television channels went free-to-air on satellite, apart from 4Music which went free-to-view. As a result, the channels were removed from the Sky EPG in Ireland. Eventually, 4Music also went free-to-air on 7 February 2017 and launched on Freesat, replacing The Box, but reverted to being free-to-view on 12 December 2018. On 25 January 2022, a new transmission of 4Music free-to-air on satellite began, with a post from a Sky employee on the official Sky customer forums subsequently confirming that the free-to-air version would replace the FTV version on the Sky guide from 1 February.

The move back to free-to-air permitted the readdition of 4Music back to the Freesat channel guide from 1 February 2022, following soon after the restoration of the Box Plus Network's music channels and Channel 4 HD to full Freesat listing, after a period during which they had only been available via manual tune-in. On 1 March 2022, 4Music was restored to Sky in Ireland.

On 25 September 2017, 4Music received an update to its on-screen graphics, revolving around four squares which extend to create the 4Music logo and animate to form the artist credit. In 2018, 4Music changed its logo to add the current Channel 4 logo to it, with '4' and 'Music' mashed up together. This change also happened to its other channels.

From 16 April 2018, the channel now shows more entertainment programmes as well as archive Channel 4 programming to coincide with a change in the EPG numbers on Sky from 1 May 2018.

On 4 November 2020, 4Music moved from channel 29 to 30 as part of a move up where every channel from channel 24 to 54 on the platform moved up one place to allow BBC Four to move to channel 24 in Scotland due to new Ofcom rules regarding certain PSB channels requiring greater prominence on EPGs. This is because the BBC Scotland channel is on channel 9 in Scotland, whilst BBC Four is on channel 9 in the rest of the UK. On 26 January 2022, a similar shuffle down of channels – to free up LCN 23 nationwide for the revived BBC Three – saw 4Music moved again, to 31 (with E4 +1 in turn taking over 30).

Transmission of 4Music and other channels operated by Channel 4 was impacted by the activation of a fire suppressant system at the premises of Red Bee Media on 25 September 2021. From 27 September to 6 October 2021, 4Music simulcasted the output of The Box, in place of usual scheduled programming, with a note shown on EPGs about the technical problems. The simulcast was changed to Box Hits on 7 October 2021, while output from 4Music was restored on 15 October, though initially with music videos only. Longform programming returned to the channel on 9 November, beginning at 12.07pm with Couples Come Dine with Me. The last song played before longform programming resumed was "Remember" by Becky Hill and David Guetta.

On 13 June 2022, Channel 4 announced that 4Music's channel slot would be replaced with E4 Extra on 29 June 2022. 4Music itself would transition to Box Hits' slot, effectively replacing the network. With the change, the channel transitioned back to being a full-time music channel. The final music video played on 4Music on Freeview prior to the channel transitioning to E4 Extra was "House on Fire" by Mimi Webb at 02:57 on 29 June; following the overnight infomercial block (closing with a short 4Music sting), transmission of E4 Extra began at 07:00.

On 23 August 2022, the On-Screen Graphics of 4Music were revised. The new graphics feature a larger logo, modified font and different animations when showing Artist/Song titles.

Programming

Entertainment Programming (until 2022)
Programmes shown on the channel as of Tuesday 9 November 2021: From June 29, 2022, these programmes transitioned to other Channel 4 networks, E4 and E4 Extra.

Acquired programming (2018–2022)
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer (2021–22)
 Charmed (2018–22) (Note: the original WB series from the late 1990s, not the 2018 revival series. Both iterations of the show were shown first on E4.) (this was the first non music programe to be shown on 4music in the daytime.)
 Duncanville (2022; Initially planned)
 The Goldbergs (2021–22) This American comedy series, which started on US TV in 2013, has also been seen on E4.
 Harley Quinn (2022)
 How I Met Your Mother (2019–22)
 Malcolm in the Middle (2020–22)
 Rick and Morty (2021–22) (some episodes debuted in the UK on E4, others on TruTV)
 Sabrina the Teenage Witch (2019–22)
Scrubs (2019–22, previously shown in the UK on E4 from 2002–10)
 Wipeout USA (2021–22)

Programming from Channel 4/E4 (2014–2022)
8 Out of 10 Cats Uncut (2014–22)
8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown (2021–22)
The Big Fat Quiz of Everything (2022)
Catastrophe (2022)
Dead Pixels (2022)
Don't Tell the Bride (2019–22)
Friday Night Dinner (2020–22) [As part of 4Music's "Box Set Fri" segment]
The IT Crowd (2019–22)
Naked Attraction (2021) (currently part of E4's schedules)
Stath Lets Flats (2022)
Taskmaster (2021–22) (earlier series originally debuted on Dave)
Travel Man (2021–22)

Programming from Channel 4 (2016–2022)
Celebs Go Dating (2019–21)
Coach Trip (2019–21)
Come Dine with Me (2020–21)
Father Ted (2021–22) (now shown on E4 Extra)
Man Down (2021–22)
Rude Tube (2016–21)
Tattoo Fixers (2020–21)
The Windsors (2020)

Original programming (2010–2019)
Bronx Tales: The Influence (part of Hip Hop Season) (2016–19) (also on Netflix UK)
Nicki Minaj: Day in the Life (2012)
Nicole Scherzinger: Day in the Life (2013)
Olly Murs: Day in the Life (2012)
Real Stories (2011–14)
The Saturdays: What Goes On Tour (2011)

Programming from Channel 4 (2010–2019)
The channel is also well known for repeating some of Channel 4's shows. Most of the shows listed below can also be found on E4, as that is a Channel Four Television Corporation service with a target market range of 16–34 years-of-age. As of September 2019, 4Music showed the following Channel 4 programmes in its schedule:
Alan Carr's Celebrity Ding Dong
Alan Carr: Chatty Man
Balls of Steel (now on All 4)
Balls of Steel Australia (made by Endemol Australia/Foxtel for The Comedy Channel in Australia but broadcast in the UK by E4)
Banzai (now on All 4)
Bo' Selecta!
Derren Brown (now on All 4)
Distraction (now on All 4)
Facejacker
Fonejacker
Friday/Sunday Night Project
Girls Aloud: Off the Record
The Inbetweeners (UK TV series)  (now on All 4 and repeated on E4, also on E4 Extra)
The Inbetweeners (U.S. TV series – actually made by Viacom's MTV but broadcast in the UK by E4)
The Kevin Bishop Show
Modern Toss
No Angels (Series 1 only) (now on All 4)
Peep Show (now on Gold and All 4)
Rock School
Russell Brand's Ponderland
Shipwrecked (now on All 4)
Spaced (now on All 4)
Star Stories (now on All 4)
Sugar Rush (now on All 4)
Trigger Happy TV (now on All 4)
Trigger Happy TV USA (this version was made for Viacom's Comedy Central channel in the U.S. but was broadcast in the UK on Channel 4)
TV Offal
Your Face or Mine? (the version hosted by Jimmy Carr and June Sarpong, not the revival made for Viacom's Comedy Central channel in the UK)

Other former programming (2008–2021)
2 Broke Girls (2015–19)
90210 (2018, shown on E4 from 2009–13)
American Idol (Season 15 only) (2016)
Anger Management (2019)
Angie Tribeca (2019–21) (Note: the first couple of seasons of this TBS comedy were shown in the UK by E4)
Animals Unleashed (2019)
Being... N-Dubz (shown exclusively to 4music from 2010–11)
Black-ish (2021)
Broad City (Season 2+) (2015)
Charlie's Angels (2016)
Chasing The Saturdays (2013)
The Dance Scene (2010–11)
Frasier (2019)
The Good Place (2020)
The Hollyoaks Music Show (2009–11)
I Am Cait (2016)
Joe and Caspar Hit The Road (2016)
Keeping Up With the Kardashians (2010–21) (first run on E!)
King of the Hill (2018–20)
Kocktails with Khloé (2016)
Kourtney and Kim Take Miami (2010–14)
Kourtney and Kim Take New York (2012–14)
Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons (2015)
Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood  (2017)
Man with a Plan (2021)
Mariah's World (2018) (from E!)
Melissa & Joey (2021)
New Girl (2019–20)
Not Safe with Nikki Glaser (2016)
Rob Kardashian and Chyna (2019)
Roswell (2014)
Schitt's Creek (2019)
Sex and the City (2018)
The Simple Life (2008–10)
Snoop Dogg's Father Hood (2008–09)
Speechless (2021)
Sun, Sex and Suspicious Parents (2016) (from BBC Three)
Supernatural (2019)
Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job! (2011–12)
The World According to Paris (2011)
Xena: Warrior Princess (2017)

Music programming
Box Fresh – A campaign launched at the beginning of 2017 as a replacement for the Box Upfront series of shows (excluding The Official Box Upfront Chart).
Fresh Forward – Abbie McCarthy and Yinka Bokinni present new artists and new music.
From Day 1 –  Selected artist/band retrospective. Formally presented by Will Best, Kiss Radio's AJ King, or Kiss 100's Manny Norte, it is now presented by the selected artist/band.
Hitlist – Your day starts here join us as we play your get out of bed playlist.
The Hotmix – A playlist of tracks that are cut down and edited to flow smoothly into the next track.
The Saturday Night Hotmix – A Saturday night variant of The Hotmix.
Showdown: ... vs ... – Music videos from two different artists.
UK HOTLIST – Top 20 & 40 videos of the most streamed tracks on Spotify in the last week.
The UK Music Video Chart – With data supplied by YouTube, The UKMVC supplies you with the most watched music videos of the week.

Former music programming
4Music Big Ones – A selection of pre-released and released singles. It plays all genres of music such as hip-hop, rock, pop, R&B, dance, folk, indie etc.
The 4Music Buzz Chart – The first "4Music Buzz Chart" was broadcast on 18 August 2008 at 12:00 am. It shows a selection of pre-released songs charted into a top 10, similar to sister channel The Box's "Box Breakers". The first number one in the chart was "Jump in the Pool" by Friendly Fires and Bombay Bicycle Club's "Always Like This". The programme is no longer shown.
4Music Doubles – Two music videos by artists or bands. The first video, being their newest song, the second video, being their most successful song. "Imma Be" and "Where Is the Love?" is an example by The Black Eyed Peas.
4Play!... – 4 videos from a one artist or group.
100% Super Hits – The chart tracks of the moment.
The A-List Playlist – The biggest music videos right now.
The Crush – A monthly show called The Crush (sponsored by KFC Krushems milkshakes) was hosted by Rick Edwards and later T4 host Will Best and contains interviews with artists that are releasing new albums and single in that month.
Fresh Music Top 20 – Formerly, the 4Music Top 20, this is a chart compiled by 4Music of the "biggest" and "best" videos from the current week. The first ever This Week's 4Music Top 20 Chart was broadcast on 19 March 2009 at 3:45 pm. Replaced by UK HOTLIST Top 20.
From the Beginning – All of the music videos from a certain artist are played, from their first right through to the present day. They have included Take That, P!nk, Mariah Carey, Westlife and Girls Aloud. Replaced by From The Start, and now airs on Box Hits.
From The Start – Selected artist retrospective, from career memory lane – to today; this program replaces From Day 1, and From The Beginning, and is now aired on Box Hits.
Hangout's – Interviews with the trending artists, while also playing their biggest releases and newest singles.
Hit Mornings With Pandora
Homecoming – Artists (such as Tom Walker in the episode broadcast on 27 September 2019) go back to their hometown.
Hot 10 in 10 – 10 huge tracks edited into a 10-minute remix like The Hotmix.
The Month with Miquita – A review of the past month's stories in the world of music with T4 presenter, Miquita Oliver. This programme is no longer broadcast.
The Official Box Upfront Chart – Presented by Jon Jackson and with data compiled by Radio Monitor, The Official Box Upfront Chart plays the 10 biggest pre-release tracks.
Orange unsignedAct – First aired last year as MobileAct Unsigned on T4, Orange UnsignedAct follows the search for Britain's next biggest unsigned band. No longer being made.
Six Steps – Linking a couple of artists, through six stages. Snoop Dogg to Girls Aloud, Dizzee Rascal to Westlife and Madonna to McFly are a few examples.
This Week's Fresh Music Top 20 – A countdown of the 20 freshest music videos at the moment.
Today's 4Music Top 10 – A chart compiled by 4Music of the "biggest" and "best" videos right now. The first ever Today's 4Music Top 10 Chart was broadcast on 18 August 2008 at 12:00 pm. Yeasayer were top with their single "Ambling Alp".
Trending Live! – Live from Monday to Thursday from 4pm 'til 5:30pm (5pm until 1 May 2018) with Jimmy Hill, AJ Odudu and Vick Hope, Trending Live was the viewer's daily dose of new music and entertainment news centred on interaction with the audience on Twitter via the hashtag #TrendingLive and @TrendingLive & @4music accounts, and through Facebook comments. As of 18 April 2017 until 1 May 2018, Trending Live let viewers choose the music videos played in the You Select! segment from 5pm until the end of the show.
Tweet To Beat – Usually shown when Trending Live is off-air, but also for Box Plus competitions like Last Fan Standing. Two artists songs are played alternately, viewers can use the hashtags on-screen to choose their winner (e.g. #4MusicCalvin vs. #4MusicTaylor, or #BeyhiveBoxLFS vs. #SwiftiesBoxLFS for Last Fan Standing), the percentages are shown on-screen throughout and when the vote closes the winner then gets the last song of the programme.
UKHot40 – UKHot40 is a music video chart based on UK sales only, and documents the top records of the week.
The UK Airplay Top 20 – The 20 most played songs on commercial radio this week. Now on Box Hits
The Versus Chart – The programme is hosted by Matt Littler and Darren Jeffries. They both back an artist and show 10 mixed music videos of both artists with them to see which is "better". Eminem Vs. Kanye West, Britney Vs. Christina, Lady GaGa Vs. Katy Perry and Take That Vs. Robbie Williams are a few examples. Replaced by Showdown: ... vs ....
Vote4Music – An interactive show where a set of 30 songs could be chosen by tweeting the relevant hashtag, the hashtag with the most votes was then played next and this process was repeated. The song that was chosen when the final song of the show is being played was then played at the beginning of the next show instead. Replaced by Showdown: ... vs ....
What's Hot Right Now? Top 10 – The 10 best singles at this current point in time.
Your Official Top 20 – A chart is compiled of songs from a particular artist that has released at least 20 singles such as Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera and The Black Eyed Peas. The public vote for their favourite song on the 4Music website and the results are shown on the results show.
The Pop Power List
The Big Five-0! Kiss FM's Jez Welham 50 biggest countdown songs this week. Now on Kiss TV

Award ceremonies
Grammy Awards (2013–22)
Teen Choice Awards (2015–19)
Billboard Music Awards (2016)

Concerts and festivals

 AJ Tracey: Live and Direct (2020)
 V Festival (2008–11)

4Music has coverage at both festivals during the Summer, with highlights repeated frequently throughout the Summer. The channel also has stages at both events. At T4 on the Beach since 2007 (renamed the "T4 and 4Music Stage" in 2010) and at the V Festival since 2005 (then known as the "Channel 4 Stage", renamed to the "4Music Stage" in 2008).

T4 on the Beach ended after T4 ended its final run on 29 December 2012.

Former logos

References

External links
 4Music on Box Plus

2008 establishments in the United Kingdom
Channel 4 television channels
Music television channels
Music video networks in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 2008

4Music


A conure is a term in aviculture referring to 2 genuses of parrot, Pyrrhura and Aratinga. In science, they are known as parakeets, because 'conure' is not a scientific name.

Conures are in the Psittacidae family (neotropical parrots). Their range goes from upper Brazil to southern Argentina. Conures are often kept as pets, and can be very friendly with people.

Conures are small birds. Many can grow up to 10 inches long, but some species can grow up to 20 inches long. Different types of conures have different colours, but the most common colour is green. Conures can eat many foods, including nuts, grains, fruits, and vegetables. Conures kept as pets must never be fed chocolate, avocado, salty foods, or caffeine.

Parrots

Conure


Michael Duffy is a naval historian, specialising in the Napoleonic war period. He is reader in British history and director of the Centre for Maritime Historical Studies at the University of Exeter.

Academic career
Duffy earned his BA in history, MA, and DPhil in history at the University of Oxford. Appointed to the faculty of the University of Exeter, he has been assistant lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer, head of history and dean of arts. Appointed director of the Centre for Maritime Historical Studies in 1991, he was promoted to reader in British history in 2001.

He has been vice-president of the Navy Records Society and editor of the Mariner's Mirror.

Published books
 The military revolution and the state, 1500-1800, edited by Michael Duffy (1980)
 Soldiers, sugar and seapower: the British expeditions to the West Indies and the war against revolutionary France (1987)
 Parameters of British naval power 1650-1850(1992)
 The new maritime history of Devon, edited by Michael Duffy, et al. (1992, 1994)
 Profiles in Power: The Younger Pitt (2000)
 The Glorious First of June: A naval battle and its aftermath, edited by Roger Morriss and Michael Duffy (2003)
 The Naval Miscellany, Vol. 6, Navy Records Society, 2003.
 Touch and take : The Battle of Trafalgar 21 October 1805 (2005)

Contributions to books
 'Naples between the Great Powers in the Revolutionary Era', in J. Roberston and J. Davis, eds., Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century.
 The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) entries for Sir Samuel Hood, Sir William Hoste, Sir Robert Waller Otway, Sir Samuel Pum, Sir Thomas Staines, Sir Richard Strachan, James Walker, Sir Nesbit Willoughby, Sir James Lucas Yeo, Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto.
'La artileeria en Trafalgar: adiestramiento, tactica y moral de combate', in A. Guimera and A Butron (eds), Trafalgar y el mundo altantico, Madrid: Marcel Pons Historia, 2004.
 'Sir Samuel Hood', in R. Harding and P. LeFevre (eds), Contemporaries of Nelson: British admirals 1793-1815, Chatham Press, 2004.
 'Preface', in M. Duffy (ed), The Naval Miscellany Vol 6, Ashgate/ Navy/ Records Society, 2003, pp.xi-xiii.
 'Edmund Dummer', in M.Duffy (ed), The Naval Miscellany, Vol 6, Navy Records Society, 2003, pp. 93–147.
 "Science and Labour". The Naval Contribution to Operations Ashore in the Great Wars with France 1793-1815', in P. Hore (ed), Seapower Ashore: 200 years of Extraordinary Nanal Operations, Chatham, 2001, pp. 39–52.
 'The man who missed the grain convoy: Rear Admiral George Montagu and the arrival of Vanstabel's convoy from America in 1794', in M. Duffy and R. Morriss, eds., The Glorious First of June: A naval battle and its aftermath, Exeter Maritime Studies, 2001, pp. 101–19.
 'Contested Empires 1756-1815', in Paul Langford, ed., Short History of the British Isles 1688-1815, Oxford University Press, pp. 213–42.

References

English naval historians
Academics of the University of Exeter
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
Living people
British maritime historians
Year of birth missing (living people)

Michael Duffy (historian)


The Summer Street Historic District encompasses a fashionable 19th-century residential area of Adams, Massachusetts.  Centered on the junction of Summer Street with Center and Orchard Streets, it extends mainly north along Summer Street, and includes fine examples of Greek Revival, Late Victorian, and Federal style architecture.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

Description and history
The town of Adams was settled by colonists in 1762, and was incorporated in 1778; its northern section was separated as North Adams in 1878.  Early settlement took place on the eastern bank of the Hoosac River, along the area's main stagecoach route (now roughly Center and Orchard Streets).  Industry developed along the river in the 19th century, and Summer Street, which roughly parallels the river on a rise to its east, became a fashionable neighborhood for the community's merchant and business elite.  As the town industrialized in the 1830s and 1840s, a number of fine Greek Revival houses were built there, and it experienced a second major development push in the late 19th century, when a large number of Victorian homes were built.

The principal avenue of the historic district is the block of Summer Street extending from Randall Street in the north to the junction with Center, Orchard, and Crandall Streets in the south.  A number of properties are included along those three streets as well as side streets immediately adjacent.  The district has 75 historic buildings, most of which are single-family residences built out of wood.  Two church buildings (one now serving as a Masonic lodge) face each other across Center Street, and are included in the district, as are a series of early 20th-century multi-unit rowhouses.  The streets are typically lined with trees, and the houses have modest setbacks.  Particularly fine architectural examples include 72 Center Street, a c. 1840 Greek Revival house, and 4 Orchard Street, a detailed example of Second Empire architecture built in 1870.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Berkshire County, Massachusetts

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Berkshire County, Massachusetts
Adams, Massachusetts

Summer Street Historic District (Adams, Massachusetts)


Vilhelm Ludwig Peter Thomsen (25 January 1842 – 12 May 1927) was a Danish linguist and Turkologist. He successfully deciphered the Orkhon inscriptions  which were discovered during the expedition of Nikolai Yadrintsev in 1889.

Early life and education
Vilhelm Thomsen was born in Copenhagen. He was the son of Chamber Councillor (kammerråd) Ludvig Frederik Thomsen and the elder brother of painter and illustrator Carl Thomsen (1847–1912).

He studied at the University of Copenhagen in 1859,  graduating  in 1867 and earning a PhD in 1869 with a dissertation on Germanic loanwords in Finnic.

Career
He taught Greek at the Borgerdyd school in Copenhagen before becoming a professor at the University of Copenhagen;
From 1875 he was an associate professor of comparative linguistics at the University of Copenhagen, and in 1887 he was appointed professor.

In 1876 he was invited to give the Ilchester Lectures at the University of Oxford, which were later published as The Relations Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State.

Thomsen made a number of important contributions to linguistics, including his work on the Germanic, Baltic, and Indo-Iranian influences on Finnic. In 1893, he deciphered the Turkic Orkhon inscriptions in advance of Russian linguist  Wilhelm Radloff (1837–1918).
Vilhelm Thomsen first published the translation in French in 1899. He then published another interpretation in Danish in 1922 with a more complete translation.

According to an article on "The history of Uralic linguistics" by Bo Wickman (1988:808),
The Danish scholar Vilhelm Thomsen (1842–1927) was one of the greatest linguists of all times. He was active in an astoundingly great number of linguistic disciplines, and he was equally masterful in all of them.

Personal life

Thomsen married Karen Charlotte Allen (22 August 1852 – 15 August 1934), a daughter of historian C.F. Allen (1811–71) and Ide Marie Dorph (1812–1910), on 5 May 1876 in Frederiksberg.

He died on 12 May 1927 in Copenhagen and is buried in Solbjerg Park Cemetery.

Honours
In 1912 he received membership of the Order of the Elephant.
Thomsen is honored on a stela set up in central Copenhagen along with three other Danish pioneers of modern linguistics; Rasmus Rask, Niels Ludvig Westergaard and Karl Verner.
Thomsen was President of the Danish Academy from 1909 until his death, and was an honorary member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Wilhelm Thomsen Caddesi is a  street that is named after him in Ankara, Turkey, on which the National Library of Turkey is located.

Selected publications
The relations between ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the origin of the Russian state. Three lectures delivered at the Taylor Institution, Oxford, in May, 1876, in accordance with the terms of Lord Ilchester's bequest to the university
1896: Inscriptions De L'Orkhon Déchiffrées
On the influence of the Germanic languages on the Finnish-Lappish

See also
Old Turkic script

References

Sources
 Brøndal, Viggo. 1927. "L'œuvre de Vilhelm Thomsen." Acta philologica scandinavica 2:289–318. København.
 Wickman, Bo. 1988. "The history of Uralic linguistics." In The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences, edited by Denis Sinor. Leiden: Brill.

Balticists
Linguists from Denmark
Linguists of Turkic languages
1842 births
1927 deaths
University of Copenhagen alumni
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Rectors of the University of Copenhagen
Paleolinguists
Linguists of Indo-Uralic languages

Vilhelm Thomsen