Conchita Espinosa (February 23, 1914 – September 19, 2006) was a world-renowned pianist who combined academics and the arts to create an educational style that exists today at Conchita Espinosa Academy in Miami, Florida.

Early life and education
When Espinosa was three years old, she played popular Cuban melodies on the piano by ear for the first time in an ice cream parlor. She began formal piano lessons when she was five. At the age of 14, Espinosa graduated from the Conservatorio Internacional de Música in Havana as a professor of piano and music theory.  She continued her music education with renowned professors and artists Joaquín Nin, Ernesto Berumen and Jascha Fishermann. Espinosa performed concerts in Mexico, Cuba and the United States

Career
In 1933, at the age of 19, she founded "La Academia Musical Conchita Espinosa" in Havana. By 1959, at the end of Batista's pro-Western rule, the Academy – which included an elementary school and music and dance programs – had 450 students. Three decades later, after leaving Fidel Castro's Cuba and arriving in Miami, Espinosa continued her life's work as a teacher of music.

In 1963, she opened Conchita Espinosa Academy in Miami, in the garage of a small home in the neighborhood that would later become Little Havana. The Academy grew in enrollment, until, in 1984, it moved to a  parcel. The school now serves students in grades pre-kindergarten to eighth grade. Conchita Espinosa Academy is now directed by her daughter, Maribel Diaz.

Awards
During her extensive career, Espinosa received many honors including the Richard and Dorothy Lear Memorial "Distinguished Educator Award" (March 1994) and the "Legacy of Excellence Award" presented by General Motors during the 1999 Miami Hispanic Heritage Festival.  Additionally, she received "Conchita Espinosa Day" proclamations from both the City of Miami and Miami-Dade County(:.  In 2001, SW 6th street – which fronts Conchita Espinosa Academy – was named "Conchita Espinosa Way."  The last honor presented to Espinosa before her death was the prestigious Medalla de Excelencia Nacional Cubana from the Instituto de San Carlos de Cayo Hueso in May 2006.

References
About Conchita Espinosa from the Conchita Espinosa Academy official site

Cuban pianists
Cuban women pianists
1914 births
2006 deaths
20th-century pianists
Cuban emigrants to the United States
20th-century women pianists

Conchita Espinosa


The MV Maassluis was a tanker owned by the Dutch shipping-company Nedlloyd. On 15 February 1989 the ship was lost in heavy weather near the port of Skikda in Algeria.
Two sailors, who were swept overboard when they tried to work on the anchor, survived this accident. The other 27 crew lost their lives.

For his brave actions in trying to rescue the ship and her crew first officer Peter Korsen was posthumously promoted to captain.

Events
The ship was empty and with a minimum amount of ballast lie for anchor for the port of Skikda when very bad weather and high winds were expected. When the wind reached force 10 on the Beaufort scale the ship pulled loose from her anchors and smashed against the piers of the harbour.

The captain and first officer had tried to start the engines to sail clear from the nearby pier-heads, but it was too late. The disaster with this Dutch ship was the single most serious shipping disaster for a ship under Dutch flag since the second World-War.

Cause
As the Maassluis was expected to enter the port of Skikda the next day to load the captain dropped her anchor very close to the head of the pier of the port. Also because she would enter the port the next morning to load up the ship was empty and her ballast-tanks were also (nearly) empty. During the evening a fierce storm broke out and waves reached a height of 9 to 12 meters. The wind reached a force of 10 Beaufort and was directed inland.

Around 23:00 hours the captain, with help from the 1st officer, started the engines and tried to sail free from the pierhead using full power. Two Indonesian sailors were sent forward to raise the anchor so the ship would be able to sail away from the shore.
These two sailors were swept overboard by the wind and waves but managed to reach the shore with minor wounds. These two sailors were the only survivors of the disaster.

Despite using full engine-power the Maassluis wasn't able to move free from the piers and around 23:30 the ship comes in contact with the piers and breaks up.

Of the 27 people that lost their live the remains of only four were discovered and preserved: of the 23 other crew no remains were ever found.

Sources

Maritime incidents in 1989
Oil tankers
1982 ships

Maassluis (ship)


Deus (, ) is the Latin word for "god" or "deity".
Latin deus and dīvus ("divine") are in turn descended from Proto-Indo-European *deiwos, "celestial" or "shining", from the same root as *Dyēus, the reconstructed chief god of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon.

In Classical Latin, deus (feminine dea) was a general noun referring to a deity, while in technical usage a divus or diva was a figure who had become divine, such as a divinized emperor. In Late Latin, Deus came to be used mostly for the Christian God. It was inherited by the Romance languages in Galician and Portuguese Deus, Catalan and Sardinian Déu, French and Occitan Dieu, Friulian and Sicilian Diu, Italian Dio, Spanish Dios and (for the Jewish God) Ladino דייו/דיו Dio/Dyo, etc., and by the Celtic languages in Welsh Duw and Irish Dia.

Cognates
While Latin deus can be translated as and bears superficial similarity to Greek θεός theós, meaning "god", these are false cognates. A true cognate is Ancient Greek Zeus, king of the Olympian gods in Greek mythology (,  or ; , ). In the archaic period, the initial Zeta would have been pronounced such that Attic Ζεύς would phonetically transliterate as Zdeús or Dzeús, from Proto-Hellenic *dzéus.

By combining a form of deus with the Ancient Roman word for "father" (, ), one derives the name of the mythical Roman equivalent of Zeus: the sky god Diespiter (), later called Iuppiter or Jūpiter, from Proto-Italic *djous patēr, descended from Proto-Indo-European root *Dyḗws*Pahtḗr literally meaning 'Sky Father'. From the same root is derived the Greek vocative "O father Zeus" (), and whence is also derived the name of the Hindu sky god Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́ (Vedic Sanskrit: , ), and Proto-Germanic *Tīwaz or Tius hence Old Norse Týr.

Latin Bible
Latin Deus consistently translates Greek Θεός  Theós in both the Vetus Latina and Jerome's Vulgate. In the Septuagint, Greek Theós in turn renders  Hebrew Elohim (אֱלוֹהִים, אלהים), as in Genesis 1:1:
 Masoretic Text
 Septuagint
 Vulgate

In theological terminology
The word de-us is the root of deity, and thereby of deism, pandeism, and polydeism, all of which are theories in which any divine figure is absent from intervening in human affairs. This curious circumstance originates from the use of the word "deism" in the 17th and 18th centuries as a contrast to the prevailing "theism", belief in an actively intervening God:

Followers of these theories, and occasionally followers of pantheism, may sometimes refer to God as "Deus" or "the Deus" to make clear that the entity being discussed is not a theistic "God". Arthur C. Clarke picks up this usage  in his novel 3001: The Final Odyssey. William Blake said of the Deists that they worship "the Deus of the Heathen, The God of This World, & the Goddess Nature, Mystery, Babylon the Great, The Druid Dragon & hidden Harlot".

In Cartesian philosophy, the phrase deus deceptor is sometimes used to discuss the possibility of an evil God that seeks to deceive us. This character is related to a skeptical argument as to how much we can really know if an evil demon were attempting to thwart our knowledge. Another is the deus otiosus ("idle god"), which is a creator god who largely retires from the world and is no longer involved in its daily operation.  A similar concept is that of the deus absconditus ("hidden god") of Thomas Aquinas. Both refer to a deity whose existence is not readily knowable by humans through either contemplation or examination of divine actions. The concept of deus otiosus often suggests a god who has grown weary from involvement in this world and who has been replaced by younger, more active gods, whereas deus absconditus suggests a god who has consciously left this world to hide elsewhere.

Latin phrases with "deus"

Nobiscum deus ("God with us") was a battle cry of the late Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Empire. The name Amadeus translates to "for love of God". The genitive/dative dei occurs in such phrases as Roman Catholic organization Opus Dei (work of God), Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) and Dei Gratia (By the Grace of God).

Agnus Dei
Deus ex machina
Deus otiosus/Deus absconditus
Deus sive Natura
Deus vult
Divs
Munificentissimus Deus
Opus Dei
Providentissimus Deus
Rector Potens, Verax Deus
Regnator omnium deus
Rerum Deus Tenax Vigor
Rex Deus
Sublimus Dei
Te Deum
Unigenitus dei filius
Vox populi, vox Dei

See also
 God (word) (the Germanic word)

References

Latin words and phrases
Names of God

Deus


Banda District wey dey for Ghana insyd, dey play important role insyd de understanding for trade networks den de way dey shaped de lives of manners wey dey live insyd Western Africa. Banda District dey for de West Central for Ghana, just de south of de Black Volta River insyd de savanna woodland environment. Dis region get plenty connections to trans-Saharan trade, as edey Atlantic trade den British colonial den economic interests. De effects of dese interactions you fi see de archaeologically through dema presence of exotic goods den export of local materials, production of pottery den metals, as well as changes for dema lifestyle den subsistence patterns. Pioneering archaeological research insyd dis area be conduct by Ann Stahl.

Trans-Saharan trade period
De period of trans-Saharan trade insyd wat now be Banda District dem start am around C.E. 1300 den e last into de 17th century. Many of dema early villages insyd dis area be heavily influence by de trade networks wey edey connect de Sahara. De Banda in particular get a relationship plus de Naija trade network, where wooded savanna resources such as gold, kola nut, den ivory dem trade am for northern goods lyk copper alloys, salt, den textiles. Dere get some question as to whether mannes insyd Banda District receive dese goods directly, or if dem dey obtain am through de larger settlements insyd de area.

European interest
European interest insyd de Western African resources really took off during dis period wey e start around C.E. 1400 through C.E. 1650. dema major contributing factor to dis be sudden interest sake of de tales of Mansa Musa, na he be a leader for Mali, den he travel go Mecca covered in gold. De Portuguese get a particularly large presence along de Gold Coast at dis point, wey he set up a fort for Elmina den rapidly explore de surrounding area.

Craft production

Pottery
Dem form dema decoration of pottery for dese sites wey ebe very similar to dat of Begho, den dem san make am homogeneous nature wey edey mean say dat be a good deal of specialization as edey occur. Before de Ngre den Kuulo Phases of ceramics insyd de Banda District, dem get similar for Volta Phase, wey ein pottery be characterized by red painted geometric motifs, plus no real evidence for northern relationships. Neutron activation analysis for shards excavated from dema site Kuulo Kataa wey eshow say de different clay types wey dem take use be fairly homogeneous as well, wey edey support de idea for local production. Much of dema clay dem dey use come from east from de Banda hills, den craftsmen take use am for de same clay regardless of ein form or treatment for de vessels wey dem take am dey make.

Dem group Jars into two main categories, dose wey ein rims be flare out from de constriction point, den dose wey eget more globular for ein shape. Much of ein decoration dey for de rims of de vessels, den dem dey ein surface as dem treat am with cord wrapped roulette or mat impressions wey ebi den offset by groove lines den motifs. Various tempering agents dem take use am as well, plus some vessels wey eget even evidence of metal slag dem take use am as a temper.

Metal working
Dis area for Africa be known for ein large deposits of metal, particularly iron ore den gold. Dem get much evidence for metalworking activities for de site insyd Banda wey material goods such as vessels, tools, weapons, den ornaments, as well as dema iron slag wey dem left behind as a result of dema metalworking processes. Dem san get presence of burned basin-shaped features den anvils wey edey varying levels, as edey indicate say multiple episodes for dema likely seasonal use of metalworking sites. De high volume of slag wey dey for de sites such as Kuulo Kataa dey mean say dat much more dem dey produce dan as ebi necessary just for de people living for dare, den surpluses wey dem get ein chaw for trade den other activities. Among dema metalworking artifacts recovered, dem get several ornamental rings wey dem take iron dey do, tools such as tanged curved knives den blades, as well as dema serpentine projectile.

Textiles
Although de production for textiles bi common for de sites wey dey close to de Banda District such as Begho, wey dem no get no real evidence go talk say dat textile production dem dey for insyd Banda. In one excavation, only a single fragmented spindle whorl wey dem find, though de absence of something no dey necessarily mean na eno dey happen for dare.

Ritual activity
Some metalworking sites, such as de one for Ngre Kataa, get evidence say some ritual behavior dey happen for dare. At excavations of dema mounds, three distinct levels wey dem identify. Lower levels for metalworking mounds often dey contain evidence for de foundational ritual practices den human interments for de top of metalworking show say edey take place before. dema interments dey include a variety of age groups from infant through dema adulthood, as well as dema differences insyd where dem place dem. On dema middle levels for de mounds, dem get evidence for shrine clusters dat dem fi use am for dema divination activities. De shrines dem bi visible for dema working area, as echeck lyk dem connect am to dema efficiency, protection, den help for solving dema problems. One example of a shrine dey include an iron bangle, de earliest found insyd de Banda area, a quartz pebble, two iron blades, a bone fragment, den a cast brass twinned figurine. De figurine bi interesting sake of eget a form wey dem see say ebi connected to divination den esan get magical properties. Insyd another area, an earthenware jar wey dem discover say edey contain cowrie shells from de coast of de Seychelles. Eno bi only dat one wey dem discover wey edey mean say edey demonstrate de trade connections for dat tym, buh esan dey supports dey idea dat divination dem utilize am due to dema mystic association for cowrie shells.

Subsistence den lifestyle
During de period of trans-Saharan trade, both evidence for wild den domestic subsistence bi present. De presence of maize phytoliths dey mean say experimentation plus New World crops, as well as pearl millet den sorghum wey make successful insyd dat wey bi extremely drought resistant. Dem dey believe say dem maize spread to de interior of West Africa by de Bono, wey dem dey use am as dema war staple food. So far, New World crops bi de earliest known products for de Atlantic trade wey reach Banda District. During dis phase, greater importance dem put for de crop ein top dat edey reduce risks of food shortage, den community support practices bi wey dem use am go ensure say all go get access to food even insyd de tym of drought. Dese practices dey go result in high food security for Banda District manners for many years. Bollar numbers of animal bones, particularly dose mammals, dey show a greater reliance still for hunting den trapping methods for getting food den skins. Chaw faunal remains dey come from difficult to hunt species, as edey require considerable degree of skill den knowledge for dese animals den dema environments. For example, de remains for bollar den dangerous animals such as lions, hippos, den warthogs dem see dem for dare. Although people dey rely greatly on animal resources, dem get little evidence for reliance for domestic animals. Also at dese sites, dem get evidence for  some fish den other water resources, most of which can be trace insyd de Volta River over 20 kilometers away. Ebi sake of dis distance wey de Banda District bi thought say ego acquired ein water resources through local den regional trade networks. Small amounts of marine shells dey indicate some small degree of dema trade plus de coastal areas as well. Some animal domesticates such as sheep/goat, cattle, horse, den donkey bi present, plus perhaps dema most prevalent being domesticated dog. As dem dey butcher dogs wey dem spread am for ein remains, dem talk say eget ritual or spiritual connotation. Presence of animal domesticates san dey affect de fragmentation den preservation of dema faunal remains.

Villages wey dem set up so say ego house all dem arrange am into large connected compounds, plus areas for high density in pottery den metal slag. Rebuilding den fixing of structures, along plus bollar middens, dey mean large degree of residential stability.

Sites

Ngre Kataa
For dis site of Ngre Kataa, evidence dey for de village occupation wey you go find from de 14th through to de 17th centuries. At dis tym de village bi about two to three hectares for ein size, den eget evidence for various craft activities, iron production, den farming of foods such as pearl millet den sorghum. Although dem get evidence for dese crops, hunting den gathering as well as livestock still dey remain as dema important aspects for dema diet

Kuulo Kataa
Dis bi a multi-component site wey dey de north of Makala Kataa, ebi another site wey dey insyd Banda. Kuulo Kataa bi approximately 2.8 hectares in size wid mounds wey dey dare for various ages den sizes. Here, excavations dey yield quite high densities of animal bones, pottery den iron slag, plus de average pottery density wey bi 5,400 sherds per cubic meter. Dis dey imply say greater intensity of occupation wey dey as you dey compare am to de later sites insyd dis area.

At de site of Kuulo Kataa, dem get evidence for both inter-regional den trans-Saharan trade of materials such as gold, marine shells, glass beads, den copper alloys. Dis bi area wey ebi important as dem dey link trade between dema forest areas to de south den dema drier areas for de north. Here bi wey esan bi where de compound arrangement for houses dem found am, as well as high densities of pottery den iron slag as edey rep dema craft production. Insyd Kuulo Kataa, ceramic styling bi ein wey edey rep as dem find for dema site from de same tym known am as Begho, edey show de connections wey dey among local groups insyd de area.

Begho
Begho bi another major stop wey dey insyd dese trade routes wey dey connect de Sahara den forest edges, den edey just north de of Banda. Dem dey still dey use am as trade center until de Atlantic trade networks wey take over insyd West Africa. A team of archaeologists go excavate over 1500 mounds for dis site, den use am as de radiocarbon wey dey date dey place am as dema peak occupancy between de 15th den 18th centuries. Begho bi de home give various artifacts such as copper alloys, beads, glass den porcelain. Esan get evidence say de craft dey specialize as edey show by de presence of a brass foundry den furnaces.

Dis site dem once divide am into quarters dat dey correspond give various ethnic groups for dat tym. Although Begho dem divide am physically, de stylistic aspects for de craft such as pottery design remaine consistent dey throughout de entire site

Atlantic trade period
Atlantic trade routes bi more heavily use as at de end of de 18th century, den lead am to ein decline in de use of trans-Saharan routes. During dis dema tym, a stronger focus wey dey place for de gold den minerals, den eventually slaves through de Atlantic slave trade. Dis tym dem san dey associate am plus de periods of warfare den conflict wid a group wey dem known am as de Asante, who get large influence on day to day stability den productiveness for dose living insyd de Banda District.

Early Makala
De Early Makala Phase bi characterize by much ein intermittent warfare, den de increase for slave trade activity insyd de area. De Asante, ebi forest state for de south, wey get significant impact for de Banda District during dis tym. De Asante come together insyd de 17th century den slowly begin dey take control of areas for de north throughout de 18th century wid plans say dem go control de Niger River trade. Dis dey included de Banda District, where plenty sites such as Makala Kataa dem abandone am during den tyms of conflict plus de Asante den dem resettle once as de trouble mellow. dema military campaigns result insyd de capture of de site Bono Maso wey dem san call am Begho. Plenty tyms de Asante go require de Banda people wey dey de areas dey come conquer as dem fight insyd wars as dem dey fight plenty plus other groups. By de early 19th century, de Asante come take control for much of de northern trade insyd de Sahara. Dis come result insyd decrease amount of long distance trade goods as dem find insyd Banda, buh esan dey flourish insyd de local den regional markets. Not only dem bi stronger focus for de regional trade, buh dem san get greater narrowing of dema crafts wey dem dey indicate some loss for de wealth insyd Banda to de Asante.

Craft production
Unlike in dema olden days, for de on site metalworking no sheda bi prominent for de Early Makala insyd. Very little slag wey dem fi recover from dema sites, wey edey mean say dat either dema production bi off site somewhere, or dema people dey rely more heavily on metal goods wey dem dey receive via trade wid other areas.

Dem san dey lack evidence for dema on-site pottery production during dis tym. Much decoration wey dem dey see during de Kuulo phase all get lost, plus people wey dey seem say edey favor surface-treated pottery plus maize cob roulette den shallow grooving for dema patterns. Typically, vessels get evert rims, den come for variety of shapes den sizes. One difference in particular from de Kuulo phase bi de clay sourcing. Eno bi only greater diversity of clay sources, buh specific clay sources wey dem dey use for specific types of vessels. For example, clay dem use go make jars come from de west of de hills, while clay wey dem dey use for bowls likely dey come from de east. Dis dey suggest say a strong regional trade wey dey between Banda den groups to de east den west during de Early Makala. Pipes san become much more common, reflecting de increase for tobacco usage den smoking insyd de region.

During dis tym, an increase for de presence of spindle whorls dey dare for de archaeological record. Dis dey reflect a shift to household textile production rather than large-scale production den specialization.

Subsistence den lifestyle
Early Makala settlements typically dey feature de rectangular structures wey dey make up for de adjoining rooms. Walls wey dey form using coursed earth techniques, plus some areas wey get up to three levels of floors in order to seal older floor layers den support collapse walls. One excavation go lead to de discovery of a kitchen wey get two hearths, edey mean say na accommodation for de wet den dry seasons dey characterized dah area.

Subsistence at dis tym dey remain as de mixture of hunting, collecting, den domestication. Dem get shift away from de hunting of dangerous species lyk hippos den lions, den greater dependence on lizards, snakes den rodents instead. Animal domesticates dey include chicken, guinea fowl, dog, sheep/goat, den cattle. As for plants, sites dey show evidence for carbonized sorghum den maize phytoliths, wey grow together for dis area for the quite some time. Dese crops dem think ebi ideal supplements for dema diet during tyms wen other crops lyk yams bi short in supply.

Late Makala
De Late Makala Period bi wen British soldiers come start dey make dema presence insyd de Banda District, specifically from 1890 to de 1920s. Dem san get evidence for a move from compound housing to de free standing structures easy to disassemble den move, wey dem see am as a reflection for de British presence insyd de area. During dis time, dem shift to more local hunting den gathering as well as dem increase de European goods den trade networks. Although manners dey begin to resettle villages dey lef during conflicts plus de Asante, dema houses bi much less sturdy, de pottery bi more simple den uniform in style, den de trade connections bi contracted. At dat tym regional trade dey on smaller scale, den de local trade relationships wey dey remain intact focus to de east of de Banda hills as dem oppose to de east den west lyk e happen insyd de Early Makala period. Dis bi dema thought say ego reflect de local warfare for dat tym. To de west of de Banda District bi Bondoukou, de capital for Gyaman led by Samori wey dem lead ein army to conquer much land across West Africa, so de people for Banda dey focus to de east in dema attempt to lessen interactions. At dis point, dere san bi evidence for increase in tensions between European den African interests. For example, de British den Asante fight along de coast for control of land den other resources, eventually leading to de British capture for de Asante capital Kumasi. Insyd 1894, de Banda sign a treaty plus a British traveler, marking de end for de control of de Asante over de Banda region

Craft production
Insyd de Late Makala, dem shift from locally made goods towards more manufacture ones as dem result of British presence insyd de area. Dis shift to manufacture goods bi an attempt by de British insyd de area go expand trade into more European markets. One of ein first crafts dey go bi pipe making, plus metalworking den pottery following behind. Although production dey slow down drastically for trade purposes, locally made ceramics dem dey still use for dema household. Neutron analysis for de clay dey put de clay source to de east of de hills for over half of dema samples, den de same clay source bi dem use for both bowls den jars, which dey contrasts dema earlier period. Stylistically, de decoration for de pottery bi san much more closely dey relate to dat wey dem see for dis area today. During dis tym dem no get evidence for extensive on site metalworking either. All dema samples dem find bi likely dem dey acquire through trade den dem dey modify am for dema own purposes. dema only craft wey dey remain plus dem from de Early Makala bi de textile production. De system for household production of textiles dey still remain intact despite increase demand for manufactured goods for trade networks.

Subsistence den lifestyle
De Banda during dis tym dey continue to rely for wild animals, particularly mammals, as ebi evidence by dema faunal remains as dem dey recover am from de site, den de diversity for faunal remains bi more consistent plus dat of de Kuulo Phase. Crops lyk yams, corn, groundnuts den cassava go continue to show up plus increasing intensity, as well as tobacco. Dem even get evidence dat tobacco wey dem grow am insyd de Banda District wey dem dey sell for de nearby Kintampo Complex.

Residential units insyd de Late Makala bi very minimal, wey edey mean say dem bi quite simple den made out of two rooms. Dese bi typically pole den daga structures wey dem go put up very quickly den efficiently. Dem san get only one floor level den lack any kind of compound formation.

Slavery
As ecatch de height of de slave trade, de Banda District come serve as dema source of slaves, as well as a place for de containment, holding den purchasing for de war captives. De Bono wey dem known am as dem send Banda war captives from dema military campaigns insyd de north into de Atlantic trade as dema slaves. During de 19th century, dem get considerable increase for slave demands as dem dey satisfy not only de Atlantic slave trade, buh de internal slave trade as well. Much of de internal slave demand dem generate am by dema use as payments den laborers insyd de crops harvesting den other resources such as gold. As dem get influence from de British, changes insyd economic structure wey dem see am. Groups here dey move from practices wey dey community based den resistant go risk, to go practice dat bi more focus on de individual den favore de production of specialized commodities.

Sites

Makala Kataa
Dis site dey shows evidence for two occupations, one larger bi one during de late 18th den early 19th centuries, den much shorter one from de late 19th century wey until de 1920s. De early settlement get ein site size for around 18 hectares, den remain as ebi fairly long-lived settlement until its abrupt ein abandonment. De later occupation get only yield shallow cultural deposits for import goods such as a coin, glass bottles, den pipes.

British influence
British involvement insyd de Banda District dey start for de late 19th century. De British bi enmesh for plenty struggles for de land den other resources for de area, plus both de Asante den other groups. One such group bi lead by man wey dem call am Imam Samori. Samori lead ein army for horses, den conquer land for all de way from Guinea go Côte d'Ivoire. De British wey come prevent Samori from taking Banda, sake of fears wey dat come disrupt trade for de region.

Although dem dey impose a colonial administration insyd Banda, de British for de first dey remain fairly dey separate from ein people for everyday life. Ein interest insyd Banda dey revolve mostly around economic goods den materials, as dem dey oppose as dem dey get active presence for dey ruling de area. Later, Banda production dem shift am go suit de trends den desires for European markets, den resources such as cocoa den slaves as ebecome quickly for major exports. De British san institute am uniform currency, wey taxes den other fees wey all dey require go pay am using dis system sake of de cowrie shell system previously as dem dey utilize by de Banda people.

References
Archaeology of Ghana
Archaeology of Western Africa

Banda District (Ghana)

Archaeology of Banda District (Ghana)


The angular momentum or rotational momentum (L) of an object rotating about an axis is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity:

where
  is the moment of inertia (resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its radius measured perpendicularly from the axis of rotation);
  is the angular velocity.

There are three kinds of angular momentum: the vibrational angular momentum, the spin angular momentum and the orbital angular momentum.

Vibrational angular momentum
The vibrational angular momentum is that of photons. Its minimum portion is the Planck quantum of vibration or action:
According to this picture, the creation of photons is to be viewed like the plucking of a guitar—as a sudden increment in the excitation of one of the modes of vibration.
—Davies, Paul. The Forces of Nature CUP, 1979, p. 116
... to an energy quantum of vibration, such as that of Planck, there must correspond an energy quantum of rotation ...
—Birtwistle, George. The Quantum Theory of the Atom CUP, 2015, pp. 2–3
The Planck quantum of action, h, has precisely the dimensions of an angular momentum ...
—Biedenharn, L. C.; Louck, J. D. Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Advanced Book Program, 1981

Spin angular momentum
The spin angular momentum is that of an object turning around an axis which passes through the object's centre (for example, a top spinning around its central axis).

An object that is very spread-out from the axis of rotation has a large moment of inertia—it is very hard to make it start spinning, but once it gets going, it is very hard to make it stop. Similarly, it is easier to make an object start spinning at a low angular velocity than to make it start spinning at a high angular velocity. This is why the spin angular momentum depends both on how spread-out the object is (moment of inertia) and how fast it is spinning (angular velocity).

Orbital angular momentum
The orbital angular momentum is that of an object revolving around an axis which does not pass through the object's centre. For example, the Sun and the Earth orbit each other by revolving around an axis that passes through the Sun, but not through the Sun's centre. The orbital angular momentum measures how hard it would be to make the object stop revolving around the axis.

Conservation
Angular momentum is a conserved quantity—an object's angular momentum stays constant unless an external torque acts on it.

Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved. Motorcycles, frisbees and rifled bullets all owe their useful properties to conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum is also why hurricanes have spirals and neutron stars have high rotational rates. In general, conservation limits the possible motion of a system but does not uniquely determine it.

Related pages
Momentum
Rotational kinetic energy

Other websites
Conservation of angular momentum

Basic physics ideas
Mechanics

Angular momentum


Donkey Kong 64 is a 1999 platform game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. It is the only Donkey Kong game to feature 3D gameplay. As the gorilla Donkey Kong, the player explores themed levels to collect items and rescue his kidnapped family members from King K. Rool. The player completes minigames and puzzles as five playable Kong characters—each with their own special abilities—to receive bananas and other collectibles. In multiplayer modes, up to four players can compete in deathmatch and last man standing games.

Rare began working on Donkey Kong 64 in 1997, following the completion of Donkey Kong Country 3 (1996). It was conceived as a 2.5D platformer similar to Country before becoming a more open-ended game using the engine from Rare's Banjo-Kazooie (1998). A 16-person team with many recruits from the Banjo group finished it in 1999. It was published by Nintendo in North America in November and worldwide in December. Donkey Kong 64 was the first game to require the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak, an accessory that added memory resources. The  marketing campaign included advertisements, sweepstakes, and a national tour.

Donkey Kong 64 received acclaim and was Nintendo's top seller during the 1999 holiday season, with 2.3 million units sold by 2004. It won the 1999 E3 Game Critics award for Best Platform Game and multiple awards and nominations from magazines. Reviewers praised the exceptional size and length, but criticized its camera controls and emphasis on item collection and backtracking. Some cited its gameplay and visual similarities to Banjo-Kazooie as a detriment. Critics said Donkey Kong 64 did not match the revolutionary impact of Donkey Kong Country but was still among the Nintendo 64's best 3D platform games.

Donkey Kong 64 was Rare's final Donkey Kong game prior to its acquisition by Microsoft in 2002 and the last major Donkey Kong game until Jungle Beat (2004). It was rereleased on Nintendo's Wii U Virtual Console in 2015. Retrospective reviews of Donkey Kong 64 were mixed; critics considered it emblematic of the tedium in Rare's "collect-a-thon" adventure platformers. The "DK Rap", a song featured in the introduction, garnered notoriety as one of the worst songs to feature in a video game.

Gameplay

Donkey Kong 64 is a 3D platforming action-adventure game in which the player, as Donkey Kong and his friends, explores an island and collects items to progress through minigames and puzzles. The game follows a traditional storyline for the series: King K. Rool and his reptilian Kremlings invade the idyllic DK Isle and kidnap Donkey Kong's friends, planning to power up their Blast-O-Matic weapon and destroy the island. After a tutorial, the player embarks as Donkey Kong to rescue the others from their kidnappers and stop K. Rool's plan. While exploring the in-game world and completing puzzle minigames, the player collects two types of bananas: colored bananas, which are color-coded differently for each Kong character, award the player with banana medals and can be traded for access to each world's boss fight; and golden bananas, a certain number of which are required to unlock each new in-game world. Of 3,831 total collectible items, 1,810 (1,680 colored bananas, 100 golden bananas, 8 boss keys, 1 blueprint, 15 banana medals, 4 K. Rool crowns, the Nintendo coin, and the Rare coin) are required to complete the game.

Most of the puzzles are simple and involve rearranging items, manipulating switches and tiles, or matching items as in the game Concentration. Minigames include races, minecart rides, and barrels that shoot the characters as projectiles. There are five such golden banana-rewarding objectives for each of five playable characters across seven themed worlds200 goals in total, in addition to a connecting overworld. The worlds' themes include underwater, forest, jungle, and industry. Unlike prior Donkey Kong games, the objectives can be completed in any order. The player can fast travel between sections of the level with designated warp pads and can swap between characters in designated swap barrels. The player collects banana coins, which can be spent to unlock new weapons and abilities, and other collectibles such as weapon ammunition and blueprint puzzle pieces. As in other Rare games, the player often encounters an impasse such as an indestructible object or out-of-reach area, and must acquire a new ability with which to eventually backtrack and resolve it.

Donkey Kong's kidnapped friends become playable characters after being rescued. Each of the five characters begin with basic abilities and can purchase additional, unique abilities from Cranky Kong as the game progresses, which are necessary to solve certain puzzles. For example, Donkey Kong can operate levers, Chunky Kong can lift rocks, Tiny Kong can crawl through holes, Diddy Kong can fly, and Lanky Kong can float. The characters each use unique projectiles and musical instruments. For example, some doors can be opened only with Donkey Kong's coconut projectiles and others can be opened only with Diddy Kong's guitar. There are more special abilities than face buttons on the controller, so button combinations are needed to trigger some abilities. Combinations also trigger special modes, including alternative camera angles, a sniper mode, and a snapshot mode which unlocks more in-game secrets. Playable versions of the original Donkey Kong (1981) and Jetpac (1983) are hidden within the game, and playing through them is required to finish the story. The player-character can also transform into animals, such as Rambi the Rhino and Enguarde the Swordfish, who recur from earlier series games. Optional hardware support includes a widescreen mode and Rumble Pak compatibility.

A separate multiplayer mode has six minigames for two to four players. Monkey Smash is an open arena, deathmatch-style minigame in which up to four players find ammo and use their respective projectile weapons from the single-player game to damage other players before losing all their own lives. Battle Arena is a king-of-the-hill minigame in which players use weapons and explosives to knock each other off the edge of a platform. Each mode has several sub-types in which players can compete based on time or score.

Development

Conception
The British studio Rare, which created the successful Donkey Kong Country games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in the mid-1990s, developed Donkey Kong 64, with Gregg Mayles leading the effort. Development began in 1997, shortly after the completion of Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! (1996). It was originally intended for release on the Nintendo 64's 64DD add-on, but transitioned to cartridge after the 64DD was delayed and eventually canceled. A team of 16 people worked on the game across three years, and an additional eight members assisted in its later stages. George Andreas served as the project's director.

Rare conceived Donkey Kong 64 as a linear, 2.5D platform game similar to the Donkey Kong Country games. The Nintendo 64 was still new, and at the time Rare did not have a common game engine. The linear version was developed for around 18 months before it was eliminated in favor of a more open-ended approach similar to Rare's 1998 game Banjo-Kazooie (1998). Many developers transitioned from the Banjo team, and the final version was built atop the Banjo game engine.

Design
The character models were designed and animated from scratch. Rare was unable to reuse the models from the Donkey Kong Country series, where they had been pre-rendered and modeled with NURBs using PowerAnimator; Donkey Kong 64s real-time 3D graphics could only use polygons, so the team used a new tool, Gamegen. The pre-rendered models were used as reference for the polygon models and textures, such as for the interior of the Kongs' mouths. Though the real-time graphics prevented Rare from reproducing the level of detail seen in the Donkey Kong Country series, they allowed for more expressive characters. Rendering satisfactory models proved challenging; lead artist Mark Stevenson noted that "[b]eing able to see this character from any angle, you'd make an animation, put it in the game, and you'd think it looked good side-on, but awful from every other angle!"

The strong emphasis on collectibles was a design choice made at the request of Rare co-founder Tim Stamper to distinguish Donkey Kong 64 from Banjo-Kazooie. According to director George Andreas, "I'd always go back to him and say 'Here's some' and he'd go 'No, more things. Retrospectively, Andreas commented that he should have reined himself in; particularly, he would have liked to unify the color-coded banana system. Rare attempted to differentiate Donkey Kong 64 from Banjo-Kazooie through its variety of playable characters, cinematic set-pieces, and bombastic boss battles. According to Andreas, Donkey Kong creator Shigeru Miyamoto was appalled when he saw Donkey Kong shoot a realistic shotgun used as a placeholder during a pre-release demonstration, and quickly sketched the coconut gun used in the final game.

A removed feature, "Stop 'N' Swop", allowed data to be transferred from Banjo-Kazooie to Donkey Kong 64 to unlock in-game bonuses. During development, Rare discovered the Nintendo 64 retained flash memory for several seconds after a cartridge's removal. They implemented a feature whereby removing the Donkey Kong 64 cartridge and quickly inserting the Banjo-Kazooie cartridge, while the former's memory was still in the console, would unlock bonus content. Nintendo requested Stop 'N' Swop's removal when Rare submitted Donkey Kong 64 for approval. Nintendo was concerned the Nintendo 64 would not retain RDRAM long enough for the feature to work and that it could potentially damage consoles. Specifically, Nintendo 64 models produced after Banjo-Kazooie release reduced the amount of time the console retained flash memory, making Stop 'N' Swop nearly impossible to activate as intended.

Donkey Kong 64 was the first of two games to require the Nintendo 64's Expansion Pak, a console RAM upgrade bundled with the game. The Expansion Pak was previously used to power optional higher-resolution graphics, but in the case of Donkey Kong 64, it was marketed as improving the frame rate and rendering of objects at a distance. Chris Marlow, who was working on Conker's Bad Fur Day (2001) at the time, claimed that Rare could not resolve a bug that occurred without the Expansion Pak and thus they were forced, at great expense, to bundle the game with the memory upgrade. However, Stevenson called Marlow's story a "myth" and said that the decision to use the Expansion Pak was made early. Though such a bug did exist toward the end of development, according to Stevenson, the Expansion Pak was not the solution for the problem and it was not introduced for that reason. According to Stevenson, the Expansion Pak was used to power the dynamic lighting system. Nintendo stated that the choice to bundle, rather than selling the accessory separately, would avoid consumer confusion.

Music

Grant Kirkhope composed the soundtrack, which Nintendo Life described as closer in spirit to Banjo-Kazooie than to David Wise's Donkey Kong Country soundtracks. However, Kirkhope commented that he tried to retain the darker, atmospheric tone that Wise brought to Donkey Kong Country, and included a remix of Wise's "Jungle Japes". Donkey Kong Country 3 composer Eveline Fischer was originally assigned to Donkey Kong 64; Kirkhope became involved after he was asked for assistance, and he provided Donkey Kong's voice. The "DK Rap", which introduces the Kong character abilities, was conceived and written by Andreas, scored and recorded by Kirkhope, and performed by Andreas and Chris Sutherland. It was intended to be a lighthearted joke, although critics interpreted it as a serious songwriting attempt. Nintendo of America ran a "DK Rap" contest in which fans record their own version of the rap to win prizes including a trip to its headquarters.

Promotion and release
Rare announced Donkey Kong 64 with a single screenshot on its website and coverage in the January 1999 issue of Nintendo Power. Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote that it was playable by the 1997 Electronic Entertainment Expo, though IGN said that it debuted at the 1999 event. It was also demonstrated at Nintendo's 1999 trade show Spaceworld. Donkey Kong 64 was expected to be a bestseller, as the console's "crowning achievement" in graphics and sound.

Donkey Kong 64s sizable  marketing campaign doubled the typical budget for a major Nintendo release. The campaign included a 60-second commercial played at over 10,000 movie theaters during the holiday season, and additional advertisements via billboards, print, and radio. A promotional "The Beast Is Back" tour brought a truck outfitted with Nintendo games across the United States, and a separate sweepstakes between the series and Dr. Pepper was advertised in supermarkets. Nintendo projected sales of  copies within one year, and later that year increased the number to 4 million copies ( more than for The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time), including  of the translucent green Nintendo 64 bundles. Polled retailers expected Donkey Kong 64 to be the top console game sold during the 1999 holiday season. It had little holiday season competition from Nintendo, as Nintendo had moved releases including Mario Party 2, Perfect Dark, and Pokémon Stadium into the next year.

Rare and Nintendo released Donkey Kong 64 in North America in November 1999, and a worldwide release followed the next month. Nintendo offered a special bundle of the game and console, including a banana yellow-colored game cartridge, its required Expansion Pak, and a transparent green "Jolly Rancher-style" Nintendo 64 console.

In April 2015, Donkey Kong 64 was digitally rereleased as one of the first Nintendo 64 games added to Nintendo's Wii U Virtual Console catalog. This was the game's first rerelease, as it had not appeared on the Wii Virtual Console. Why it was never released on the Wii Virtual Console is unknown, although Nintendo World Report speculated that it may have been related to the fact that it contains both the original arcade Donkey Kong (which was already available on the Virtual Console) and Jetpac (which Nintendo does not hold the rights to) as playable bonuses.

Reception

Donkey Kong 64 received critical acclaim"universal acclaim", according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. It became the Nintendo 64's top seller during the 1999 holiday season and Nintendo's chief defense against competitor Sega's introduction of its Dreamcast console. As a bestseller, Donkey Kong 64 joined Nintendo's "Player's Choice" game selection, where high sales continued through the next holiday season. By 2004, more than 2.3 million units had been sold in North America. It won the 1999 E3 Game Critics award for Best Platform Game, and several annual awards from Nintendo Power, including best overall game of 1999. It received nominations for "Game of the Year" and "Console Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences during the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards (now known as the D.I.C.E. Awards). GamePro named it an "Editor's Choice". IGN described Donkey Kong 64 as the biggest and most ambitious Nintendo 64 game as of its release, but very similar to Banjo-Kazooie in its platforming and puzzle design. Similarities between the two games was a common refrain. Overall, reviewers were more impressed by its visuals than by its other elements, such as gameplay.

Reviewers criticized the emphasis on collecting items and backtracking"an interactive egg hunt". This had become a trend in Rare's games, and Donkey Kong 64 followed the "predictable formula" of making players collect multiple sets of items and in full for a special ending. Next Generation noted Rare's propensity for backtracking. GameSpot more diplomatically assumed that players who liked collecting items would be titillated by its replay value, and those who did not would be frustrated by its chores. The Cincinnati Enquirer applauded the minigames as a "welcome diversion [which] add to the fun of an already massive adventure", and which are so good they would have worked as their own released games on previous-generation consoles. EGM said the puzzles and minigames are fun the first time through, but they quickly become worn when replayed with increasingly tighter time restrictions. GameSpot, however, considered parts of Donkey Kong 64s gameplay "cerebral", requiring the consideration of several simultaneous tasks to solve later puzzles. Already familiar with concepts borrowed from Super Mario 64, Ocarina of Time, and Banjo-Kazooie, critics considered the player's tasks less innovative or interesting to decipher. In retrospective reviews, Nintendo Life described the chore of collecting objects "excessive" and repetitive. They suggested that backtracking, for instance, could be reduced by letting the player switch between characters at any time.

The size and length were frequently noted. With an estimated 30 hours in basic gameplay, IGN called it Rare's War and Peace. GameFan wrote that "big" is an understatement, and "the adventure found within is mastodonic". Writers from AllGame and EGM became frequently lost or distracted in its world. The ingenuity of the boss battles, particularly the final battle against K. Rool, was highlighted, although the story's ending disappointed EGM. Reviewers found little entertainment in the multiplayer mode but praised the gameplay variety between the five characters. The controls also frustrated reviewers, between slow movement speed and camera angle issues. For example, characters who become unresponsive during their attack animations are vulnerable to encroaching enemies. Edge wrote that the lack of camera improvements over Banjo-Kazooie was inexcusable.

Even with the RAM expansion for graphics, Donkey Kong 64s visuals were only found marginallyif at allbetter than that of its contemporary games, such as the previous year's Banjo-Kazooie. IGN avowed that Donkey Kong 64 was not as pretty as Banjo-Kazooie, especially in its water and backgrounds, though it still ranked among the console's prettiest games because the setting is barren and nondescript at first, and only later introduces lighting effects and richer textures. IGN hoped for more from Rare, praising the particle effects (such as in the desert wind), but considering its dynamic lighting overused. N64 Magazine said the enhanced effects were most often used for decoration, though they also played some role in puzzles based on illuminating paths. Graphical difficulties were reported even with the extra memory, such as frame rate slowdowns and distant features not appearing in any detail, though overall they commended the graphical flourishes. GameSpot also saw a lack of variety in the environment.

The characters were praised for their personalities, animations, and portrayal of Rare's signature humor. Several reviewers noted the personalities shown in character animations. IGN considered the characters less baffling than those of other Rare games, and sometimes funny. GameFan found that the addition of the three new playable characters to the series offered little personality that would be missed.

IGN said that the music was less clever than Banjo-Kazooies, but Kirkhope's soundtrack still delivered a variety of moods and fit the setting. Aural clues in the surround sound and the quality of the underwater effects impressed GameSpot. Reviewers criticized the opening "DK Rap" as "embarrassing" and among the worst video game music. GamePro said it was humorous but lowbrow. Eight years later, Nintendo Life said the song was "loved by some, loathed by others", similar to the game itself.

The consensus was that Donkey Kong 64 lacked the revolutionary potential of Donkey Kong Country but was of a sufficient high quality to sell well during the holiday season. The Cincinnati Enquirer described its platform style as coupled with many others, such as Super Mario 64, Banjo-Kazooie, and Jet Force Gemini (1999): "Replace the story line, the graphics and a couple of gameplay elements and you basically have the same game". Nonetheless, he said "its mastering of elements that have been done to death may be just the spark needed" to evolve the genre in games released in later years, celebrating its gameplay as addictive and some of the best on the Nintendo 64. Though hyped fans would be disappointed, IGN said that Donkey Kong 64 remains an excellent and expansive platformer with an overwhelming amount of things to do. GameFan, on the other hand, was most disappointed by how it "truly offers nothing new" and compared its monotony and repetition with the 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut: "a big bloated project with not enough brilliant moments to justify the numbness... [of] sitting through the whole thing", it "fails to live up to the Rare name". Donkey Kong 64s 3D platforming was commonplace by the time of its release and, according to GameSpot, would have fared better as a Nintendo 64 launch game. With its competition considered, Daily Radar wrote that Donkey Kong 64 was simply the best 3D platform game on the console. Edge qualified this thought: Donkey Kong 64 was the closest any third-party developer had come to outdoing Nintendo's mastery of game structure and was "a fine effort... in its own right", but its gameplay was derivative and unimaginative compared to the freedom and flexibility of Nintendo's Super Mario 64.

In a retrospective review, Nintendo Life found the Wii U controller an easy substitute for the Nintendo 64's controls.

Legacy
Rare's 3D platformers became notorious for their emphasis on collecting items, and Kotaku remembered Donkey Kong 64 as "the worst offender" with hundreds of color-coded bananas. Other retrospective reviewers agreed. Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote: "As... Super Mario 64 breathed life into the 3D platforming genre, Donkey Kong 64 sucked it all out" and solidified Rare's reputation for making "collect-a-thon" games. The indie developer behind A Hat in Time, a spiritual successor to Banjo-Kazooie, blamed Donkey Kong 64 for the "collect-a-thon platform adventurer" genre's decline in popularity. The game holds a Guinness World Record for most collectible items in a platform game.

Retro Gamer and Game Informer both remembered the reception as "mixed", in consideration of its similarities with Banjo-Kazooie and lack of genre-pushing changes. Though decently reviewed, this and Rare's subsequent Nintendo 64 releases did not meet the extolment of the company's preceding games, and lackluster sales led to a staff exodus that culminated with the company's acquisition by Microsoft in 2002. Donkey Kong 64 was resultingly Rare's final Donkey Kong game; the series did not receive another major installment until Donkey Kong Jungle Beat (2004) five years later. Electronic Gaming Monthly noted at the game's launch, that the Nintendo 64 was approaching the end of its lifecycle, as gamers turned their sights to the Sega Dreamcast and Sony PlayStation 2. IGN later named Donkey Kong 64 as worthy of a remake for the Nintendo 3DS handheld console. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine placed the game 89th in a list of the best Nintendo games, calling it "a forgotten classic".

The "DK Rap" is still remembered for its negative reception, but an upswing in popularity happened more than a decade after release as an Internet meme. Sutherland believes this happened because those who played the game as children had realized the song was meant to be taken as a joke, not a serious songwriting attempt. Similarly, Kirkhope commented that "it's a bit like ABBA, the way they've kind of come back into fashion over the years". Renditions of the "DK Rap" appeared in Super Smash Bros. Melee (2001) and Donkey Konga (2003). In 2017, Kirkhope composed a similar rap for Yooka-Laylee, a platform game made in homage to Rare's works. The rap plays during Donkey Kong's introduction in The Super Mario Bros. Movie (2023), included at the behest of Donkey Kong's voice actor Seth Rogen. Kirkhope was flattered by the song's inclusion, but disappointed he did not receive credit; the film simply credits it as originating from Donkey Kong 64.

Notes

References

External links
 . .

1999 video games
3D platform games
Cancelled 64DD games
Donkey Kong platform games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo 64 games
Rare (company) games
Video game sequels
Video games scored by Grant Kirkhope
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games about size change
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Video games developed in the United Kingdom

Donkey Kong 64


Zante currants, Corinth raisins, Corinthian raisins or outside the United States simply currants, are raisins of the small, sweet, seedless grape cultivar Black Corinth (Vitis vinifera). The name comes from the Anglo-French phrase "raisins de Corinthe" (grapes of Corinth) and the Ionian island of Zakynthos (Zante), which was once the major producer and exporter. It is not related to black, red or white currants, which are berries of shrubs in the genus Ribes and not usually prepared in dried form.

History
The Zante currant is one of the oldest known raisins. The first written record of the grape was made in 75 AD by Pliny the Elder, who described a tiny, juicy, thick-skinned grape with small bunches. The next mention is a millennium later, when the raisins became a subject of trade between Venetian merchants and Greek producers from Ionian coasts. In the 14th century, they were sold in the English market under the label Reysyns de Corauntz, and the name raisins of Corinth was recorded in the 15th century, after the Greek harbor which was the primary source of export. Gradually, the name got corrupted into currant.  By the 17th century trade shifted towards the Ionian islands, particularly Zakynthos (Zante), resulting in the name Zante currant.

In the U.S.
The first attempts to introduce the Black Corinth cultivar in the United States date back to 1854. The first successful vineyards of White and Red Corinth (related varieties), were established in California in 1861 by Colonel Ágoston Haraszthy. Around 1901, David Fairchild of USDA imported high-quality black currant cuttings from the Greek village of Panariti, a renowned producer, and established the first commercial crops. However, because of the higher popularity of Thompson Seedless, American production remained modest up to 1920s and 1930s, after which its popularity increased due to the higher prices it could bring and improved cultivation practices such as girdling. The plantings reached  by 1936, and have plateaued there since.

Description
In wild grapes, the species is dioecious; the sexes grow on separate vines with male flowers on one plant, and female flowers on another. Black Corinth is an "almost male" variety in that the flowers have well-developed anthers (male), but only tiny underdeveloped ovaries (female).

Clusters of Black Corinth are small, averaging  and ranging from . They are cylindrical, with prominent shoulder or winged. The berries are very small , round, and of a reddish black color. The skin is very thin, and the flesh is juicy and soft. It is practically seedless, except in an occasional large berry. When dried, the raisins weigh  and are dark brown or black. Leaves are
medium-sized, heart-shaped, and oblong. They are five-lobed with deep sinuses.

Cultivation

To yield sufficient fruit, Black Corinth grapes need to be carefully managed.  In ancient times, girdling was a standard practice to increase the set and size of seedless grapes, until the discovery of the plant hormone gibberellic acid, and its ability to do the same thing with less labor. Historically, Black Corinth stock was probably kept for its pollen-producing abilities, so other female flowered varieties (with naturally higher yields) would set full crops.

The Black Corinth cultivar is also reputed to be very prone to powdery mildew, and is susceptible to numerous other diseases such as downy mildew and black rot.

Greece is still the primary producer of Zante currants, amounting to about 80% of total world production, with California, South Africa and Australia sharing most of the remainder.

Culinary use

Zante currants are usually called simply "currants", except in the U.S., and in many anglophone countries are used in traditional baked goods and puddings.

They have been a key ingredient of British cuisine for centuries, having been imported from the Mediterranean as sweet luxury goods long before cane sugar became widely available in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Alongside raisins and sultanas they feature heavily in a wide variety of traditional baked goods recipes, including fruitcake, currant buns, teacakes, Eccles cakes, Saffron cake, bread and butter pudding, spotted dick, Welsh cakes, Bara brith, Christmas pudding and mince pies. They are also a major ingredient of currant slice (or currant square) and currant cake.

Zante currants are often sold in mixtures of "mixed dried fruit".

Unlike blackcurrants, Zante currants are not a significant source of vitamin C. The fresh fruit Zante raisins are made from is very small and sweet, with quite an intense flavour for a grape. Black, White and Red Corinth are often marketed under the name "Champagne grapes" in U.S. specialty stores, but they are not used for making Champagne.

Toxicity
Along with grapes and raisins, Zante currants are nephrotoxic to dogs. This toxicity manifests as kidney failure and can be seen in relatively small doses.

See also
 Sultana (grape)
 Raisin

References

External links

 Complete Nutrition Facts

Raisins
Crops originating from Europe
Grape varieties of Greece
Greek products with protected designation of origin
Zakynthos
Agriculture in California

Zante currant


Crofelemer (USAN, trade name Mytesi) is an antidiarrheal indicated for the symptomatic relief of non-infectious diarrhea in adult patients with HIV/AIDS on antiretroviral therapy. Other possible uses include diarrhea in children, acute infectious diarrhea, and diarrhea in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. It is a purified oligomeric proanthocyanidin from "dragon's blood", the sap of the South American tree Croton lechleri.

Crofelemer treats the symptoms of disease, but it is not used to treat infectious diarrhea (diarrhea caused by infection of the digestive system by a bacterium, virus or parasite).
It was initially developed by Napo Pharmaceuticals, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Jaguar Health, Inc. A Phase III clinical trial for diarrhea in HIV patients was completed in 2012, and the drug was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 31 December 2012.

Mechanism of action
The drug is taken orally and works by modulating cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC), two chloride ion channels from the luminal side of the gastrointestinal tract. This is a first-in-class antisecretory antidiarrheal mechanism of action and it does not affect gastrointestinal motility, unlike the traditional antimotility drugs. As a result of the channel regulation, fewer chloride ions are secreted into the gut, which decreases the associated secretion of sodium ions and accompanying water, thus improving stool consistency and reducing the frequency of watery stools and duration of the diarrhea. The mechanism is selective for the CFTR and CaCC, as other channels involved in intestinal fluid secretion, namely sodium and potassium channels, are not affected by crofelemer, nor is cAMP or calcium signaling.

Crofelemer is minimally, if at all, absorbed from the gut into the bloodstream, and is mostly excreted in the stools.

Adverse effects and interactions
Crofelemer is well tolerated; and the only adverse effects found in clinical studies were mild gastrointestinal effects at the same level as under placebo. The most common adverse reactions (≥ 3%) are: upper respiratory tract infection, bronchitis, cough, flatulence and increased bilirubin.

Origin and chemistry

Crofelemer is an oligomeric proanthocyanidin mixture primarily composed of (+)–catechin, (–)–epicatechin, (+)–gallocatechin, and (–)–epigallocatechin monomer units linked in random sequence, as represented below. The average degree of polymerization for the oligomers ranges between 5 and 7.5, as determined by phloroglucinol degradation. The substance is a purified oligomeric proanthocyanidin from the sap, or more correctly the latex, of the South American tree Croton lechleri (locally called Sangre de Grado or Sangre de Drago). This is one of several plants producing bright red latex or resin called "dragon's blood". Crofelemer is a complex mixture of procyanidins and prodelphinidins with up to 30 (epi)catechin or (epi)gallocatechin units per molecule, resulting in a molecular mass of up to 9 kDa.

History of Crude Plant Latex (Dragon's Blood) and Crofelemer
The crude plant latex of C. lechleri is traditionally used in South American medicine for the treatment of diarrhea, wounds, inflammations, tumors, insect bites, and other conditions. A number of chemicals were isolated in the late 1980s and 1990s and tested in cellular and animal models, for example identifying taspine as a cicatrizant (wound healing promoter). Immunomodulatory, antioxidative, antiproliferative and mutagenic effects of dragon's blood and its components also received some attention from the scientific community. The purified oligomeric proanthocyanidin fraction was first described in 1994 under the name SP-303 as an antiviral drug, but a study testing it for the treatment of herpes simplex did not show any benefit. In 1999, crofelemer was reported to improve the symptoms of cholera toxin induced diarrhea in mice. Crofelemer demonstrated reduction of duration of diarrhea and frequency of watery stools in patients with traveler's diarrhea and patients with HIV/AIDS. Crofelemer has also shown benefit in adult patients with acute infectious diarrhea from E. coli and salmonella, and in patients with moderate to severe watery diarrhea from vibrio cholerae. Crofelemer has also been shown to improve abdominal pain and discomfort in patients with diarrhea-predominate irritable bowel syndrome.

SP-303 was eventually named crofelemer and patented by Napo Pharmaceuticals, which licensed it to Glenmark Pharmaceuticals in 2005, for exclusive development and marketing rights in 140 emerging markets including India, and to Salix Pharmaceuticals for exclusive development and marketing rights in North America, the European Union and Japan, in 2008. Subsequently, Napo sued Salix and terminated the agreements with Salix and Glenmark in 2011, alleging that they were stalling the drug's development. In 2012, crofelemer completed a Phase III trial, and it was approved in December 2012 by the FDA for the indication "symptomatic relief of non-infectious diarrhea in patients with HIV/AIDS on anti-retroviral therapy".

The drug substance is manufactured by Glenmark Pharmaceuticals, and is manufactured as 125 mg delayed-release tablets by Patheon Pharmaceuticals Inc. for Napo Pharmaceuticals.

References

External links

Antidiarrhoeals
Condensed tannins
Natural phenol oligomers
Botanical drugs

Crofelemer


Verve Records is an active American record label owned by Universal Music Group (UMG). Founded in 1956 by Norman Granz, the label is home to the world's largest jazz catalogue, which includes recordings by artists such as Jon Batiste, Diana Krall, Ella Fitzgerald, Nina Simone, Stan Getz, Bill Evans, Billie Holiday, and Oscar Peterson, among others as well as a diverse mix of other recordings that fall outside of jazz including albums from disparate artists like the Velvet Underground, Kurt Vile, Arooj Aftab, Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention and many more. It absorbed the catalogues of Granz's earlier label, Clef Records, founded in 1946; Norgran Records, founded in 1953; and material which was previously licensed to Mercury Records.

The label has continued to be the home to an eclectic mix of modern artists, including Kurt Vile, Everything But the Girl, Samara Joy and Arooj Aftab. The restructured Verve Records is now part of the Verve Label Group (VLG), a subsidiary of Universal Music Group. This company is also home to historic imprints including Verve Forecast, Impulse! and Decca Records.

History
Norman Granz created Verve to produce new recordings by Ella Fitzgerald, whom he managed; the first album the label released was Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book. The catalog grew throughout the 1950s and 1960s to include Charlie Parker, Bill Evans, Stan Getz, Billie Holiday, Oscar Peterson, Ben Webster, and Lester Young.

By 1960 Milton Rudin, Granz' attorney, represented Frank Sinatra and knew that Sinatra wanted his own label. Sinatra and Granz made a handshake deal, but negotiations broke down over price and Sinatra's desire that Granz remain head of the label. Granz sold Verve to MGM in 1960. Sinatra established Reprise Records and hired Mo Ostin, an executive at Verve, to run it. At Verve, Creed Taylor was made head producer. Taylor adopted a more commercial approach, terminating several contracts. He brought bossa nova to America with the release of Jazz Samba by Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd, Getz/Gilberto, and Rain Forest by Walter Wanderley. Verve's arrangers included Claus Ogerman and Oliver Nelson. According to Ogerman in Jazzletter, he arranged 60–70 albums for Verve from 1963 to 1967.

In 1964, Taylor supervised the creation of a folk music subsidiary named Verve Folkways which was later renamed Verve Forecast. Taylor left Verve in 1967 to form CTI Records. Aside from jazz, Verve's catalogue included the Righteous Brothers, the Velvet Underground, Frank Zappa & the Mothers of Invention, Rare Earth, and the Blues Project, as well as a series of "Sound Impressions of an American on Tour" records which was produced in cooperation with Esquire Magazine.

The late 1960s relationship between Verve and other MGM labels is illustrated in the promotional "Music Factory" radio series for college stations hosted by A&R man  Tom Wilson (record producer), with studio guests from a variety of MGM labels: Janis Ian, Dave Van Ronk, Richie Havens, the Cowsills, Lovin' Spoonful and more. Meanwhile, the program's conversations and advertisements pitched everything from Nico and the Velvet Underground (produced by Wilson) and the  Bosstown Sound bands (Beacon Street Union, Ultimate Spinach and Orpheus), to MGM movie-soundtrack LPs like Gone with the Wind.

While the Velvet Underground's first records did not initially sell well, the band became a major influence in independent rock music. See The Velvet Underground & Nico and their second album, White Light/White Heat.

In the 1970s, Verve became part of PolyGram, incorporating the Mercury/EmArcy jazz catalog, which Philips, part owners of PolyGram had earlier acquired. Verve Records became the Verve Music Group after PolyGram was merged with Seagram's Universal Music Group in 1999. The jazz holdings from the merged companies were folded into this sub-group.

In 1990, British group Talk Talk signed to Polydor after conflicts with their previous label EMI regarding a lack of commercial allure on their fourth album, Spirit of Eden. Their fifth and final album, Laughing Stock, was released through Verve on September 16, 1991 and, while being slightly divisive at the time, has since been reconsidered by critics and fans as their masterpiece and a precursor to the post-rock movement.

In the 1990s, as part of PolyGram Classics and Jazz, Verve signed Herbie Hancock, Wayne Shorter, Joe Henderson, Roy Hargrove, John Scofield, Shirley Horn, Betty Carter, Abbey Lincoln, Chris Botti, Jeff Lorber, Gino Vannelli, Art Porter, Will Downing, and Incognito.

When Universal and Polygram merged in 1998, Verve's holdings were merged with Universal's GRP Recording Company to become Verve Music Group. Verve was corporately aligned with Universal Music Enterprises (UMe) in 2006 and was no longer a stand-alone label within UMG during that time.

Under this regime, led by UMe's President, Bruce Resnikoff, Verve won the Grammy for album of the year, the first time a jazz record had garnered this award since another Verve album, Stan Getz's Getz/Gilberto, won in 1965.

Verve Records went through several other leadership changes in the aughts (including stints by Danny Bennett and David Foster) before Jamie Krents took over with a revamped label team in 2019.  Notable moments during this period include the signing of Jon Batiste, Samara Joy, Kurt Vile and Arooj Aftab.  Verve has had particularly strong showings at the Grammy's since 2019 with Jon Batiste leading the music industry in 2022 with 11 nominations and 5 wins, including album of the year, as well as a win for Aftab in Best Global Performance, and Samara Joy winning Best New Artist in 2023, a first in the label's 67-year history.

The Verve imprint itself manages much of the jazz catalog that once belonged to PolyGram (not including recordings by Herb Alpert for his A&M Records label which Alpert acquired in a legal settlement with Universal Music and are licensed to Shout! Factory), while the Impulse! Records imprint manages the portion of Universal's catalog that was acquired from ABC Records, which itself includes the jazz catalog of the Famous Music Group, which was once owned by Paramount Pictures/Gulf+Western, but which was sold to ABC in 1974. Meanwhile, GRP manages the rest of MCA/Universal's jazz catalog, including some releases once issued on the Decca and Chess labels.

Verve Label Group
The Verve Label Group is the American contemporary, classic and jazz division of Universal Music Group in the US. Labels in the group include Verve and Impulse labels and Universal Music Classics. Verve labels are Verve Records and Verve Forecast. Universal Music Classics consists of Decca Gold label plus represents the European imprints: Decca, Decca Classics, Deutsche Grammophon, and Mercury KX plus ECM Records distributed label.

On May 20, 2016, the newly-formed Verve Label Group appointed industry veteran Danny Bennett as its president and CEO. Besides Verve, the label group was formed with Decca Records, Decca Classics, Deutsche Grammophon, Mercury Classics, and distributed label ECM. The group relocated to New York City.

The label group in March 2019 was further restructured to its global classical and jazz unit. Dickon Stainer, President and CEO of Universal Classics and Jazz, would lead the group with Bennett exiting his post. The Decca Broadway label for original cast recording was relaunched in May 2019.

The Verve Label Group has expanded its output beyond jazz to include crossover classical music, progressive pop, and show tunes (by absorbing Decca Records' Broadway label and taking over ownership of the label's library including EMI's, MGM Records', and MCA Records' musical theater catalogs).

Discography

References

External links
 Official site
 Article about Creed Taylor

American record labels
American jazz record labels
Jazz record labels
Labels distributed by Universal Music Group
Record labels based in California
Companies based in Santa Monica, California
Record labels established in 1956
1956 establishments in California
Re-established companies

Verve Records


Crystal Township is a civil township of Montcalm County in the U.S. state of Michigan.  As of the 2000 census, the township population was 2,824.

Communities
 Crystal is an unincorporated community in the township at . The first settlers in the area were lumbermen, brothers John W. and Humphrey Smith in 1853. The present community began in 1857 when Enos P. Drake built a sawmill on land he co-owned with Samuel Burtch. Asa Ward recorded a plat for the settlement and Alfred A. Proctor became the first postmaster on March 2, 1857. It is named for the nearby Crystal Lake. The Crystal post office, with ZIP code 48818, serves the northern portion of Crystal Township as well as portions of southern Ferris Township.
 Carson City is to the south, and the Carson City post office with ZIP code 48811 also serves a large part of southern Crystal Township.
 Sheridan is to the southwest, and the Sheridan post office with ZIP code 48884 also serves a small area in southwest Crystal Township.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 35.8 square miles (92.8 km2), of which 34.1 square miles (88.4 km2) is land and 1.7 square miles (4.4 km2) (4.74%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,824 people, 1,097 households, and 770 families residing in the township.  The population density was .  There were 1,594 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the township was 97.52% White, 0.14% African American, 0.39% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.39% from other races, and 1.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.99% of the population.

There were 1,097 households, out of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.0% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.8% were non-families. 24.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.02.

In the township the population was spread out, with 25.8% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.2 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $34,421, and the median income for a family was $41,016. Males had a median income of $31,034 versus $23,264 for females. The per capita income for the township was $17,231.  About 5.2% of families and 10.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.4% of those under age 18 and 5.6% of those age 65 or over.

Points of interest
Crystal Motor Speedway
Rainbow Gardens Roller Rink - Since 1948
Crystal Lake Association - Since 1932
Crystal Congregational Church
Crystal Box Office Theater (1947)

References

Townships in Montcalm County, Michigan
Townships in Michigan

Crystal Township, Montcalm County, Michigan


Nan Vernon  is a Canadian singer. She is notable for providing the end credit music of both of Rob Zombie's Halloween films and for being part of the "singer-songwriter trend" of women nurturing folk music's rebirth.

Biography

Early life
Vernon is the daughter of Nancy West and actor John Vernon, and the sister of actress Kate Vernon. She was raised in Toronto, Ontario, Canada until age 8, when she moved with her family to Los Angeles, California.

In the late 1980s she recorded and toured with Andy Summers appearing on the XYZ album.

Early career
The Eurythmics' Dave Stewart discovered Vernon. As she explains, "the story we used to tell was that I found Dave and Bob Dylan drunk and lost at a train station in Tijuana and that I gave them a ride home, but that wasn't how I met him. It was a call out of the blue from Wardrobe Stylist, Genny Schorr, who suggested that I might be someone Dave would like as a member of his band. Dave is the kind of person who encourages people." She joined Dave Stewart & The Spiritual Cowboys as Izzy Mae Doorite and contributed backing vocals and rhythm guitar parts on the band's two albums and on tour. Vernon parlayed "her high-profile acquaintance with Stewart into a record deal and released Manta Ray in 1994, through Stewart's Anxious Records."

Recordings and reception
Tom Demalon praises her debut album, lauding the singer for "her keen sense of melody, articulate writing, and pristine vocals" that "make it more memorable than many other such releases. 'Motorcycle' kicks things off with a percolating road tale driven by grinding guitar, but the most of the material is of a more introspective nature such as the dreamy 'Tattoo Tears,' 'No More Lullabies,' and the gorgeous afterlife ballad 'The Big Picture,' all delivered in a breathy fashion....Manta Ray is a better than average debut." John Koenig similarly describes her CD Manta Ray as "a collection of songs brimming with creative music and imagery." Koenig goes on to write that her "exquisite live reworkings of songs from the '60's, like John Lennon's "Nowhere Man" and Jim Morrison's "Crystal Ship" give insight into her appreciation for rock music's classic poet/lyricists."

Vernon has provided covers of songs for the reboot of the Halloween series of horror films. A new version of the song, "Mr. Sandman", recorded by Nan Vernon, is featured in Rob Zombie's Halloween. She also performs "Love Hurts" for the film's sequel.

Influences
In an interview, Vernon said, "I really like theatrical music, like Brecht and that era. I love Eastern European music, the music of the Twenties and Thirties, Cole Porter. I love Elvis Presley. I love lyrical storytelling....I love Tom Waits and Billie Holiday. Velvet Underground. Of the newer bands, I like Belly and Bettie Serveert. I guess my favourite songwriters are John Lennon, Leonard Cohen, Tom Waits".

Solo discography
"My Love" (1990)
"No More Lullabyes" (1992)
"While My Guitar Gently Weeps" (1993)
"Motorcycle" (1994)
Manta Ray (1994)
"Elvis Waits" (1994)

Compilation and soundtrack appearances
"Moon River" on Shots in the Dark (1996)
"A New Shade of Blue" on Delphonic Sounds Today! (1999)
"The Hangman's Song" on Dawn of the Dead score (2004) – with Tyler Bates, Joey Waronker, Rusty Logsdon and Soda
"Tiger and Dragon" on Re-enter the Dragon: A Black Belt Graffiti of the Grandmaster Dragon by His Li'l Dragons of Sound and Vision (2004)
"We'll Come Back for You" in The Devil's Rejects (2005)
"Mr. Sandman" on Rob Zombie's Halloween soundtrack (2007)
"Somebody Loves You" on Lumberjack Shirts Night: Dedicated to Mala Noche (2007) – by Floy Mae, her latest band
"Winter in Parodis" in Werewolf Women of the SS (2007)
"(undetermined song) in The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008)
"Love Hurts" on Rob Zombie's Halloween II soundtrack (2009) and on some advertisements for the Australian horror film The Loved Ones (2009)

References

External links

Living people
Singers from Toronto
Canadian people of Armenian descent
Canadian people of German descent
Canadian people of Polish descent
20th-century Canadian women singers
Dave Stewart and the Spiritual Cowboys members
21st-century Canadian women singers
East West Records artists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Nan Vernon


Do-it-yourself biology (DIY biology, DIY bio) is a biotechnological social movement in which individuals, communities, and small organizations study biology and life science using the same methods as traditional research institutions. DIY biology is primarily undertaken by individuals with limited research training from academia or corporations, who then mentor and oversee other DIY biologists with little or no formal training. This may be done as a hobby, as a not-for-profit endeavor for community learning and open-science innovation, or for profit, to start a business.

Other terms are also associated with the do-it-yourself biology community. The terms biohacking and wetware hacking emphasize the connection to hacker culture and the hacker ethic. The term hacker is used in the original sense of finding new and clever ways to do things. The term biohacking is also used by the grinder body modification community, which is considered related but distinct from the do-it-yourself biology movement.  The term biopunk emphasizes the techno-progressive, political, and artistic elements of the movement.

History

The term "biohacking" as well as the concept of do-it-yourself biology has been known as early as 1988.

Biohacking entered the San Francisco programmer and maker communities as early as 2005, through simple demonstrations of basic experiments. As DIYbio experiments became the focus of SuperHappyDevHouse hackers, the hobby gained additional momentum.

In 2005 Rob Carlson wrote in an article in Wired: "The era of garage biology is upon us. Want to participate?  Take a moment to buy yourself a  lab on eBay." He then set up a garage lab the same year, working on a project he had previously worked at the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California.

In 2008, the DIYbio organization was founded by Jason Bobe and Mackenzie Cowell and its first meeting held.

In 2010, Genspace opened the first community biology lab, Ten months later it was followed by BioCurious, and Victoria Makerspace. Many other labs and organizations followed, including but not limited to Counter Culture Labs in Oakland, CA, Baltimore Underground Science Space in Baltimore, MD, TheLab in Los Angeles, CA and Denver Biolabs in Denver, CO.

It has been estimated that in 2014 there have been 50 DIY biology labs around the world.

In 2016, the first conference to focus specifically on biohacking was announced to take place in September in Oakland, CA.

Aspects
The DIYbio movement seeks to revise the notion that one must be an academic with an advanced degree to make any significant contribution to the biology community. It allows large numbers of small organizations and individuals to participate in research and development, with spreading knowledge a higher priority than turning profits. In recent years, there are various DIY ways to live healthy and many of them also focuses on different simple ways to biohack mind, body, metabolism and sleep.

The motivations for DIY biology include (but aren't limited to) lowered costs, entertainment, medicine, biohacking, life extension, and education. Recent work combining open-source hardware of microcontrollers like the Arduino and RepRap 3-D printers, very low-cost scientific instruments have been developed.

Community laboratory space
Many organizations maintain a laboratory akin to a wet-lab makerspace, providing equipment and supplies for members.  Many organizations also run classes and provide training. For a fee (usually between $50 and $100), members can join some spaces and do experiments on their own.

Open source equipment
The DIY biology movement attempts to make available the tools and resources necessary for anyone, including non-professionals, to conduct biological engineering. One of the first pieces of open source laboratory equipment developed was the Dremelfuge by Irish biohacker Cathal Garvey, which uses a 3D printed tube holder attached to a Dremel rotary tool to spin tubes at high speeds, replacing often expensive centrifuges. Many other devices like PCR machines have been recreated extensively. In recent times, more complex devices have been created such as the OpenDrop digital microfluidics platform and the DIY NanoDrop both developed by GaudiLabs. Opentrons makes open-source, affordable lab robots, and got its start as a DIY biology collaboration at Genspace. Incuvers makes telemetric chambers for cellular research that are affordable and allow for complete customizability of their environments. OpenCell, a London based biotech lab provider hosts regular biohackathons to help encourage more opensource development.

Advocacy
Most advocacy in biohacking is about the safety, accessibility and future legality of experimentation. Todd Kuiken of the Woodrow Wilson Center proposes that through safety and self-governance, DIY biologists won't be in need of regulation. Josiah Zayner has proposed that safety is inherent in biohacking and that accessibility should be the foremost concern as there is large underrepresentation of social and ethnic minorities in biohacking.

Research topics
Many biohacking projects revolve around the modification of life and molecular and genetic engineering.

Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is another popular target for do-it-yourself biology research. As in other fields, many programming languages can be used in DIY biology, but most of the languages that are used are those with large bioinformatics libraries.

Examples include BioPerl or BioPython, which use the languages Perl and Python, respectively.

Genetic engineering
Genetic Engineers are a subculture of biohackers as one of the most accessible forms of biohacking is through engineering microorganisms or plants. Experiments can range from using plasmids to fluorescent bacteria, controlling gene expression using light in bacteria, even using CRISPR to engineer the genome of bacteria or yeast.

Medicine
Restricted access to medical care and medicine has pushed biohackers to start experimenting in medically related fields. The Open Insulin project aims to make the recombinant protein insulin more accessible by creating an open source protocol for expression and purification. Other experiments that have involved medical treatments include a whole body microbiome transplant and the creation of open source artificial pancreases for diabetics, such as OpenAPS, Loop and AndroidAPS.

Implants
Grinders are a subculture of biohackers that focus on implanting technology or introducing chemicals into the body to enhance or change their bodies' functionality.

Some biohackers can now sense which direction they face using a magnetic implant that vibrates against the skin.

Art
In 2000, controversial and self-described "transgenic artist" Eduardo Kac appropriated standard laboratory work by biotechnology and genetics researchers in order to both utilize and critique such scientific techniques. In the only putative work of transgenic art by Kac, the artist claimed to have collaborated with a French laboratory (belonging to the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique) to procure a green-fluorescent rabbit: a rabbit implanted with a green fluorescent protein gene from a type of jellyfish [Aequorea victoria] in order for the rabbit to fluoresce green under ultraviolet light. The claimed work came to be known as the "GFP bunny", and which Kac called Alba. This claim by Kac has been disputed by the scientists at the lab who noted that they had performed exactly the same experiment (i.e., the insertion of the jellyfish GFP protein-coding gene) on numerous other animals (cats, dogs, etc.) previously and did not create Alba (known to the researchers only as "Rabbit Number 5256") under the direction of Kac. The laboratory consequently kept possession of the transgenic rabbit which it had created and funded and the "transgenic art" was never exhibited at the Digital Avignon festival [2000] as intended. Kac—claiming that his rabbit was the first GFP bunny created in the name of Art—used this dispute to popularize the issue as one of disguised censorship by launching a "Free Alba" campaign. A doctored photo of the artist holding a day-glow-green tinted rabbit appears on his website. The members of the Critical Art Ensemble have written books and staged multimedia performance interventions around this issue, including The Flesh Machine (focusing on in vitro fertilisation, surveillance of the body, and liberal eugenics) and Cult of the New Eve (In order to analyze how, in their words, "Science is the institution of authority regarding the production of knowledge, and tends to replace this particular social function of conventional Christianity in the west").

Heather Dewey-Hagborg is an information artist and biohacker who uses genomic DNA left behind by people as a starting  point for creating lifelike, computer-generated, 3-D portraits.

Criticism and concerns
Biohacking experiences many of the same criticisms as synthetic biology and genetic engineering already receive, plus other concerns relating to the distributed and non-institutional nature of the work, involving potential hazards with lack of oversight by professionals or governments. Concerns about biohackers creating pathogens in unmonitored garage laboratories led the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to begin sending its representatives to DIYbio conferences in 2009.  The arrest and prosecution of some members for their work with harmless microbes, such as artivist Steve Kurtz, has been denounced as political repression by critics who argue the U.S. government has used post-9/11 anti-terrorism powers to intimidate artists and others who use their art to criticize society.

Existing regulations are not specific to this field, so that the possibility of pathogenic organisms being created and released unintentionally or intentionally by biohackers has become a matter of concern, for example, in the spirit of the re-creation of the 1917 flu virus by Armed Forces Institute of Pathology researchers in 2005.  In the US the FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction Directorate has worked with the American Association for the Advancement of Science's National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity to convene a series of meetings to discuss biosecurity, which have included discussions of amateur biologists and ways to manage the risks to society it poses.  At the National Institutes of Health, National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity leads efforts to educate the public on "dual use research of concern", for example with websites like "Science Safety Security".  In 2011, DIYbio organized conferences to attempt to create codes of ethics for biohackers.

A 2007 ETC Group report warns that the danger of this development is not just bioterror, but "bio-error".

While detractors argue that do-it-yourself biologists need some sort of supervision, enthusiasts argue that uniform supervision is impossible and the best way to prevent accidents or malevolence is to encourage a culture of transparency, where, in essence, do-it-yourself biologists would be peer reviewed by other biohackers. DIYbio argues that fear of potential hazards should be met with increased research and education rather than closing the door on the profound positive impacts that distributed biological technology will have on human health, the environment, and the standard of living around the world.  Due to the lack of precedent regarding such a business model, the DIYbio founders see this as an opportunity to be innovators in regulatory and safety policy.

Groups and organizations
 Baltimore Underground Science Space (BUGSS), in Baltimore, Maryland
 Biocurious, in Sunnyvale, California
Boston Open Science Laboratory (BOSLab), in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Counter Culture Labs, in Oakland, California
 Four Thieves Vinegar Collective
 Genspace, in Brooklyn, New York
the Open Insulin Project, an international collaboration
Victoria Makerspace, in Victoria, British Columbia
DIYbio, an online network

See also

 Amateur chemistry
 Open science
 Body hacking

References

biology

Biology and culture
Bioinformatics
Biopunk
Biotechnology
Do it yourself
Hacker culture

Do-it-yourself biology