Personal development or self-improvement consists of activities that develop a person's capabilities and potential, build human capital, facilitate employability, enhance quality of life, and facilitate the realization of dreams and aspirations. Personal development may take place over the course of an individual's entire lifespan and is not limited to one stage of a person's life. It can include official and informal actions for developing others in roles such as teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor, and it is not restricted to self-help. When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems offered to support positive adult development at the individual level in organizations.

Overview

Among other things, personal development may include the following activities:
 Social entrepreneurship or civic engagement
 Participating in festivals, conferences, or conventions
 Improving self-awareness
 Improving self-knowledge
 Improving skills and/or learning new ones
 Building or renewing identity/self-esteem
 Developing strengths or talents
 Improving a career
 Identifying or improving potential
 Building employability or (alternatively) human capital
 Enhancing lifestyle and/or the quality of life and time-management
 Improving health
 Improving wealth or social status
 Fulfilling aspirations
 Initiating a life enterprise
 Defining and executing personal development plans (PDPs)
 Improving social relations or emotional intelligence
 Spiritual identity development and recognition

Personal development can also include developing other people's skills and personalities. This can happen through roles such as those of a teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the alleged skill of certain managers in developing the potential of employees) or through a professional service (such as providing training, assessment, or coaching).

Beyond improving oneself and developing others, "personal development" labels a field of practice and research:
 As a field of practice, personal development includes personal-development methods, learning programs, assessment systems, tools, and techniques.
 As a field of research, personal-development topics appear in psychology journals, education research, management journals and books, and human-development economics.

Any sort of development—whether economic, political, biological, organizational or personal—requires a framework if one wishes to know whether a change has actually occurred. In the case of personal development, an individual often functions as the primary judge of improvement or of regression, but the validation of objective improvement requires assessment using standard criteria.

Personal-development frameworks may include:
 Goals or benchmarks that define the end-points
 Strategies or plans for reaching goals
 Measurement and assessment of progress, levels or stages that define milestones along a development path
 A feedback system to provide information on changes

As an industry
Personal development as an industry has several business-relationship formats of operating. The main ways are business-to-consumer and business-to-business. However, there have been two new ways emerge: consumer-to-business and consumer-to-consumer. The personal development market had a global market size of 38.28 billion dollars in 2019.

Business-to-consumer market
A wide array of personal development products are available to individuals. Examples include self-help books; education technology, neuroenhancement, and experiential learning (instructor-led training, motivational speeches, seminars, social or spiritual retreats).
 Domains
 Higher education, cognitive training
 Personal finance (including fintech)
 Weight loss, physical fitness, nutrition, and beauty enhancement
 Large-group awareness training
 Sensory deprivation
 Time-management
 Yoga
 Martial arts
 Initiation ceremonies
 Meditation
 Asceticism
 General methods of personal development also include:
 Life coaching or counseling
 Recommendation systems
 Nootropics, such as caffeinated drinks
 Brain computer interface
 Virtual assistant

Business-to-business market
Some consulting firms such as DDI and FranklinCovey specialize in personal development, but  generalist firms operating in the fields of human resources, recruitment and organizational strategy—such as Hewitt, Watson Wyatt Worldwide, Hay Group, McKinsey, Boston Consulting Group, and Korn/Ferry—have entered what they perceive as a growing market, not to mention smaller firms and self-employed professionals who provide consulting, training and coaching.

Origins
Major religions—such as the age-old Abrahamic and Indian religions—as well as 20th-century New Age philosophies have variously used practices such as prayer, music, dance, singing, chanting, poetry, writing, sports and martial arts.

Michel Foucault describes in Care of the Self the techniques of epimelia used in ancient Greece and Rome, which included dieting, exercise, sexual abstinence, contemplation, prayer, and confession—some of which also became practices within different branches of Christianity.

Wushu and T'ai chi ch'uan utilize traditional Chinese techniques, including breathing and energy exercises, meditation, martial arts, as well as practices linked to traditional Chinese medicine, such as dieting, massage, and acupuncture.

Two individual ancient philosophical traditions: those of Aristotle (Western tradition) and Confucius (Eastern tradition) stand out and contribute to the worldwide view of "personal development" in the 21st century. Elsewhere anonymous or named founders of schools of self-development appear endemic—note the traditions of the Indian sub-continent in this regard.

South Asian traditions

Some ancient Indians aspired to "beingness, wisdom and happiness".

Paul Oliver suggests that the popularity of Indian traditions for a personal developer may lie in their relative lack of prescriptive doctrine.

Islamic personal development

Khurram Murad describes that personal development in Islam is to work towards eternal life in Jannuh. There are many avenues in the journey to paradise, such as devoted practicing of the laws of the Quran and Sunnah, such as optimized service towards the self and others. Sincere worship of Allah is the foundation for self-discovery and self-development.  Allah has provided ways to help those striving towards eternal life, including staying away from things of the world. These worldly things can distract those away from the path to paradise. It does not mean worldly success is inherently disruptive but can become so when spiritual beliefs do not align with the Sunnah. In the end, paradise will bring satisfaction to those working on their personal development because of the pleasure that comes from Allah.

Aristotle and the Western tradition
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BCE322 BCE) wrote Nicomachean Ethics, in which he defined personal development as a category of phronesis or practical wisdom, where the practice of virtues (arête) leads to eudaimonia, commonly translated as "happiness" but more accurately understood as "human flourishing" or "living well". Aristotle continues to influence the Western concept of personal development , particularly in the economics of human development and in positive psychology.

Confucius and the East Asian tradition
In Chinese tradition, Confucius (around 551 BCE479 BCE) founded an ongoing philosophy. His ideas continue to influence family values, education and personnel management in China and East Asia. In his Great Learning Confucius wrote:

Contexts

Psychology
Psychology became linked to personal development in the early 20th century starting with the research efforts of Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Carl Jung (1875–1961).

Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis alone. He made the important point that aspirations focus on looking forward and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences. He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929—he defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of self-image, as a concept that influenced management under the heading of work-life balance, also known as the equilibrium between a person's career and personal life.

Carl Gustav Jung made contributions to personal development with his concept of individuation, which he saw as the drive of the individual to achieve the wholeness and balance of the Self.

Daniel Levinson (1920–1994) developed Jung's early concept of "life stages" and included a sociological perspective. Levinson proposed that personal development comes under the influence—throughout life—of aspirations, which he called "the Dream":

Research on success in reaching goals, as undertaken by Albert Bandura (1925–2021), suggested that self-efficacy best explains why people with the same level of knowledge and skills get very different results. Having self-efficacy leads to an increased likelihood of success. According to Bandura self-confidence functions as a powerful predictor of success because:
 It causes you to expect to succeed
 It allows you take risks and set challenging goals
 It helps you keep trying if at first you do not succeed
 It helps you control emotions and fears when life may throw more difficult things your way

In 1998 Martin Seligman won election to a one-year term as President of the American Psychological Association and proposed a new focus: on healthy individuals rather than on pathology (he created the "positive psychology" current)

Social psychology
Social psychology heavily emphasizes and focuses on human behavior and how individuals interact with others in society. Infants develop socially by creating trusting and dependent relationships with others—namely parental figures. They learn how to act and treat other people based on the example of parental figures and other adults they interact with often. Toddlers further develop social skills. Additionally, they begin to gain a desire for autonomy and grow more and more independent as they grow older. The balance of social involvement and autonomy varies per person, but normally autonomous behavior increases with age. Some studies suggest that selfishness begins to diminish, and prosocial behaviors increase, between the ages of six years old to twelve years old. Additionally, the years of adulthood are times of development—self-actualization, relational and occupational development, loss, and coping skills development, etc.—affected by those around us: parents, co-workers, romantic partners, and children. Social psychology draws from many other psychological theories and principles yet views them through a lens of social interaction.

Psychodynamic psychology
The psychodynamic view of personal development varies from other perspectives. Namely, that the development of our traits, personalities, and thinking patterns are predominantly subconscious. Psychodynamic theory suggests these subconscious changes—which emerge as external actions—are formed from suppressed sexual and aggressive urges and other internalized conflicts. Sigmund Freud and other notable psychodynamic theorists postulate that these repressed cognitions form during childhood and adolescence. Conscious development would then be "digging up" these repressed memories and feelings. Once repressed memories and emotions are discovered, an individual can sift through them and receive healthy closure. Much, if not all, of conscious development occurs with the aid of a trained psychodynamic therapist.

Cognitive-Behavioral Psychology
Cognitive-behavioral views on personal development follow traditional patterns of personal development: behavior modification, cognitive reframing, and successive approximation being some of the more notable techniques. An individual is seen as in control of their actions and their thoughts, though self-mastery is required. With behavior modification, individuals will develop personal skills and traits by altering their behavior independent of their emotions. For example, a person may feel intense anger but would still behave in a positive manner. They are able to suppress their emotions and act in a more socially acceptable way. The accumulation of these efforts would change the person into a more patient individual. Cognitive reframing plays an instrumental role in personal development. Cognitive-behavioral psychologists believe that how we view events is more important than the event itself. Thus, if one can view negative events in beneficial ways, they can progress and develop with fewer setbacks. Successive approximation—or shaping—most closely aligns with personal development. Successive approximation is when one desires a final result but takes incremental steps to achieve the result. Normally, each successful step towards the final goal is rewarded until the goal is achieved. Personal development, if it is to be long-lasting, is achieved incrementally.

Educational psychology
Educational psychology focuses on the human learning experience: learning and teaching methods, aptitude testing, and so on. Educational psychology seeks to further personal development by increasing one's ability to learn, retain information, and apply knowledge to real-world experiences. If one is able to increase efficacious learning, they are better equipped for personal development.

Early education
Education offers children the opportunity to begin personal development at a young age. The curriculum taught at school must be carefully planned and managed in order to successfully promote personal development. Providing an environment for children that allows for quality social relationships to be made and clearly communicated objectives and aims is key to their development. If early education fails to meet these qualifications, it can greatly stunt development in children, hindering their success in education as well as society. They can fall behind in development compared to peers of the same age group.

Higher education
During the 1960s a large increase in the number of students on American campuses led to research on the personal development needs of undergraduate students. Arthur Chickering defined seven vectors of personal development for young adults during their undergraduate years:
 Developing competence
 Managing emotions
 Achieving autonomy and interdependence
 Developing mature interpersonal relationships
 Establishing personal identity
 Developing purpose
 Developing integrity

In the UK, personal development took a central place in university policy in 1997 when the Dearing Report declared that universities should go beyond academic teaching to provide students with personal development. In 2001 a Quality Assessment Agency for UK universities produced guidelines for universities to enhance personal development as:
 a structured and supported process undertaken by an individual to reflect upon their own learning, performance and/or achievement and to plan for their personal, educational and career development;
 objectives related explicitly to student development; to improve the capacity of students to understand what and how they are learning, and to review, plan and take responsibility for their own learning

In the 1990s, business schools began to set up specific personal-development programs for leadership and career orientation and in 1998 the European Foundation for Management Development set up the EQUIS accreditation system which specified that personal development must form part of the learning process through internships, working on team projects and going abroad for work or exchange programs.

The first personal development certification required for business school graduation originated in 2002 as a partnership between Metizo, a personal-development consulting firm, and the Euromed Management School in Marseilles: students must not only complete assignments but also demonstrate self-awareness and achievement of personal-development competencies.

As an academic department, personal development as a specific discipline is often associated with business schools. As an area of research, personal development draws on links to other academic disciplines:
 Education for questions of learning and assessment
 Psychology for motivation and personality
 Sociology for identity and social networks
 Economics for human capital and economic value
 Philosophy for ethics and self-reflection

Developmental activities
Personal Development can include gaining self-awareness of the course of one's lifespan. It includes multiple definitions but is different from self knowledge. Self-awareness is more in depth and explores the conscious and unconscious aspects of ourselves. We are able to gain self-awareness through socializing and communicating according to the social behaviorism view. Self-awareness can also be a positive intrapersonal experience where one is able to reflect during a moment of action or past actions. Becoming more self aware can help us to increase our emotional intelligence, leadership skills, and performance.

The workplace
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970), proposed a hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top, defined as "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming". In other words, self actualization is the ambition to become a better version of oneself, to become everything one is capable of being.

Since Maslow himself believed that only a small minority of people self-actualize—he estimated one percent—his hierarchy of needs had the consequence that organizations came to regard self-actualization or personal development as occurring at the top of the organizational pyramid, while openness and job security in the workplace would fulfill the needs of the mass of employees.

As organizations and labor markets became more global, responsibility for development shifted from the company to the individual. In 1999 management thinker Peter Drucker wrote in the Harvard Business Review:

Management professors Sumantra Ghoshal of the London Business School and Christopher Bartlett of the Harvard Business School wrote in 1997 that companies must manage people individually and establish a new work contract. On the one hand, the company must allegedly recognize that personal development creates economic value: "market performance flows not from the omnipotent wisdom of top managers but from the initiative, creativity and skills of all employees". On the other hand, employees should recognize that their work includes personal development and "embrace the invigorating force of continuous learning and personal development".

The 1997 publication of Ghoshal's and Bartlett's Individualized Corporation corresponded to a change in career development from a system of predefined paths defined by companies, to a strategy defined by the individual and matched to the needs of organizations in an open landscape of possibilities. Another contribution to the study of career development came with the recognition that women's careers show specific personal needs and different development paths from men. The 2007 study of women's careers by Sylvia Ann Hewlett Off-Ramps and On-Ramps had a major impact on the way companies view careers. Further work on the career as a personal development process came from study by Herminia Ibarra in her Working Identity on the relationship with career change and identity change, indicating that priorities of work and lifestyle continually develop through life.

Personal development programs in companies fall into two categories: the provision of employee benefits and the fostering of development strategies.

Employee surveys may help organizations find out personal-development needs, preferences and problems, and they use the results to design benefits programs. Typical programs in this category include:
 Work-life balance
 Time management
 Stress management
 Health programs
 Counseling

As an investment, personal development programs have the goal of increasing human capital or improving productivity, innovation or quality. Proponents actually see such programs not as a cost but as an investment with results linked to an organization's strategic development goals. Employees gain access to these investment-oriented programs by selection according to the value and future potential of the employee, usually defined in a talent management architecture including populations such as new hires, perceived high-potential employees, perceived key employees, sales staff, research staff and perceived future leaders. Organizations may also offer other (non-investment-oriented) programs to many or even all employees. Personal development also forms an element in management tools such as personal development planning, assessing one's level of ability using a competency grid, or getting feedback from a 360 questionnaire filled in by colleagues at different levels in the organization.

A common criticism surrounding personal development programs is that they are often treated as an arbitrary performance management tool to pay lip service to, but ultimately ignored. As such, many companies have decided to replace personal development programs with SMART Personal Development Objectives, which are regularly reviewed and updated. Personal Development Objectives help employees achieve career goals and improve overall performance.

Criticism
Scholars have targeted self-help claims as misleading and incorrect. In 2005, Steve Salerno portrayed the American self-help movement—he uses the acronym "SHAM": the "Self-Help and Actualization Movement"—not only as ineffective in achieving its goals but also as socially harmful, and that self-help customers keep investing more money in these services regardless of their effectiveness. Others similarly point out that with self-help books "supply increases the demand ... The more people read them, the more they think they need them ... more like an addiction than an alliance".

Self-help writers have been described as working "in the area of the ideological, the imagined, the narrativized. ... although a veneer of scientism permeates the[ir] work, there is also an underlying armature of moralizing".

See also

 Coaching
 End-of-history illusion
 Holland Codes
 Human Potential Movement
 Know thyself
 Life planning
 Life skills
 Micropsychoanalysis
 Self-discovery
 Training and development

References

Personal development


Shammuramat (Akkadian: Sammu-rāmat or Sammu-ramāt), also known as Sammuramat or Shamiram and Semiramis, was a powerful queen of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Beginning her career as the primary consort of the king Shamshi-Adad V (824–811 BC), Shammuramat reached an unusually prominent position in the reign of her son Adad-nirari III (811–783 BC). Though there is dispute in regard to Shammuramat's formal status and position, and if she should be considered a co-regent, it is clear that she was among the most powerful and influential women of the ancient Near East; she is the only known Assyrian queen to have retained her status as queen after the death of her husband and the only known ancient Assyrian woman to have partaken in, and perhaps even led, a military campaign.

Shammuramat's origin is not clear; her name could equally likely be of West Semitic or East Semitic Akkadian origin. Proposed regions of origin include  Akkadian speaking Assyria itself, Babylonia (also Akkadian speaking), Levant and Phoenicia. If originating as a foreigner she is typically assumed to have been a princess. Nothing is known of her life or relative influence and power in the reign of her husband. Under Adad-nirari, her role was exceptionally prominent for a woman of the time. Per the Pazarcık Stele she accompanied her son on a campaign against the Aramean Kummuh in Syria and both she and Adad-nirari are credited with expanding the borders of the empire in all directions. In some inscriptions, local governors made dedications not only to the king (as was customary) but exceptionally also to Shammuramat. All evidence suggests that Shammuramat was among the most renowned figures of her time.

Shammuramat was immortalized in later literary tradition as the legendary warrior-queen and heroine Semiramis, a half-divine daughter of the goddess Derceto and the wife of the fictional Ninus, the legendary founder of Nineveh and the Assyrian Empire. Among the legendary feats ascribed to Semiramis were securing victory during a siege of the city of Bactra, the foundation of Babylon, and the invention of a type of pants/trousers later popular among the Medes and Persians. Numerous parallels can be drawn between the historical Shammuramat and the legendary Semiramis.

Background

Name
Shammuramat's name, spelt .sa-am-mu–ra-mat in Assyrian inscriptions (transliterated as Sammu-rāmat, Sammu-ramāt or Šammu-ramat), is of either West Semitic or Akkadian origin. In West Semitic it would likely have been rendered as šmyrm or šmrmt. The most likely etymology of the name is that it follows a common name archetype in both West Semitic and Akkadian, on the form -rāmu/rāmat (" is exalted") in West Semitic or -ramāt (" is beloved") in Akkadian, where  is a theophoric (name of a god) element. Sammu, rendered as dsa(-a)-mu (meaning "red"), was the name of an otherwise poorly attested deity in the Neo-Assyrian period.

Various alternate etymologies have also been proposed. In Classical Greek sources, Shammuramat's name appears in the forms Σεμιραμις (Semiramis) and Σεμυραμις (Semeramis). According to the 1st-century BC Classical Greek historian Diodorus Siculus,  the name ultimately derived from the Assyrian word for "dove", an etymology probably based on equating Σεμι- (Semi-) with the Akkadian summatu or summu (meaning dove). The 7th-century Jewish midrash Leviticus Rabbah traces the etymology of the name to the West Semitic šmy rʻm ("thunder of heaven"), relating it to a legend that she was born in thunder. In 1991, Moshe Weinfeld suggested that the name derived from the Phoenician šmm rmm ("high heavens").

Origin
Shammuramat was born  850 BC. Nothing is known of Shammuramat's origins from contemporary sources. In later classical tradition, Shammuramat was variously described as being of Levantine or native Assyrian origin. Various alternate origins have also been suggested by modern historians, though all such proposals are mere speculation. In 1910, Carl Ferdinand Friedrich Lehmann-Haupt suggested that she was a Babylonian princess, though there is no evidence for such an idea. Wilhelm Eilers proposed in 1971 that she might have been a princess from Urartu and in 1991, Weinfeld suggested that she was a princess from Ashkelon. Ashkelon seems an unlikely place of origin because the city was situated far beyond the Assyrian imperial ambitions of the time and since it would be unlikely for an Assyrian king to marry someone from a city of such little diplomatic weight. In 2001, Jamie Novotny proposed that she could have been a princess from Syria, perhaps from either Carchemish, Gurgum, Namri, Que, Patina, Subria, Bit Adini or Sam'al.

Status and activities

Reign of Shamshi-Adad V

Shammuramat was the wife and queen of the Neo-Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V (824–811 BC). The surviving source material concerning Shammuramat is relatively limited. In known material from her husband's reign, she is only mentioned in a single eye bead inscribed with her name. Her role and influence at the court of her husband is as such largely unknown. The inscription on the eye bead reads:

Reign of Adad-nirari III

Shammuramat is more prominently attested in the reign of her son Adad-nirari III (811–783 BC), when she reached an unusually prominent position. Though Adad-nirari was probably not a minor upon his accession to the throne, he is generally assumed to have been quite young, which might partly explain why Shammuramat was allowed to take such a prominent role. Because of the limited source material, her exact role and position remains disputed, though it is clear that she was among the most renowned figures of her time.

In 2013, David Kertai suggested that Shammuramat's continued use of the title "queen" in her son's reign, the only certain Assyrian example of this, could indicate that she for a time was queen regnant. In 2004, Sarah C. Melville wrote that Shammuramat was "probably not" co-regent with her son but in 2014, she wrote that Shammuramat "possibly even acted as regent during the early years of her son's reign". Writing in 2013, Stephanie Dalley did not believe that Shammuramat was co-regent with Adad-nirari. Several recent researchers, such as Saana Svärd and Sebastian Fink, in their writings simply mention that whether she could be considered a co-regent is still a matter of debate. In 2012, Svärd wrote that regardless of her formal position, Shammuramat was clearly an authoritative female figure who played an important role in running the empire, perhaps acting as a sort of pater familias after the death of Shamshi-Adad while her son was young. Shammuramat does not appear in later Assyrian accounts, perhaps, per Svärd, due to Assyrian royal ideology finding it difficult to "accommodate the presence of an authoritative female figure".

The most serious indicator of Shammuramat's exceptional power and influence, and the main evidence used by scholars who support her being a co-regent, is a boundary stele (marker of the border) erected by Adad-nirari near modern-day Pazarcık in Turkey. Variations in the often formulaic Assyrian royal inscriptions were typically historically and ideologically important. The Pazarcık Stele establishes that Shammuramat accompanied her son on a military campaign against the Kingdom of Kummuh in Syria; she is the only known ancient Assyrian woman to take part in a campaign. In 2020, Sebastian Fink suggested that the fact that she was mentioned as prominently as she was in the text might indicate that the campaign was in fact led by Shammuramat and that Adad-nirari was not present. The inscription on the stele ascribes the fighting activities themselves solely to Adad-nirari, anything else would not have been possible in Assyrian ideology, but the important activity of extending Assyrian territory and setting up the stele, otherwise a traditional privilege only of the king, is attributed to both Adad-nirari and Shammuramat, as indicated by a plural "they". It is furthermore significant that the stele outlines Adad-nirari's descent from both Shamshi-Adad and Shammuramat, given that kings usually only mentioned their paternal lineage. In full, the inscription on the boundary stele reads:

Shammuramat was a famous figure already in her lifetime. Among the so-called stelenreihen, a set of steles erected centrally in Assur, the religious and ceremonial heart of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, there are innumerable steles erected by kings and influential male officials and generals, but only three erected by women (the other two women being Libbali-sharrat, the queen of Ashurbanipal, and an unknown wife of Sennacherib). Though the function and purpose of these stelae remains unknown, it is obvious that only exceptional women were able to erect their own stelae among the others. Shammuramat's stele at Assur gives her the same titles as in the Pazarcık boundary stele.

Shammuramat is mentioned in inscriptions on two identical statues from Kalhu, the Assyrian capital. These inscriptions record that the statues were dedicated to the god Nabu by Bel-tarṣi-ilumma, governor of Kalhu, who set them up in the god's temple in the city. After a passage praising Nabu, both inscriptions record that Bel-tarṣi-ilumma had the status made and dedicated "for the life of" Adad-nirari, king of Assyria, and Shammuramat, queen. Typically, only the king was mentioned.

A previously accepted chief piece of evidence for Shammuramat having ruled the empire was the Saba'a Stele, erected by Adad-nirari in 806 BC. Older translations of the stele, such as a 1927 translation by Daniel David Luckenbill, suggested that Shammuramat ruled the empire for five years, from the death of her husband until 806 BC, as the text of the stele was interpreted as Adad-nirari stating that he "sat himself on the royal throne" and marched to Aramea only in 806 BC. However, the relevant term in this case, rabîš ašābu, interpreted by Luckenbill as "to become of age" or "to ascend the throne" more probably means something akin to "gloriously" or "magnificently" per other known uses of it in inscriptions.

It is possible that Shammuramat after a period of political prominence resigned and became a temple woman at one of the prominent temples in the empire, perhaps the Nabu temple in Kalhu where statues had previously been dedicated to her. Shammuramat probably died around  798 BC.

Semiramis legend

Shammuramat has long been recognized as the primary inspiration behind the legendary Assyrian warrior-queen and heroine Semiramis, though the Semiramis tradition likely also draws some inspiration from several other real and mythological figures of the ancient Near East, such as the later Assyrian consorts Atalia (wife of Sargon II) and Naqi'a (wife of Sennacherib). Though no cuneiform writings concerning the legend of Semiramis survive or have yet been discovered, it is believed to have originated as a native Assyrian Mesopotamian legend, only later finding its way into first Persian and then Greco-Roman literature. The legend is chiefly known today through the writings of Diodorus Siculus and the 5th-century BC historian Ctesias.

According to Ctesias, Semiramis was born in Ashkelon as the daughter of a Levantine mortal and the Greek goddess Derceto. Supposedly Derceto had been cursed to fall in love with the ordinary Levantine man as a result of angering Aphrodite. Though she gave birth to a daughter, Derceto was later ashamed of sleeping with the man and thus killed him and abandoned her daughter, throwing herself into a lake. This led her to transform into a mermaid-like creature. According to Ctesias, the inhabitants of Ashkelon and the rest of the Levant thereafter no longer ate fish, instead honoring them as gods. The baby Semiramis was kept alive through the aid of doves, who kept her warm with their wings and fed her until she was eventually found and adopted by a shepherd named Simmas. The connection of Semiramis to Ashkelon and the cult of fish is a perplexing one. In ancient Mesopotamia, the god Nabu was sometimes connected to fish and mermen and mermaids frequently figured as statues in his temples and as part of his iconography. Given that the temple dedication by Bel-tarṣi-ilumma which mentioned Shammuramat was concerning a temple of Nabu, a spurious connection could perhaps be drawn to the historical queen. It is possible that there was a cult of Nebo (the West Semitic version of the Assyrian-Babylonian Nabu) at Ashkelon but no evidence for this exists. Another inspiration for the tale, in particular Semiramis's connection to doves and Semiramis and her mother killing their lovers, could be Ishtar, the Mesopotamian goddess of love and war. The Assyrian and Babylonian queens were strongly connected to Ishtar in iconography. If Shammuramat resigned and became a temple woman it is also possible that this was the inspiration for later traditions designating her as a divine figure.

In almost all legends, Semiramis becomes the wife of Ninus (a purely legendary figure), a legendary founder of Nineveh and the Assyrian Empire and a figure who in virtually all stories he appeared in was overshadowed by his wife. Ctesias dated the time of Semiramis and the foundation of the Assyrian Empire to 2166 BC. In Ctesias's account, young Semiramis was first married to the Assyrian general Onnes, with whom she had two children. Onnes is described as fighting alongside Ninus in an attempt to capture the city of Bactra. When the siege drags on, he sends for his wife, who he misses dearly, a message Semiramis interprets as a call for military assistance. Thus, she equips herself for war and, using clothes and armor, masks her identity as a woman. As part of her equipment, Semiramis invented long-sleeved pants that intentionally masked the gender of the bearer, according to Ctesias the precursor of later pants popular among the Medes and Persians. Upon her arrival in Bactra, Semiramis proves to be a skilled warrior and succeeds in capturing the city, securing the admiration and attraction of Ninus. When Ninus threatens to blind Onnes due to Onnes refusing to relinquish his wife to him, Onnes hangs himself. After this, Semiramis becomes Ninus's wife. A king stealing a general's wife has parallels in Assyrian history; a letter of unknown date relates that an official revolted against the king due to the official's wife being taken into the royal harem.

Though described as fierce women evoking ancient Ishtar in Ctesias's account, both Semiramis and Dercerto were sometimes in later works transformed into almost unrecognizable figures. In the 1st-century BC Ninus Romance, Ninus and Semiramis are described as two star-crossed lovers who meet at a time when they are too young to marry. In this tale, Derceto, now called Derceia, is a caring mother who wishes to smooth the way for the romance and Semiramis is a tongue-tied, shy and weeping teenager.

In the accounts of Ctesias and Diodorus Siculus, Ninus is old at the time of their marriage and dies soon after the birth of their son Ninyas. The death of Ninus while Ninyas is still young leaves Semiramis to rule the empire. Semiramis erects a huge mound over Ninus's grave, using his bones to embellish Nineveh and turning his grave into a monument of her own strength and power. Later on, she constructs several more mounds to house the remains of generals, officials and her former lovers, sometimes buried alive. To rival Nineveh, founded by her husband, Semiramis is then credited with founding Babylon. Ctesias credits Semiramis with creating the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, though Diodorus Siculus attributes them a later king. Other than the baseless speculation that Shammuramat was of Babylonian origin, there is no evidence for any historical connection between Shammuramat and Babylon, nor of any building works being conducted in the city under Adad-nirari (who did not control Babylonia).

The Semiramis of legend is also described as leading military campaigns, for instance against both Armenia and India. The tale of Semiramis's conflict with Armenia could perhaps derive from remembrance of the campaigns of Adad-nirari, some of which were directed against Urartu (a precursor of Armenia). One of Adad-nirari's frequent foes was the Urartian king Argishti I, whose father Menua, a contemporary of Shammuramat, constructed a great canal which later on curiously at some point was named after Shammuramat as the Shamiram Canal. The Indian campaign, perhaps parallelling the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, is described by Ctesias as Semiramis's only failure when she is forced to turn back after twice being injured by the Indian king. In several of the legends, including that of Ctesias, Semiramis's life comes to an end when she is killed by her son Ninyas, who is described as a weak man who avoided other men and warlike activities. According to the 2nd-century AD historian Justin, Ninyas killed Semiramis because she attempted to have sexual relations with him; accusations of sexual voracity were often flung in history on warrior women, due to their unusual position, and on widows. Some other late traditions accused Semiramis of having sex with a horse and committing suicide by burning herself alive. These negative portrayals have little to do with the more ancient versions of the legend, such as that of Ctesias, wherein Semiramis kills her lovers and never remarries out of fear of losing the throne.

Notes

References

Sources

9th-century BC births
9th-century BC people
Ancient Assyrians
Ancient Mesopotamian women
Assyrian queens
Queen mothers
Deified women
9th-century BC queens regnant
Semiramis

Shammuramat


George Browne (4 May 1920 – 23 March 2007), better known as the Young Tiger, was a Trinidadian calypso musician.

Biography
Born Edric Browne in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, where his childhood was imbued with the African traditions of Shango and Spiritual Baptist Shouting, he assumed the name George E. Browne in homage to his mentor and family friend, Richard E. Braithwaite, whose library introduced him to works of black history and activism.

Browne joined a Norwegian tanker at the age of 20 and, after a brief stay in Australia, signed off in Scotland in 1941. After befriending other expatriate Trinidadians in Glasgow he relocated to London and began to earn his living as a musician. In 1943 he found luck with a surprise hit, "Christmas Calypso." In 1947–48 he co-founded with Bermudian Ken Gordon (1927–2013, uncle of newsreader Moira Stuart) the Three Just Men group and toured in Europe and North Africa with the trio the following year.

During the same time, Browne worked with a minstrel show headlining Westminster's Central Hall, later involving himself as a vocalist in the chorus of a West End revival of the musical Show Boat. Afterwards, he earned extra money with a small group covering current American pop tunes.

Utilizing the calypsonian tradition of social commentary, while playing with a rhumba band at the posh Orchid Room, he put together an extemporary few bars in honour of guest Prince Philip. The staff and proprietor were aghast, but when he returned to play the next night, London's upper crust showed up for that very reason. Unfortunately, Browne had scrapped the song after being lectured by an irate manager of the Orchid Room staff. With this success behind him, he toured Paris, returning to London in 1951. In 1952 Tiger signed to Melodisc, the first British company to record calypso music.

He inherited the name Young Tiger from the calypsonian Growling Tiger when in 1953 he recorded a cover version of Tiger's song "Single Man". Young Tiger's hits dating from that same year include "Calypso Be" and "I Was There" - the latter being his observations about the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II - and "Mamzelle Josephine". On 31 January 1955, he participated along with fellow calypsonian Kitchener in a concert billed as "The First Caribbean Carnival in London" that was held at the Royal Albert Hall.

Subsequently, embracing jazz music, Browne recorded with a number of bands, including Humphrey Lyttelton's Paseo Jazz Band. In the 1960s he pursued an acting career for a time – he played the role of Jesus Christ in a passion play produced at the First World Festival of Negro Arts in Senegal in 1966.

Abandoning calypso soon after for jazz, Browne collaborated with longtime friend and mentor Lauderic Caton at the underground Soho venue Club du Faubourg and regularly headlined at Oxford and Cambridge University balls. In 1970 he gave up music to open a London restaurant and health club with his then wife. When forced to close it because of rent increases, they moved to the United States, where for a time they had restaurants in Florida and California.

He returned to the UK in the late 1980s, living in retirement in Croydon and making ends meet by playing the stock market. His calypso "I Was There (At the Coronation)" featured on the 2002 Honest Jon compilation London Is the Place for Me 1: Trinidadian Calypso in London, 1950-1956. Following the re-release of his "Calypso Be" on London Is the Place for Me, Vol. 2 (November 2005), Browne played at the BBC "Electric Proms" festival in 2006, performing a few songs together with the London is the Place for Me Allstars. Also featured on the Honest Jon's compilations were "African Dream" and "Chicken and Rice". Eventually, Browne returned to London, and on 26 October 2006 played a live set for the release of the calypso retrospective London Is the Place for Me, Vol. 2, bringing his name to a new generation of calypso fans.

Browne died on 23 March 2007, at the age of 82, with obituaries ranging from West Indies music magazines to mainstream press such as Mojo and Rolling Stone.

See also
Mighty Sparrow
Roaring Lion
Growling Tiger
Lord Kitchener
Lord Invader
Lord Mouse and the Kalypso Katz
Attila the Hun

References

External links
 Val Wilmer, Obituary of Young Tiger, The Guardian, 7 April 2007.
 Charlie Gillett, "George Browne aka Young Tiger", The Sound of the World. 29 March 2007. Reprints obituary by Jon Lusk for The Independent, 10 April 2007.
 Overview of Young Tiger by Jason Ankeny.

1920 births
2007 deaths
20th-century Trinidad and Tobago male singers
20th-century Trinidad and Tobago singers
Calypsonians
Trinidad and Tobago expatriates in the United Kingdom

Young Tiger


Siberia is the part of Russia that is in Asia. It covers wide landscapes, and stretches from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific. It goes from the Arctic Ocean to the border with China, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.

The Yenisei river is sometimes called the border between east Siberia and west Siberia. Siberia covers about 70% of all Russian territory, but only 26% of Russians live there. It is one of the coldest places on Earth where people live. 70% of people in Siberia live in cities.

Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia, with a population more than . It is on the Eastern coast near to Japan.
Omsk and Krasnoyarsk also have populations of over a million people. Tomsk and Kemerovo have populations of over a 500 thousand population.
Tomsk is one of the most beautiful places in Siberia. It is said to have the best education in Siberia.
Omsk has got very polluted air. This is quite common in Russia, where  civilian protests are less effective than in Western countries.

Siberian people

Many different ethnic groups live in Siberia. They are sometimes called Sibiryak (Russian: сибиряк) or Sybirak (Russian: сыбирак, from Polish) people. Most people in Siberia who are not Slavic, are Turkic peoples. The first Slavic settlers, from European Russia, arrived in the 17th century.

Related pages
 Siberian languages
 Russian Far East

Sources
 Russian Siberia: Ethnic History and Traditional Culture
 Groups of Russians of Siberia
 Russians in Siberia
 Russians: ethnographic description
 History of Russians in the Krasnoyarsk Territory

Siberia


In psychology, logorrhea or logorrhoea (from Ancient Greek λόγος logos "word" and ῥέω rheo "to flow") is a communication disorder that causes excessive wordiness and repetitiveness, which can cause incoherency. Logorrhea is sometimes classified as a mental illness, though it is more commonly classified as a symptom of mental illness or brain injury. This ailment is often reported as a symptom of Wernicke's aphasia, where damage to the language processing center of the brain creates difficulty in self-centered speech.

Characteristics

Logorrhea is characterized by "rapid, uncontrollable, and incoherent speech". Occasionally, patients with logorrhea may produce speech with normal prosody and a slightly fast speech rate. Other related symptoms include the use of neologisms (new words without clear derivation, e.g. hipidomateous for hippopotamus), words that bear no apparent meaning, and, in some extreme cases, the creation of new words and morphosyntactic constructions. From the "stream of unchecked nonsense often under pressure and the lack of self-correction" that the patient may exhibit, and their circumlocution (the ability to talk around missing words) we may conclude that they are unaware of the grammatical errors they are making.

Examples of logorrhea
When a clinician said, "Tell me what you do with a comb", to a patient with mild Wernicke's aphasia (which produces the symptom of logorrhea), the patient responded:

"What do I do with a comb ... what I do with a comb. Well a comb is a utensil or some such thing that can be used for arranging and rearranging the hair on the head both by men and by women. One could also make music with it by putting a piece of paper behind and blowing through it. Sometimes it could be used in art – in sculpture, for example, to make a series of lines in soft clay. It's usually made of plastic and usually black, although it comes in other colors. It is carried in the pocket or until it's needed, when it is taken out and used, then put back in the pocket. Is that what you had in mind?"

In this case, the patient maintained proper grammar and did not exhibit any signs of neologisms. However, the patient did use an overabundance of speech in responding to the clinician, as most people would simply respond, "I use a comb to comb my hair."

In a more extreme version of logorrhea aphasia, a clinician asked a male patient, also with Wernicke's aphasia, what brought him to the hospital. The patient responded:

"Is this some of the work that we work as we did before? ... All right ... From when wine [why] I'm here. What's wrong with me because I ... was myself until the taenz took something about the time between me and my regular time in that time and they took the time in that time here and that's when the time took around here and saw me around in it's started with me no time and I bekan [began] work of nothing else that's the way the doctor find me that way..."

In this example, the patient's aphasia was much more severe. Not only was this a case of logorrhea, but this included neologisms (such as "taenz" for "stroke" and "regular time" for "regular bath") and a loss of proper sentence structure.

Causes
Logorrhea has been shown to be associated with traumatic brain injuries in the frontal lobe as well as with lesions in the thalamus and the ascending reticular inhibitory system and has been associated with aphasia. Logorrhea can also result from a variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders including tachypsychia, mania, hyperactivity, catatonia, ADHD and schizophrenia.

Aphasias
Logorrhea is often associated with Wernicke's and other aphasias. Aphasia refers to the neurological disruption of language that occurs as a consequence of brain dysfunction. A patient who truly has an aphasia cannot have been diagnosed with any other medical condition that may affect cognition. Logorrhea is a common symptom of Wernicke's aphasia, along with circumlocution, paraphasias, and neologisms. A patient with aphasia may present all of these symptoms at one time.

Treatment

Excessive talking may be a symptom of an underlying illness and should be addressed by a medical provider if combined with hyperactivity or symptoms of mental illness, such as hallucinations. Treatment of logorrhea depends on its underlying disorder, if any. Antipsychotics are often used, and lithium is a common supplement given to manic patients. For patients with lesions of the brain, attempting to correct their errors may upset and anger the patients, since the language center of their brain may not be able to process that what they are saying is incorrect and wordy.

See also

References

Aphasias

Logorrhea (psychology)


Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana (6 November 1781 – 20 January 1864) was an Italian astronomer and mathematician. He is considered one of the premiere Italian scientists of his age.

The crater Plana on the Moon is named in his honor.

Biography
Plana was born in Voghera, Italy to Antonio Maria Plana and Giovanna Giacoboni. At the age of 15 he was sent to live with his uncles in Grenoble to complete his education. In 1800 he entered the École Polytechnique, and was one of the students of Joseph-Louis Lagrange. Joseph Fourier, impressed by Plana's abilities, managed to have him appointed to the chair of mathematics in a school of artillery in Piedmont in 1803, which came under the control of the French in 1805. In 1811 he was appointed to the chair of astronomy at the University of Turin thanks to the influence of Lagrange. He spent the remainder of his life teaching at that institution.

Plana's contributions included work on the motions of the Moon, as well as integrals, (including the Abel–Plana formula), elliptic functions, heat, electrostatics, and geodesy. In 1820 he was one of the winners of a prize awarded by the Académie des Sciences in Paris based on the construction of lunar tables using the law of gravity. In 1832 he published the Théorie du mouvement de la lune, the same year he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1834 he was awarded with the Copley Medal by the Royal Society for his studies on lunar motion. Charles Babbage visited Turin in 1840 at the invitation of Giovanni Plana. Plana became astronomer royal, and then in 1844 a Baron. At the age of 80 he was granted membership in the prestigious Académie des Sciences. He died in Turin.

Works

References

External links
Biography and a source for this page.

1781 births
1864 deaths
Academic staff of the University of Turin
People from Voghera
19th-century Italian astronomers
Italian geodesists
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Lalande Prize
École Polytechnique alumni

Giovanni Plana


Mastabas were Ancient Egyptian tombs made from mud bricks. They were mostly built after 3600 BC when the Ancient Egyptians started to dry bricks in the Sun and use them to build more advanced architecture and building that were more permanent. These sun-dried mud bricks let them to create arches and recessed walls, for decoration. These Mastabas let rich people to have more complex and expensive funerals.

These Mastabas became models for later building styles such as the Step Pyramid' at Saqqara built during the 'Age of the Pyramid Builder or 'Age of the Pyramids'. (This was later named the Old Kingdom by 17th century historians).

Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt
4th millennium BC in Egypt
Tombs
4th millennium BC buildings and structures

Mastaba


Terence Allan Crawford (born September 28, 1987) is an American professional boxer. He has held multiple world championships in three weight classes, including the undisputed championship at welterweight since July 2023. He previously held the World Boxing Organization (WBO) and Ring magazine lightweight titles from 2014 to 2015; and the unified World Boxing Association (WBA) (Super version), World Boxing Council (WBC), International Boxing Federation (IBF), WBO, and Ring light welterweight titles between 2015 and 2017.

In August 2017, Crawford had a short reign as the undisputed light welterweight champion, being the first since Kostya Tszyu in 2004, and the first in any weight class to simultaneously hold all four major world titles (WBA, WBC, IBF and WBO) since Jermain Taylor in 2005. In July 2023, he became the first male two-division undisputed champion of the four-belt era after defeating Errol Spence Jr. As of August 2023, Crawford is ranked as the world's best active boxer, pound for pound, by The Ring, Boxing Writers Association of America, Transnational Boxing Rankings Board, ESPN, and BoxRec. Crawford was named Fighter of the Year by the Boxing Writers Association of America in 2014, and by ESPN in 2014 and 2017.

Amateur career
Crawford took up boxing at the age of seven. He fought 70 official amateur bouts, losing 12 times. As an amateur, he defeated future world champions Mikey Garcia and Danny García. After winning three amateur tournaments shortly before the 2008 Olympics, he became the highest-ranked lightweight in the US. However, his loss to leading contender Sadam Ali thwarted his Olympic ambitions.

Amateur achievements
2006 National PAL Championships, 132 lbs – gold medalist
2006 Blue & Gold National Championships, 132 lbs – gold medalist
2007 U.S. Pan American Games Box-Offs, 132 lbs – gold medalist

Professional career

Lightweight

Early career
Crawford made his professional debut on March 14, 2008, knocking out Brian Cummings in the first round. He compiled a record of 19–0 with 15 wins by way of knockout (KO) against largely unheralded opposition.

Crawford's first notable bout was against Breidis Prescott on the undercard of the second fight between Brandon Ríos and Mike Alvarado. Prescott was originally scheduled to face WBA light welterweight champion Khabib Allakhverdiev, who withdrew with an injured elbow. Crawford was originally supposed to meet Robert Osiobe on the same card, but accepted the offer to fill in for Allakhverdiev on three-days notice. Crawford defeated the Colombian by a unanimous decision. Crawford received a purse of $125,000, whilst Prescott received $50,000. This was the first time Crawford fought a ten-round fight and his first time fighting at the 140 lb. limit.

Crawford fought Alejandro Sanabria on June 15, 2013. Held at the American Airlines Center in Dallas, Texas, the fight served as an eliminator for the WBO lightweight title and was also for the vacant WBO-NABO lightweight title. In the sixth round Crawford knocked Sanabria to the ground. Though Sanabria was able to return to his feet within the count, the fight was waved off by referee Laurence Cole, giving Crawford a technical knockout (TKO) victory.

Crawford vs. Klimov
On August 21, 2013, it was announced that Crawford would fight undefeated Russian boxer and WBO #12 ranked Andrey Klimov in another elimination bout, which would see the winner challenge WBO champion Ricky Burns. The fight was scheduled for ten rounds and took place on the undercard of Miguel Cotto vs. Delvin Rodriguez on HBO at the Amway Center in Orlando, Florida, on October 5. Klimov was coming off a majority decision (MD) win over fringe contender John Molina Jr. in June 2013. After ten rounds, all three judges scored the fight 100–90 in Crawford's favour, Klimov's first defeat as a professional. According to CompuBox stats, Crawford landed 192 of 604 punches (32%), whilst Klimov landed 57 of 290 (20%). In the post-fight interview, Crawford spoke on how he went in and got the job done, "I outboxed him. It was easy all night long. I thought I was hurting him all night long. I was never in any trouble and I thought he was in trouble." Due to Klimov's lack of action, it prompted a member of his team to call him a 'coward' after round eight in the corner.

Crawford vs. Burns
Crawford traveled to Scotland five months later to take on 30 year old Ricky Burns for the WBO lightweight title on March 1, 2014. Burns' promoter, Eddie Hearn, said he was pleased to bring the fight to Scotland, and admitted it was Burns' toughest fight to date. Crawford won the fight, boxing well on the outside and picking his shots against Burns, winning his first world title. The judges scored the fight 117–111, and 116–112 both in favour of Crawford. Burns praised Crawford after the fight, simply stating, "The better man won." Over the twelve rounds, Crawford landed 213 of 811 punches thrown (26%) but landed 41% of his power punches. Burns landed 76 of his 552 thrown (14%) and landed no more than 7 power punches per round.

Crawford vs. Gamboa
Fighting for the first time as a professional in his hometown of Omaha, Nebraska, Crawford made his first title defense against 2004 Cuban Olympic gold medalist and former unified featherweight titleholder Yuriorkis Gamboa, who was a slight favourite going into the fight. This was only the second title fight ever held in Omaha, the first being in 1972, when heavyweight champion Joe Frazier defeated the Omaha/Council Bluffs product Ron Stander by fourth-round TKO. Gamboa entered having not fought in over a year. The fight was announced on May 6 and took place at the CenturyLink Center on June 28, 2014. Crawford weighed in 134.8 pounds, slightly heavier than Gamboa at 134.4 pounds.

Gamboa won the early rounds using his speed advantage, but Crawford eventually adjusted, knocking Gamboa down once in the fifth round, again in the eighth, and finally twice in the ninth to secure a TKO win in front of an audience of 10,943. Crawford stated after the fight "I was warming up, getting used to his style in the first couple of rounds. I just wanted to test him out, I felt like I could make an adjustment with my jab, because he's always dropping his left hand. I thought I could get him with my jab in the southpaw stance." At the time of stoppage, Crawford was ahead 78–72, 78–72, 77–73 on the judges' scorecards. In an interview in July 2016, Crawford stated that Gamboa was still his toughest fight to date.

Crawford vs. Beltrán
Crawford made his second defense of the WBO title against The Ring magazine #1 contender Ray Beltrán. The winner of the bout would become The Ring's lightweight champion. The fight was held in front of 11,127 at The CenturyLink Center in Omaha, Nebraska on November 29, 2014. Crawford retained his world title earning a twelve-round UD win. The final judges' scorecards read 120–108, and 119–109 twice in favour of Crawford. After the fight, Crawford announced his intentions to leave the lightweight division to fight as a light welterweight. The fight averaged 836,000 viewers on HBO and peaked at 936,000 viewers. It was considered a disappointment because the co-feature which saw Evgeny Gradovich draw with Jayson Velez drew an average 865,000 viewers and peaked just over 1 million.

Crawford was named the 2014 'Fighter of the Year' by ESPN and the Boxing Writers Association of America, after dethroning Burns and becoming lineal lightweight champion.

Light welterweight

Crawford vs. Dulorme
On March 6, 2015, ESPN reported that Crawford would debut as a light welterweight, challenging for the vacant WBO title at the College Park Center in Arlington, Texas, against 25 year old Thomas Dulorme on April 18. At the press conference, Crawford told Dulorme, "Come prepared because I am going to be ready. [The fans] should expect a spectacular victory. This is my second world title at a different weight, and I am really going to be up for it. I will be prepared. I am always ready and prepared for any fight." The fight was stopped after Dulorme was knocked down three times in the sixth round, granting Crawford a TKO victory and the WBO title. Dulorme started off aggressive, but was unable to land much as Crawford remained defensive. Referee Rafael Ramos stopped the fight at 1 minute, 51 seconds of the round. The fight averaged 1.004 million viewers on HBO.

Crawford vs. Jean
Top Rank announced on August 20 that Crawford would make his first defence at the CenturyLink Center in Nebraska, Omaha, on October 24 against Montreal based 33 year old contender Dierry Jean. Jean's only previous loss as a professional had come in 2014 against light welterweight titlist Lamont Peterson, in Peterson's hometown of Washington, D.C., after which Jean dropped down to lightweight where he won four fights in a row. Crawford knocked Jean out in the tenth round in front of an audience of 11,020. Crawford landed 169 total punches out of 533 thrown, and 40% of his power shots. Over the last three rounds, Crawford out-landed Jean 59 to 9. After the fight, Crawford stated that he was ready for former eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao, "I'm ready. Bob, make it happen. I'm ready. I'm gonna let my handlers, Cameron Dunkin and Brian McIntyre, talk to Bob Arum and Team Pacquiao, and let's see if we can make it happen." Crawford was ahead on all three judges' scorecards at the time of stoppage (89–80, 90–79 twice). The fight was broadcast on HBO, drawing an average of 1.071 million viewers and peaked at 1.2 million.

Crawford vs. Lundy
His next fight took place before a sellout crowd of 5,092 at the Theater of Madison Square Garden on February 27, 2016, against Hank Lundy. Panned as a second-rate fight for the undefeated Crawford, the bout picked up considerable steam in the weeks leading up to the telecast as Lundy boldly predicted a knockout win. Crawford successfully defended his light welterweight title with a fifth-round TKO of Lundy. Crawford connected with 89 of 247 punches (36%), compared to 47 of 411 for Lundy (22%). Crawford won a fast-paced first round, finally sending Lundy down in a corner in the fifth round. He beat the count, but the bout was soon stopped by referee Steve Willis at 2 minutes, 9 seconds. Crawford spoke out about his feud with Lundy on social media, "He and I had gone back and forth on Twitter for like a year. I just wanted to shut him up for good." Crawford earned $1.21 million and Lundy earned a $150,000 purse. Although there was a lot of tension pre-fight, Lundy approached Crawford after the fight and showed respect. The fight averaged 982,000 viewers on HBO and peaked just over 1 million viewers.

Crawford vs. Postol
On May 3, 2016, it was finally confirmed that Crawford and WBC champion Viktor Postol had officially signed a contract for the highly anticipated light welterweight unification fight on July 23 at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. Both fighters entered the ring with a matched record of 28 wins, no losses. Both men also entered the MGM Grand Garden Arena for the first time in their respective careers. Crawford won by UD and unified two light welterweight world titles before a crowd of 7,027. Crawford also claimed the vacant Ring magazine and lineal titles. Crawford scored two flash knockdowns in the fifth round, with all three scorecards reading 118–107 twice, and 117–108. Postol was penalised for rabbit punching in the eleventh round when he hit Crawford with a right hand behind the head for which Postol was penalized one point, adding to Crawford's advantage. With the victory, Crawford staked his indisputable claim to division supremacy and set himself up for bigger fights, possibly against a returning Manny Pacquiao. Over twelve rounds, Crawford landed 141 of his 388 punches thrown (36%), and Postol landed 83 of 244 thrown (34%).

In the post-fight interview, Postol praised Crawford, saying "I thought it was a good fight between two technicians, but he was quicker than me. He is one of the best fighters in the world. I just didn't have the answers for him." Crawford also praised his trainer Brian McIntyre, "Freddie Roach and Postol said that Freddie would outcoach my coach, but you tell 'em who got outcoached tonight." McIntyre revealed the plan was to keep Postol moving, which would have eliminated his jab and right hand. Crawford's purse for the fight was $1.3 million. Postol earned $675,000 for his part. Some sources stated the fight generated 50,000 PPV buys on HBO. A replay was shown later in the week and drew 378,000, considered a weak number.

Crawford vs. Molina
Crawford was not due to fight next until 2017, however due to the Golovkin-Jacobs fight being postponed to early 2017, this freed up the December 10 date for HBO. Arum confirmed Crawford would take the date and look at potential opponents, including the then IBF champion Eduard Troyanovsky and Antonio Orozco. Arum announced a deal was in place for a fight between Crawford and 33 year old contender John Molina Jr. on December 10, 2016, at Crawford's hometown at CenturyLink Center in Omaha, Nebraska. Molina had previously defeated Russian contender Ruslan Provodnikov by UD in a twelve-round June 2016 fight, in which he also claimed the vacant WBO International light welterweight title. Molina weighed 144lb at the official weigh-in which meant he lost the right to fight for Crawford's world titles. Had Crawford lost the fight, he would have lost his belts. For the fight to go ahead, Molina gave $400,000 of his purse to Crawford, adding to his already agreed purse of $1.5m.

Crawford held onto his titles, stopping Molina in the eighth round in front of a large home crowd in Omaha. Crawford moved around the ring for most of the fight, jabbing, holding and pot-shotting Molina. Referee Mark Nelson halted the fight in the eight round after Molina received three consecutive hits to the head. In the post-fight interview, Crawford felt he should be the 2016 'Fighter of the Year' for his wins over Molina, Lundy and Postol, "I feel like I got it. I just have to wait until the results come in." Crawford also reiterated his desire to unify the division before a possible move up to welterweight. Crawford landed 184 punches from 419 thrown, Molina landed 41 of 287 thrown, a 14% connect rate. The fight drew an average 806,000 viewers and peaked at 871,000 viewers on HBO.

Crawford vs. Diaz
Bob Arum spoke to ESPN in early February 2017 about Crawford's next defence and possible opponents. He said that HBO had set a May 20 date for the fight and the venue would most likely be in Crawford's hometown, Omaha. Mexican boxer Antonio Orozco, one of Crawford's mandatory challengers and Olympic gold medalist Felix Diaz, who had been calling out Crawford, were the names mentioned. He went on to explain how Orozco's promoters seemed to have little interest in the fight. Lou DiBella, promoter of Diaz, was eager to make a fight happen. Arum spoke to The Ring on March 1 saying that Crawford's opponent had been narrowed down to Diaz or Adrian Granados. Amir Imam, ranked number 1 by the WBC was also in the mix, but Arum said that he found it difficult to make a deal with his promoter, Don King. Terms were finally agreed on March 22 for Crawford vs. Diaz at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey, on May 20. Contracts were to be signed shortly after. A week after the fight was announced, the location was changed. The new venue was confirmed to be Madison Square Garden in New York.

In front of a crowd of 8,026, Crawford retained his world titles after Diaz's trainer, Joel Díaz stopped the fight after round ten. Towards the end, Diaz did close to nothing, leaning against the ropes. This was mostly due to his vision, as his right eye was nearly closed and his left eye was also badly swollen. Crawford used his jab for most of the fight, and used it to control the pace and help him move around the ring in his southpaw stance. Joel Díaz said in the post-fight interview that he had pulled his fighter out because he was taking too much punishment. Also in the post-fight interview, Crawford said, "It's not up to me. But everybody wants to know who's the next guy that Terence Crawford wants to fight. I'll fight anybody. It doesn't matter who it is." He then called out Keith Thurman. Promoter Bob Arum mentioned Crawford would likely fight again in the summer, against Julius Indongo, where the winner would be crowned the undisputed light welterweight champion.

According to CompuBox punch stats, Crawford landed 193 of his 520 punches thrown (37.1%). In that figure, he landed 59.1% of his power punches (139 of 235 thrown). Diaz landed 69 of 346 (19.9%). At the time of stoppage, judges Glenn Feldman and Steve Weisfeld scored the bout 100–90 and judge Julie Lederman scores it 99–91, all in favour of Crawford. According to Nielsen, the fight averaged 961,000 viewers on HBO's World Championship Boxing and peaked at 1.036m viewers. It was the most viewed fight on HBO so far that year.

Crawford vs. Indongo

On July 1, 2017, Top Rank announced that a light welterweight unification fight between Crawford, and WBA (Unified) and IBF champion Julius Indongo was agreed upon to take place on August 19 at the Pinnacle Bank Arena in Lincoln, Nebraska, live on ESPN in the U.S. and Sky Sports in the U.K. The projected unification of every major world title in boxing (WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO) will determine the light welterweight division's first undisputed champion since Kostya Tszyu in 2004, and the first time all the aforementioned titles have been at stake in a single fight since Bernard Hopkins vs. Jermain Taylor in 2005. Both fighters paid over $100,000 U.S. dollars in sanctioning fees. Crawford entered the fight as a heavy favourite to win.

In front of a home crowd of 12,121, Crawford became the undisputed champion at light welterweight after knocking out Indongo in round three. The final punch was a left hook to the right side of the body, which immediately dropped Indongo. Referee Jack Reiss counted to 10 and promptly called an end after 1 minute and 38 seconds. Indongo also touched the canvas during round one, but the referee ruled it a slip. Additionally, Indongo was knocked down and received a count after a left from Crawford during round two.

According to CompuBox stats, Crawford landed 26 of his 75 punches thrown (35%), while Indongo landed 13 of 74 thrown (18%). Both boxers earned an undisclosed 7-figure purse. Following the fight, Indongo stated "When he hit me like that, my mind was gone" about Crawford's body shot. Crawford stated that he had yet to make a decision on the next step in his career but there was speculation about him moving up to the welterweight division or defending his light welterweight titles against Mikey Garcia. The card averaged 965,000 viewers on ESPN.

Mere days after the fight, the IBF ordered a fight between Crawford and their mandatory challenger, Sergey Lipinets. Lipinets was named Indongo's mandatory challenger in December 2016, but Indongo was given an exemption to allow the unification fight with Crawford to happen. Lipinets stated that the IBF title was "stolen from him". As Crawford didn't plan to return to the ring before the IBF's deadline, he vacated the IBF title just 11 days after defeating Indongo. The IBF ordered Lipinets to face Akihiro Kondo for their vacant title.

On August 31, the WBA Championships Committee revealed that they had elevated Crawford to 'Super' champion. Article C18 of the WBA's rules stated that as Crawford holds all major titles at light welterweight, he could be elevated and deemed a 'Super' champion. The WBA, however, claimed to hold on to their policy of having only one champion per weight category and insisted an interim or regular title would not be created.

Welterweight
On October 26, 2017, Crawford officially vacated his WBO title to move up to the welterweight division. The WBO announced Crawford as the mandatory challenger to their titleholder Jeff Horn. With Horn scheduled to make a voluntary defence in December 2017 against British boxer Gary Corcoran, Crawford would not fight again in 2017. The winner of Horn vs. Cocoran was then ordered to schedule a fight against Crawford within 90 days. Arum stated he had dates in March and April 2018 on hold.

Crawford vs. Horn
When Horn successfully made a voluntary defence of his WBO welterweight title by stopping Corcoran, this set up the fight between Crawford and Horn. Following his win, Horn was challenged to a big money fight at light middleweight by 42 year old Anthony Mundine, before eventually defending his WBO title against Crawford. Horn admitted his interest in the fight where he would be seeing a purse of around $2 million with his trainer, Glenn Rushton, also very much interested in the Mundine fight. On January 10, 2018, it was confirmed that all terms had been agreed upon for Horn to defend the WBO title in a mandatory defence against Crawford, after renegotiating the purses. The fight was being slated for April 21, 2018, at the T-Mobile Arena in Paradise, Nevada. On January 17, Arum stated the fight would likely take place at Madison Square Garden as there was no availability in Las Vegas for the dates required. In February, Arum claimed that due to other boxing events taking place around New York in April, the Crawford vs. Horn bout would take place in Las Vegas instead.

On March 14, it was reported that the fight would be postponed after Crawford suffered a hand injury whilst sparring. The fight was rescheduled to take place on June 9 at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Paradise, Nevada. It was reported on May 24 that Horn had been involved in a car accident, involving three cars in Brisbane, however Horn himself confirmed that he was not hurt and did not suffer any injuries. Speaking to a newspaper, he said, "No one was badly hurt but it stunned me. Fortunately, I was in the car alone and my wife Jo and baby Isabelle were home. The accident was a shock but nothing is going to derail me from beating Terence Crawford. I'm very fit. I feel I'm going to peak right at fight time."

Crawford became a three-weight world champion in front of 8,112 fans in attendance after he eventually stopped Horn via TKO in round nine. At the time of the stoppage, all three judges had Crawford winning all the previous rounds. Horn lacked defense but kept coming forward, trying to look for an opening. Horn made the opening two rounds the most competitive with his aggressive style but Crawford adapted and remained the busier fighter throughout, landing the most telling shots of the bout. Horn was eventually dropped for the first time in round nine with an overhand left. After he got back up, Crawford landed a series of hard shots that caused referee Robert Byrd to stop the fight. The official time of the stoppage was 2 minutes and 33 seconds. After the bout, Crawford spoke about his welterweight debut, "Like I told you all before, I'm strong. I was way stronger than him. You all kept telling me how strong he was, so I had to go and show you. I just had to get in the ring and prove it. You saw what I did in there. My power carried up, my physicality. Now I want all the champions at welterweight." Promoter Bob Arum highly praised Crawford and compared him to Sugar Ray Leonard. According to CompuBox stats, Crawford landed 155 of 367 of punches thrown (42%). This included 47 power shots landed over the final two rounds. Horn, on the other hand, landed just 58 of 257 punches thrown (23%). Crawford earned a career-high $3 million purse and Horn also earned a career-high purse of $1.75 million.

Crawford vs. Benavidez
Crawford's first defense of the WBO title was slated to take place on October 13, 2018. Early reports stated his likely opponent would be former WBA interim light welterweight champion José Benavidez (27–0, 18 KOs). On September 6, despite having two years left of his contract, Crawford signed a new multi-year deal with Top Rank. On signing the extension, Crawford said, "I am the best fighter in the world, hands down. ESPN is the biggest brand in sports and Top Rank is the biggest promotional company in boxing. This was a no-brainer for me and my team. All of the super fights that the world wants to see will happen. Like I've said before, I want all of the champions in the welterweight division." The fight against Benavidez was also announced by Top Rank to take place at the CHI Health Center in Omaha, Nebraska.

In front of 13,323 in attendance, the largest crowd he had drawn to date, Crawford came on strong in the final round to score a twelfth-round KO win to retain his WBO welterweight title. The fight was halted at 2 minutes and 42 seconds. Crawford used an in-and-out style of fighting to land his shots and then got away before Benavidez could hit him. Towards the end of round twelve, Crawford knocked down Benavidez, who fought with an injured knee, with a left-right combination, the final punch being a right uppercut. After Benavidez got back to his feet, Crawford landed a flurry of punches until referee Celestino Ruiz stepped in. Crawford landed head and body combinations earlier in the fight which forced Benavidez to take a step back. Crawford credited the body shots, saying, "That takes something out of you every time. That's what slowed him down. You could tell every time he was shaking his head. I knew it would take its toll in the later rounds." At the time of stoppage, Crawford was ahead 110–99, 108–101 and 107–102 on all three judges' scorecards. According to CompuBox, Crawford landed 186 of 579 punches thrown (32%) and Benavidez landed 92 of his 501 thrown (18%). Benavidez landed 8 punches per round. CompuBox Historical showed that Crawford's previous 10 opponents landed only 7 per round. Crawford earned $3.625 million, his career-highest, compared to Benavidez's $500,000 purse. The near two-hour telecast averaged 2,245,000 viewers on ESPN.

Crawford vs. Khan
On November 16, two-time Lithuanian Olympian Egidijus Kavaliauskas knocked out Roberto Arriaza in the third round of their bout. After the fight, Arum hinted Kavaliauskas would likely challenge Crawford for the WBO welterweight title in early 2019. Kavaliauskas stated he wanted to fight the best in the division and called out Crawford. A week later, it was reported 37 year old, former world champion Luis Collazo (38–7, 20 KOs) was in line to challenge Crawford, in what would be Crawford's first of three bouts in 2019. The fight would main event a Top Rank card on ESPN on March 23, 2019, at Madison Square Garden in New York. Prior to pursuing the fight with Collazo, Carl Moretti told RingTv they offered Danny García a guaranteed $3 million purse to fight Crawford on the same date on ESPN PPV, which would have included a share of the revenue generated. The offer was made to Angel García, who told Moretti he would discuss the offer with Danny, but ultimately never replied to Top Rank's offer. According to Moretti, the offer was made two weeks before García's fight with Adrián Granados was announced.

Although Collazo had agreed the terms to fight, Crawford was yet to sign the agreement. On December 3, it was reported that Top Rank had offered former unified light welterweight champion Amir Khan a guaranteed $5 million purse, plus a percentage of PPV revenue, to fight Crawford on March 23, 2019. Khan explained how he was considering the fight as it would be a good pay day and for the WBO welterweight title. He stated the fight with Kell Brook, who he was in negotiations with over a big domestic showdown, could still take place at a later date. On January 4, 2019, with no opponent announced, Crawford's scheduled return to the ring was pushed back to April 20, 2019. A few hours after, it was reported that Khan accepted Top Rank's offer to fight Crawford on April 20. A press conference was set for January 15, in London and the fight was made official to take place on ESPN PPV on April 20, 2019. Khan admitted it was a hard decision to make when choosing to fight Crawford over long-time rival Brook, as a bout with Crawford would see his legacy enhanced further. Khan also believed winning another world title against a consensus pound for pound boxer would be a bigger achievement than defeating Brook. Khan also revealed he would return to veteran trainer Virgil Hunter for the Crawford bout. Hunter was unable to train Khan for his previous two bouts due a health scare. After the pressers concluded, New York's Madison Square Garden was chosen as the venue for the bout. BT Sport in the U.K. picked up the event, announcing it would take place on their PPV platform.

The match took place on April 20, 2019. Crawford knocked down Khan 2 minutes into the first round with a sharp right hand followed by a left hook and came close to a second knockdown, with Khan seemingly being saved by the bell. Despite making adjustments in rounds two and three, Khan was easily outboxed by the sharper and faster Crawford. The champion switched to southpaw in round four and increased the pressure on Khan. 40 seconds into round six, Crawford hit Khan with an accidental low blow. Despite being given five minutes by referee David Fields to recover, Khan's trainer Virgil Hunter informed the referee that Khan would not be able to continue, giving Crawford the win via TKO. Before the stoppage, Crawford led on the scorecards by 50–44, and 49–45 twice. According to CompuBox stats, Crawford landed 88 of his 211 punches (42%) while Khan landed 44 of his 182 punches (24%). At the post-fight press conference, Crawford accused Khan of "quitting" in the fight, which Khan denied.

Crawford vs. Kavaliauskas

Having called for the opportunity since November 2016, Egidijus Kavaliauskas eventually faced Crawford on December 14, 2019. Early in the fight, Crawford appeared to have been knocked down, however it was not ruled a knockdown. After a close first half of the fight eventually, Crawford won by stoppage in the ninth. After dropping the Lithuanian in the seventh round with an overhand right, and twice further in the ninth with explosive punches, the referee intervened to save Kavaliauskas further punishment.

Crawford vs. Brook
On August 25, 2020, Bob Arum revealed that discussions were ongoing for Crawford to face the former IBF welterweight titlist Kell Brook, with November 14, 2020, being the targeted date. Crawford's camp first attempted to arrange a fight with Josesito López, who however opted to face Maurice Hooker. The fight was officially announced on October 6, 2020, and was held at the MGM Grand Conference Center in Paradise, Nevada. Crawford entered the fight as a significant favorite, with most odds-makers having him as a -1439 favorite. Crawford won the fight by a fourth-round technical knockout, stopping the former IBF titlist at the 1:14 minute mark. He out-landed Brook 36 to 26 in total punches landed, and 20 to 12 in power punches landed. Brook was leading on the scorecards at the time of the stoppage, with two judges having the fight 29–28 in his favor, while the third judge awarded the same scorecard to Crawford.

The fight, which was broadcast by ESPN, draw an average audience of 2,029,000 viewers and attracted a peak audience of 2,078,000. Crawford earned $3 million for the bout, a 60% split of the purse.

Crawford vs. Porter

On July 22, 2021, the WBO ordered that Crawford defend his welterweight title against the #2 ranked WBO welterweight contender Shawn Porter. The former two-time welterweight title holder was seen as the biggest challenge in Crawford's career up to that point, with ESPN describing Porter as "a quantum leap in competition". As the two sides were unable to negotiate the terms of the fight, the WBO set a purse bid for September 2, 2021, which was later postponed until September 14. Crawford and Porter would adhere to a 60–40 purse split, rather than the usual 80–20 split for mandated matches, taking into account the earnings from their three previous fights. On September 14, it was announced that a deal had been agreed to stage the fight on November 20 at Mandalay Bay in Las Vegas, airing on ESPN+ PPV.

On fight night, Crawford showcased his switch-hitting ability, fighting in both the orthodox and southpaw stances. Both men were cut from accidental head clashes. In the tenth round, Crawford caught Porter coming in with a well-timed left uppercut, sending the latter to the canvas. Crawford scored another knockdown shortly after, prompting Porter's corner to throw in the towel, handing Crawford a tenth-round technical knockout victory. Crawford out-landed Porter in punches with 98 strikes to 79, although Porter had landed more power punches (67 to Crawford's 65). Crawford was leading on the judges' scorecards at the time of the stoppage, with scores of 86–85, 86–85 and 87–84. According to ESPN reports, Crawford earned upward of $6 million for the bout, a 60% split of the total fight purse. During his post-fight interview, Crawford announced his split with promoter Bob Arum and departure from Top Rank, opting instead to test free agency.

Crawford vs. Avanesyan
On October 21, 2022, Crawford was announced to make the sixth defense of his WBO welterweight championship against top contender David Avanesyan on December 10, 2022, at the CHI Health Center in Omaha, Nebraska, that will headline a BLK Prime Boxing PPV. Crawford stopped Avanesyan with a right hand to the jaw, winning in the 6th round. After the fight, Crawford stated it was a one-fight deal and he is still a free agent.

Crawford vs. Spence

Crawford and the WBA, IBF and WBC welterweight champion Errol Spence Jr. came to an agreement on "all material terms" for a title unification, which was expected to take place on November 19. The agreement included a bilateral rematch clause, with the winner of the bout earning the majority of the revenue in the rematch. Two months later, it was revealed by both camps that negotiations had fallen through and they would be pursuing different fights.
Potential dates were given of the fight between both men as June 17 and July 22 but both have been proven false.
Following this, on February 27, 2023, Crawford was ordered by the WBO to make a mandatory title defense against the once-defeated Alexis Rocha.
Finally on May 25, 2023, it was confirmed that Crawford would fight Errol Spence Jr. for the undisputed welterweight titles on July 29, 2023, at the T-Mobile Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada. In front of a sold-out crowd of 19,990, Crawford dominated and won the fight by a ninth-round technical knockout and became the first undisputed welterweight champion since 2006 and the first male boxer in the four-belt era to claim undisputed championship status in two weight divisions. By that point, he had out-landed Spence 185 to 96 in total punches and 98 to 63 in power punches. Crawford was up 79–70 on all three scorecards at the time of the stoppage.

Legal issues
On September 21, 2016, Crawford was found guilty of criminal mischief and disorderly conduct due to an April incident at a local car body shop. Crawford had made a partial payment but refused to pay the remainder after he wasn't satisfied with the work being done and the amount being charged. He started to lower the car himself, damaging the hydraulic lift. At the hearing, Crawford was sentenced to 90 days in jail, but would be serving 53 days. Crawford was incarcerated for only 8 hours, before being released after his attorney posted a $10,000 bond. Crawford's conviction for criminal mischief and his 90-day jail sentence were reversed on appeal.

Professional boxing record

Pay-per-view bouts

See also
List of world lightweight boxing champions
List of world light-welterweight boxing champions
List of world welterweight boxing champions
List of boxing triple champions

Notes

References

External links

Terence Crawford profile at Top Rank
Terence Crawford profile at HBO
Terence Crawford profile at Cyber Boxing Zone

1987 births
Living people
American male boxers
African-American boxers
Boxers from Nebraska
Sportspeople from Omaha, Nebraska
World lightweight boxing champions
World light-welterweight boxing champions
World welterweight boxing champions
World Boxing Organization champions
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Association champions
International Boxing Federation champions
The Ring (magazine) champions
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people

Terence Crawford


A Helium analyzer is an instrument used to identify the presence and concentration of helium in a mixture of gases. In Technical diving where breathing gas mixtures known as Trimix comprising oxygen, helium and nitrogen are used, it is necessary to know the fraction of helium in the mixture to reliably calculate decompression schedules for dives using that mixture.

Thermal conductivity principle

Portable instruments for the analysis of helium content of breathing gas mixtures may be based on a thermal conductivity sensor (katharometer). These sensors  can be very stable and maintenance free and also highly reliable and accurate.

A typical thermal helium analyser comprises two chambers, each with an identical thermal conductivity sensor. One chamber is sealed and is filled with pure helium as the reference gas, and the other receives the sample gas. The difference in thermal conductivity of the reference and sample gases is measured and converted into a concentration value by the electronic circuitry in the instrument. The system is inherently stable and when precise temperature compensation is made, the system is more than adequately accurate for breathing gas analysis. Accuracy and display precision is typically within 0.1%, and accuracy within 1% is considered sufficient for most decompression algorithms.

The thermal conductivity of nitrogen and oxygen are very similar, and that of helium very different so that the ratio of oxygen and nitrogen in the mix is relatively unimportant, and need not be compensated. This allows a direct reading of helium fraction from these instruments. However, for greater accuracy and compensation to oxygen cross-sensitivity, some instruments include an oxygen cell, and in these cases can generally give a full helium and oxygen analysis of the mixture simultaneously.

Speed of sound principle
Helium content may also be determined on the basis of measuring the speed of sound in the analyzed gas mixture. The speed of sound depends on the mixture of gases and the temperature of the mix; in the analysis of trimix the speed of sound can be described by a non-linear function of temperature,
oxygen content and helium content, and thus the content of helium can be determined by measuring the speed of sound through the mix, the temperature of the mix and its oxygen content.

See also

References

External links

Breathing gases
Underwater diving safety
Measurement

Helium analyzer


Antalya Province  is on the Mediterranean coast of south-west Turkey, between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea.

Antalya Province is the centre of Turkey's tourism industry. 30% of foreign tourists who come to Turkey comehere . Its capital city, Antalya  was the world's third most visited city by number of international arrivals in 2011.

Antalya Province


The Alte Nationalgalerie (lit. Old National Gallery) is located on the Museum Island (Museuminsel) in Berlin. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The collection contains mainly work from the 19th century. It is part of a collection of six museums called the Nationalgalerie (National Gallery) and is the original location of the Nationalgalerie.

The collection of the museum was first developed in 1815. Johann Heinrich Wagener donated the first couple hundred paintings to the gallery. The main architect of the building was Friedrich August Stüler. It was only after his death that the building was commissioned by the Prussian Kaiser in 1866. The shape of the building resembles a temple, theatre and church. The Museum opened in 1876. Although the museum was damaged during World War 2, the works were stored in bomb shelters. The museum was fully reconstructed between 1998 and 2001 and opened again in December 2001.

With about 2000 works the gallery contains artpieces by Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Karl Blechen, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Adolph von Menzel, Max Liebermann, Lovis Corinth and others. Art movements included are Impressionist, Expressionist, Neoclassical, Romantic, Biedermeier and Modernism.
Museums in Berlin

Alte Nationalgalerie


Nina Wang is a fictional character from the anime My-Otome.

Background
Nobody knows of Nina's past, just that she was kidnapped by assassins when she was young. She trained to become an assassin with other young children, until a man called Sergay Wang came to kill the assassins. Sergay sees Nina, and decides to adopt her. Nina trains in Garderobe from then on, to become Nagi's (Sergay's master) otome. She grows to love her stepfather more than loving a father, and is jealous when she finds that Sergay loved a woman called Rena Searrs from a photo album.

When she first meets Arika, she is angry at Arika for embarrassing her. This is because Arika tried to catch a drink from falling and landed on Nina instead. Nina fell down, showing the inside of her skirt, and she felt embarrassed in front of other people who were there, for example, Sergay. It is her dream to please Sergay and so she pretends that her dream is to become an otome, because Sergay would be proud.

Fictional Japanese people
My-Otome

Nina Wang


In wide area network computing, Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay (or LAPF) is part of the network's communications protocol which ensures that frames are error free and executed in the right sequence.

LAPF is formally defined in the International Telecommunication Union standard Q.922.  It was derived from IBM's Synchronous Data Link Control protocol, which is the layer 2 protocol for IBM's Systems Network Architecture developed around 1975.  ITU used SDLC as a basis to develop LAPF for the Frame Relay environment, along with other equivalents:  LAPB for the X.25 protocol stack, LAPM for the V.42 protocol, and LAPD for the ISDN protocol stack.

In Frame Relay Local Management Interface (LMI) messages are carried in a variant of LAPF frames.

LAPF corresponds to the OSI model Data Link layer.

External links
Cisco Frame Relay documentation

Link access protocols
Link protocols
Frame Relay

Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay


The designated survivor (also called designated successor) is a member of the US president's cabinet who goes to a remote, secure location at a time when all the government leadership is gathered in one place, such as during the State of the Union speech or a presidential inauguration. This is to make sure that the government will continue in case of some catastrophe that would result in harm to the President and many top elected officials at once.

The recent designated survivor is Sonny Perdue, President Donald Trump's Secretary of Agriculture, for the 2018 State of the Union Address.

Executive branch of the United States government

Designated survivor