Iván Thays is a Peruvian author, professor and television host.

Life
Thays was born on October 21, 1968, in Lima. He studied languages and literature at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. After his study he continued as a professor at the same university.

In 1992 he published his first book, Las fotografías de Frances Farmer, which received praising critics. More books followed, like El viaje interior, La disciplina de la vanidad, Un lugar llamado Oreja de Perro and more. In 2006 he published the volume Pasajeros Perdurables - Historias de escritores viajeros with his selection of stories of other writers that had lived in exile.

Thays is seen as a renewer in Peruvian literature. Alonso Cueto wrote on him: "There is a new generation of writers in Peru that wishes to break with the usual form of writing realistic novels. Iván Thays and Mario Bellatin are the masters of this group young writers." He received positive critics of more writers. For instance Mario Vargas Llosa described him as "one of the most interesting writers that arose in Latin America in recent years."

Three times he reached the final at important award elections. In 1998 this was the case at the Premio Copé with his short story La ópera gris. In 2001 he advanced until the final with his novel La disciplina de la vanidad at the Rómulo Gallegos Prize. Another time was in 2008 with his novel Un lugar llamado Oreja de Perro at the Premio Herralde. In all three cases he did not receive the principal award though. In 2007 he was mentioned as one of the 39 most promising Latin American writers.

In the year of 2000 he began with the presentation of the literary critical television program Vano Oficio on TV Perú. This program was popular among the audience and renewing for Peru. Because of his pioneer role he was honored with a Prince Claus Award from the Netherlands in 2001. He continued the presentation of the program until the last broadcasting in 2008.

In 2005 he started his own literary weblog, called Moleskine Literario. Next to this, he is keeping up other websites as well, like the literary weblog of the Spanish paper El País. In 2012 he posted the article Con la tinta aún húmeda on the weblog of El País with sound criticism on Peruvian cuisine, that he qualified as indigestible and little healthy. His post led to a mounting discussion, with reactions of important persons of Peruvian society, like master cook Gastón Acurio, journalists like Beto Ortiz, politicians and colleague authors.

Bibliography
1992: Las fotografías de Frances Farmer, fairy tales
1995: Escena de caza, short story
1998: "La ópera gris", short story
1999: El viaje interior, novel
2000: La disciplina de la vanidad, novel
2009: Un lugar llamado Oreja de Perro, novel
2011: Un sueño fugaz, novel
2011: El orden de las cosas, novel

 Literature
Ruz, Robert (2005) Contemporary Peruvian Narrative and Popular Culture: Jaime Bayly, Ivan Thays and Jorge Eduardo Benavides'', Coleccion Tamesis: Series A, Monografias, Tamesis Books,

References

Peruvian male writers
Academic staff of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru
Peruvian television presenters
Living people
1968 births

Iván Thays


The cuisine of Botswana is unique but shares some characteristics with other cuisines of Southern Africa. Examples of Setswana food include pap, samp, vetkoek, bogobe and mophane worms. A food unique to Botswana is seswaa, salted mashed-up meat.

Overview
Watermelons are believed to have originated in Botswana. Other foods include morogo wa dinawa, madila and dikgobe.

Batswana procure beef, goat meat, sheep, tswana chicken, Mophane worms and fish locally. Batswana also make home-made refreshing drinks using watermelon, morula and ginger powder. At weddings, sorghum meal is usually cooked and mixed with melon and this mixture is called bogobe jwa lerotse. Usually the melon is pre-prepared with sour milk and stored to be used whenever needed. Batswana are also good at food preservation. Among other methods, they preserve meat by cutting it into small lengths like strings, then dry it. When meat is like this, it is called digwapa. They also cook and dry bean leaves. It is also common among Batswana to make mageu from leftover porridge or pap. Some tribes also preserve spoiling or rotten meat by drying it to be used as relish for a long time. This type of meat is called mokungwana. Other foods prepared during weddings are samp mixed with beans or cooked without beans and eaten with pounded meat called seswaa.

Ingredients
The markets of Botswana are filled with a large variety of foods. Some are grown locally using irrigation and some are imported from neighbouring countries. A large quantity of high-quality beef is raised in Botswana. Lamb, mutton, chicken and other meats are also plentiful. Beef is the most popular meat, followed by goat meat. River  fish are also part of Botswana cuisine.

Sorghum and maize are the main crops grown in Botswana. Wheat and rice and other kinds of cereals not grown locally are imported. Many different kinds of beans are grown, including cowpeas, ditloo, and letlhodi (mung beans). Peanuts (manoko) are also grown. Many vegetables are grown, such as spinach, carrots, cabbage, onions, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and lettuce. There are some vegetables that grow in the wild that are available seasonally including thepe and delele (okra). Dried bean leaves are a popular Setswana food.

Many fruits are locally available, including marula. Watermelons, believed to have come originally from Botswana, are plentiful in season. Another kind of melon, called lerotse or lekatane, is also grown. There are some kinds of wild melon found in sandy desert areas which are an important food and water source for the people who live in those areas. Many vegetables are seasonal and are often dried or salted for preservation. There are many different ways of cooking dried vegetables.

Popular dishes

Seswaa, tshotlho or leswao (pounded beef) is a very popular traditional meat dish made for most special occasions. Usually prepared by men, it is cooked in a three-legged iron pot, simmered until soft, with only salt, cooking oil and water. It is usually prepared using goat meat or beef and it is a staple in most traditional occasions such as funerals and weddings.

Another type is serobe, in which the intestines and some offals of goat, sheep or cow are cooked until soft. Before cooking, the intestines are thoroughly washed. If the animal is sheep or goat, the trotters are included. For this food to be serobe, a scissor used to cut meat is used to cut the intestines into small pieces.

The other type of meat is of chicken. Traditionally grown chicken (free-range) is considered to be tastier than commercially grown chickens. By cooking a traditionally grown chicken for a guest, a host shows special hospitality. Cooking chicken in a three-legged iron pot on an open fire gives it the best flavour. Chicken meat is usually eaten with dumplings or pap.

Bogobe is made by putting sorghum, maize or millet flour into boiling water, stirring into a soft paste, and then cooking it slowly. Sometimes the sorghum or maize is fermented before cooking for some days to make it sour. This dish is called ting. This sour porridge can be cooked and eaten with meat or milk and sugar. Without the milk and sugar, ting Another way of making bogobe is to add sour milk and a cooking melon (lerotse). This dish is called tophi by the Kalanga tribe.

Bread flour is not part of the basic diet, but has been imported for some years, so there are various bread recipes that have become part of the national food. The most common are dumplings (matlebelekwaneor madombi), flat cakes (diphaphatha) and fat cakes (magwinya). For these, the flour is made into dough which is cooked in different ways such as boiling with meat, cooking in hot oil or on hot coals putting on a pot lead.

Popular foods in remote areas include morama bean, a huge underground tuber, and an edible fungus. Mopane worm, caterpillar of the moth Gonimbrasia belina, is cooked in hot ashes, boiled, or dried and fried.

Beverages

Many soft drinks and alcoholic drinks are produced in factories in Botswana, including Fanta and Coca-Cola. Local brands are Castle and Lion beers.
Milk is fermented to make madila (sour milk) which is eaten on its own or added to porridge. A favorite non-alcoholic homemade drink is ginger beer. This drink is popularly served at special occasions like weddings and parties. It is prepared by boiling ginger powder in water, adding sugar, tartaric acid and cream of tartar  then left to cool and fermented for one day.

There are various traditionally produced alcoholic drinks. Bojalwa ja Setswana (the beer of Botswana) is brewed from fermented sorghum seeds. Other tribes, like Bakalanga, use lebelebele (millet). A commercially produced and packaged beer, Chibuku, brewed from either maize or sorghum, is a favourite drink particularly in the villages, towns, and in some parts of the city. Chibuku is also brewed in other neighbouring countries such as Malawi, South Africa (Umqombothi), Zambia and Zimbabwe. Khadi, which is brewed from various ingredients, the healthiest of which is wild berries, is also a widely consumed alcoholic drink among low-income groups in particular.
There are other beverages such as mints called kgomodimetsing and longman. These are leaves which are usually mixed with tea for a good scented taste.

See also

 List of African cuisines

References

External links

 Local Cuisine: Culture and Traditions of Botswana from the Siyabona Africa website
 The cuisine of Botswana from the Hospitality and Tourism Association of Botswana (HATAB)
 13 Tswana foods every Motswana should eat before they die from Botswanayouth

Sources

Further reading

Southern African cuisine

Botswana cuisine


Evgeny Igorevich Kissin (, ; born 10 October 1971) is a Russian-born concert pianist and composer. He became a British citizen in 2002 and an Israeli citizen in 2013. He first came to international fame as a child prodigy. He has a wide repertoire and is especially known for his interpretations of the works of the Romantic era, particularly those of Franz Schubert, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Johannes Brahms, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Modest Mussorgsky and Ludwig van Beethoven. He is commonly viewed as a great successor of the Russian piano school because of the depth, lyricism and poetic quality of his interpretations.

Early life and education
Kissin was born in Moscow to Jewish parents. Recognized as a child prodigy at age six, he began piano studies at the city's Gnessin Music School where he became a student of Anna Kantor, who was to remain his only piano teacher.

At age ten he made his performing debut with Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 20 with the Ulyanovsk Symphony Orchestra. A year later he gave his first recital, in Moscow. His talents were revealed outside Russia after 27 March 1984 when, still only twelve, he recorded for Melodiya both of Chopin's piano concertos with Dmitri Kitayenko and the Moscow Philharmonic at the Moscow Conservatory.

Career

Concert pianist
Kissin's first appearances outside Russia were in 1985 in Eastern Europe, followed a year later by his first tour of Japan.

In 1987, at age sixteen, he made his West European debut at the Berlin Festival as well as his United Kingdom debut, alongside conductor Valery Gergiev and violinists Maxim Vengerov and Vadim Repin, at The Lichfield Festival. In 1988 he toured Europe with the Moscow Virtuosi and Vladimir Spivakov and also made his London debut with the London Symphony Orchestra under Valery Gergiev. In December of the same year he played Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 with Herbert von Karajan at the Berlin Philharmonic's New Year's Eve Concert which was broadcast internationally, with the performance repeated the following year at the Salzburg Easter Festival. In September 1990, he made his North American debut playing Chopin's two piano concertos with the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta and the first piano recital in Carnegie Hall's centennial season.

In 1997, he gave the first solo piano recital in the history of The Proms in London.

Kissin made regular recital tours of Europe, America and Asia. He has performed with nearly all the leading orchestras of the world, under such conductors as Claudio Abbado, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Daniel Barenboim, Myung-Whun Chung, Sir Colin Davis, Vladimir Fedoseyev, Valery Gergiev, Carlo Maria Giulini, Mariss Jansons, Herbert von Karajan, Dmitri Kitaenko, Jan Latham-Koenig, Emmanuel Krivine, James Levine, Sir Andrew Davis, Lorin Maazel, Zubin Mehta, Riccardo Muti, Seiji Ozawa, Sir Antonio Pappano, Sir Simon Rattle, Sir Georg Solti, Vladimir Spivakov, Yevgeny Svetlanov and Yuri Temirkanov. He has also performed chamber music with Martha Argerich, Mikhail Pletnev, Gidon Kremer, James Levine, Mischa Maisky, Thomas Quasthoff, Isaac Stern, Itzhak Perlman, Karita Mattila, Dmitry Hvorostovsky, Joshua Bell, Leonidas Kavakos, Natalia Gutman, Yuri Bashmet, Vladimir Spivakov, the Emerson String Quartet and others.

Poetry
In addition to classical music, Kissin has given recitations of Russian and Yiddish poetry and discussed his admiration for the Yiddish language in interviews about his life. Three CDs of Kissin's recitals from the classical and contemporary Yiddish poetry have been issued by the Forward Association.

Writing
In 2018 Kissin's autobiography  was published under the title of Memoirs and Reflections. In 2019, his book of poems, short stories and translations in Yiddish was published under the title "A Yiddisher Sheygets". In 2021, his book of short stories and diaries in Yiddish was published under the title "Bloyz etlekhe minut gang" ("Only a few minutes by foot)".

Compositions
Kissin has composed numerous musical works which have been published by Henle Verlag. His String Quartet (2016) was recorded by the Kopelman Quartet on Nimbus Records and received its UK premiere on 26 February 2019 performed by the Endellion Quartet.

Personal life
On 10 March 2017, Kissin married Karina Arzumanova, a childhood friend, in Prague, where they live.

Kissin has also been an outspoken critic of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In 2022, Kissin and other Russian artists signed a letter against the invasion. The piano trio he composed in response to the invasion was premiered in Amsterdam on 14 October 2022.

Awards and accolades
Many musical awards and tributes from around the world have been bestowed upon Kissin. In 1987 he received the Crystal Prize of the Osaka Symphony Hall for the best performance of the year in 1986 (his first performance in Japan). In 1991 he received the Musician of the Year Prize from the Chigiana Academy of Music in Siena, Italy. He performed at the 1992 Grammy Awards Ceremony, where he played the finale of Liszt's Spanish Rhapsody which was broadcast live to an audience estimated at over one billion.  That same year his Carnegie Hall debut album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance, though he lost to pianist Alicia de Larrocha.  He became Musical America's youngest Instrumentalist of the Year in 1995. In 1997 he received the Triumph Award for his outstanding contribution to Russia's culture, one of the highest cultural honors to be awarded in the Russian Republic, and again, the youngest-ever awardee. He was the first pianist to be invited to give a recital at the BBC Proms (1997), and, in the 2000 season, was the first concerto soloist ever to be invited to play in the Proms opening concert.

In May 2001 Kissin was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music by the Manhattan School of Music. In December 2003 in Moscow, he received the Shostakovich Award, one of Russia's highest musical honors. In June 2005 he was awarded an Honorary Membership of the Royal Academy of Music in London. In March 2009 he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters from the University of Hong Kong.

 1995: Musical America, Instrumentalist of the Year
 1997: Triumph Award, Outstanding Contribution to Russia's Culture (he is the youngest awardee)
 2001: Honorary Doctorate of Music, Manhattan School of Music, New York
 2005: Honorary Membership of the Royal Academy of Music
 2005: Herbert von Karajan Award, Baden-Baden, Germany (2005)
 2006: Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance - for recordings of Sonatas by Alexander Scriabin and Nikolai Medtner and Three Movements from Pétrouchka by Igor Stravinsky
 2007: Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli Award, Brescia, Italy
 2009: Doctor of Letters honoris causa, The University of Hong Kong
 2009: Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra) - for recordings of the Second and Third Piano Concertos of Sergei Prokofiev with the Philharmonia Orchestra, conducted by Vladimir Ashkenazy
 2010: Honorary Doctorate, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
 2010: Second Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra)
 2021: Honorary Doctorate, National Academy of Music (Bulgaria)

References

External links

Full biography
 Productions Internationales Albert Sarfati (France Management): Evgeny Kissin
Evgeny Kissin's official site

 [ Evgeny Kissin] on Allmusic
 DVD Times link on documentary We Want the Light

Russian classical pianists
British classical pianists
Soviet classical pianists
20th-century classical pianists
Israeli classical pianists
Jewish classical pianists
Child classical musicians
Deutsche Grammophon artists
EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists
Grammy Award winners
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Gnessin State Musical College alumni
Russian Jews
Israeli Ashkenazi Jews
1971 births
Living people
Musicians from Moscow
Herbert von Karajan Music Prize winners
Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Evgeny Kissin


Autonomous diver is an international minimum standard for entry level recreational scuba diver certification. It describes the minimum requirements for basic training and certification for recreational scuba divers in international standard ISO 24801-2  and the equivalent European Standard EN 14153-2. Various organizations offer training that meets the requirements of the Autonomous Diver standard. A certification which corresponds to Autonomous Diver allows for independent diving with a dive buddy in open water. Most training organizations do not recommend exceeding a depth of 18 or 20 meters at this level of certification. After completion of this certification the training can be extended to a dive leader to ISO 24801-3 or an intermediate not defined by international standards.

Before initial diver training and thereafter at regular intervals, a diver should undergo a fitness to dive examination by a diving doctor. In some countries, such an examination is required by law and it is a prerequisite for any training in many diving schools. A diving certification which corresponds to Autonomous Diver and a medical certificate may be required for renting diving equipment and taking part in organised dives. In some countries (e.g. Australia) the law requires every diver to prove basic certification before unsupervised diving activity.

Some diver training organizations offer an intermediate Supervised diver certification which corresponds to ISO 24801-1, which usually only splits the contents of the Autonomous Diver training over two courses and does not qualify the holder to take part in independent dives.

Scope of the standard
International standard ISO 24801-2 includes:
Prerequisites for training, including age and health requirements,
Required theoretical knowledge regarding scuba and basic diving equipment, the basic physics of diving, decompression management and dive planning, medical and psychological problems related to diving, the diving environment and the use of nitrox breathing gases,
Required scuba skills in confined and open water,
Practical training parameters,
Evaluation of knowledge and practical skills.

Training according to ISO 24801-2
Every year around 1.7 million people are trained according to ISO 24801. Despite the standardization, the dive courses of individual diving organizations differ considerably in their content, expansion and philosophy. However, the minimum requirements defined in the ISO standard guarantee that a diver can easily convert between training organizations.

The following certifications meet the requirements for Autonomous Diver:

CMAS *

The CMAS * (one-star) training goes beyond the requirements defined by the Autonomous Diver standard. CMAS requires the theory test before diving in open water. 6 theory lessons, which build the basic understanding of the learner diver and, after the successful completion of a theory test, at least 6 swimming pool or confined water training sessions, and 5 open water training and assessment dives. The course includes breathhold exercises. After successfully completing the course, training can continue with specialisation courses or the CMAS ** (two star). CMAS recommends maximum depth of 20 meters for one-star divers. For divers aged between 8 and 14 years, a maximum depth of 5 meters is recommended.

The CMAS * course can be started without prior knowledge of diving. Persons who wish to attend a CMAS * course must be at least 14 years old, and in normal physical health and fitness.

The basic training standards of the individual CMAS member organizations may differ from the training specified by CMAS.

NAUI Open Water Scuba Diver
The NAUI Open Water Scuba Diver course (OWSD) is a basic diving certification training which meets the requirements of the Autonomous Diver standard. The training includes 2 breath-hold and 4 scuba dives. NAUI recommends that SD divers dive to a maximum depth not exceeding 18 meters. After successful completion, the training can be continued with specialty certification or the Advanced Scuba Diver course. The NAUI OWSD course can be started without previous knowledge of diving. Normal physical health and fitness are required. Persons who wish to attend an SD course must be at least 15 years old. NAUI Junior Scuba Diver training can be attended at the age of 12 years. These children's diving courses differ only in a child-oriented mediation of the same contents.

PADI Open Water Diver

The PADI Open Water Diver Course (OWD) is an entry level diver training programme to the ISO standards for Autonomous Diver. PADI allows OWD divers to dive to a depth of 18 meters. After successful completion, training can be continued with specialties or the Advanced Open Water Diver course.

The course consists of five theory lessons, five swimming pool dives and at least four dives in open water on scuba. They also recommend an optional snorkeling dive and / or "adventure dive". PADI follows the concept of diving on the same day as attending the presentation. Therefore, after a theory lesson, the dives are usually held on the same day. The pool dives - which can also be done at calm, current-free, shallow places in open water, provide for learning the basic and emergency techniques. These include entering the water, breathing under water from the scuba regulator, using the fins, basic buoyancy control, clearing the mask, recovery of the demand valve and emergency ascent. In the open water dives, the same exercises are repeated in deeper water. There are also techniques for managing cramping, open water descent and ascent, buddy breathing and diver navigation.

OWD is an entry-level course. Normal physical health and fitness are required. Persons who wish to attend a PADI OWD course must be at least 15 years old, but a PADI Junior OWD course (JOWD) can be attended at the age of 10 years. These children's dive courses differ only in a child-oriented mediation of the same contents.

SSI Open Water Diver

The Scuba Schools International (SSI) Open Water Diver Course (OWD) is a basic dive certification equivalent to the standard Autonomous Diver. The training includes at least 4 open water dives, which can only be carried out after the successful completion of the theoretical training. SSI allows OWD divers to dive to a maximum depth of 18 meters. After successful completion, training can be continued with specialties or the Advanced Adventurer Course. The SSI OWD is an entry level course. Normal physical health and fitness are required and an SSI Medical Statement must be provided. The learner must be able to swim 180 meters without an aid. Persons who wish to attend an OWD course must be at least 15 years old. An SSI Junior OWD training can be completed at the age of 10 years. [11] These children's dive courses differ only in a child-oriented mediation of the same contents.

SDI Open Water Scuba Diver
The SDI (Scuba Diving International) Open Water Scuba Diver certification meets the requirements for Standard Autonomous Diver.  This certification course is designed to give students the necessary skills to conduct open water dives in conditions similar to their training without the direct supervision of an instructor.  Graduates are qualified to 1. Conduct open water dives in conditions similar to their training to a maximum depth of 18 metres/ 60 feet. 2. Conduct dives with other certified divers at the same or higher level of certification. 3. Conduct dives that do not require decompression. 4. Enroll in the Advanced Adventure Diver program, individual SDI Specialties or the SDI Advanced Diver Development program.  The minimum age is 18; 10-17 with written parental consent.

Other training agencies
In addition to the above, the following certifications comply with the Autonomous Diver standard ISO 24801-2:

References

Diving qualifications
International standards

Autonomous diver


Julia Eileen Gillard  (born 29 September 1961) is an Australian politician who was the 27th Prime Minister of Australia. She became the first female Prime Minister of Australia. She was also Australia's first unmarried prime minister. Gillard was the first prime minister not born in Australia since Billy Hughes, who served from 1915 to 1923.

Gillard became the leader of the Australian Labor Party on 24 June 2010 when Kevin Rudd resigned. She had been Deputy Prime Minister under Kevin Rudd. On 11 December 2007, Rudd went to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali. Gillard became the first woman in Australia's history to take on the prime-ministerial role as the acting prime minister.

Gillard was elected to the House of Representatives in 1988. She represented the Division of Lalor, in western suburbs of Melbourne.

Early life
Gillard was born in 1961 in Barry, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. She had bronchopneumonia as a child, and her parents thought it would be better in a warmer country. The family came to Australia in 1966, settling in Adelaide. She became an Australian citizen in 1974.,

Gillard's father was a psychiatric nurse, and her mother worked in a Salvation Army nursing home. She and her sister went to Mitcham Demonstration School, and Julia went on to attend Unley High School. She studied at the University of Adelaide but cut short her courses in 1982 and moved to Melbourne to work with the Australian Union of Students. She graduated from the University of Melbourne with Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degrees in 1986.

In 1987, Gillard joined the law firm Slater & Gordon at Werribee, Melbourne, working in industrial law. In 1990 at the age of 29, she became one of their first female partners.

Politics
At the University of Adelaide, she joined the Labor Club and became involved in a campaign to fight state education budget cuts.

Moving to Melbourne in 1983, Gillard became the second woman to lead the Australian Union of Students. Gillard was also the secretary of the Socialist Forum. The Socialist Forum wanted to end the ANZUS treaty, making Leningrad a sister city of Melbourne, and increase taxes on rich people.

From 1996 to 1998, Gillard was Chief of Staff to the Victorian opposition leaderJohn Brumby She was responsible for writing new rules for the Labor Party in Victoria to increase the number of women elected to parliament. She also played a role in starting EMILY's List, the pro-choice fund-raising and support network for Labor women.

Parliament
Gillard was elected as Member for Lalor in the House of Representatives at the 1998 election, replacing Barry Jones, who had retired. She made her first speech to the house on 11 November 1998.

Shadow Minister for Population and Immigration: 2001–03
After the 2001 election, Gillard was elected to the shadow cabinet, to oversee population and immigration. In February 2003, she was given reconciliation and Indigenous affairs.

After the Tampa and Children Overboard affairs, which were partly credited with Labor's 2001 election loss, Gillard worked on a new immigration policy for the Labor Party.

Shadow Minister for Health: 2003–06
Gillard was promoted to the position of Shadow Health Minister in July 2003. Shortly after this, Tony Abbott became Health Minister. The contest between Abbott and Gillard often attracted attention from the media. She also was in charge of opposition business in the House of Representatives.

After the Labor loss at the October 2004 election, Gillard was seen as a possible future leader. However she stayed out of leadership changes in the Labor Party.

Deputy leader of the opposition

On 1 December 2006, with Kevin Rudd and Gillard launched a challenge for leadership of the ALP. Once Rudd was elected as leader on 4 December 2006, the deputy leader, Jenny Macklin. Gillard was elected unopposed as deputy leader. After the leader ship change, Gillard became the shadow ministe for Employment, Workplace Relations and Social Inclusion.

Deputy prime minister: 2007–10
The Labor Party won the 2007 federal election. On 3 December 2007, Gillard was sworn in as the first female Deputy Prime Minister of Australia.

She was also the Minister for Education, Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations, and Minister for Social Inclusion. As Minister for Education, Gillard went to Washington, DC, where she signed a deal with the US Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, to enourage improved policy collaboration in education reform between both countries.

On 11 December 2007 she became the first woman in Australia's history to be in the prime ministerial role when she became acting prime minister while Kevin Rudd went to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali. In the first year of government, she served as acting prime minister for 69 days while Rudd was overseas.

Gillard is a highly regarded debater, and has been described as "the best parliamentary performer on the Labor side".

Minister for Education, Employment and Workplace Relations
Gillard removed the WorkChoices industrial relations laws introduced by the Howard government, and replaced it with the Fair Work Bill. This set up a single industrial relations bureaucracy called Fair Work Australia.

In 2009 Gillard was in charge of the government's "Building the Education Revolution" program, which gave AU$16 billion to build new school classrooms, libraries and assembly halls.

Prime minister 2010–13
During 2010 Rudd's level of support dropped in the opinion polls. Labor politicians were unhappy with the way he led the party. The media had a lot of stories about the possibility that he would be challenged as leader. On 23 June 2010, there were several meetings between Gillard and Rudd, as well as other Labor party leaders. Rudd spoke to the media and said that Gillard had asked him to resign or hold a new vote for the party leadership.  This would decide who was to be the leader of the Labor Party and therefore the Prime Minister of Australia.

At first Rudd said he would challenge Gillard at the meeting. However, hours before the vote, he resigned as leader when he knew that he did not have enough support to defeat Gillard. She won the election unopposed and became Australia's 27th Prime Minister.  At the same meeting the Treasurer, Wayne Swan, was elected unopposed to succeed Gillard as Labor's deputy leader, and hence Deputy Prime Minister. Gillard said that "It is my intention to lead a government that is focused each and every day on meeting the needs of working families around the country". She said "I came to the view that a good government was losing its way".

In February 2012, Rudd resigned as Foreign Minister, and said that he would challenge her for the leadership of the Labor Party. Gillard called a party meeting on 27 February 2012 and asked for a new leadership vote. She won the leadership, getting 71 votes to only 31 for Rudd.

On 26 June 2013, Gillard called a leadership spill. Kevin Rudd declared himself as a candidate. Rudd defeated Gillard by 57 to 45 votes. After the results, several ministers resigned from their ministerial positions including Wayne Swan, Peter Garrett, Greg Combet, Joe Ludwig, Craig Emerson and Stephen Conroy. In accordance with the pledge she and Rudd made in the vote, Gillard announced that she would not seek re-election and announced her retirement from politics at the upcoming federal election.

Political positions
Gillard is a member of the Left faction of the Labor party. Analyses of Jacqueline Kent's 2009 biography of Gillard suggest that her membership in the faction is "more organisational than ideological".

On population policy, in contrast to her predecessor, Gillard is against a "big Australia". She emphasises the need for sustainability, saying "Australia should not hurtle down the track towards a big population".

Gillard is pro-choice on reproductive rights. She does not support gay marriage.

Personal life and views
Gillard's partner since 2006 is Tim Mathieson. She had previous relationships with union officials Michael O'Connor and Bruce Wilson and fellow Federal Labor MP Craig Emerson.  She has never married and has had no children.

When asked in 2010 on the ABC's Jon Faine program, "Do you believe in God?", Gillard answered, "No, I don't Jon, I'm not a religious person ... I'm, of course, a great respecter of religious beliefs but they're not my beliefs". Newly appointed Prime Ministers must take an affirmation of office, or swear an oath of office on the Bible.  Gillard chose an affirmation.

She lives in the south western Melbourne suburb of Altona and is a public supporter of the Western Bulldogs Australian Rules Football club.

References

Other websites

 Official Federal HOR webpages for Julia Gillard
 Official Federal Ministrial webpages for Julia Gillard
 Official ALP webpages for Julia Gillard
 The Hon Julia Gillard MP – Deputy Prime Minister
 Official Facebook page of Julia Gillard

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1961 births
Living people
Commonwealth Chairpersons-in-Office
Australian Labor Party politicians
Deputy Prime Ministers of Australia
Politicians from Adelaide
Politicians from Glamorgan
Politicians from Melbourne
Prime Ministers of Australia
Republicans
Welsh politicians
University of Adelaide alumni

Julia Gillard


In human anatomy, the groin also known as the inguinal region or iliac region, is the junctional area between the torso and the thigh. The groin is at the front of the body on either side of the pubic tubercle, where the lower part of the abdominal wall meets the thigh. A fold or crease is formed at this junction known as the inguinal groove, or crease. This is also the area of the medial compartment of the thigh that contains attachments of the adductor muscles of the hip or the groin muscles. The groin is the common site for a hernia.

Gross anatomy
Where the lower part of the anterior abdominal wall meets the thigh, a crease is formed known as the inguinal groove or crease. The junction is the area of the medial compartment of the thigh that contains the attachments of the adductor muscles of the hip also known as the groin muscles.

The adductor muscles that make up the groin consist of the adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, gracilis, and pectineus. These groin muscles adduct the thigh (bring the thigh and knee closer to the midline).

The groin is innervated by branches of the lumbar plexus. The pectineus muscle is innervated by the femoral nerve, and the hamstring portion of adductor magnus is innervated by the tibial nerve.

In the groin, underneath the skin, there are three to five deep inguinal lymph nodes that play a role in the immune system. These can be swollen due to certain diseases, the most common one being a simple infection, and, less likely, from cancer. A chain of superficial inguinal lymph nodes drain to the deep nodes.

There are two depressions called fossae in an area called the inguinal triangle – the lateral inguinal fossa and the medial inguinal fossa.

The inguinal ligament runs from the pubic tubercle to the anterior superior iliac spine, and its anatomy is very important for hernia operations.

Clinical significance
A pulled groin muscle usually refers to a painful strain of the hip adductor muscles.

An inguinal hernia is a hernia of the groin and can be either a direct hernia, or an indirect hernia according to its particular location. Sometimes a direct hernia may be present with an indirect hernia on the same side when it is known as a saddlebag hernia.

Like other flexion surfaces of large joints (popliteal fossa, armpit, cubital fossa and essentially the anterior part of the neck), it is an area where blood vessels and nerves pass relatively superficially, and with an increased amount of lymph nodes.

In a venography procedure, the groin is the preferred site for incisions to enter a catheter into the vascular system.

See also
 Athletic pubalgia
 Loin (space between the ribs and pelvis)

References

Human anatomy

Groin


The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows through the Straits of Florida and up the eastern coastline of the United States, then veers east near 36°N latitude  (North Carolina) and moves toward Northwest Europe as the North Atlantic Current. The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward-accelerating current off the east coast of North America. Around , it splits in two, with the northern stream, the North Atlantic Drift, crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream, the Canary Current, recirculating off West Africa.

The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the coastal areas of the East Coast of the United States from Florida to southeast Virginia (near 36°N latitude), and to a greater degree, the climate of Northwest Europe. A consensus exists that the climate of Northwest Europe is warmer than other areas of similar latitude at least partially because of the strong North Atlantic Current. It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types, both within the atmosphere and within the ocean.

History

European discovery of the Gulf Stream dates to the 1512 expedition of Juan Ponce de León, after which it became widely used by Spanish ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain. A summary of Ponce de León's voyage log on April 22, 1513, noted, "A current such that, although they had great wind, they could not proceed forwards, but backwards and it seems that they were proceeding well; at the end, it was known that the current was more powerful than the wind."

Benjamin Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. In 1768, while in England, Franklin heard a curious complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: "Why did it take British packets several weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average American merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island, despite the merchant ships leaving from London and having to sail down the River Thames and then the length of the English Channel before they sailed across the Atlantic, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall?

Franklin asked his cousin Timothy Folger, a Nantucket Island whaling captain, for an answer. Folger explained that merchant ships routinely crossed the current—which was identified by whale behaviour, measurement of the water's temperature, and changes in the water's colour—while the mail packet captains ran against it. Franklin had Folger sketch the path of the current on a chart of the Atlantic and add notes on how to avoid the current when sailing from England to America. Franklin then forwarded the chart to Anthony Todd, secretary of the British Post Office. Franklin's Gulf Stream chart was printed in 1769 in London, but it was mostly ignored by British sea captains. A copy of the chart was printed in Paris circa 1770–1773, and a third version was published by Franklin in Philadelphia in 1786.

Properties
The Gulf Stream proper is a western-intensified current, driven largely by wind stress. In 1958, oceanographer Henry Stommel noted, "very little water from the Gulf of Mexico is actually in the stream". The North Atlantic Drift, in contrast, is largely driven by thermohaline circulation. Its carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic makes Western Europe and especially Northern Europe warmer and milder than it otherwise would be.

Formation and behaviour

A river of sea water, called the Atlantic North Equatorial Current, flows westwards off the coast of Central Africa. When this current interacts with the northeastern coast of South America, the current forks into two branches. One passes into the Caribbean Sea, while a second, the Antilles Current, flows north and east of the West Indies. These two branches rejoin north of the Straits of Florida.

The trade winds blow westwards in the tropics, and the westerlies blow eastwards at mid-latitudes.  This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean.  The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward.

Because of the conservation of potential vorticity caused by the northward-moving winds on the subtropical ridge's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward-moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current. This flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current, and is known as the Labrador Current.  The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream, which occasionally break off as the Gulf Stream's position shifts, forming separate warm and cold eddies.  This overall process, known as western intensification, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin, such as the Gulf Stream, to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary.

As a consequence, the resulting Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current. It transports water at a rate of 30 million cubic metres per second (30 sverdrups) through the Florida Straits.  As it passes south of Newfoundland, this rate increases to 150 sverdrups. The volume of the Gulf Stream dwarfs all rivers that empty into the Atlantic combined, which total 0.6 sverdrups. It is weaker, however, than the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.  Given the strength and proximity of the Gulf Stream, beaches along the East Coast of the United States may be more vulnerable to large sea-level anomalies, which significantly impact rates of coastal erosion.

The Gulf Stream is typically  wide and  deep.  The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about .  As it travels north, the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind-driven; wind moving over the water causes evaporation, cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density.  When sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion.  These two processes produce water that is denser and colder (or more precisely, water that is still liquid at a lower temperature). In the North Atlantic Ocean, the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water. (The convective action is similar to a lava lamp.) This downdraft of cold, dense water becomes a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water, a southgoing stream.  Very little seaweed lies within the current, although seaweed lies in clusters to its east.

In April 2018, two studies published in Nature  found the Gulf Stream to be at its weakest for at least 1,600 years.

Localized effects
The Gulf Stream is influential on the climate of the Florida peninsula. The portion off the Florida coast, referred to as the Florida Current, maintains an average water temperature of at least  during the winter.  East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland, helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeastern United States during the winter. Also, the Gulf Stream's proximity to Nantucket, Massachusetts, adds to its biodiversity, because it is the northern limit for southern varieties of plant life, and the southern limit for northern plant species, Nantucket being warmer during winter than the mainland.

The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream, along with similar warm air currents, helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a few degrees warmer than the east.  However, the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland. A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast. Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone, most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter. However, almost all of Norway's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year. The warming effect provided by the Gulf Stream has allowed fairly large settlements to be developed and maintained on the coast of Northern Norway, including Tromsø, the third-largest city north of the Arctic Circle. Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe, also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains.

Future predictions
The possibility of a Gulf Stream collapse has been covered by some news publications. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report addressed this issue specifically, and found that based on model projections and theoretical understanding, the Gulf Stream will not shut down in a warming climate. While the Gulf Stream is expected to slow down as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) weakens, it will not collapse, even if the AMOC were to collapse. Nevertheless, this slowing down will have significant effects, including a rise in sea level along the North American coast, reduced precipitation in the midlatitudes, changing patterns of strong precipitation around Europe and the tropics, and stronger storms in the North Atlantic.

Effect on cyclone formation

The warm water and temperature contrast along the edge of the Gulf Stream often increase the intensity of cyclones, tropical or otherwise. Tropical cyclone generation normally requires water temperatures in excess of . Tropical cyclone formation is common over the Gulf Stream, especially in July. Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move in a northward direction and curve towards the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north-westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico. Such storms have the potential to create strong winds and extensive damage to the United States' Southeast coastal areas. Hurricane Sandy in 2012 was a recent example of a hurricane passing over the Gulf Stream and gaining strength.

Strong extratropical cyclones have been shown to deepen significantly along a shallow frontal zone, forced by the Gulf Stream, during the cold season.  Subtropical cyclones also tend to be generated near the Gulf Stream. About 75% of such systems documented between 1951 and 2000 formed near this warm-water current, with two annual peaks of activity occurring during May and October.  Cyclones within the ocean itself form under the Gulf Stream, extending as deep as  beneath the ocean's surface.

Gulf Stream rings

The Gulf Stream periodically forms rings resulting from a meander of the Gulf Stream being closed off from an alternate route distinctive from that meander, creating an independent eddy. These eddies have two types - cold-core rings, which rotate cyclonically (counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere), and warm-core rings, which rotate anticyclonically. These rings have the capacity to transport the distinct biological, chemical, and physical properties of their originating waters to the new waters into which they travel.

See also

 Arctic dipole anomaly
 Boundary current
 Humboldt Current
 Latitude of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf Stream north wall index
 North Atlantic oscillation
 Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

References

Further reading

 Corona Magazine Issue 124: Science (German, Transported amount of power)
  (Increased temperature and salinity in the Nordic Seas.)

External links

 Current map of the Gulf Stream

Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Effects of climate change
Regional climate effects
Natural environment

Gulf Stream


[[File:WPA-Rumor-Poster.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A 1930s Works Progress Administration poster depicts a man with WPA shovel attacking a wolf labeled 'rumor.]]
A rumor (American English), or rumour (British English; see spelling differences; derived from Latin  'noise'), is "a tall tale of explanations of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern."

In the social sciences, a rumor involves a form of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. In addition, some scholars have identified rumor as a subset of propaganda. Sociology, psychology, and communication studies have widely varying definitions of rumor.

Rumors are also often discussed with regard to misinformation and disinformation (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government).

 Early work
French and German social science research on rumor locates the modern scholarly definition of it to the pioneering work of the German William Stern in 1902. Stern experimented on rumor involving a "chain of subjects" who passed a story from "mouth to ear" without the right to repeat or explain it. He found that the story was shortened and changed by the time it reached the end of the chain. His student was another pioneer in the field, Gordon Allport.

The experiment is similar to the children's game Chinese whispers.

A Psychology of Rumor (1944)
"A Psychology of Rumor" was published by  in 1944, in which he reports on his analysis of over one thousand rumors during World War II that were printed in the Boston Herald'''s "Rumor Clinic" Column. He defines rumor as
<blockquote>
a proposition for belief of topical reference disseminated without official verification. So formidably defined, rumor is but a special case of informal social communications, including myth, legend, and current humor. From myth and legend it is distinguished by its emphasis on the topical. Where humor is designed to provoke laughter, rumor begs for belief.
</blockquote>

Knapp identified three basic characteristics that apply to rumor:
 they're transmitted by word of mouth;
 they provide "information" about a "person, happening, or condition"; and
 they express and gratify "the emotional needs of the community."
Crucial to this definition and its characteristics is the emphasis on transmission (word of mouth, which then was heard and reported in the newspaper); on content ("topical" means that it can somehow be distinguished from trivial and private subjects—its domain is public issues); and on reception ("emotional needs of the community" suggests that though it is received by an individual from an individual, it is not comprehended in individual but community or social terms).

Based on his study of the newspaper column, Knapp divided those rumors into three types:
 Pipe dream rumors: reflect public desires and wished-for outcomes (e.g. Japan's oil reserves were low and thus World War II would soon end).
 Bogie or fear rumors reflect feared outcomes (e.g. An enemy surprise attack is imminent).
 Wedge-driving rumors intend to undermine group loyalty or interpersonal relations (e.g. American Catholics were seeking to avoid the draft; German-Americans, Italian-Americans, Japanese-Americans were not loyal to the American side).

Knapp also found that negative rumors were more likely to be disseminated than positive rumors. These types also differentiate between positive (pipe dream) and negative (bogie and wedge-driving) rumors.

 The Psychology of Rumor (1947)
In the 1947 study, The Psychology of Rumor, Gordon Allport and Leo Postman concluded that, "as rumor travels it [...] grows shorter, more concise, more easily grasped and told." This conclusion was based on a test of message diffusion between persons, which found that about 70% of details in a message were lost in the first 5-6 mouth-to-mouth transmissions.

In the experiment, a test subject was shown an illustration and given time to look it over. They were then asked to describe the scene from memory to a second test subject. This second test subject was then asked to describe the scene to a third, and so forth and so on. Each person's reproduction was recorded. This process was repeated with different illustrations with very different settings and contents.

Allport and Postman used three terms to describe the movement of rumor. They are: leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. Leveling refers to the loss of detail during the transmission process; sharpening to the selection of certain details of which to transmit; and assimilation to a distortion in the transmission of information as a result of subconscious motivations.

Assimilation was observed when test subjects described the illustrations as they ought to be but not as they actually were. For example, in an illustration depicting a battle-scene, test subjects often incorrectly reported an ambulance truck in the background of the illustration as carrying "medical supplies," when, in fact, it was clearly carrying boxes marked "TNT (102)."

 Social Cognition
In 2004, Prashant Bordia and Nicholas DiFonzo published their Problem Solving in Social Interactions on the Internet: Rumor As Social Cognition and found that rumor transmission is probably reflective of a "collective explanation process." This conclusion was based on an analysis of archived message board discussions in which the statements were coded and analysed. It was found that 29% (the majority) of statements within these discussions could be coded as "sense-making" statements, which involved, "[...] attempts at solving a problem."

It was noted that the rest of the discussion was constructed around these statements, further reinforcing the idea of collective problem solving. The researchers also found that each rumor went through a four-stage pattern of development in which a rumor was introduced for discussion, information was volunteered and discussed, and finally a resolution was drawn or interest was lost.

For the study, archived discussions concerning rumors on the internet and other computer networks such as BITnet were retrieved. As a rule, each discussion had a minimum of five statements posted over a period of at least two days. The statements were then coded as being one of the following: prudent, apprehensive, authenticating, interrogatory, providing information, belief, disbelief, sense-making, digressive, or un-codable. Each rumor discussion was then analysed based on this coding system. A similar coding system based on statistical analysis was applied to each discussion as a whole, and the aforementioned four-stage pattern of rumor discussion emerged.

There are four components of managing rumors that both of you need to understand for the sake of your relationship's success. The first, anxiety (situational and personality), is when people who either have a more anxious personality, or people who are in an anxiety- lifting situation are more likely to create rumors in order to relieve some of their insecurities. The second component of managing rumors is ambiguity. Ambiguity is when someone is not sure about what is going on, so they end up assuming the worst. The third component is information importance. . Information is key, and if that information is not juicy or if it does not interest people, there won't be rumors, but information can often be false. Information can also be ambiguous. The last component of managing rumors is credibility.''' Rumors are often spread by sources that are not credible. A rumor itself is not credible unless it is proven to be true. That is why people say to never trust the tabloids.

 Political Communication Strategy
Rumor has always played a major role in politics, with negative rumors about an opponent typically more effective than positive rumors about one's own side.

In the past, much research on rumor came from psychological approaches (as the discussion of Allport and DiFonzio demonstrates above). The focus was especially on how statements of questionable veracity (absolutely false to the ears of some listeners) circulated orally from person to person. Scholarly attention to political rumors is at least as old as Aristotle's Rhetoric''; however, not until recently has any sustained attention and conceptual development been directed at political uses of rumor, outside of its role in war situations. Almost no work had been done until recently on how different forms of media and particular cultural-historical conditions may facilitate a rumor's diffusion.

The Internet's recent appearance as a new media technology has shown ever new possibilities for the fast diffusion of rumor, as the debunking sites such as snopes.com, urbanlegend.com, and factcheck.org demonstrate. Nor had previous research taken into consideration the particular form or style of deliberately chosen rumors for political purposes in particular circumstances (even though significant attention to the power of rumor for mass-media-diffused war propaganda has been in vogue since World War I; see Lasswell 1927). In the early part of the 21st century, some legal scholars have attended to political uses of rumor, though their conceptualization of it remains social psychological and their solutions to it as public problem are from a legal scholarly perspective, largely having to do with libel and privacy laws and the damage to personal reputations.

Strategic Communication
Similar to their appearance and function in political communication, wherein rumors can be deployed for specific deleterious effect (rumor bomb) or can otherwise plague a candidate for office, rumors also play an important role in strategic communication. Strategic communication is the process of crafting messages in support of specific organizational goals, and is usually concerned with governments, militaries and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Adroit strategic communication requires an understanding of stories, trends and memes circulating within a culture.

Rumors can be viewed as stories that seem rational but that are steeped into speculation, in connection with a certain narrative landscape (the vast array of cultural expression circulating within a community or region). In their book, Narrative Landmines: Rumors, Islamist Extremism and the Struggle for Strategic Influence, co-authors Daniel Bernardi, Pauline Hope Cheong, Chris Lundry and Scott W. Ruston coin the term narrative IED to help explain the function and danger of rumors in a strategic communication context. Rumors, as narrative IEDs, are low-cost, low-tech communication weapons that can be used by anyone to disrupt the efforts of communication, civil affairs or outreach campaigns such as those undertaken by governments in crisis response situations or militaries in insurgencies. As Bernardi notes, "Like their explosive cousins, rumors can be created and planted by nearly anybody, require limited resources to utilize, can be deadly for those in its direct path, and can instil fear".

See also
 Apple community
 Blind item
 Snopes - website for checking the truth of rumors
 Pheme, a project addressing the detection and spread of rumors over social media
 Hoax
 Circular source
 Fake news
 Gossip
 Urban legend

References

External links
 Spread of false information causes dangers

Human communication
Propaganda
Urban legends

Rumor


Medferiashwork Abebe (Amharic: መድፈሪያሽወርቅ አበበ; 1922 – 13 March 2009), baptismal name Amete Maryam, was the titular empress consort of Amha Selassie, emperor-in-exile of Ethiopia. Her full title used by monarchists was "Her Imperial Majesty, Empress Medferiashwork", but she was officially regarded in post-Derg Ethiopia as "Her Imperial Highness Princess Medferiashwork Abebe".

Biography
Her father was Dejazmach and Major-General Abebe Damtew, so she was a niece of Ras Desta Damtew who was the first husband of her sister-in-law, Princess Tenagnework.  She was thus a member of the aristocratic Adisge clan. Her mother was Woizero Wosenyelesh Mangasha, who in turn was daughter of Ras Bitwodad Mangasha Atikam of Damot and Agawmeder, Viceroy of Gojjam, who was a major figure during the reign of Emperor Menelik II, by his second wife Sifrash Bizu Yifru. Medferiashwork was thus a member of two of Ethiopia's most influential noble families. Empress Medferiashwork was the daughter-in-law of Emperor Haile Selassie.

Medferiashwork Abebe Damtew married Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen Haile Selassie in 1945, and they had three daughters (Princess Maryam Senna, Princess Sehin Azebe and Princess Sifrash Bizu) and a son, Prince Zera Yacob.

Princess Medferiashwork was said to have played a key role in organizing the opposition to the attempted 1960 coup against Emperor Haile Selassie. Her husband had been coerced into reading a radio statement declaring that he was to henceforth assume his father's throne as a "salaried monarch" and also announce far reaching political reforms. The Crown Princess was one of the few members of the Imperial family not placed under detention, and she played a role in getting the members of the nobility that had not been detained together with the leaders of the Army in order to crush the Imperial Guard which had launched the coup.

In 1973, when her husband had a massive stroke, she accompanied him to Geneva, Switzerland where he was undergoing treatment.  At this time, as the government in Ethiopia was faced with growing dissent, and the health of the Crown Prince was despaired of, the Prime Minister prevailed on the Emperor to name an "acting Crown Prince" or Heir Presumptive with the expectation that the Heir Apparent did not have long to live.  Her son Zera Yacob was named Acting Crown Prince and Heir Presumptive by Emperor Haile Selassie, with the expectation that he would be named Crown Prince and Heir Apparent upon the expected death of his father.  Instead, the Derg seized power and proclaimed her husband "King-designate", but as he refused to recognize this proclamation, the couple continued to use the titles and dignity of Crown Prince and Crown Princess.  The Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen recovered sufficiently to allow the couple to move to London with their children where they lived in exile for over 15 years.

In 1989, when Prince Asfaw Wossen assumed the title "Emperor-in-exile" with the name "Amha Selassie I", he bestowed the title of Empress upon Medferiashwork. Amha Selassie and Medferiashwork moved to the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C., in 1990 to be near the large Ethiopian community there.  Accorded courtesies and homage of an Empress-consort, Medferiashwork lived with her husband in Virginia until his death in February, 1997.  She and her children accompanied his body back to Ethiopia and held Ethiopia's first royal funeral since the revolution.  After her husband's death, she lived much more quietly, eventually settling in Addis Ababa.  She attended the re-burial of her father-in-law Haile Selassie in November 2000, and the funeral of her sister-in-law and aunt by marriage, Princess Tenagnework in 2005. Medferiashwork died on March 13, 2009, after a long illness.  In a departure from recent practice and in compliance with her wishes, Empress Medferiashwork was not entombed with other members of the Imperial family in the crypt of Holy Trinity Cathedral.  Instead she was buried in the church yard of the cathedral alongside her mother in the section reserved for exiles of the Italian occupation.  The Empress had lived in exile with her parents and sister in Jerusalem during the occupation of Ethiopia from 1936 to 1941.

Patronages
 Patroness of the Monastery of St. Mary at Gishen.

Honours

National honours
 Grand Collar and Chain of the Order of Solomon.
 Gran Cordon of the Order of the Star of Solomon.
 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Queen of Sheba (8 April 1945).
 Jubilee Medal (1955).
 Jubilee Medal (1966).

Foreign honours
 Member of the Order of the Seraphim (Kingdom of Sweden, 19 December 1959).
 Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Olav (Kingdom of Norway, January 1956).
 Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Beneficence (Kingdom of Greece, April 1959).

Ancestry

References

1922 births
2009 deaths
Empresses consort of Ethiopia
Exiled royalty
Burials at Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)
Grand Crosses of the Order of Beneficence (Greece)
20th-century Ethiopian people
20th-century Ethiopian women
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia

Medferiashwork Abebe


The Pound-Rebka experiment was an experiment by Robert Pound, and Glen Rebka that was done in 1960. In his general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein predicted that gravitation would influence photons the same way it did massive particles: Photons gain energy when traveling toward a gravitational source (the Earth). The experiment measures the change of frequency of light moving in a gravitational field. In this case, the effect was a blue shift, the energy increased.

Physics experiments

Pound-Rebka experiment


County Route 516 (CR 516) is a county highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey.

Route description

The highway extends  from Route 18/CR 527 in Old Bridge Township to Route 36 in Middletown Township. It is known as Old Bridge-Matawan Road for its entire length in Old Bridge Township where it intersects U.S. Route 9 (US 9), and then continues several more miles to the Old Bridge/Matawan border, where it enters Monmouth County. There it is known as New Brunswick Avenue and forms part of the boundary between Matawan and Aberdeen Township before fully entering Matawan. Upon crossing Main Street (Route 79) it becomes known as Broad Street and continues past Route 34 to another junction with Main Street (County Route 516 Spur). From there it follows Main Street north into Aberdeen Township where it is known as Lower Main Street; the name changes again upon entering Keyport where it is Maple Place.

In Keyport, CR 516 has a grade-separated junction with Route 35; part of this 1965 alignment follows West Fourth Street before rejoining Maple Place and following it to Green Grove Avenue. Turning east on Green Grove Avenue, CR 516 bridges Chingarora Creek and enters Hazlet where it is known as Middle Road, which intersects Route 36 and continues into Holmdel Township to the intersection of Laurel Avenue. It turns briefly south on Laurel Avenue, then has its second junction with Route 35. Running concurrent with Route 35 into Middletown Township, CR 516 then turns off onto Cherry Tree Farm Road and continues along that alignment to Leonardville Road, which it follows to its eastern terminus at Route 36 in Middletown Township.

County Route 516 Spur
A segment of Main Street in downtown Matawan – one block west of Broad Street (mainline CR 516) – is maintained by the county as a segment of County Route 516 Spur. On most county-maintained traffic signals along Main Street, it is signed as CR 516 though the signal at Little Street signs the road as "CR 516S."  The street extends  from the intersection of Route 79 and Route 34 to the intersection of Main and Broad Streets.

Another  spur consists of Green Grove Avenue between Maple Place and First Street (County Route 6). Though heading west from Route 35 shows CR 516 making a left onto Maple Place, one CR 516 reassurance shield (without a "Spur" plaque) appears at Green Grove Avenue's intersection with First Street.

History
West of Matawan, the road was maintained by the Middlesex and Monmouth Turnpike Company.

Before the county route system, the road from Keyport to Atlantic Highlands was part of the Jersey Coast Way, which ran from the Staten Island Ferry to Cape May. CR 516 was established in 1952 as a part of the 500 Series system. It incorporated part of Middlesex County Route 3-R-14 between Old Bridge and the Monmouth County line. From Old Bridge to its junction with Route 4 (now Route 79), CR 516 was concurrent with Route S28, although always a county road. In 1953, Route S28 was renumbered as Route 18; the concurrency ended when Route 18 was realigned to the south. From the Monmouth County line it absorbed part of CR 6 through Matawan Borough and Aberdeen Township to Keyport. There it superseded CR 42 in its entirety. CR 42 consisted of Maple Place in Keyport between Route 35 and Green Grove Avenue. CR 42 was taken over as a county highway by resolution of the Board of Chosen Freeholders on June 21, 1939. Since 1952, no route in Monmouth County has been designated as CR 42. From CR 42, it continued east from Keyport east through Hazlet, Holmdel and Middletown township. It used a part of CR 7 to its terminus.

CR 516 Alternate was previously the designation of Broad Street in Matawan, but was never signed differently than the parent route. Initially both Main and Broad Streets were designated as CR 516. Broad Street was then briefly renumbered as CR 516 Alternate, with Main Street remaining as the main stem. When CR 516 was rerouted from Main Street to Broad Street, and Main Street renumbered as CR 516 Spur, CR 516 Alternate ceased to exist.

Major intersections

See also

References

Resolution, June 21, 1939, Monmouth County Board of Chosen Freeholders
1940 Road Map of Monmouth County, Monmouth County Board of Chosen Freeholders
1952 Road Map of Monmouth County, Monmouth County Board of Chosen Freeholders

External links

NJ State Highways: CR 515-530

500-series county routes in New Jersey
Roads in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Roads in Monmouth County, New Jersey

County Route 516 (New Jersey)


Patrick Murdoch (died 1774) was an author, publisher and mathematician, who published a biography of poet James Thomson, and also An account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical discoveries by Colin MacLaurin.

Life
He was a native of Dumfries, and was educated at the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself in mathematics, and was the pupil and friend of Colin Maclaurin.
In 1729, he was appointed tutor to John Forbes, only son of Lord-president Duncan Forbes of Culloden, and visited with him Orleans, Montauban, Rome, and other continental cities.
Forbes subsequently paid Murdoch long and frequent visits at Stradishall rectory, Suffolk, and placed his eldest son, Duncan, under his tuition.
Murdoch was likewise travelling tutor to the younger sons of James Vernon, ambassador to the court of Denmark.
He was presented by James Vernon to the rectory of Stradishall in 1738, when his friend, James Thomson, addressed to him some pleasing lines.

On 20 March 1745, he was elected F.R.S., and in 1748 was admitted M.A. at Cambridge per literas reyias.

William Leman gave him the rectory of Kettlebaston, Suffolk, in 1749, which he resigned in 1760 on being presented by Edward Vernon to the vicarage of Great Thurlow ; but he still continued to reside at Stradishall.
In 1756, he accompanied his friend Andrew Mitchell (1695?–1771), to Berlin, where he remained until 1757, conducting part of the correspondence, while Mitchell and his secretary, Burnet, were with the army.
Shortly after his return home he received the degree of D.D., presumably from the university of Edinburgh.

Murdoch died in October 1774 in St. Clement Danes, London.

He appears to have been amiable and simple-hearted, and a good scholar.
Though he speaks of his engagement to a lady whom he met in Paris in 1742, he died a bachelor. His library was sold in 1776.

Works
Murdoch, having written the 68th stanza in canto i. of Thomson's Castle of Indolence, in which he portrayed the poet, Thomson gave the next stanza as descriptive of Murdoch, referring to him as 'a little, round, fat, oily man of God.' Murdoch also wrote a short but clear and lively memoir of Thomson prefixed to the memorial edition of the poet's  Works, 2 vols. 4to, 1762, and to nearly all the later editions of The Seasons.

To Colin Maclaurin's Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, 4to, London, 1748, which he saw through the press for the benefit of the author's children, he prefixed an account of his life. Another edition was issued in 1750, 8vo. He also edited the illustrations of perspective from conic sections, entitled Neutoni Genesis Curvarum per Umbras, &c., 8vo, London, 1746. He contemplated a complete edition of Newton's works, and by 1766 had found a publisher in Andrew Millar, but increasing infirmities obliged him to abandon the undertaking. Murdoch was a longtime friend to both Millar and Andrew Mitchell.

Murdoch was author of Mercator's Sailing, applied to the true Figure of the Earth ; with an Introduction, &c., 4to, London, 1741. To the Philosophical Transactions he communicated eight papers, two of which Trigonometry abridged, 1758, and On Geographical Maps, 1758, exist in the original manuscript among the Additional manuscripts in the British Library (Add MS 4440, arts. 564 and 565).
He translated from the German the portion of Anton Friedrich Buesching's New System of Geography, which relates to the European states, 6 vols. 4to, London, 1762, and prefixed three explanatory essays.

Murdoch's letters to Dr. Thomas Birch, 1756-9, are in British Library Add MS 4315 ; those to Sir Andrew Mitchell, 1756–70, are contained in Add MS 6840 ; while twelve letters by him are printed in the ' Culloden Papers,' 4to, 1815. His letterbook, when acting for Mitchell at Berlin, 1756-7, is Add MS 6841 (cf. Add MSS 6805, fol. 48 and 6839, fol. 105).

References

Attribution

Sources

External links
Biography at jamesboswell.info

1774 deaths
18th-century British mathematicians
British writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Year of birth unknown

Patrick Murdoch


Pounce is the official mascot of Georgia State University. Pounce is usually represented as a stylized panther with blue fur, sharp white teeth with protruding canines, and black whiskers. He usually wears either the men's basketball outfit (during basketball season) or the University football uniform. Pounce has existed in his current form since 2009, but has existed in two previous forms. Prior to that, a host of other mascots represented Georgia State University.

Tradition

Like many mascots, Pounce communicates via hand gestures and sign language, rather than speech. Pounce is often used in different community projects either sponsored by or held by the university. While Pounce is considered a Panther, a specific definition of which species he is not elaborated on, although he shows considerable likeness to the Florida Panther, which was once native to Georgia. Pounce is 6'0 with a 3-foot tail and favors the colors royal blue and white.

History

Georgia State University has had multiple names and mascots (under its various names), beginning with an Owl in 1940 when the school was Georgia Evening College (due to it being a night school). In 1947, the school would, for no apparent reason, change the athletics teams' names to the Ramblers. This would again change in 1955 to the Panthers, however at that time no mascot existed for the school. Claws the Panther, the first personified blue panther, was created in the early 1980s to support the GSU basketball team. Both the school's student newspaper, the Signal, and the yearbook, The Cauldron, identified the mascot as being played by Jay Black who would later become a professor at Mercer University in Macon, Georgia. In 1989, Urbie, a crimson panther was created, but would only remain until 1993 when a new mascot, Pounce, was unveiled. The original Pounce was a cartoonish, muscular blue panther with yellow eyes, a red nose and four fingers on each hand with yellow claws on each. This remained the university's mascot with slight variations (including more ferocious facial gestures) up until 2009. As the university unveiled its new football team, it also unveiled a new Pounce, complete with a sleeker design. This is the current mascot in use.

References

External links
 Official site

Georgia State Panthers
Sun Belt Conference mascots

Pounce (mascot)


Sólrun Jákupsdóttir Løkke Rasmussen (born 22 November 1968) is the wife of the former Prime Minister of Denmark, Lars Løkke Rasmussen.

Early life and family
Rasmussen was born Sólrun Jákupsdóttir on 22 November 1968 in Tórshavn, Faroe Islands. She is the daughter of chief physician Jákup Petersen and lecturer Bergljót av Skarði. Her mother's parents were the Tjóðveldi politician Sigurð Joensen and the writer Sigrið av Skarði, who was the daughter of the Faroese folk educationist and poet Símun av Skarði.

Rasmussen moved from the Faroe Islands to Denmark to study medicine.  After her marriage to Lars Løkke Rasmussen and the birth of their children, Rasmussen ended her pre-medical training. Rasmussen and her husband have 3 children.

Career
From 1998 to 2005, Rasmussen was a city council member for Græsted-Gilleleje, representing the Venstre Party . Beginning in 2001, Rasmussen studied education at Zahles Seminarian, earning a Teaching Certification in 2005. Since 2005, Rasmussen has taught English, mathematics, physics and natural science  at the Royal Danish Theatre's Laeseskolen in Copenhagen.

Her husband assumed the position of Prime Minister on April 5, 2009. When he was elected, there was some controversy in the Danish media over Sólrun Løkke Rasmussen's proper title. Rasmussen was sometimes described as "Førstedame" (First Lady), rather than Statsministerfrue (Wife of the Prime Minister), although Queen Margrethe II as head of state was considered Denmark's official first lady.

In 2009, Rasmussen returned to politics and was elected to a council seat in Gribskov municipality for the Venstre Party. In October 2009, she visited Liberia where she met with Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as representative for the Danish Refugee Council.

Following her husband's resumption as Prime Minister in June 2015, Rasmussen took over as Chairman of the Løkke Foundation. The foundation, begun in 2012 by Lars Løkke, focuses on providing programs for boys with learning disabilities.

References

Further reading

1968 births
Living people
Spouses of prime ministers of Denmark
Faroese emigrants to Denmark
People from Tórshavn
Danish municipal councillors

Sólrun Løkke Rasmussen


The Battle of the Baetis River was fought between an army of the Roman Republic and a rebel army at the Baetis river (modern day Guadalquivir) in Spain. The battle took place in 80 BC at the start of the Sertorian War. The Romans were led by Lucius Fufidius, while the rebels were led by the Roman rebel Quintus Sertorius. The rebel army was victorious, gaining Sertorius control over Hispania Ulterior.

Background
In 82 BC, during Sulla's civil war, Sertorius left Italy for his assigned propraetorian province in Hispania. Unfortunately, his faction, the Marians, lost the war in Italy right after his departure and in 81 BC Sulla sent Gaius Annius Luscus with several legions to take the Iberian provinces from Sertorius. After a brief resistance Sertorius and his men were expelled from Hispania. They ended up in Mauretania, in north-western Africa, where they conquered the city of Tingis. Here the Lusitanians, a fierce Iberian tribe who were about to be invaded by a Sullan governor, approached him. They requested Sertorius to become their war leader in the fight against the Sullans. Sertorius accepted the request and late in 80 BC Sertorius landed at the little fishing town of Baelo near the Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar) thus returning to Hispania for the third and final time.

Prelude
Sertorius made a camp on a mountain near Baelo and started gathering his forces. He had brought 2,600 Romans soldiers (mainly veterans from the Social and Civil War) and 700 North African adventurers and mercenaries. The Lusitanians sent him 4,700 of their warriors. Added to this were an unknown number of disaffected local Romans, Turdetani, Celtiberians, and Roman and Italian refugees. All in all, Sertorius had an army of over 8,000 men. It fell to Fufidius, the aforementioned governor of Hispania Ulterior, to do something about the rebels in his province.  So he marched his army, which was already assembled for the invasion of Lusitania, toward Baelo. Sertorius was an active commander and decided not to wait for Fufidius, but marched his little army east. The two forces met at the estuary of the Baetis River.

Battle
The Baetis estuary was a swampy maze which favoured those with local knowledge. As a number of Sertorius' men were locals, he had the upper hand. The only fragmentary description we have is from Sallust:

Fufidius lost two thousand men, and the greater part of further Hispania along with them. He survived the battle, but vanished into obscurity, remembered mainly as the man who had lost Hispania to Sertorius.

Aftermath
Sertorius' victory marked the start of Sertorian war which would ravage the Iberian peninsula for the next eight years. He would outgeneral every Republican commander sent against him and destroyed several of their armies. At the height of his power Sertorius ruled almost all of the Iberian peninsula. The war would only come to an end when a number of Sertorius' own men became disgruntled, conspired against him and assassinated him during a banquet.

References

1st century BC in the Roman Republic
80 BC
Baetis River 80 BC
the Baetis River
Hispania Baetica
1st century BC in Hispania
Sertorian War

Battle of the Baetis River


Montagne d'Ambre National Park is a national park in the Diana Region of northern Madagascar. The park is known for its endemic flora and fauna, water falls and crater lakes. It is  north of the capital, Antananarivo and is one of the most biologically diverse places in all of Madagascar with seventy-five species of birds, twenty-five species of mammals, and fifty-nine species of reptiles known to inhabit the park.

Geography
The park covers an area of  on an isolated volcanic massif, of mostly basaltic rock, above the surrounding dry region. Attractions include spectacular waterfalls and several crater lakes. There are numerous rivers and streams and the park is a water catchment area for the town of Antsiranana, which is surrounded by dry, sparse forests and semi-desert with succulent plants. Annual rainfall in the park is  compared with  around the town. The area is named after the deposits of copal, a soft form of amber.

Amber is one of the most accessible parks in northern Madagascar. Bush taxis travel to Joffreville daily from Antsiranana, taking about 45 minutes. On the trip up the mountain to the entrance of the park there are a few small villages and there is a lodge for guests at Joffreville. Living in and around the park are the Sakavala and Antankarana peoples.

Flora and fauna
Most of the park is covered montane rainforest with trees up to  tall and covered in lianas, orchids and ferns such as bird's-nest fern (Asplenium nidus). The forest is isolated from other rainforests by the surrounding dry forests. There are plantations of Eucalyptus and exotic conifers, pines, Araucaria and an invasive alien bush, Lantana camara. Over one thousand species of plants are recorded.

Of the twenty-five species of mammals in the park, endemics include eight species of lemur, the ring-tailed mongoose (Galidia elegans) and the Malagasy civet (Fossa fossana). Thirty-five of the seventy-five species of birds are endemic including the Amber Mountain rock thrush (Monticola sharpei erythronotus) which is only known from one area on the Amber Mountain massif. The park is also known for its amphibians and reptiles such as the Amber Mountain leaf chameleon (Brookesia tuberculata), which is one of the smallest reptiles in the world. There are thirty-five species of frog.

See also
List of national parks of Madagascar
Amber Forest Reserve

References

Sources
Official website (in French)
Wild Madagascar- Amber Mountain

Diana Region
1958 establishments in Madagascar
Amber Mountain
Protected areas established in 1958
Madagascar subhumid forests
Important Bird Areas of Madagascar

Montagne d'Ambre National Park


Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202 was a failed collaborationist auxiliary police battalion in the General Government during World War II. It was made up of 360 conscripts with German leadership. The unit was created in Kraków on March 27, 1942 with recruitment beginning in May. Only two Polish men volunteered. As a result, the Germans resorted to conscription from the regular Polish city-police called Einheimische Polizei. Once in Volhynia, the battalion stationed in Łuck originally. Soon later, in around Kostopol, half the members deserted to Polish resistance 27th Home Army Infantry Division, in defence of ethnic Polish population against the UPA massacres, and also committed a number of crimes against the civilian population, participating in the pacification of Ukrainian villages. Additional 60 Poles were rounded up and executed by the Nazis for mutiny.

Background
During formation, the battalion stationed in Kraków at Michałowskiego street (renamed Luxemburgstrasse). Basic training took place in Dębica. Its first commandant was Captain Tschnadel. Members wore green uniforms of Orpo and received Mauser 98 rifles before transfer to occupied Eastern Poland with the intention of fighting Soviet partisans behind the front-line of Operation Barbarossa. All Schutzmannschaften auxiliary police battalions were formed by the Germans from inhabitants of occupied territories i.e. in the General Government; as support for the German Sicherheitspolizei (security police) which was understaffed. At one point, a number of conscripted policemen in occupied eastern Poland included 5,000–12,000 Ukrainians and 2,000–2,200 Poles, mostly pitted against each other.

Identified by Grzegorz Motyka as the Polnisches Schutzmannschaftsbataillon 202, upon transfer to Volhynia and Podolia, the unit became subordinate to the German Schutzpolizei. The volunteer recruitment in Kraków yielded only 2 men, and yet, the German forcible draft from amongst professional members the Blue Police in the city decimated the force essential in combating property crimes and common banditry which skyrocketed after the 1939 invasion of Poland. Some dodged the draft, therefore another method included false advertisements for paid work in "Polish [not German] Police".

The German Major Walery Sauermann was made the commander of the unit in the field. The Germans made up all of the officers. In November 1943 more than half of the battalion deserted. Counting all Volhynian Schutzmannschaften (not only Battalion 202) at least 700 Poles trained by the Germans joined the 27th Volhynian Division of the Armia Krajowa, additional 60 Poles were executed for mutiny in Jarmolińce. One of the most widely quoted reasons among the Poles for joining the unit was a desire to offer protection for civilians against the wave of massacres of Poles in Volhynia. In fact, this particular unit was the only German-trained Polish participant in operations against OUN-UPA. The battalion was practically destroyed in combat with the Red Army at the beginning of 1944. The remains of the unit were transferred to Lwów (Lviv). Officially the battalion was disbanded on May 8, 1944. The battalion was armed with Mauser Mk 98k rifles and MP38 and MP41 submachine guns. It is believed that some of its former members subsequently joined the Blue Police in the General Government.

See also
 Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107
 Żagiew (collaborationist group permitted to bear firearms in the Nazi German-occupied Poland)

Notes

Bibliography
  G. Motyka, M. Wierzbicki; "Polski policjant na Wołyniu" in Kwartalnik Historyczny KARTA 24, 1998, pp. 126–140, ISSN 0867-3764
  Іван Дерейко. Місцеві формування німецької армії та поліції у Райхскомісаріаті «Україна». (1941–1944 роки).

Polish Auxiliary Police
Organizations established in 1942
Organizations disestablished in 1944
1942 establishments in Poland

Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202


George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton,  (17 January 1709 – 22 August 1773), known between 1751 and 1756 as Sir George Lyttelton, 5th Baronet, was a British statesman. As an author himself, he was also a supporter of other writers and as a patron of the arts made an important contribution to the development of 18th-century landscape design.

Life
Lord Lyttelton was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 4th Baronet, of Frankley, in the County of Worcester, by his wife Christian, daughter of Sir Richard Temple, 3rd Baronet. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he afterwards went on grand tour, visiting Europe with his tutor. It was during this time that he started publishing his early works in both poetry and prose. Even after he was elected to Parliament in 1735, he continued to publish from time to time. In 1742 he married Lucy, daughter of Hugh Fortescue, and following her death in 1747 he later married Elizabeth, daughter of Field Marshal Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet, in 1749. He died in August 1773, aged 64, and was succeeded as baron by his eldest son, Thomas. Though Samuel Johnson's biographical notice of Lyttelton is characterised by a conspicuous show of dislike, it diverges at the end into a long description of his exemplary death and the plain inscription he asked to have added to his first wife's monument in St John the Baptist Church, Hagley.

Political career
Lyttelton was Member of Parliament (MP) for Okehampton from 1735 to 1756 and, as one of Cobham's Cubs during the 1730s, opposed the Prime Minister Robert Walpole. He served as secretary to Frederick, Prince of Wales from 1737, and then, after Walpole's fall, as a Commissioner of the Treasury in 1744. That year too he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Lyttelton was made a Privy Councillor in 1754 and in the following year became briefly Chancellor of the Exchequer, but performed poorly in that role. In 1756 he was raised to the peerage as Lord Lyttelton, Baron of Frankley in the County of Worcester, and continued to speak in the House of Lords until the year before he died.

Lyttelton was later described as "an amiable, absent-minded man, of unimpeachable integrity and benevolent character, with strong religious convictions and respectable talents", but ultimately as "a poor practical politician". His political opponent Lord Hervey spitefully characterised his performance as a speaker as "a great flow of words that were always uttered in a lulling monotony, and the little meaning they had to boast of was generally borrowed from the commonplace maxims and sentiments of moralists, philosophers, patriots, and poets, crudely imbibed, half digested, ill put together, and confusedly refunded".

Poetry and patronage

Lord Lyttelton was a friend and supporter of Alexander Pope in the 1730s and of Henry Fielding in the 1750s; the latter dedicated his novel Tom Jones to Lyttelton. He had written his "Epistle to Mr. Pope, from a young gentleman at Rome" while still on the European tour, advising him to abandon satire for a patriotic theme more worthy of his greatness. Later on the poem was used to preface editions of Pope's work.

Throughout his life, he acted as a friendly patron of poets. James Thomson, for whom Lyttelton eventually arranged a pension, was a frequent visitor to Hagley Hall. Joseph Warton he appointed his domestic chaplain and it was at his suggestion that David Mallet was made undersecretary to the Prince of Wales.

Lyttelton's own poetic reputation was guaranteed continuity by his work being included in the collection of English poets prefaced by Johnson's Lives. Variously annotated and augmented, the collection appeared in succeeding editions into the start of the 19th century. The monody "To the Memory of a Lady lately Deceased", written on the death of his first wife, had an even longer lasting reputation. Though Thomas Gray found "parts of it too stiff and poetical", he especially praised the fourth stanza as "truly tender and elegiac". The poem was alluded to or parodied by others well into the 19th century, particularly the invocation of the "shades of Hagley" in the fifth stanza. Anna Seward, in answer to a correspondent who preferred Lyttelton's ode to the newly fashionable sonnet, ingeniously rearranged the lines of the poem into a series of sonnets, in which the "shades of Hagley" passage headed the second. And William Gladstone acknowledged that his Church Principles was "completed beneath the shades of Hagley" as late as 1840.

Despite his long political career, it was as a poet that Lyttelton was chiefly remembered in the 19th century. But he was author also of many works in prose, chiefly historical and theological. Two, however, are distinguished by their humour. Letters from a Persian in England, to his Friend at Ispahan (1735) ironically comments on the idiosyncrasies of the time from the naïve point of view of an outsider. On attending a wedding ceremony in "one of their Mosques", for example, the visitor remarks that "Marriage here is esteemed a Religious Ceremony, and that I believe is one Reason among others why so little Regard is paid to it". Oliver Goldsmith was later to borrow the same approach for his Chinese philosopher in Letters from a Citizen of the World to his Friends in the East (1760). There were, nevertheless, French models for both in the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu (1721) and the Lettres Chinoises (1735) of Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens, both of which had been translated soon after into English.

Another work with prior French counterparts was Lyttelton's Dialogues of the Dead (1760). Though these had Classical precedents, the more immediate models were François Fénelon's Dialogues des morts anciens et modernes and Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle's Nouveaux Dialogues des morts, which had also appeared in popular English translations as Dialogues of the Dead. The themes treated in Lyttelton's are political, literary and philosophical, although the characters sometimes stray from their expected role. Joseph Addison and Jonathan Swift's conversation is of politics, while Charles XII of Sweden proposes to Alexander the Great an alliance against Alexander Pope for insulting them both in a satire. Included among these conversations were three that Lyttleton had encouraged the bluestocking leader Elizabeth Montagu to write (Dialogues 26–8).

All of Lyttelton's writing was collected shortly after his death by his nephew, G. E. Ayscough. In 1791 an edition of his poems appeared in Germany accompanied by J. G. Weigel's prose translations. During his lifetime Lyttelton's Observations on the Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul was translated into French in 1750 by Jean Deschamps (1707–67) and again in 1754 by the Abbé Antoine Guénée (1717-1803); his Dialogues of the Dead was also translated into French in 1760 as Dialogues des morts by Élie de Joncourt (1697-1765) and Jean Deschamps.

Hagley Hall and grounds

Lyttelton spent many years and a fortune developing Hagley Hall and its park, which contained many follies as well as memorials to the poets Milton, Pope, Thomson and the neighbouring landscaper William Shenstone. Also included among the latter was a 'druid's temple' of standing stones commemorating Ossian that Lyttelton had erected outside his grounds on nearby Clent Hill. The hall itself was designed by Sanderson Miller and is the last of the great Neo-Palladian houses to be built in England.

References

Bibliography
 Burkes Peerage and Baronetage (1939), s.v. Cobham, Viscount

 History of Parliament Online: "LYTTELTON, George (1709-73)"

External links

 George Lyttelton at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)

1709 births
1773 deaths
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Barons Lyttelton (1756 creation)
Peers of Great Britain created by George II
George
Chancellors of the Exchequer of Great Britain
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Okehampton
Tory MPs (pre-1834)
British MPs 1734–1741
British MPs 1741–1747
British MPs 1747–1754
British MPs 1754–1761
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
English male poets
Patrons of literature
Fellows of the Royal Society
MPs for rotten boroughs
18th-century philanthropists

George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton