Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis and one of at least 113 total cannabinoids identified on the plant.  Although the chemical formula for THC (C21H30O2) describes multiple isomers, the term THC usually refers to the Delta-9-THC isomer with chemical name (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. THC is a terpenoid found in cannabis and, like many pharmacologically active phytochemicals, it is assumed to be involved in the plant's evolutionary adaptation against insect predation, ultraviolet light, and environmental stress. THC was first discovered and isolated by Israeli chemist Raphael Mechoulam in Israel in 1964. It was found that, when smoked, THC is absorbed into the bloodstream and travels to the brain, attaching itself to endocannabinoid receptors located in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia. These are the parts of the brain responsible for thinking, memory, pleasure, coordination and movement.

THC, along with its double bond isomers and their stereoisomers, is one of only three cannabinoids scheduled by the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances (the other two are dimethylheptylpyran and parahexyl). It was listed under Schedule I in 1971, but reclassified to Schedule II in 1991 following a recommendation from the WHO. Based on subsequent studies, the WHO has recommended the reclassification to the less-stringent Schedule III. Cannabis as a plant is scheduled by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV). It is specifically still listed under Schedule I by US federal law under the Controlled Substances Act for having "no accepted medical use" and "lack of accepted safety". However, dronabinol, a pharmaceutical form of THC, has been approved by the FDA as an appetite stimulant for people with AIDS and an antiemetic for people receiving chemotherapy under the trade names Marinol and Syndros.

Medical uses

Medical uses of cannabis has a long history.
THC is an active ingredient in Nabiximols, a specific extract of Cannabis that was approved as a botanical drug in the United Kingdom in 2010 as a mouth spray for people with multiple sclerosis to alleviate neuropathic pain, spasticity, overactive bladder, and other symptoms. Nabiximols (as Sativex) is available as a prescription drug in Canada. In 2021, Nabiximols was approved for medical use in Ukraine.

As of 2023, 38 states, four territories, and the District of Columbia in the United States allow medical use of cannabis (in which THC is the primary psychoactive component), with the exception of Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. As of 2022, the U.S. federal government maintains cannabis as a schedule I controlled substance, while dronabinol is classified as Schedule III in capsule form (Marinol) and Schedule II in liquid oral form (Syndros).

Overdose
The median lethal dose of THC in humans is not fully known as there is conflicting evidence. A 1972 study gave up to 9000 mg/kg of THC to dogs and monkeys without any lethal effects. Some rats died within 72 hours after a dose of up to 3600 mg/kg. A 2014 study gave the median lethal dose in humans at 30 mg/kg (2.1 grams THC for a person who weighs 70 kg), observing cardiovascular death in otherwise healthy subjects. A different 1972 study gave the median lethal dose for intravenous THC in mice and rats at 30–40 mg/kg.

Interactions
Formal drug–drug interaction studies with THC have not been conducted and are limited. The elimination half-life of the barbiturate pentobarbital has been found to increase by 4hours when concomitantly administered with oral THC.

Pharmacology

Mechanism of action

The actions of Delta-9-THC result from its partial agonist activity at the cannabinoid receptor CB1 (Ki = 40.7 nM), located mainly in the central nervous system, and the CB2 receptor (Ki = 36 nM), mainly expressed in cells of the immune system. The psychoactive effects of THC are primarily mediated by the activation of (mostly G-coupled) cannabinoid receptors, which result in a decrease in the concentration of the second messenger molecule cAMP through inhibition of adenylate cyclase. The presence of these specialized cannabinoid receptors in the brain led researchers to the discovery of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glyceride (2-AG).

THC is a lipophilic molecule and may bind non-specifically to a variety of entities in the brain and body, such as adipose tissue (fat). THC, as well as other cannabinoids that contain a phenol group, possess mild antioxidant activity sufficient to protect neurons against oxidative stress, such as that produced by glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.

THC targets receptors in a manner far less selective than endocannabinoid molecules released during retrograde signaling, as the drug has a relatively low cannabinoid receptor affinity. THC is also limited in its efficacy compared to other cannabinoids due to its partial agonistic activity, as THC appears to result in greater downregulation of cannabinoid receptors than endocannabinoids. Furthermore, in populations of low cannabinoid receptor density, THC may even act to antagonize endogenous agonists that possess greater receptor efficacy. However while THC's pharmacodynamic tolerance may limit the maximal effects of certain drugs, evidence suggests that this tolerance mitigates undesirable effects, thus enhancing the drug's therapeutic window.

Recently, it has been shown that THC is also a partial autotaxin inhibitor, with an apparent IC50 of 407 ± 67 nM for the ATX-gamma isoform. THC was also co-crystallized with autotaxin, deciphering the binding interface of the complex. These results might explain some of the effects of THC on inflammation and neurological diseases, since autotaxin is responsible of LPA generation, a key lipid mediator involved in numerous diseases and physiological processes. However, clinical trials need to be performed in order to assess the importance of ATX inhibition by THC during medicinal cannabis consumption.

Pharmacokinetics

Absorption
With oral administration of a single dose, THC is almost completely absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. However, due to first-pass metabolism in the liver and the high lipid solubility of THC, only about 5 to 20% reaches the circulation. Following oral administration, concentrations of THC and its major active metabolite 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) peak after 0.5 to 4hours, with median time to peak of 1.0 to 2.5hours at different doses. In some cases, peak levels may not occur for as long as 6hours. Concentrations of THC and 11-hydroxy-THC in the circulation are approximately equal with oral administration. There is a slight increase in dose proportionality in terms of peak and area-under-the-curve levels of THC with increasing oral doses over a range of 2.5 to 10mg. A high-fat meal delays time to peak concentrations of oral THC by 4hours on average and increases area-under-the-curve exposure by 2.9-fold, but peak concentrations are not significantly altered. A high-fat meal additionally increases absorption of THC via the lymphatic system and allows it to bypass first-pass metabolism. Consequently, a high-fat meal increases levels of 11-hydroxy-THC by only 25% and most of the increase in bioavailability is due to increased levels of THC.

The bioavailability of THC when smoking or inhaling is approximately 25%, with a range of 2% to 56% (although most commonly between 10 and 35%). The large range and marked variability between individuals is due to variation in factors including product matrix, ignition temperature, and inhalational dynamics (e.g., number, duration, and intervals of inhalations, breath hold time, depth and volume of inhalations, size of inhaled particles, deposition site in the lungs). THC is detectable within seconds with inhalation and peak levels of THC occur after 3 to 10minutes. Smoking or inhaling THC results in greater blood levels of THC and its metabolites and a much faster onset of action than oral administration of THC. Inhalation of THC bypasses the first-pass metabolism that occurs with oral administration. The bioavailability of THC with inhalation is increased in heavy users.

Transdermal administration of THC is limited by its extreme water insolubility. Efficient skin transport can only be obtained with permeation enhancement. Transdermal administration of THC, as with inhalation, avoids the first-pass metabolism that occurs with oral administration.

The bioavailability of THC with rectal administration as a suppository was reported to be about twice that of its oral bioavailability in a small pharmacokinetic study of two individuals with spasticity.

Distribution
The volume of distribution of THC is large and is approximately 10L/kg (range 4–14L/kg), which is due to its high lipid solubility. The plasma protein binding of THC and its metabolites is approximately 95 to 99%, with THC bound mainly to lipoproteins and to a lesser extent albumin. THC is rapidly distributed into well-vascularized organs such as lung, heart, brain, and liver, and is subsequently equilibrated into less vascularized tissue. It is extensively distributed into and sequestered by fat tissue due to its high lipid solubility, from which it is slowly released. THC is able to cross the placenta and is excreted in human breast milk.

Metabolism
The metabolism of THC occurs mainly in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4. CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 are the primary enzymes involving in metabolizing THC. Pharmacogenomic research has found that oral THC exposure is 2- to 3-fold greater in people with genetic variants associated with reduced CYP2C9 function. When taken orally, THC undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism in the liver, primarily via hydroxylation. The principal active metabolite of THC is 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), which is formed by CYP2C9 and is psychoactive similarly to THC. This metabolite is further oxidized to 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH). In animals, more than 100 metabolites of THC could be identified, but 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH are the predominant metabolites.

Elimination
More than 55% of THC is excreted in the feces and approximately 20% in the urine. The main metabolite in urine is the ester of glucuronic acid and 11-OH-THC and free THC-COOH. In the feces, mainly 11-OH-THC was detected.

Estimates of the elimination half-life of THC are variable. THC was reported to have a fast initial half-life of 6minutes and a long terminal half-life of 22hours in a population pharmacokinetic study. Conversely, the Food and Drug Administration label for dronabinol reports an initial half-life of 4hours and a terminal half-life of 25 to 36hours. Many studies report an elimination half-life of THC in the range of 20 to 30hours. 11-Hydroxy-THC appears to have a similar terminal half-life to that of THC, for instance 12 to 36hours relative to 25 to 36hours in one study. The elimination half-life of THC is longer in heavy users. This may be due to slow redistribution from deep compartments such as fatty tissues, where THC accumulates with regular use.

Chemistry

Discovery and structure identification
Cannabidiol was isolated and identified from Cannabis sativa in 1940, and THC was isolated and its structure elucidated by synthesis in 1964.

Solubility
As with many aromatic terpenoids, THC has a very low solubility in water, but good solubility in lipids and most organic solvents, specifically hydrocarbons and alcohols.

Total synthesis
A total synthesis of the compound was reported in 1965; that procedure called for the intramolecular alkyl lithium attack on a starting carbonyl to form the fused rings, and a tosyl chloride mediated formation of the ether.

Biosynthesis
In the Cannabis plant, THC occurs mainly as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA, 2-COOH-THC). Geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid react, catalysed by an enzyme to produce cannabigerolic acid, which is cyclized by the enzyme THC acid synthase to give THCA. Over time, or when heated, THCA is decarboxylated, producing THC. The pathway for THCA biosynthesis is similar to that which produces the bitter acid humulone in hops. It can also be produced in genetically modified yeast.

History

THC was first isolated and elucidated in 1964 by Yechiel Gaoni and Raphael Mechoulam at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.

In 2003, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended transferring THC to Schedule IV of the convention, citing its medical uses and low abuse and addiction potential.

Society and culture

Comparisons with medical cannabis

Female cannabis plants contain at least 113 cannabinoids, including cannabidiol (CBD), thought to be the major anticonvulsant that helps people with multiple sclerosis, and cannabichromene (CBC), an anti-inflammatory which may contribute to the pain-killing effect of cannabis.

Drug Testing

THC and its 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH metabolites can be detected and quantified in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using a combination of immunoassay and chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or in a forensic investigation.  There is ongoing research to create devices capable of detecting THC in breath.

Regulation in Canada
As of October 2018 when recreational use of cannabis was legalized in Canada, some 220 dietary supplements and 19 veterinary health products containing not more than 10 parts per million of THC extract were approved with general health claims for treating minor conditions.

Research
The status of THC as an illegal drug in most countries imposes restrictions on research material supply and funding, such as in the United States where the National Institute on Drug Abuse and Drug Enforcement Administration continue to control the sole federally-legal source of cannabis for researchers.  Despite an August 2016 announcement that licenses would be provided to growers for supplies of medical marijuana, no such licenses were ever issued, despite dozens of applications. Although cannabis is legalized for medical uses in more than half of the states of the United States, no products have been approved for federal commerce by the Food and Drug Administration, a status that limits cultivation, manufacture, distribution, clinical research, and therapeutic applications.

In April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as dizziness.

Multiple sclerosis symptoms
 Spasticity. Based on the results of 3 high quality trials and 5 of lower quality, oral cannabis extract was rated as effective, and THC as probably effective, for improving people's subjective experience of spasticity. Oral cannabis extract and THC both were rated as possibly effective for improving objective measures of spasticity.
 Centrally mediated pain and painful spasms.  Based on the results of 4 high quality trials and 4 low quality trials, oral cannabis extract was rated as effective, and THC as probably effective in treating central pain and painful spasms.
 Bladder dysfunction. Based on a single high quality study, oral cannabis extract and THC were rated as probably ineffective for controlling bladder complaints in multiple sclerosis

Neurodegenerative disorders
 Huntington disease. No reliable conclusion could be drawn regarding the effectiveness of THC or oral cannabis extract in treating the symptoms of Huntington disease as the available trials were too small to reliably detect any difference
 Parkinson's disease.  Based on a single study, oral CBD extract was rated probably ineffective in treating levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease.
 Alzheimer's disease. A 2009 Cochrane Review found insufficient evidence to conclude whether cannabis products have any utility in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Other neurological disorders
 Tourette syndrome. The available data was determined to be insufficient to allow reliable conclusions to be drawn regarding the effectiveness of oral cannabis extract or THC in controlling tics.
 Cervical dystonia. Insufficient data was available to assess the effectiveness of oral cannabis extract of THC in treating cervical dystonia.

Potential for toxicity
Preliminary research indicates that prolonged exposure to high doses of THC may interfere with chromosomal stability, which may be hereditary as a factor affecting cell instability and cancer risk. The carcinogenicity of THC in the studied populations of so-called "heavy users" remains dubious due to various confounding variables, most significantly concurrent tobacco use.

See also

 Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)
 Cannabinoids
 11-Hydroxy-THC, metabolite of THC
 Anandamide, 2-Arachidonoylglycerol, endogenous cannabinoid agonists
 Cannabidiol (CBD)
 Cannabinol (CBN), a metabolite of THC
 Cis-THC, an isomer of THC
 Delta-7-Tetrahydrocannabinol, a synthetic isomer of THC
 Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol, a double bond isomer of THC
 Delta-10-Tetrahydrocannabinol, a positional isomer of THC
 THC-O-acetate, the acetate ester of THC.
 Dimethylheptylpyran
 Dronabinol, the name of THC-based pharmaceutical (INN)
 HU-210, WIN 55,212-2, JWH-133, synthetic cannabinoid agonists (neocannabinoids)
 Nabilone, a novel synthetic cannabinoid analog (neocannabinoid)
 Parahexyl
 Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), the biosynthetic precursor for THC
 Tetrahydrocannabiphorol, the heptyl homologue
 Hashish
 List of investigational analgesics
 Medical cannabis
 Dronabinol
 Epidiolex (prescription form of purified cannabidiol derived from hemp used for treating some rare neurological diseases)
 Sativex
 Effects of cannabis
 Vaping-associated pulmonary injury
 War on Drugs

References

External links
 U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Tetrahydrocannabinol

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
Amorphous solids
Antiemetics
Appetite stimulants
Aromatase inhibitors
Benzochromenes
CB1 receptor agonists
CB2 receptor agonists
Entheogens
Euphoriants
Glycine receptor agonists
Natural phenols metabolism
Cannabis
Phytocannabinoids

Tetrahydrocannabinol


Michael Kane is an American writer and journalist. He is currently the entertainment features writer for the New York Post. In 2009 he wrote a book published by Viking Press called GAME BOYS: PROFESSIONAL VIDEOGAMING'S RISE FROM THE BASEMENT TO THE BIG TIME, which details the American professional Counter-Strike community.

Kane was a sports writer and editor at the Denver Post. His work has appeared in ESPN Magazine, and Sport Magazine.

References

New York Post people
American sports journalists
Writers from Denver
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Michael Kane (writer)


Isofix (styled ISOFIX) is the international standard for attachment points for child safety seats in passenger cars. The system has other regional names including LATCH ("Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children") in the United States and LUAS ("Lower Universal Anchorage System") or Canfix in Canada. It has also been called the "Universal Child Safety Seat System" or UCSSS.

Isofix is International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard ISO 13216, which specifies the anchoring system for Group 1 child safety seats. It defines standard attachment points to be manufactured into cars, enabling compliant child safety seats to be quickly and safely secured. Isofix is an alternative to securing the seat with seat belts. Seats are secured with a single attachment at the top (top tether) and two attachments at the base of each side of the seat. The full set of anchor points for this system were required in new cars in the United States starting in September 2002.

In the EU the system is known as Isofix and covers both Group 0/0+ and Group 1 child safety seats. The mechanism for attaching the seat to the lower anchors is quite different from that in the United States. In the EU two "alligator-like" clips connect the seat to the lower anchors rather than the open clip style connectors commonly used in the United States. However, some child seat manufacturers are beginning to offer true Isofix type attachments in the United States. In the European standard, there are also various installation categories: "universal", "vehicle-specific" and "semi-universal". The main difference is that "universal" represents use of a top tether strap with the Isofix anchorage, "vehicle-specific" represents the usage of the Isofix anchorage without the top tether in specified vehicles only, while "semi-universal" represents usage of the Isofix anchorage together with a "foot-prop".

Isofix is designed to secure a maximum combined weight (comprising both seat and child) of .

The center-to-center distance between the anchors of Isofix (and also LATCH) systems is .

Isofix
For Group 2/3 seats there is a system called Isofix which anchors the seat to the vehicle so it cannot slide around when not in use. In the case of Isofix, the child is held into the seat using the vehicle's existing seat belt system, not the safety seat's straps.

History

ISO 13216 part 1 (covering lower anchorage points) was published in 1999. Part 2, covering top tether anchorages was published in December 2004.

Amendments to include Isofix in United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) vehicle regulations 14 and 44, which specify uniform provisions for the design of vehicle seat anchorages and child safety seats, came into force for signatory countries in February 2004.

Under the current UN/ECE R14, all new vehicles produced since February 2013 are required to have Isofix lower anchorages and top tether attachments.

Australia
On September 19, 2014, the Australian government legalized the use of Isofix child seats. Prior to this date, their sale (and use) in Australia was illegal.

References

Automotive safety
International standards

Isofix


Guo Nüwang (8 April 184 – 14 March 235), formally known as Empress Wende, was an empress of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. She was married to Cao Pi, the first emperor of Wei.

Family background and marriage to Cao Pi
Her father Guo Yong (郭永) came from a line of minor local officials. When she was young, she was known for her intelligence, and her father, impressed by her talent, gave her the unusual style name "Nüwang" (literally "queen regnant"). Her parents died when she was five, however, and she became a servant at the household of one Marquis of Tongdi. It is not known how it came about, but she eventually became a concubine of Cao Pi when he was the heir apparent of the vassal kingdom of Wei under his father Cao Cao. She quickly became a favourite – so much so that he began to neglect his wife Lady Zhen, who was also known for her beauty. She gave Cao Pi shrewd political advice during the succession controversy that pitted Cao Pi against his brothers. Her biography goes further to state that when Cao Pi was finally designated heir, Guo Nuwang had a hand in planning it. Lady Zhen eventually lost Cao Pi's favour altogether by complaining that he favoured other women over her, and after he became emperor of Cao Wei in late 220 (after forcing Emperor Xian of Han to abdicate to him), he forced Lady Zhen to commit suicide in August 221. In October 222, he made Lady Guo empress.

As empress consort
After Guo Nüwang became empress, she was said to have been a good leader of the imperial consorts, treating them well and disciplining them appropriately when they acted improperly, while hiding their faults from Cao Pi. She also appeared to have lived thriftily. Also, in 226, at the urging of her mother-in-law Empress Dowager Bian, she interceded on Cao Hong's behalf, allowing Cao Hong to be spared his life even though Cao Pi had previous grudges against him.

Empress Guo had no sons or recorded children. Cao Pi's eldest son Cao Rui, by Lady Zhen, was therefore considered the presumptive heir, but because of his mother's fate was not created crown prince, but only Prince of Pingyuan. (He was inconsistently described as having been raised by Empress Guo or by Cao Pi's concubine Consort Li.) While she was empress, she apparently had a cordial relationship with Cao Rui. There was no evidence that she opposed his candidacy when Cao Pi, seriously ill in 226, created him crown prince. Cao Pi died soon after, and Cao Rui ascended the throne.

As empress dowager
The new emperor, although he posthumously honoured his mother as an empress, honoured his stepmother as empress dowager, and he bestowed members of her family with wealth and titles. She died on 14 March 235 and was buried on 16 April 235 with honours befitting an empress alongside her husband Cao Pi. Her family remained honoured by her stepson.

How Empress Dowager Guo came to die, however, is a matter of historical controversy. An apparently reliable historical account (although not conclusive one) states that at some point during Cao Rui's reign, Consort Li told him Empress Dowager Guo's role in Lady Zhen's death – and further told him that after Lady Zhen died, it was at Empress Dowager Guo's suggestion that she was buried with her hair covering her face and her mouth filled with rice grain shells – so that even after her death she would be unable to complain. Cao Rui became enraged and confronted Empress Dowager Guo – who could not deny her involvement directly. He then forced her to commit suicide, and, while he buried her with the honours befitting an empress, he had her face covered with her hair (so that she would never see sunlight ever again), and her mouth filled with rice grain shells (so that she could never say anything in the afterlife).

However, even after her death, her family continued to be favoured by Cao Rui especially her cousin Guo Biao, who was granted succession to Guo Nuwang's father's posthumous fief and promoted to a general.

See also
 Cao Wei family trees#Cao Pi's other wives and children
 Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

Notes

References

 Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).

|-

184 births
235 deaths
Cao Wei empresses dowager

Guo Nüwang


Euphrosyne of Greater Poland (; 1247/50 – 17/19 February 1298) was a Greater Poland princess, member of the House of Piast and abbess of St. Clara in Trzebnica.

She was the second daughter of Przemysł I, Duke of Greater Poland and Poznań, by his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Henry II the Pious, Duke of Wrocław.

Life
After her father's death in 1257, Euphrosyne and her siblings remained under their mother's care, and after her death in 1265 were raised by their paternal uncle Bolesław the Pious. The religious environment of Bolesław's court certainly impacted in his nieces; all three who remained unmarried (Euphrosyne and her sisters, twins Anna and Euphemia) took the veil.

Euphrosyne became a nun in the Cistercian monastery of Trzebnica, and in 1278 she became the Abbess. Documentation from the years 1285–1297 shows a high activity of Euphrosyne as Abbess, especially in economic matters of the monastery. Presumably, during her sovereignty, in Trzebnica was transcribed the Life of her maternal great-grandmother, St. Hedwig of Andechs.

References
Zofia Kozłowska-Budkowa, Eufrozyna, [in:] Polski Słownik Biograficzny, vol. VI, 1948.

1240s births
1298 deaths
Cistercian abbesses
Piast dynasty
People from Greater Poland
Polish princesses
13th-century Polish nuns

Euphrosyne of Greater Poland


Colin Penman (born September 8, 1967) is a Canadian makeup artist and makeup effects artist. In 2011, he won a Prime Time Emmy Award and received a Gemini nomination for his work on The Kennedys. Other notable credits include work on the feature films Pacific Rim, Total Recall, Hairspray and the Saw franchise. Television credits include Monsters, Defiance, Copper, The Strain and Killjoys.

Personal life
Penman was born in Toronto, Ontario. At age sixteen, he moved to Simi Valley, California. In 1988, Penman attended The Institute Of Studio Makeup, in Studio City, and promptly entered the makeup effects industry in Hollywood. Penman has since returned to living in Toronto and has also worked in South Africa, Brazil, Malta, India and Sri Lanka. He is married with two children.

Teaching
Influenced by legendary makeup artist Dick Smith's willingness to share information and techniques, Penman has been instructing artists for many years. He was a regular instructor at Complections International from 1991-1996 and 2001-2008. Penman is also a regular speaker for Sheridan College and has conducted seminars at the IMATS trade shows and FanExpo in Toronto.

Puppeteering

Puppeteering and performance often go hand in hand with the Makeup Effects and Creature Effects industry. Penman has always enjoyed bringing creations to life, whether by remote control or rods. He got his first taste of performing in a full body costume on the series Monsters, playing a simian like alter ego in the episode "Murray's Monster". In 1998, after completing a workshop with veteran puppeteer Rob Mills, Penman landed the roles of "Buella" on the series Fuzz Paws, "Dusty" on Ants in Your Pants and "Margaret The Elf" on Santa Calls. All three shows were produced by YTV. These were the only characters Penman also voiced.

Awards

Emmy Award
The Kennedys

References

External links
Alex Strachan, Postmedia News (July 14, 2011). Canadians clean up at Emmys Canada.com
Variety Staff (September 10, 2011). Creative Arts Emmys: Complete Winners List Variety.com

Colin Penman's website

Living people
1967 births
Canadian make-up artists

Colin Penman


The Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies (ASEEES) is a scholarly society "dedicated to the advancement of knowledge about Central Asia, the Caucasus, Russia, and Eastern Europe in regional and global contexts." The ASEEES supports teaching, research, and publication relating to the peoples and territories within this area.

ASEEES has cultivated the field's intellectual landscape for over fifty years through its chief publication, Slavic Review, its Annual Convention, its book prizes, and its organizational newsletter. The Slavic Review scholarly journal has c.3,800 subscribers around the world. It features articles that can take any disciplinary approach, and are deemed to be original and significant to the field by peer-reviewers. The journal also features reviews and critiques of recent research within the field.

In addition to providing access to current research and scholarship through Slavic Review, ASEEES has also held an Annual Convention for decades. These conventions focus on intellectual vitality in Slavic, East European, and Eurasian studies as an international forum for 2,000 attendees (scholars, professionals, and graduate students—domestic and international) to exchange new research and information face-to-face on an annual basis. The convention lasts four days and features approximately 500 panels and round-tables and 40 meetings.

The Annual Convention also awards prizes to works of merit published in the field within the preceding year. ASEEES awards nine book prizes, a dissertation prize, and a graduate essay prize.

ASEEES' organizational newsletter serves as the informal medium for coverage of the news of the field and profession. Distributed to their 3,000 members five times a year, it reports the activities of members and affiliates, notes members' recent publications, provides a calendar of conferences, features articles and speeches, lists summer programs and fellowship/grant opportunities, and lists job postings from their over fifty institutional members.

About

Background and formation
In the aftermath of World War II, the face of Europe was greatly changed. A number of countries of central and eastern Europe fell under the influence or control of the Soviet Union following the defeat of Germany. Throughout the non-communist world, political decision-makers felt a need for additional academic analysis of the politics and history of the USSR and the Soviet bloc nations as well as for improved facilities for language training for a new generation of foreign affairs specialists.

A number of American universities established area studies programs and research institutes in the immediate postwar period, including notably Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Columbia University in New York City, and the University of Washington in Seattle. These institutions successfully produced the leading scholars of Slavic studies in North America. A number of graduates and professors from these programs were instrumental in forming the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies (AAASS) from its conception between the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies (JCSS) and the American Council of Learned Societies' professional journal to being its own membership organization.

The organization's precursors—the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies (JCSS) and the American Slavic and East European Review (ASEER)—were two entities already in the field. The JCSS—a joint committee of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC)—supported scholarly conferences and publications, disbursed research and fellowship grants, and sponsored bibliographic and other projects. In 1938, the JCSS set up a subcommittee specifically for the review of Russian studies, whose chief activity was to prompt and finalize a proposal for a national professional organization. This subcommittee joined forces with ACLS's professional journal ASEER—American Slavic and East European Review, a scholarly magazine launched in 1941 by John Hazard of Columbia University. By that point, ASEER had already created a corporation named the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Inc. (AAASS). They did so, in 1948, so as to have an "owner" (but was merely a "legal umbrella") so that they would be permitted to print their journal in the State of New York—that year is still considered the association's official date of establishment.

Together, ASEER and JCSS coordinated the June 1, 1960, launch of a full-fledged national professional membership organization under the existing AAASS name. This new AAASS combined the activities of both the JCSS's Russian Studies subcommittee and the ASEER. However, ASEER was soon enlarged, revised, and renamed to become AAASS' own quarterly peer-reviewed journal, Slavic Review. Professor Donald Treadgold of the University of Washington was the initial editor of this new official AAASS publication. AAASS had (and continues to have) an interdisciplinary scope, and was to be a means of promoting contact and communication and of encouraging a sense of identification and association among those concerned with Russian and East European Studies. Its main functions were to distribute an annual bibliography, to sponsor professional meetings and scholarly conferences, to provide a non-juried periodic newsletter (published to promote the flow of information among society members regarding the status of ongoing research and other matters of general academic interest), and to promote and sponsor other projects designed to help the field as a whole.

Change of name
In 2008, the Association's membership voted to change the name of the AAASS, effective in 2010, to the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies (ASEEES). This new name reflects the Association's widened scope, rejecting the dominance of Russian and Slavic studies at a time when other former Slavic studies and Russian centers were renamed "Centers for Eurasian Studies". The change in name coincided with the move of the Association's headquarters from Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Organization
ASEEES' national office is located at the University of Pittsburgh. It handles membership, publication subscriptions,  NewsNet, and organizes and coordinates programmatic activities like the annual convention.

Six regional affiliates and a geographically wide-ranging committee structure enable members across the country to effectively work together on matters of professional interest. Specifically,  regional affiliates sponsor scholarly meetings and activities within their respective regions of the US. ASEEES committees contribute to many aspects of the organization including scholarly ventures, prizes and publications. In addition, ASEEES has organizational ties with scholarly societies within the broad field of Slavic, East European, and Eurasian studies. These affiliates normally sponsor panels and hold meetings at the annual ASEEES convention.

Board of directors
The ASEEES by-laws establish that the business, property, and affairs are conducted and managed by a Board of Directors. This board currently consists of twenty-four officers—each with different term lengths. Each year, officers cycle off and the ASEEES holds elections to designate a new Vice-President/President-Elect, two members-at-large, and (every other year) a graduate student representative.

Membership

Individual
ASEEES has approximately 3,000 members and subscribers in the US and abroad. Members come from the academic community, as well as from the government and private sectors. Membership is open to anyone interested in furthering the scholarly objectives of ASEEES.

Institutional
Institutions with programs or interests in Slavic, East European, and Eurasian studies are eligible to become institutional members of ASEEES. Over fifty institutions demonstrate their support of the field via membership in the Association. Through their representatives on the Council of Institutional Members, they exchange viewpoints and work together on issues of common concern.

Publications

Slavic Review

The Slavic Review scholarly journal is ASEEES' chief publication in the field. It features articles, discussions, and reviews of recent literature that span all academic disciplines and geographic areas within "Eastern Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, past and present". The Slavic Review is available on JSTOR.

The editorial offices of the Slavic Review are located at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

NewsNet
NewsNet is ASEEES' newsletter, which carries news both of the profession and of the association and is published five times a year.

Annual conventions
The annual convention is one of ASEEES' core activities. It serves as an international forum for encouraging scholarship for an average of over 2,000 attendees each year.

ASEEES (formerly AAASS) has held conventions since 1964. The first convention of the organization was held in New York City in April 1964, under the chairmanship of Professor Holland Hunter of Haverford College. Although the organization initially held these gatherings every third year so as not to sap the strength of the organization, they have been held on an annual basis for decades, hosted in a different city each year.

Prizes and awards

The Association annually awards various prizes and awards which are presented at the Awards Presentation during the Annual Convention:

 Distinguished Contributions Award
 CLIR Distinguished Service Award
 Wayne S. Vucinich Book Prize
 USC Book Prize in Literary and Cultural Studies
  Book Prize in History
 Davis Center Book Prize in Political and Social Studies
 Marshall D. Shulman Book Prize
 Ed A Hewett Book Prize
 Barbara Jelavich Book Prize
 Kulczycki Book Prize in Polish Studies
 W. Bruce Lincoln Book Prize (even-numbered years only)
 Graduate Student Essay Prize
 Tucker/Cohen Dissertation Prize

Regional affiliates
Regional affiliates sponsor scholarly meetings and activities within their respective regions of the US.
Central Slavic Conference
Midwest Slavic Conference
Northeast Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Conference (formerly Mid-Atlantic Slavic Conference)
Southern Conference on Slavic Studies
Southwest Slavic Association
Western Association for Slavic Studies (formerly Rocky Mountain Association for Slavic Studies)

See also
American Association of Teachers of Slavic and Eastern European Languages
American Council of Teachers of Russian
Slavistics

References

External links
Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies official website
Slavic Review Homepage

Organizations established in 1948
Historical societies of the United States
Professional associations based in the United States
Clubs and societies in the United States
Academic organizations based in the United States
1948 establishments in the United States
Organizations based in Pittsburgh


The Flüela Schwarzhorn is a mountain of the Albula Alps, overlooking the Flüela Pass, in the canton of Graubünden. With a height of 3,146 metres above sea level, it is the highest point of the Albula Alps north of the Fuorcla da Grialetsch (2,537 m). From the Flüela Pass a trail leads to the summit.

References

External links
Flüela Schwarzhorn on Hikr

Mountains of the Alps
Alpine three-thousanders
Mountains of Switzerland
Mountains of Graubünden
Davos
Zernez

Schwarzhorn (Flüela)


Cynthia Jane Williams (August 22, 1947 – January 25, 2023) was an American actress and producer, known for her role as Shirley Feeney on the television sitcoms Happy Days (1975–1979), and Laverne & Shirley (1976–1982). She also appeared in American Graffiti (1973) and The Conversation (1974).

Early life
Williams was born in Van Nuys, Los Angeles on August 22, 1947. The family moved to Dallas when she was a year old and returned to Los Angeles when she was ten years old. She had a sister named Carol Ann.

Williams wrote and acted at a church during childhood and later acted in productions at Birmingham High School; she graduated in 1965. She attended Los Angeles City College where she majored in theater.

Career
After college, Williams began her professional career by landing national commercials, which included Foster Grant sunglasses and TWA. Her first roles in television, among others, were on Room 222, Nanny and the Professor, and Love, American Style.

Williams accompanied an actor-friend from Los Angeles City College who needed a scene partner for the audition and was also accepted at The Actors Studio West, but rarely attended due to acting commitments. Williams picked up important film roles early in her career: George Cukor's Travels with My Aunt (1972); as Laurie Henderson, Ron Howard's character's high school sweetheart in George Lucas's American Graffiti (1973) for which she earned a BAFTA nomination as Best Supporting Actress; and Francis Ford Coppola's The Conversation (1974). She auditioned along with thousands of others, for Lucas's Star Wars for the role of Princess Leia, but Leia was ultimately played by Carrie Fisher because Lucas wished to cast unknowns, as in American Graffiti.

Williams met Penny Marshall, first on a double date, and later at Francis Ford Coppola's Zoetrope company. The company hired them as comedy writers, because "they wanted two women" on a prospective TV spoof for the Bicentennial. While the two were writing for Zoetrope, Penny Marshall's brother, Garry Marshall, called to ask if they would like to make an appearance on an episode of Happy Days, a television series he produced.

In 1975, Williams was cast as a fun-loving brewery bottle capper, Shirley Feeney, in an episode of Happy Days with Penny who played her best friend and roommate Laverne De Fazio. The girls were cast as "sure-thing" dates of Richie and Fonzie (Henry Winkler). Their appearance proved so popular that Garry Marshall, commissioned a spin-off series for the characters of Shirley and Laverne. Williams continued her role on the very successful Laverne & Shirley series from 1976 until 1982. At one point during its run, the series was the number one rated show on television. Williams was praised for her portrayal of Shirley Feeney. She left the show after the second episode of the show's eighth and what would become its final season, after she became pregnant with her first child. The show's various producers were not enthusiastic that Williams was pregnant, as her character Shirley was not pregnant. Williams and co-star Penny Marshall had also been feuding for quite some time on the set long before Williams became pregnant. They would reconcile many years later. The success of the TV series led to a short-lived Saturday morning animated series Laverne & Shirley in the Army (1981–82), created by Hanna-Barbera.

In 1979, she reprised her role of Laurie from American Graffiti in its sequel, More American Graffiti.

In 1985, Williams starred in the ABC sitcom pilot Joanna, which aired as a special on April 30 of that year.  The premise involved Williams' character, Joanna, following her boyfriend from Los Angeles to New York, only to have him leave her for another woman. Joanna then decides to stay in New York, becoming the operations manager of a trucking company. The pilot was not picked up as a series. That same year, Williams starred in the sci-fi comedy UFOria alongside Fred Ward and Harry Dean Stanton, a movie which was already completed in 1981.

In 1990, Williams starred in an unsold pilot for CBS that was adapted from the 1989 film Steel Magnolias. Williams was cast as M'Lynn Eatenton, the role that was originated by Sally Field in the film. Also in 1990, Williams returned to series TV in the short-lived sitcom Normal Life and, a couple of years later, reunited with former Laverne & Shirley producers Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett to star in their family sitcom Getting By (1993–94). She guest starred on several television shows, including two episodes of 8 Simple Rules.

Williams performed onstage in the national tours of Grease, Deathtrap, and Moon Over Buffalo as well as a regional production of Nunsense. She reunited with her Laverne & Shirley co-star Eddie Mekka in a November 2008 regional production of the Renée Taylor-Joseph Bologna comedy play It Had to Be You.

She made her Broadway debut as daffy Mrs. Tottendale in The Drowsy Chaperone at the Marquis Theatre on December 11, 2007, succeeding Jo Anne Worley in the role which was originated by Georgia Engel.

Williams reunited with Penny Marshall on the TV series Sam & Cat in the episode "#SalmonCat" (2013). In 2015, her memoir Shirley, I Jest! (co-written with Dave Smitherman) was published. In the same year, Williams engaged in celebrity branding for the senior citizen service Visiting Angels.

Personal life
Williams was married to Bill Hudson of the musical trio Hudson Brothers in 1982. They had two children and the marriage ended in divorce in 2000.

Williams was a Roman Catholic.

Death
Williams died in Los Angeles on January 25, 2023, at age 75, following a brief illness.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

 Video Discussion with Actress Cindy Williams at New York Film Academy

1947 births
2023 deaths
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
American film actresses
American Roman Catholics
American television actresses
American people of Italian descent
American people of English descent
American voice actresses
Birmingham High School alumni
Hudson family (show business)
Los Angeles City College alumni
People from Van Nuys

Cindy Williams


Environ was a performance space that was influential during the Loft Jazz scene of the mid-1970s in NYC. It was located on Broadway in SOHO and close to two other noted Loft Jazz venues: RivBea and Ali's Alley. Environ was established by Chris Brubeck and Danny Brubeck sons and band mates of noted jazz musician Dave Brubeck. Environ was managed by John Fischer pianist leader of Interface with assistance by staff Mark Forman indie media producer and Brian Olewnick music blogger and reviewer for Bagatellen.

Environ offered performance space to many Loft Jazz musicians, dancers and other performance artists. Dave Holland (former Miles Davis bassist), Anthony Braxton, Charles Tyler, Hamiet Bluiett, David Murray, Lester Bowie, Joseph Bowie, Chico Freeman were some of the many free jazz artists that performed there. James Siegfried, who was later to become better known as James Chance, and the Contortions (part of the No Wave scene in NYC) had his debut there. Environ attracted many of the future avant-garde jazz and No Wave musicians to its stage and audience. Muhal Richard Abrams one of the founders of the AACM practiced there regularly on the house piano.

Performance art in New York City

Environ (Loft)


Waist is the narrow point of the body between the ribcage and hips. Other meanings derive from this by extension.
 Waist (clothing) is also a term for the bodice of a dress or for a blouse or woman's shirt.
 Waist, a variant of waistline, the line of demarcation between the upper and lower portions of a garment, which notionally corresponds to the natural waist but may vary with fashion from just below the bust to the upper hips
 Waist, the narrowest part of a laser beam, see Gaussian beam
 W.A.I.S.T., acronym for an international softball tournament held in West Africa every year

Waist (disambiguation)


The following is a list of notable deaths in February 2016. For notable deaths before the current month, please see "Months".  Names under each date are reported in alphabetical order by last name or pseudonym. Deaths of non-humans are reported here also if notable.

 Each listing of a death must have a source. If no reference is included, the death notice will be removed. The following are the requirements of adding a name to the list in its order: name, age, nationality, what the person is known for, cause of death (if known) and most importantly a source.

February

1
 Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, 85, Guatemalan military officer and politician, President (1983–1986), Parkinson's disease.
 Paul Pholeros, 62, Australian architect, cancer.

2
 Bob Elliott, 92, American comedian (Bob and Ray) and actor (Get a Life), throat cancer.
 Luiz Felipe Lampreia, 74, Brazilian sociologist and diplomat, heart attack.

3
Joe Alaskey, 63, American voice actor (Looney Tunes, Rugrats, Casper), cancer.
Big Kap, 45, American hip hop DJ (Tunnel), heart attack.
Mark Farren, 33, Irish football player (Derry City), cancer.
Balram Jakhar, 92, Indian politician, Speaker of the Lok Sabha (1980–1989), complications from pneumonia.
Alba Solís, 88, Argentine singer and actress, heart failure.
Saulius Sondeckis, 87, Lithuanian violinist and conductor, stroke.

4
 Marlow Cook, 89, American politician, Senator from Kentucky (1968–1974), complications from a heart attack.
 Kristine Miller, 90, American actress (I Walk Alone, Jungle Patrol, Too Late for Tears), congestive heart failure. (death announced on this date)
 Dave Mirra, 41, American BMX rider, suicide by gunshot.
 Edgar Mitchell, 85, American astronaut (Apollo 14), sixth person to walk on the moon, complications from kidney cancer.
 Axl Rotten, 44, American professional wrestler (Extreme Championship Wrestling), cardiac arrest. (body found on this date)
 Edgar Whitcomb, 98, American politician, Governor of Indiana (1969–1973), heart failure.
Maurice White, 74, American singer-songwriter ("September") and musician (Earth, Wind & Fire), complications from Parkinson's disease.

5
 Bill Birchfield, 80, American politician, member of Florida House of Representatives for the 21st district (1971-1974), heart attack.
 Ciriaco Cañete, 96, Filipino martial artist, prostate cancer.
 Bodil Malmsten, 71, Swedish poet and novelist, cancer.

6
 Robin Chandler Duke, 92, American social advocate and diplomat, Ambassador to Norway (2000–2001), respiratory failure.
 Dan Hicks, 74, American singer-songwriter and musician (Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks), throat and liver cancer.
 Eddy Wally, 83, Belgian singer, cerebral hemorrhage.

7
 Roger Willemsen, 60, German writer, essayist and TV presenter, pancreatic cancer.

8
 Amelia Bence, 101, Argentine actress (The Gaucho War, A Sangre Fría, Alfonsina), congestive heart failure.
 Charles C. Campbell, 68, American army general, heart attack.
 Johnny Duncan, 92, American actor (Batman and Robin, Bedtime for Bonzo, Plan 9 from Outer Space), complications from dementia.
 Nida Fazli, 78, Indian poet, respiratory failure.
 August P. Mardesich, 95, American politician, member of the Washington House of Representatives (1950–1963) and Senate (1963–1978), dementia.
 Viggo Rivad, 93, Danish photographer, complications from a stroke.
 Violette Verdy, 82, French ballerina, heart failure.

9
 André van den Heuvel, 88, Dutch actor (Hamelen, De rode zwaan), two-time winner of the Louis d'Or, complications from a stroke.
 Sushil Koirala, 76, Nepalese politician, Prime Minister (2014–2015), President of Nepali Congress (since 2010), pneumonia.

10
 Leo Ehlen, 62, Dutch footballer (Roda JC), kidney disease.
 Phil Gartside, 63, English businessman and football chairman (Bolton Wanderers), cancer.
 Andrew L. Lewis, Jr., 84, American business executive and politician, Secretary of Transportation (1981–1983), complications of pneumonia.
 Eliseo Prado, 86, Argentine footballer (national team, Club Atlético River Plate), complications from Alzheimer's disease.
 Günter Schröter, 88, German football player (Dynamo Dresden, East Germany national football team, SC Dynamo Berlin) and coach (Berliner FC Dynamo), complications from Parkinson's disease.

11
 Kevin Randleman, 44, American mixed martial artist, UFC Heavyweight Champion (1999–2000), pneumonia and heart failure.

12
 Eddie Barry, 96, American ice hockey player (Boston Bruins), complications from Alzheimer's disease.
 Dominique D'Onofrio, 62, Belgian football coach (Standard de Liège), heart attack.
 Robert Frederick Froehlke, 93, American lawyer, Secretary of the Army (1971–1973), complications from a stroke.
 Johnny Lattner, 83, American football player (Notre Dame, Pittsburgh Steelers), lung cancer.

13
 Trifon Ivanov, 50, Bulgarian footballer (national team), heart attack.
 O. N. V. Kurup, 84, Indian poet, lyricist and politician, recipient of the Jnanpith Award (2007), respiratory failure.
 Slobodan Santrač, 69, Serbian football player (Yugoslavia) and manager, heart attack.
 Antonin Scalia, 79, American judge, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (since 1986), heart attack.
 Bořek Šípek, 66, Czech architect and designer, cancer.
 Sir Christopher Zeeman, 91, British mathematician, respiratory failure.

14
 Ali Brownlee, 56, English radio sports broadcaster (Middlesbrough F.C. on BBC Tees), bowel cancer.
 Muriel Casals i Couturier, 70, Spanish economist, complications from injuries sustained in a bike accident.
 Hein Kröher, 88, German folk singer-songwriter.
 Eric Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury, 87, British politician, MP for Orpington (1962–1970), acute myeloid leukemia.
 Wiesław Rudkowski, 69, Polish boxer and Olympic silver medalist (1972), heart attack.

15
 George Gaynes, 98, American actor (Police Academy, Punky Brewster, Tootsie).
 Salman Natour, 67, Israeli-born Palestinian author, heart attack.
 Hans Posthumus, 68, Dutch footballer (Feyenoord, N.E.C.), cerebral hemorrhage.
 Fighton Simukonda, 58, Zambian football player (Nkana Red Devils) and manager (national team), complications from diabetes.

16
 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 93, Egyptian politician and diplomat, Secretary-General of the United Nations (1992–1996), complications from a broken pelvis.
 Belinda Nash, 69, American historian, cancer.
 Charles Caldwell Ryrie, 90, American theologian, pneumonia.
 Robert J. Walker, 87, American sailor, Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy (1975–1979), complications from pneumonia.

17
 Alexander Gutman, 71, Russian movie director (Journey Back to Youth), heart failure.
 Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, 92, Egyptian journalist, renal failure.
 Claude Jeancolas, 66, French writer, cancer.
 Akbar Kakkattil, 62, Indian writer, lung cancer.
 Andrzej Żuławski, 75, Polish movie director (The Devil, That Most Important Thing: Love, On the Silver Globe) and writer, pancreatic cancer.

18
 Abdul Rashid Khan, 107, Indian Hindustani musician, multiple organ failure.
 Pantelis Pantelidis, 32, Greek singer-songwriter, traffic collision.
 John Reinhardt, 95, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Nigeria (1971—1975), stroke.

19
Tamerlan Aguzarov, 52, Russian politician, Head of North Ossetia-Alania (since 2015), complications from pneumonia.
Umberto Eco, 84, Italian philosopher and novelist (The Name of the Rose, Foucault's Pendulum), pancreatic cancer.
Harper Lee, 89, American writer (To Kill a Mockingbird, Go Set a Watchman).
 Sir William O'Brien, 99, British admiral, Naval Secretary (1964–1966), complications from pneumonia.
Vi Subversa, 80, British musician (Poison Girls), cancer.
Samuel Willenberg, 93, Israeli sculptor and painter, last surviving member of the Treblinka extermination camp revolt, complications from a stroke.
Bruno Zuppiger, 63, Swiss politician, cancer.

20
 Fernando Cardenal, 82, Nicaraguan priest and politician, Minister of Education (1984–1990), heart failure.
 Ove Verner Hansen, 83, Danish actor and opera singer, heart attack.
 Nando Yosu, 76, Spanish football player and manager (Racing de Santander), Alzheimer's disease.

21
 María Luisa Alcalá, 72, Mexican actress (El Chavo del Ocho, Dr. Cándido Pérez, Esmeralda), heart attack.
 Eric Brown, 97, Scottish World War II-test pilot, world record for most aircraft carrier landings performed, pneumonia.

22
 Wesley A. Clark, 88, American computer engineer, created the first minicomputer, complications from heart disease.
 Cristiana Corsi, 39, Italian taekwondo martial artist, European champion (2002), cardiac arrest.
 Yolande Fox, 87, American beauty queen (Miss America 1951), singer and activist, lung cancer.
 Sonny James, 86, American country singer-songwriter ("Young Love").
 Cara McCollum, 24, American journalist and beauty queen, Miss New Jersey (2013), traffic collision.
 Hans Reffert, 69, German musician, composer and artist, cancer.
 Douglas Slocombe, 103, British cinematographer (Indiana Jones, The Lion in Winter, Jesus Christ Superstar), complications from a fall.
 Yochanan Sofer, 93, Israeli rabbi, Rebbe of Erlau, pneumonia.

23
 Ramón Castro Ruz, 91, Cuban revolutionary figure and politician, brother of Fidel and Raúl Castro. (Death announced on this date)
 Peter Lustig, 78, German television presenter (Löwenzahn) and author, stomach cancer.
 Francisco Rubio Llorente, 85, Spanish judge, President of the Council of State (2004-2012), heart failure.
 Donald E. Williams, 74, American astronaut, led mission to Jupiter probe, complications from a stroke.

24
 Ryszard Bender, 84, Polish politician and historian, Senator (2007-2011), stroke.
 Adriana Benetti, 96, Italian actress (Four Steps in the Clouds, Teresa Venerdì, Before the Postman), complications from pneumonia.
 Rafael Iriondo, 97, Spanish international football player (national team, Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad) and manager, respiratory failure.
 Peter Kenilorea, 72, Solomon Islands politician, Prime Minister (1978–1981, 1984–1986).
 Peter van der Merwe, 74, Dutch footballer (national team), mesothelioma.

25
 Tony Burton, 78, American actor (Rocky, Assault on Precinct 13, The Shining), comedian and boxer, complications from pneumonia.
 Jim Clark, 84, British movie editor (The World Is Not Enough, The Killing Fields, Marathon Man), Oscar winner (1985).
 François Dupeyron, 65, French movie director and screenwriter (The Officers' Ward), heart attack.
 Alfred E. Mann, 90, American entrepreneur (Spectrolab, Heliotek), heart attack.

26
 Andy Bathgate, 83, Canadian ice hockey player (New York Rangers, Toronto Maple Leafs, Detroit Red Wings), complications from Alzheimer's disease.
 Karl Dedecius, 94, Polish-born German translator, Director of the German Institute of Polish Studies (1980-1997).
 Don Getty, 82, Canadian politician, Premier of Alberta (1985–1992), and football player (Edmonton Eskimos), heart failure.
 Eri Klas, 76, Estonian conductor, retired boxer and educator, member of the Estonian Olympic Committee, heart attack.

27
 Rajesh Pillai, 41, Indian movie director (Traffic), liver disease.

28
 Frank Kelly, 77, Irish actor (Father Ted, Emmerdale, Evelyn), heart attack.
 George Kennedy, 91, American actor (Cool Hand Luke, The Naked Gun, Airport), Oscar winner (1968), heart disease.

29
 Gil Hill, 84, American police officer and actor (Beverly Hills Cop), pneumonia.
 Louise Rennison, 64, British author (Angus, Thongs and Full-Frontal Snogging), cancer.

Months
 January
 February
 March
 April
 May
 June
 July
 August
 September
 October
 November
 December

Related pages
 Deaths in 2014
 Deaths in 2015

References

Other websites
 The Guardian, UK obituaries
 Obituaries, Los Angeles Times
 Obituaries, Chicago Tribune
 The New York Times, US obituaries
 The Sydney Morning Herald, Australian obituaries
 The Telegraph obituaries

02
February 2016 events

Deaths in February 2016


Malachi Richard Thompson (August 21, 1949, Princeton, Kentucky — July 16, 2006), was an American avant-garde jazz trumpet player. In addition to his own work as a bandleader, Thompson was known for his work in the brass ensemble led by fellow trumpeter Lester Bowie.

Biography
Born in Princeton, Kentucky, Malachi Thompson moved to Chicago as a child. He credited his interest in the trumpet to hearing Count Basie's band at the Regal Theatre when he was 11 years old. Thompson worked in the rhythm and blues scene on Chicago's South Side as a teen. In 1968, he joined the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM), spending some time in the AACM big band. He performed and toured with the Operation Breadbasket Big Band, which was affiliated with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.

Thompson graduated from Governors State University in 1974 with a degree in music composition.

He worked with saxophonists Joe Henderson, Jackie McLean, Frank Foster, and Archie Shepp, among other musicians, while living in New York City. Thompson formed his "Freebop" band in 1978, and eventually relocated to Washington, D.C. He also worked with Lester Bowie's Hot Trumpets Repertory Company and formed Africa Brass, a group inspired by traditional New Orleans brass bands.

With a goal of preserving the Sutherland Theater on Chicago's South Side, he founded the Sutherland Community Arts Initiative, a non-profit corporation, in 1991. He also wrote incidental music for a play about the theater.

Informed in 1989 that he suffered from T-cell lymphoma and had one year to live, Thompson claimed he was healed by radiation and reading about jazz. He died in Chicago, Illinois, from a relapse of his cancer in 2006.

Discography

As leader
The Seventh Son (RA, 1980)
Legends and Heroes (RA, 1983)
Spirit (Delmark, 1989)
The Jaz Life (Delmark, 1992)
Lift Every Voice (Delmark, 1993) with Africa Brass
New Standards (Delmark, 1993)
Buddy Bolden's Rag (Delmark, 1995) with Africa Brass featuring Lester Bowie
47th Street (Delmark, 1997)
Freebop Now! (Delmark, 1998)
Rising Daystar (Delmark, 1999)
Timeline (Delmark, 2000) recorded 1972-86
Talking Horns (Delmark, 2001)
Blue Jazz (Delmark, 2003)

As sideman
 Lester Bowie's Brass Fantasy, Works (ECM)
 Lester Bowie's Brass Fantasy, Twilight Dreams (Virgin)
 Lester Bowie's Brass Fantasy, I Only Have Eyes for You (ECM)
 Lester Bowie's Brass Fantasy, Avant Pop (ECM)
 Kalaparusha Maurice McIntyre, Ram's Run (Cadence)
 Shamek Farrah, La Dee La La (RA)
 Errol Parker, Tentet (Sahara)
 Archie Shepp, Attica Blues (Blue Marge)
 Mustafa, Polygamy (Fatima)
 Hubert Eaves, Esoteric Funk (Inner City)
 Kalaparusha Maurice McIntyre, Kwansa (Baystate)
 Roland Alexander, Live at the Axis (Kharma)
 Gil Scott-Heron, The Baron (Soundtrack) (Arista)
 Quincy Jones, Save the Children (Soundtrack) (Capitol)

References

Further reading
 Thompson, Malachi, "The Evolution of Jazz and the Survival of Our Democratic Society," All About Jazz, November 1, 2004 link to article

External links
 Obituary with discography
 Delmark Records web site
 Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians

1949 births
2006 deaths
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma
People from Princeton, Kentucky
Jazz musicians from Chicago
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
Delmark Records artists
20th-century American musicians
Jazz musicians from Kentucky
20th-century trumpeters
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians

Malachi Thompson


Scythia (Scythian: Skulatā; Old Persian: 𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼 Skudra; Ancient Greek: Σκυθια Skuthia; Latin: Scythia) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: Σκυθικη Skuthikē; Latin: Scythica), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.

Etymology
The names  and  are themselves Latinisations of the Ancient Greek names  () and  (), which were themselves derived from the ancient Greek names for the Scythians,  () and  (), derived from the Scythian endonym .

History

Origins
The Scythians originated in Central Asia possibly around the 9th century BC, and they arrived in the Caucasian Steppe in the 8th and 7th centuries BC as part of a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe. This movement started when another nomadic Iranian tribe closely related to the Scythians, either the Massagetae or the Issedones, migrated westwards, forcing the Early Scythians to the west across the Araxes river, following which the Scythians moved into the Caspian Steppe, where they conquered the territory of the Cimmerians, who were also a nomadic Iranian people closely related to the Scythians, and assimilated most of them while displacing the rest, before settling in the area between the Araxes, the Caucasus Mountains and the Lake Maeotis.

During this early migratory period, some groups of Scythians settled in Ciscaucasia and the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains to the east of the Kuban river, where they settled among the native populations of this region, and did not migrate to the south into West Asia.

Arrival into West Asia
Under Scythian pressure, the displaced Cimmerians migrated to the south along the coast of the Black Sea and reached Anatolia, and the Scythians in turn later expanded to the south, following the coast of the Caspian Sea and arrived in the Ciscaucasian steppes, from where they settled in the area between the Araxes and Kura rivers before further expanding into the region to the south of the Kuros river in what is present-day Azerbaijan, where they settled around what is today Mingəçevir, Gəncə and the Muğan plain, and turned eastern Transcaucasia into their centre of operations in West Asia until the early 6th century BC, with this presence in West Asia being an extension of the Scythian kingdom of the steppes.

The earliest Scythians had belonged to the Srubnaya culture, and, archaeologically, the Scythian movement into Transcaucasia is attested in the form of a migration of a section of the Srubnaya culture to the south along the western coast of the Caspian Sea.

During this period, the Scythian kings' headquarters were located in the Ciscaucasian steppes, and this presence in Transcaucasia influenced Scythian culture: the akīnakēs sword and socketed bronze arrowheads with three edges, which, although they are considered as typically "Scythian weapons," were in fact of Transcaucasian origin and had been adopted by the Scythians during their stay in the Caucasus. Further contacts with the civilisation of West Asia, and especially with that of Mesopotamia, would also have an important influence on the formation of Scythian culture.

Arrival in the Pontic steppe
From their base in the Caucasian Steppe, during the period of the 8th to 7th centuries BC itself, the Scythians conquered the Pontic Steppe to the north of the Black Sea up to the Danube river, which formed the western boundary of Scythian territory onwards, although the Scythians may also have had access to the Wallachian and Moldavian plains.

Several smaller groups were likely also displaced by the Scythian expansion, such as the with the Sigynnae tribe from the North Caucasus region who were displaced westwards into the Pannonian Basin in the 8th century BC by the westward migration of the Scythians.

Using the Pontic steppe as their base, the Scythians over the course of the 7th to 6th centuries BC often raided into the adjacent regions, with Central Europe being a frequent target of their raids, and Scythian incursions reaching Podolia, Transylvania, and the Hungarian Plain, due to which, beginning in this period, new objects, including weapons and horse-equipment, originating from the steppes and remains associated with the early Scythians started appearing within Central Europe, especially in the Thracian and Hungarian plains, and in the regions corresponding to present-day Bessarabia, Transylvania, Hungary, and Slovakia, from the end of the 7th century onwards. Multiple fortified settlements of the Lusatian culture were destroyed by Scythian attacks during this period, with the Scythian onslaught causing the destruction of the Lusatian culture itself. Attacks by the Scythians were directed at southern Germania, and, from there, until as far as Gaul and even the Iberian Peninsula; these activities of the Scythians were not unlike those of the Huns and the Avars during the Migration Period and of the Mongols in the mediaeval era, and they were recorded in Etruscan bronze figurines depicting mounted Scythian archers as well as in Scythian influences in Celtic art.

7th Century
During the 7th century the Scythians under their king Išpakaia were allied with the Cimmerians, and are believed to have threatened the frontiers of the Kingdom of Uratu during the reign of its king Argishti II, who reigned from 714 to 680 BC.

The first mention of the Scythians in the records of the then superpower of West Asia, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, is from between 680/679 and 678/677 BC, when their king Išpakaia joined an alliance with the Mannaeans and the Cimmerians in an attack on the Neo-Assyrian Empire. During this time, the Scythians under Išpakaia, allied to Rusa II of Urartu, were raiding far in the south till the Assyrian province of Zamua. These allied forces were defeated by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon.

The Scythians and their allies the Cimmerians would engage in repeated wars with the Assyrians during the first decades of the 7th century. Scythian-Assyrian hostilities were eventually brought to an end when the Scythian King Bartatua married Assyrian princess Šērūʾa-ēṭirat. Bartatua's marriage to Šērūʾa-ēṭirat required that he would pledge allegiance to Assyria as a vassal, and in accordance to Assyrian law, the territories ruled by him would be his fief granted by the Assyrian king, which made the Scythian presence in West Asia a nominal extension of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Bartatua himself an Assyrian viceroy. Under this arrangement, the power of the Scythians in West Asia heavily depended on their cooperation with the Assyrian Empire; a fact which ensured the Scythians remained allied to the Assyrian Empire for many decades.

The Scythian alliance with Assyria ultimately led it into conflict with their former allies the Cimmerians, who were now primarily operating out of Asia Minor. During the first half of the seventh century the Cimmerians had amassed considerable power, to the extent that by 657 BC the Assyrian divinatory records were calling the Cimmerian king Tugdammi by the title of šar-kiššati ("King of the Universe"), which could normally belong only to the Neo-Assyrian King. However, this state of affairs was ephemeral and in 635 BC the Scythians, with the approval of Assyria, would conduct an invasion of Cimmerian territory in conjunction with the Lydians, a Kingdom in western Anatolia, ultimately defeating the Cimmerians and opening up Anatolian territory to Scythian settlement.

Towards the end of the 7th century, Assyrian power began to ebb and the Scythians took advantage of the resulting vacuum, raiding into the Levant and even as far Egypt.

Decline and expulsion from West Asia
According to Babylonian records, around 615 BC the Scythians were operating as allies of Cyaxares and the Medes in their war against Assyria. The Scythians' abandonment of their alliance with Assyria to instead side with the Babylonians and the Medes being a critical factor in worsening the position of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the Scythians participated in the Medo-Babylonian conquests of Aššur in 614 BC, Nineveh in 612 BC, and Ḫarran in 610 BC, which permanently destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

The Scythians were finally expelled from West Asia by the Medes in the 600s BC, after which they retreated into the Pontic Steppe. The inroads of the Cimmerians and the Scythians into West Asia over the course of the 8th to 6th centuries BC had destabilised the political balance which had prevailed in the region between the states of Assyria, Urartu, Mannaea and Elam on one side and the mountaineer and tribal peoples on the other, resulting in the destruction of these former kingdoms and their replacement by new powers, including the kingdoms of the Medes and of the Lydians.

Some splinter Scythian groups nevertheless remained in West Asia and settled in Transcaucasia and the area corresponding to modern-day Azerbaijan. One such splinter group joined the Medes and participated in the Median conquest of Urartu, while other Transcaucasian Scythian splinter groups retreated northwards to join the West Asian Scythians who had already moved into the Kuban Steppe previously.

One group formed a kingdom in what is now Azerbaijan under Median overlordship, but eventually hostilities broke out between them and Cyaxares, due to which they left Transcaucasia and fled to Lydia as refugees, although a section of these Scythians still remained in the southeast Caucasus, and were later mentioned by Titus Livius under the name of Sacassani, while the country was called the "Land of the Skythēnoi" by Xenophon and Sakasēnē by Ptolemy.

By the middle of the 6th century BC, the Scythians who had remained in West Asia had completely assimilated culturally and politically into Median society and no longer existed as a distinct group.

Geography

Scythia proper
The territory of the Scythian kingdom of the Pontic steppe extended from the Don river in the east to the Danube river in the west, and covered the territory of the treeless steppe immediately north of the Black Sea's coastline, which was inhabited by nomadic pastoralists, as well as the fertile black-earth forest-steppe area to the north of the treeless steppe, which was inhabited by an agricultural population, and the northern border of this Scythian kingdom were the deciduous woodlands, while several rivers, including Don and Dnipro, flowed southwards across this region and emptied themselves into the Black Sea.

Between the 9th and 5th centuries BC, the climate in the steppes was cool and dry, which was a catalyst for the emergence of equestrian nomadic pastoralism in the northern Pontic region. The climate became warmer and wetter during the 5th century BC, which allowed the steppe nomads to move into the steppes proper.

In these favourable climatic conditions grass grew abundantly on the treeless steppe and permitted the nomadic Scythians to rear large herds of cattle and horses. The country which the Greeks named  (), consisting of the region of the lower Dnipro river along the territory of what is modern-day Kherson and the valleys further north along the river, was covered with forests. Conditions in the southern lands near the shores of the Black Sea were propitious for agriculture.

Before the arrival of the Scythians, this region of the Pontic Steppe was dominated by the Agathyrsi, who were nomadic Iranian people related to the Scythians. The Scythian migration pushed the Agathyrsi westwards, away from the steppes and from their original home around Lake Maeotis, and into the Carpathian region.

Beginning in the late 4th century BC, another related nomadic Iranian people, the Sarmatians, moved from the east into the Pontic steppe, where they replaced the Scythians as the dominant power of the Pontic steppe by the Sarmatians, due to which "" (European Sarmatia) replaced "" as the name for the region.

Greater Scythia
Beginning with the Hellenistic period, the Graeco-Romans also extended the designation "Scythia" to the southern Russian steppes in general, and they also applied it to refer to the whole of the treeless steppe ranging from the Danubian plains in the west to the Chinese marches in the east.

In contemporary modern scholarship, the name "Scythian" generally refers to the nomadic Iranian people who dominated the Pontic steppe from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC, and the name "Scythia" is used to describe this region of the Pontic steppe inhabited by the Scythians.

See also
 Sarmatia

References

Sources

Further reading

 Ovid's poems Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto about his exile in Tomis contain some details of Scythia.
 Lucian's Toxaris tells stories of Scythian friendship and heroism.

External links

Historical regions
Classical geography
History of Ukraine

Scythia


The Homestead–Horton Neighborhood Historic District encompasses a small turn-of-the-20th century neighborhood area in Brattleboro, Vermont.  Located on a portion of Canal Street and all of Horton and Homestead Places, the district includes a significant number of Queen Anne Victorians, as well as the Italianate home of Jacob Estey, proprietor of the Estey Organ Company, one of the city's larger employers.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

Description and history
The Homestead–Horton neighborhood is located southwest of downtown Brattleboro, on the southeast side of Canal Street, a major thoroughfare connecting the downtown area to Interstate 91. It includes all of the buildings on the south side of Canal Street, between Washington Street and Frost Place, and all of the buildings on Homestead and Horton Places, two dead-end streets extending southeast from Canal Street (but connected via an unnamed loop drive at their far ends). The area is physically separated from the nearly-adjacent Canal Street Schoolhouse and Canal Street-Clark Street Neighborhood Historic District by a steep slope, and is two blocks from the former Estey Organ Company factory. The district has 21 historically significant houses, most of them two-story wood frame residential structures, housing one or more units. Many of the larger, formerly single-family, houses have been converted into multi-unit housing. Most were built between about 1890 and 1915, and there has been little loss or major alteration to these houses since then. A few earlier houses survive, including a few Greek Revival structures, and the relatively modest early Italianate house of Jacob Estey, built on Canal Street in the 1850s.

Brattleboro experienced significant industrial growth in the late 19th century, which increased demand for housing at its various factories and mills. Prior to this time, this stretch of Canal Street had two estates on it: that of Jacob Estey, owner of the Estey Organ Company, and H.B. Horton, whose son Andrew was a superintendent of the local gas works. Jacob Estey died in 1890, and Brattleboro's streetcar line was run down Canal Street in 1895, increasing development pressure in the area. The two estates were subdivided, and Horton and Homestead Places laid out to build new housing on them. Between 1895 and 1915, fifteen new Queen Anne style buildings were constructed in the area, including ten quite large multi-unit apartment houses. Since the 1990s, the Windham Land Trust, a local preservation organization, has rehabilitated many of these properties.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Windham County, Vermont

References

Brattleboro, Vermont
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Windham County, Vermont


Diammonium phosphate (DAP; IUPAC name diammonium hydrogen phosphate; chemical formula (NH4)2(HPO4) is one of a series of water-soluble ammonium phosphate salts that can be produced when ammonia reacts with phosphoric acid.

Solid diammonium phosphate shows a dissociation pressure of ammonia as given by the following expression and equation:

At 100 °C, the dissociation pressure of diammonium phosphate is approximately 5 mmHg.

According to the diammonium phosphate MSDS from CF Industries, Inc., decomposition starts as low as 70 °C:  "Hazardous Decomposition Products: Gradually loses ammonia when exposed to air at room temperature. Decomposes to ammonia and monoammonium phosphate at around 70 °C (158 °F). At 155 °C (311 °F), DAP emits phosphorus oxides, nitrogen oxides and ammonia."

Uses
DAP is used as a fertilizer. When applied as plant food, it temporarily increases the soil pH, but over a long term the treated ground becomes more acidic than before, upon nitrification of the ammonium. It is incompatible with alkaline chemicals because its ammonium ion is more likely to convert to ammonia in a high-pH environment. The average pH in solution is 7.5–8. The typical formulation is 18-46-0 (18% N, 46% P2O5, 0% K2O).

DAP can be used as a fire retardant. It lowers the combustion temperature of the material, decreases maximum weight loss rates, and causes an increase in the production of residue or char. These are important effects in fighting wildfires as lowering the pyrolysis temperature and increasing the amount of char formed reduces that amount of available fuel and can lead to the formation of a firebreak. It is the largest component of some popular commercial firefighting products and is the ingredient in "fire retardant" cigarettes.

DAP is also used as a yeast nutrient in winemaking and mead-making; as an additive in some brands of cigarettes purportedly as a nicotine enhancer; to prevent afterglow in matches, in purifying sugar; as a flux for soldering tin, copper, zinc and brass; and to control precipitation of alkali-soluble and acid-insoluble colloidal dyes on wool.

Natural occurrence
The compound occurs in the nature as the exceedingly rare mineral phosphammite. The related dihydrogen compound occurs as the mineral biphosphammite. Both are related to guano deposits.

References

External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0217

Ammonium compounds
Phosphates
Inorganic fertilizers

Diammonium phosphate


The Ancient Galilee Boat, also known as the Jesus Boat, is an ancient fishing boat from the 1st century AD, discovered in 1986 on the north-west shore of the Sea of Galilee in Israel. The remains of the boat,  long,  wide and with a maximum preserved height of , first appeared during a drought, when the waters of the Sea (actually a great fresh-water lake) receded. Other than the dating, there is no evidence connecting the boat to Jesus or his disciples.

Discovery and excavation

The remains of the Ancient Galilee Boat were found by brothers Moshe and Yuval Lufan, fishermen from Kibbutz Ginnosar. The brothers were keen amateur archaeologists with an interest in discovering artifacts from Israel's past. It had always been their hope to one day discover a boat in the Sea of Galilee, where they and generations of their family had fished. When drought reduced the water-level of the lake, the two brothers examined the newly exposed beach and stumbled across the remains of the boat buried in the shore.

The brothers reported their discovery to the authorities who sent out a team of archaeologists to investigate. The team realised that the remains of the boat were of tremendous historical importance to Jews and Christians alike, and so an archaeological dig followed, undertaken by members of Kibbutz Ginosar, the Israel Antiquities Authority, and numerous volunteers. Rumour spread that the boat was full of gold and the dig had to be guarded night and day. Excavating the boat from the mud without damaging it, quickly enough to extract it before the water rose again, was a difficult process which lasted 12 days and nights. The ancient wood was extremely fragile when exposed to the atmosphere and the boat had to be rescued from the place it was found by wrapping it in a mantle of fiberglass and insulating foam, which helped with both keeping it together, and floating it to its new location. It was then submerged in a wax bath for 12 years, which protected the boat before it could be displayed at the Yigal Allon Galilee Boat Museum in Kibbutz Ginosar.

Physical parameters
The boat's construction conforms to other boats built in that part of the Mediterranean during the period between 100 BC and 200 AD. Constructed primarily of cedar planks joined by pegged mortise and tenon joints and nails, the boat is shallow drafted with a flat bottom, allowing it to get very close to the shore while fishing. However, the boat is composed of ten different wood types, suggesting either a wood shortage or that the boat was made of scrap wood and had undergone extensive and repeated fixes. The boat was row-able, with four staggered rowers, and also had a mast allowing the fishermen to sail the boat.

Dating the boat
The boat has been dated to 40 BC (plus or minus 80 years) based on radiocarbon dating, and 50 BC to 50 AD based on pottery (including a cooking pot and lamp) and nails found in the boat, as well as hull construction techniques. The evidence of repeated repairs shows the boat was used for several decades, perhaps nearly a century. When its fishermen owners thought it was beyond repair, they removed all useful wooden parts and the hull eventually sank to the bottom of the lake. There it was covered with mud, which prevented bacterial decomposition.

Historical importance

The Galilee Boat is historically important to Jews as an example of the type of boat used by their ancestors in the 1st century for both fishing and transportation across the lake. Previously only references made by Roman authors, the Bible and mosaics had provided archaeologists insight into the construction of these types of vessels.

The boat is also important to Christians because this was the sort of boat used by Jesus and his disciples, several of whom were fishermen. Boats such as this played a large role in Jesus' life and ministry, and are mentioned 50 times in the Gospels, though there is no evidence connecting the Sea of Galilee Boat itself directly to Jesus or his disciples.

There's a replica of the Jesus Boat at the Lednica lake, Poland, constructed in Prudnik by boatbuilders from Pomerania and the Franciscan Dr. Antoni Dudek.

See also
Bethsaida, a contemporary fishing town on the lake mentioned in the Gospels
Capernaum, a contemporary fishing town on the lake mentioned in the Gospels
Dalmanutha, possibly the name of the ancient town on whose shore the boat was found
Magdala, where a mosaic depicting a similar boat was discovered
Mendel Nun, expert on the history and archaeology of the Sea of Galilee, established the House of Anchors Fishing Museum in 1995 at Kibbutz Ein Gev
Jesus preaches in a ship

References

External links

  Includes photographs of discover, excavation and artifacts.

1st-century artifacts
1986 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries in Israel
Classical sites in Israel
Types of fishing vessels
History of fishing
Maritime archaeology in Israel
Maritime museums in Israel
Ancient boats
Sea of Galilee

Sea of Galilee Boat


André de Foix, Lord of Lesparre (or Asparroz or Asparrots), (1490–1547) was a French General.

He was the son of Jean de Foix, Viscount of Lautrec and governor of the Dauphiné, and of Jeanne d'Aydie de Lescun. His sister was Françoise de Foix, mistress of King Francis I of France. His brothers Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec and Thomas, lord of Lescun, were also promoted to high positions in the military by the King, by the influence of Françoise.

After the Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre in 1512, he was appointed in 1521 by Henry II of Navarre commander of a Gascoigne-Navarrese army, to try for the third time to recapture the Kingdom of Navarre. At first, the campaign was successful and Navarre was recaptured in May, but on June 30, 1521, Lesparre's army suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Noáin against the Spanish. 5.000 men were lost and Lesparre himself was wounded and captured, but later released for ransom.

He died in the Italian Wars.

1490 births
1547 deaths
Andre
Military leaders of the Italian Wars
French generals

André de Foix


The Enfield State Park, also known as the Enfield State Forest, is a large forest reserve south of Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. It covers an area of about 4,600 hectares. The Enfield State Park was once the site for gold mining, and there are many gold mining relics in the area. There was a Chinese settlement at Surface Point during the gold rush. There were temples, tearooms, gaming tents, herbalists and market gardens. People are still able to go searching for gold in the park.

Timber from the forest was used for mining and building. There was a eucalyptus distillery at the town of Enfield, making eucalyptus oil.

There are also picnic areas and walking trails through the park.

The forest is an open dry forest, with messmates, peppermints, swamp gums, manna gums and the rare Yarra Gum. Over 100 bird species, and 22 native mammal species have been seen in the park.

References

Protected areas of Victoria (Australia)
Forests of Australia

Enfield State Park