Ádám (Szabolcs) Somlai-Fischer, born 1976 in Budapest, is an architect and interaction designer. He is also the Co-founder and Principal Artist of Prezi and creates installations and experiments that blend spaces, technologies and interactivity. In 2007 Somlai-Fischer co-founded "Kitchen Budapest medialab" where he worked as the program director until 2009, since then he remained a key advisor of the lab.

Somlai-Fischer lectures and conducts workshops in architecture and design schools across Europe. He graduated from the Architecture + Urban Research Laboratory, KTH, Stockholm, taught at the Architecture and Media technology departments at KTH, working as a guest researcher at the Smart p studio (now Interactive Institute in Stockholm). He was guest researcher at the MOKK Media Research and held workshops in design schools such as Domus Academy, Milan and Goldsmith College, London. He is directing "aether architecture", an office for mediated environments based in Budapest.

Important works

Examples include Reorient - a space made of thousands of electronic toys, Ping Genius Loci - a field of outdoor analogue pixels, Brainmirror - a mixed reality experience presenting MRI through a mirror, Low Tech Sensors and Actuators workshop and handbook, and Induction house - a set of experiments for spatial projections. These projects were shown at the Venice Biennale of Architecture 2004, 2006, ISEA 2004 Helsinki and 2006 San Jose, Ars Electronica 2006,  Kiasma Museum Helsinki, Ludwig Museum Budapest, China International New Media Arts Exhibition 2008, NTT ICC Tokyo.

Interests

Horizontal collaboration
One of his main principle is that the idea, the project is the center of the action. Therefore there is not one author, nor authority and novelty is not a major preoccupation even if every project, in its practical existence requires a lot of creativity and invention: not creating technologies but inventing creative usages of recent technologies, often through hacking and hybridization. The product of the collaborative process in the architecture realm is therefore more oriented toward the culture quality, embodying technology as culture.
When authorship is involved with identified individuals, Bengt Sjölén, Usman Haque, Tamas Szakal, Massimo Banzi, Peter Halacsy, Peter Hudini, Andras Kangyal, Attila Nemes, Anita Pozna can be picked as recurrent collaborators.
Peer production  (coined within social sciences) in a "controlled environment like Kitchen Budapest created the necessity of a work methodology : throwing ideas, and a collectively agreed distributing of time, "60% own personal project, 35% someone else's project, 5% practical collective tasks)". The work of Adam Somlai-Fischer in the Kitchen Budapest is more than to identify areas of interest and organise the dynamics as groups of work : "Mobile expression", "Networked things", "DIY media, intergang", "Toy hack space", "wireless city"... In every project he admits everyone has his/her own goals and satisfaction factors. For him the individual identity can be blurred in the community, but it is precisely the belonging to a community, even as a part of a loose network, that individual identity can emerge stronger.

Sharing

In his lectures instead of presenting an ideology or methodology he presents projects and invites the audience to contribute. He organises hands-on workshops to lectures focusing on open hardware and interaction design, some texts, and unrealized concepts. On his website you can download samples of software, texts and ideas, but no manifesto.

Goals
In 2008 at the Royal College of Art Adam Somlai-Fischer declared his goals are:
openness;
the capacity of an architectural of design work to be writable, to diversify, to allow people to reconfigure and appropriate the object (Mass customization?); and
in the abstract, a quest for freedom in the technological society.

External links
http://www.aether.hu/
http://www.kitchenbudapest.hu/en
http://www.reorient.hu/

Hungarian architects
1976 births
Living people

Ádám Somlai-Fischer


Septeto Nacional (National Septet), or the Septeto Nacional de Ignacio Piñeiro, is a Cuban group credited with expanding the Son musical style before Arsenio Rodríguez. It added the trumpet to percussion, vocals, and strings. The group started as a sextet in 1927 in Central Havana. In 1929 it played at the World Exposition in Sevilla, and in 1933, it was invited to the "Century of Progress" World Exposition in Chicago. In the same year, Lázaro Herrera took over the group when Ignacio Piñeiro left it for financial reasons - despite their success the musicians earned very little. The group disbanded in 1937 but resumed playing for a recording session in 1940 and a television appearance in 1954. After the Cuban revolution of 1959, the group played again and is still playing. Its CD Poetas del Son was nominated for a grammy in 2004.

Discography
Sin Rumba No Hay Son (2010)
Desafiando al Destino
Poetas del Son
Clásicos del Son
Mas Cuba Libres
Havana Mood
Hecho en Cuba
Son Soneando
Imperdonables
50 Aniversario
El Son De Altura
Entre Preciosas Palmeras
Imperdonable
Lejana Campiña
Más Cuba Libres
Son de la Loma
Soneros De Cuba

External links

Cuban musical groups
Son cubano groups
Musical septets
Musical groups established in 1927

Septeto Nacional


Michael "Mike" Leighton (born May 19, 1981 in Petrolia, Ontario) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender that played for the Rockford IceHogs of the American Hockey League (AHL). He also played for the Chicago Blackhawks, Nashville Predators, Philadelphia Flyers, and Carolina Hurricanes.

Career

Early
He started his career with the Windsor Spitfires of the Ontario Hockey League. He played 3 seasons and during that time he was named the All-star Team West Goalie in 2000.

NHL
He was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks with the 165th overall pick in the 1999 NHL Entry draft.

He started his NHL career with the Blackhawks and during that time he became the first Blackhawks player to record a shutout in his debut. He competed with Craig Anderson for back-up duties and never really got to spend a complete season in the NHL during his time with Chicago.

On October 4, 2005, he was traded to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for Milan Bartovic. He didn't appear in a game with the Sabres however and played the season with their AHL affiliate, the Rochester Americans. The Sabres didn't tender him a qualifying offer in the off-season which made him an unrestricted free agent.

On July 13, 2006, he signed as a free agent with the Anaheim Ducks. He played for the Ducks' farm team, the Portland Pirates. The Ducks called Leighton up when both their goalies Ilya Bryzgalov and Jean-Sébastien Giguère got injured but Leighton was claimed off waivers by the Nashville Predators before he could play. He only played 20 minutes of one game with the Predators and he was placed on waivers again.

On January 11, 2007, he was claimed by the Philadelphia Flyers. After playing 4 games with the Flyers, he was placed on waivers and picked up by the Montreal Canadiens but didn't play a game with them because he had already finished the season.

During the off-season, the Canadiens traded him to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for a 7th round pick in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft.

He first played for their farm team, the Albany River Rats but was called up to the NHL when John Grahame got sent down after he got placed on waivers. Leighton played 3 games and was sent back down to the River Rats. During his time with the River Rats he set an AHL record by making 98 saves on 101 shots, in a playoff game that went to 5 overtimes which was also an AHL record.

He played as the Hurricanes' backup goaltender, behind Cam Ward, during the 2008–09 NHL season. He played 19 regular season games but he didn't play in the playoffs, when the team advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals. Ward suffered a leg injury in November 2009 and missed a month of play. The Hurricanes signed goaltender Manny Legace, who became the backup when Ward returned.

On December 15, 2009, Leighton was brought back to the Flyers when they claimed him off waivers to back up Brian Boucher while Ray Emery recovered from injury. On December 21, Leighton was given a starting role when Boucher suffered an injury. On January 1, 2010, he started in goal for the Flyers for the 2010 Winter Classic. During a playoff game against the Boston Bruins, Leighton stepped in for an injured Boucher to play in his first ever NHL playoff game where he helped keep Boucher's shutout in a 4-0 win. During the 2010 Eastern Conference Finals against the Montreal Canadiens, he only let in 7 goals in five games and recorded 3 shutouts as the Flyers advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals to face the Chicago Blackhawks. Leighton started all six games of the Finals but struggled where he recorded a goals against average of 3.96 and a save percentage of 0.876. Leighton was the losing goalie in game 6 when the Blackhawks defeated the Flyers four games to two which ending with an overtime goal by Patrick Kane.

On June 30, 2010, he re-signed with the Flyers with a two-year deal. On January 3, 2011, the Flyer placed Leighton on waivers. He cleared waivers the next day and was assigned to the Adirondack Phantoms. He rejoined the Flyers three months later after he cleared re-entry waivers.

On July 1, 2012, he re-signed with the Flyers with a one-year contract and was announced as Ilya Bryzgalov's backup. He only played one game for the Flyers during the 2012–13 season and was traded along with a 2015 third-round draft pick to the Columbus Blue Jackets for Steve Mason.

Awards
AHL First All-Star Team (2007-08)
Aldege "Baz" Bastien Memorial Award (2007-08)
AHL All-Rookie Team (2001-02)
OHL All-star Team West Goalie (2000)

References

Other websites

1981 births
Living people
Adirondack Phantoms players
Albany River Rats players
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Carolina Hurricanes players
Charlotte Checkers (2010–) players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Chicago Wolves players
Columbus Blue Jackets players
Ice hockey people from Quebec
Nashville Predators players
Norfolk Admirals players
Ontario Reign (AHL) players
Philadelphia Flyers players
Philadelphia Phantoms players
Portland Pirates players
Rochester Americans players
Rockford IceHogs (AHL) players
Syracuse Crunch players
Utica Comets players
Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins players
American Hockey League players
Ontario Hockey League players

Michael Leighton


GNU Emacs is a free software text editor. It was created by GNU Project founder Richard Stallman, based on the Emacs editor developed for Unix operating systems. GNU Emacs has been a central component of the GNU project and a flagship project of the free software movement. Its tag line is "the extensible self-documenting text editor."

History

In 1976, Stallman wrote the first Emacs ("Editor MACroS"), and in 1984, began work on GNU Emacs, to produce a free software alternative to the proprietary Gosling Emacs. GNU Emacs was initially based on Gosling Emacs, but Stallman's replacement of its Mocklisp interpreter with a true Lisp interpreter required that nearly all of its code be rewritten. This became the first program released by the nascent GNU Project. GNU Emacs is written in C and provides Emacs Lisp, also implemented in C, as an extension language. Version 13, the first public release, was made on March 20, 1985. The first widely distributed version of GNU Emacs was version 15.34, released later in 1985. Early versions of GNU Emacs were numbered as "1.x.x," with the initial digit denoting the version of the C core. The "1" was dropped after version 1.12 as it was thought that the major number would never change, and thus the major version skipped from "1" to "13". A new third version number was added to represent changes made by user sites. In the current numbering scheme, a number with two components signifies a release version, with development versions having three components.

GNU Emacs was later ported to the Unix operating system. It offered more features than Gosling Emacs, in particular a full-featured Lisp as its extension language, and soon replaced Gosling Emacs as the de facto Unix Emacs editor. Markus Hess exploited a security flaw in GNU Emacs's email subsystem in his 1986 cracking spree, in which he gained superuser access to Unix computers.

Although users commonly submitted patches and Elisp code to the net.emacs newsgroup, participation in GNU Emacs development was relatively restricted until 1999, and was used as an example of the "Cathedral" development style in The Cathedral and the Bazaar. The project has since adopted a public development mailing list and anonymous CVS access. Development took place in a single CVS trunk until 2008, and today uses the Git DVCS.

Richard Stallman has remained the principal maintainer of GNU Emacs, but he has stepped back from the role at times. Stefan Monnier and Chong Yidong have overseen maintenance since 2008. On September 21, 2015 Monnier announced that he would be stepping down as maintainer effective with the feature freeze of Emacs 25. Longtime contributor John Wiegley was announced as the new maintainer on November 5, 2015.  Wiegley was joined by Eli Zaretskii in July, 2016,  and Lars Ingebrigtsen in September, 2020.

Licensing
The terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) state that the Emacs source code, including both the C and Emacs Lisp components, are freely available for examination, modification, and redistribution.

Older versions of the GNU Emacs documentation appeared under an ad-hoc license that required the inclusion of certain text in any modified copy. In the GNU Emacs user's manual, for example, this included instructions for obtaining GNU Emacs and Richard Stallman's essay The GNU Manifesto. The XEmacs manuals, which were inherited from older GNU Emacs manuals when the fork occurred, have the same license. Newer versions of the documentation use the GNU Free Documentation License with "invariant sections" that require the inclusion of the same documents and that the manuals proclaim themselves as GNU Manuals.

For GNU Emacs, like many other GNU packages, it remains policy to accept significant code contributions only if the copyright holder executes a suitable disclaimer or assignment of their copyright interest to the Free Software Foundation (FSF.) Small contributions of fewer than 10 lines of code are exempt. This policy is in place so that the FSF can defend the software in court if its copyleft license is violated.

In 2011, it was noticed that GNU Emacs had been accidentally releasing some binaries without corresponding source code for two years, in opposition to the intended spirit of the GPL. Richard Stallman described this incident as "a very bad mistake," which was promptly fixed. The FSF did not sue any downstream redistributors who unknowingly violated the GPL by distributing these binaries.

Using GNU Emacs

Commands
In its normal editing mode, GNU Emacs behaves like common text editors by allowing the user to type text with the keyboard and move the editing point with arrow keys. Escape key sequences or pressing the control key and/or the meta key, alt key or super keys in conjunction with a regular key produces modified keystrokes that invoke functions from the Emacs Lisp environment. Commands such as save-buffer and save-buffers-kill-emacs combine multiple modified keystrokes.

Some GNU Emacs commands work by invoking external programs, such as ispell for spell-checking and the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) for program compilation. Emacs also supports "inferior processes," long-lived child processes that interact with the editor. This is used to implement , running a Unix shell as inferior process, as well as read–eval–print loop (REPL) modes for various programming languages. Emacs' support for external processes makes it suitable for interactive programming along the lines of Interlisp or Smalltalk.

Users who prefer the widely used IBM Common User Access keyboard shortcut layout can use , a package that originally was a third-party add-on but has been included in GNU Emacs since version 22.

Minibuffer
Emacs uses the "minibuffer," normally the bottommost line, to display messages and request information, functions that are often performed by dialog boxes in GUI editors. The minibuffer holds information such as text to target in a search or the name of a file to read or save. When applicable, command-line completion is available using the tab and space keys.

File management and display
Emacs keeps text in data structures known as buffers. Buffers may or may not be displayed onscreen, and all buffer features are accessible by both Emacs Lisp programs and the user interface. The user can create new buffers and dismiss unwanted ones, and many buffers can exist at the same time, limited only by available memory. Emacs can be configured to save the list of open buffers on exit, and reopen this list when it is restarted.

Some buffers contain text loaded from text files, which the user can edit and save back to permanent storage. These buffers are said to be "visiting" files. Buffers also serve to display other data, such as the output of Emacs commands, dired directory listings,  documentation strings displayed by the "help" library and notification messages that in other editors would be displayed in a dialog box. Some of these notifications are displayed briefly in the minibuffer, and GNU Emacs provides a  buffer that keeps a history of the most recent notifications of this type. When the minibuffer is used for output from Emacs, it is called the "echo area". Longer notifications are displayed in buffers of their own. The maximum length of messages that will be displayed in the minibuffer is, of course, configurable.

Buffers can also serve as input and output areas for an external process such as a shell or REPL. Buffers which Emacs creates on its own are typically named with asterisks on each end, to distinguish from user buffers. The list of open buffers is itself displayed in this type of buffer.

Most Emacs key sequences remain functional in any buffer. For example, the standard Ctrl-s isearch function can be used to search filenames in dired buffers, and the file list can be saved to a text file just as any other buffer. dired buffers can be switched to a writable mode, in which filenames and attributes can be edited textually; when the buffer is saved, the changes are written to the filesystem. This allows multiple files to be renamed using the search and replace features of Emacs. When so equipped, Emacs displays image files in buffers. Emacs is binary safe and 8-bit clean.

Emacs can split the editing area into separate non-overlapping sections called "windows," a feature that has been available since 1975, predating the graphical user interface in common use. In Emacs terminology, "windows" are similar to what other systems call "frames" or "panes" a rectangular portion of the program's display that can be updated and interacted with independently. Each Emacs window has a status bar called the "mode line" displayed by default at the bottom edge of the window. Emacs windows are available both in text-terminal and graphical modes and allow more than one buffer, or several parts of a buffer, to be displayed at once. Common applications are to display a dired buffer along with the contents of files in the current directory (there are special modes to make the file buffer follow the file  highlighted in dired), to display the source code of a program in one window while another displays a shell buffer with the results of compiling the program, to run a debugger along with a shell buffer running the program, to work on code while displaying a man page or other documentation (possibly loaded over the World Wide Web using one of Emacs' built-in web browsers) or simply to display multiple files for editing at once such as a header along with its implementation file for C-based languages. In addition, there is , a minor mode that chains windows to display non-overlapping portions of a buffer. Using , a single file can be displayed in multiple side-by-side windows that update appropriately when scrolled. In addition, Emacs supports "narrowing" a buffer to display only a portion of a file, with top/bottom of buffer navigation functionality and buffer size calculations reflecting only the selected range.

Emacs windows are tiled and cannot appear "above" or "below" their companions. Emacs can launch multiple "frames", which are displayed as individual windows in a graphical environment. On a text terminal, multiple frames are displayed stacked filling the entire terminal, and can be switched using the standard Emacs commands.

Major modes
GNU Emacs can display or edit a variety of different types of text and adapts its behavior by entering add-on modes called "major modes". There are major modes for many different purposes including editing ordinary text files, the source code of many markup and programming languages, as well as displaying web pages, directory listings and other system info. Each major mode involves an Emacs Lisp program that extends the editor to behave more conveniently for the specified type of text. Major modes typically provide some or all of the following common features:

 Syntax highlighting ("font lock"): combinations of fonts and colors, termed "faces," that differentiate between document elements such as keywords and comments.
 Automatic indentation to maintain consistent formatting within a file.
 The automatic insertion of elements required by the structure of the document, such as spaces, newlines, and parentheses.
 Special editing commands, such as commands to jump to the beginning or the end of a function while editing a programming file or commands to validate documents or insert closing tags while working with markup languages such as XML.

Minor modes
The use of "minor modes" enables further customization. A GNU Emacs editing buffer can use only one major mode at a time, but multiple minor modes can operate simultaneously. These may operate directly on documents, as in the way the major mode for the C programming language defines a separate minor mode for each of its popular indent styles, or they may alter the editing environment. Examples of the latter include a mode that adds the ability to undo changes to the window configuration and one that performs on-the-fly syntax checking. There is also a minor mode that allows multiple major modes to be used in a single file, for convenience when editing a document in which multiple programming languages are embedded.

"Batch mode"
GNU Emacs supports the capability to use it as an interpreter for the Emacs Lisp language without displaying the text editor user interface. In batch mode, user configuration is not loaded and the terminal interrupt characters C-c and C-z will have their usual effect of exiting the program or suspending execution instead of invoking Emacs keybindings. GNU Emacs has command line options to specify either a file to load and execute, or an Emacs Lisp function may be passed in from the command line. Emacs will start up, execute the passed-in file or function, print the results, then exit. The shebang line #!/usr/bin/emacs --script allows the creation of standalone scripts in Emacs Lisp.

Manuals

The GNU Emacs Manual, written by Richard Stallman, is bundled with GNU Emacs and can be viewed with the built-in info browser. Two additional manuals, the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual by Bil Lewis, Richard Stallman, and Dan Laliberte and An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp by Robert Chassell, are included. All three manuals are also published in book form by the Free Software Foundation.

Internationalization
GNU Emacs has support for many alphabets, scripts, writing systems, and cultural conventions and provides spell-checking for many languages by calling external programs such as ispell. Version 24 added support for bidirectional text and left-to-right and right-to-left writing direction for languages such as Arabic, Persian and Hebrew.

Many character encoding systems, including UTF-8, are supported. GNU Emacs uses UTF-8 for its encoding as of version 23, while prior versions used their own encoding internally and performed conversion upon load and save. The internal encoding used by XEmacs is similar to that of GNU Emacs but differs in details.

The GNU Emacs user interface originated in English and, with the exception of the beginners' tutorial, has not been translated into any other language.

A subsystem called Emacspeak enables visually impaired and blind users to control the editor through audio feedback.

Extensibility

The behavior of GNU Emacs can be modified and extended almost without limit by incorporating Emacs Lisp programs that define new commands, new buffer modes, new keymaps, add command-line options, and so on. Many extensions providing user-facing functionality define a major mode (either for a new file type or to build a non-text-editing user interface); others define only commands or minor modes, or provide functions that enhance another extension.

Since version 24 GNU Emacs includes a built-in package manager accessible with the list-packages command that allows users to search for and install packages. Historically, packages were downloaded manually, often distributed through the Usenet newsgroup gnu.emacs.sources. Over time many popular packages have been included in Emacs by default; for example version 21 began bundling Org-mode, Calc, TRAMP, and many others.

Notable packages include:

 AUCTeX, tools to edit and process TeX and LaTeX documents
 Dired, a file manager
 Dissociated press, a Racter-like text generator
 Dunnet, a text adventure
 Emacs Web Wowser (eww), a web browser.
 Emacs Speaks Statistics (ESS) modes for editing statistical languages like R and SAS
 ERC, an IRC client
 Eshell, a command line shell written in Emacs Lisp. This allows closer integration with the Emacs environment than standard shells such as bash or PowerShell, which are also available from within Emacs. For example, in Eshell, Elisp functions are available as shell commands and output from Unix commands can be redirected to an Emacs buffer.
 Exwm, an X window manager allowing X11 apps to be run in an Emacs window.
Gnus, a full-featured news client (newsreader) and email client and early evidence for Zawinski's Law
Magit, for working with the version control system Git
 MULtilingual Enhancement to Emacs (MULE) allows editing of text in multiple languages in a manner somewhat analogous to Unicode
 Org-mode for keeping notes, maintaining various types of lists, planning and measuring projects, and composing documents in many formats (such as PDF, HTML, or OpenDocument formats). There are static site generators using org mode, as well as an extension, Babel, allowing it to be used for literate programming.
Rcirc, an IRC client
 Superior Lisp Interaction Mode for Emacs (SLIME) extends GNU Emacs into a development environment for Common Lisp. With SLIME (written in Emacs Lisp) the GNU Emacs editor communicates with a Common Lisp system (using the SWANK backend) over a special communication protocol and provides such tools as a read–eval–print loop, a data inspector and a debugger.
 Texinfo (Info), an online help-browser

Performance
In its early history, GNU Emacs often ran noticeably slower than rival text editors because the loading and interpreting of its Lisp-based code incurs a performance overhead. Modern computers are powerful enough to run GNU Emacs with ease, but versions prior to 19.29 (released in 1995) couldn't edit files larger than 8 MB. The file size limit was raised in successive versions, and 32 bit versions after GNU Emacs 23.2 can edit files up to 512 MB in size. Emacs compiled on a 64-bit machine can handle much larger buffers.

While GNU Emacs is largely written in Emacs Lisp, it makes extensive use of natively compiled C code to improve performance. In addition to its own C code, it uses external libraries such as libxml2 for parsing XML. Packages installed by the user can load dynamic modules.

Since version 28.1, Emacs can natively compile Emacs Lisp files via libgccjit, as opposed to just byte compiling them.

Platforms
GNU Emacs runs on a wide variety of operating systems, including DOS, Windows, and most Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, the various BSDs, Solaris, AIX, HP-UX and macOS. Many Unix-like systems include Emacs by default. In 2023 an official port for Android was released. Version 23.1 removed supported for some platforms deemed obsolete.

GNU Emacs runs both on text terminals and in graphical user interface (GUI) environments. On Unix-like operating systems, GNU Emacs can use the X Window System to produce its GUI either directly using Athena widgets or by using a "widget toolkit" such as Motif, LessTif, or GTK+. GNU Emacs can also use the graphics systems native to macOS and Windows to provide menubars, toolbars, scrollbars and context menus conforming more closely to each platform's look and feel.

Forks

XEmacs

Lucid Emacs, based on an early version of GNU Emacs 19, was developed beginning in 1991 by Jamie Zawinski and others at Lucid Inc. One of the best-known forks in free software development occurred when the codebases of the two Emacs versions diverged and the separate development teams ceased efforts to merge them back into a single program. After Lucid filed for bankruptcy, Lucid Emacs was renamed XEmacs. XEmacs development has slowed, with the most recent stable version 21.4.22 released in January 2009, while GNU Emacs has implemented many formerly XEmacs-only features. This has led some users to proclaim XEmacs' death.

Other forks of GNU Emacs
Other forks, less known than XEmacs, include:

 Meadow a Japanese version for Microsoft Windows
 SXEmacs Steve Youngs' fork of XEmacs
 Aquamacs a version which focuses on integrating with the Apple Macintosh user interface
 Remacs an incremental port of GNU Emacs to the Rust programming language, incomplete and no longer maintained as of 2023.

Release history
Changes in each Emacs release are listed in a NEWS file distributed with Emacs. Changes brought about by downgrading to the previous release are listed in an "Antinews" file, often with some snarky commentary on why this might be desirable.

References

Further reading

External links

 Unofficial Emacs wiki
 Emacs - Free Software Directory

Emacs
Free and open-source Android software
Free file comparison tools
Free integrated development environments
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in Lisp
Free text editors
Emacs
Hex editors
Linux integrated development environments
Linux text editors
MacOS text editors
OpenVMS text editors
Software using the GPL license
Text editors
Unix text editors
Windows text editors

GNU Emacs


1776 is a musical with music and lyrics by Sherman Edwards and a book by Peter Stone. The show is based on the events leading up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence, telling a story of the efforts of John Adams to persuade his colleagues to vote for American independence and to sign the document. The show premiered on Broadway in 1969 where it received acclaim and won three Tony Awards, including Best Musical. The original production starred William Daniels as Adams, Ken Howard as Thomas Jefferson and Howard Da Silva as Benjamin Franklin.

In 1972, it was made into a film adaptation. It has received three New York revivals: on Broadway in 1997, an Encores! concert in 2016, and a 2022 Broadway production in which the cast was entirely made up of people who identify as female, trans, and non-binary.

History
In 1925, Rodgers and Hart wrote a Broadway musical about the American Revolution called Dearest Enemy. In 1950, another musical about the Revolution was presented on Broadway, titled Arms and the Girl, with music by Morton Gould, lyrics by Dorothy Fields, and book by Herbert Fields, Dorothy Fields and Rouben Mamoulian, the show's director.

Sherman Edwards, a writer of pop songs with several top 10 hits in the late 1950s and early '60s, spent several years developing lyrics and libretto for a musical based on the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Edwards recounted that "I wanted to show [the founding fathers] at their outermost limits. These men were the cream of their colonies. ... They disagreed and fought with each other. But they understood commitment, and though they fought, they fought affirmatively."  Producer Stuart Ostrow recommended that librettist Peter Stone collaborate with Edwards on the book of the musical.  Stone recalled, The minute you heard ["Sit Down, John"], you knew what the whole show was. ... You knew immediately that John Adams and the others were not going to be treated as gods or cardboard characters, chopping down cherry trees and flying kites with strings and keys on them. It had this very affectionate familiarity; it wasn't reverential. Adams, the outspoken delegate from Massachusetts, was chosen as the central character, and his quest to persuade all 13 colonies to vote for independence became the central conflict. Stone confined nearly all of the action to Independence Hall and the debate among the delegates, and featuring two female characters, Abigail Adams and Martha Jefferson, in the musical. After tryouts in New Haven, Conn., and Washington, D.C., the show opened on Broadway at the 46th Street Theatre on March 16, 1969. Peter Hunt directed.

Synopsis
NOTE: The show can be performed in one or two acts.

Act I
On May 8, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, convening in Philadelphia at present-day Independence Hall, proceeds with its business. John Adams, the widely disliked delegate from Massachusetts, is frustrated because Congress will not even debate his proposals on independence. The other delegates, preoccupied with the rising heat, implore him to "Sit Down, John." Adams denounces the do-nothing Congress ("Piddle, Twiddle, and Resolve"), then reads the latest missive to his loving wife Abigail, who speaks to him in his imagination ("Till Then"). Later, Adams meets delegate Benjamin Franklin, who suggests that, because Adams is unpopular, he should let another delegate propose a resolution on independence. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia enters, having been summoned by Franklin; Franklin persuades Lee to ask the Virginia House of Burgesses to authorize a pro-independence resolution ("The Lees of Old Virginia").

Weeks later, new delegate Dr. Lyman Hall of Georgia arrives and is introduced to many important members of Congress, including Andrew McNair, the custodian; Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island; Edward Rutledge of South Carolina; and Caesar Rodney of Delaware, among others. As Congress is assembled, John Hancock, the president of Congress, notes that the entire New Jersey delegation has been absent for quite some time. A gloomy dispatch from George Washington, commander of the Continental Army, arrives by courier and is read aloud by Charles Thomson, the Congressional Secretary. Comically, the proceedings are interrupted when a fire wagon passes by. Shortly thereafter,  Richard Henry Lee returns, bearing a resolution for independence. Elated, Adams seconds the motion to open debate on the resolution.

John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, a conservative and royal apologist, immediately moves to table the debate. The vote is close, but debate is ultimately approved, prompting Dickinson to denounce the desire for independence as an overreaction to petty squabbles with Great Britain. The debate becomes more heated and personal, sparking a physical fight between Dickinson and Adams and causing Caesar Rodney (who is ailing from cancer) to collapse. Rodney is taken back to Delaware, leaving George Read as their delegation's sole vote. Since Read is a conservative, South Carolina's Edward Rutledge moves to quickly end the debate and vote on independence, knowing it is likely to fail. At this moment, the new delegation from New Jersey arrives, with leader the Reverend John Witherspoon announcing he has explicit orders to vote for independence. Adams, now seeing a path to victory, pushes to proceed with the vote, since ties are broken by Hancock and Adams believes Hancock is a firm believer in independence.

Dickinson suddenly makes another motion: that any vote in favor of independence must be unanimous. The vote, predictably, ends in a tie, but Hancock unexpectedly votes in favor of unanimity, explaining that if the colonies are not unanimous in their opinion, loyalist colonies will be turned against pro-independence colonies, spawning a civil war.

Looking for a way to save the independence movement, Adams moves to postpone the vote to allow for the creation of a formal Declaration of Independence that can be used in the courts of Europe to rally favor and assistance to the cause of American independence (this will also grant Adams time to persuade the anti-independence delegates to his side). Again, the vote ties; this time, Hancock votes with Adams, as many in Congress would like to have a break. Before they adjourn, John Hancock appoints a committee of Adams, Franklin, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert Livingston of New York, and Jefferson (who is on the point of going home to see his wife, whom he has not seen in six months) to draft the declaration. The five argue about who should write the declaration ("But, Mr. Adams"); the choice falls on a reluctant Jefferson, since Adams is "obnoxious and disliked", Franklin won't write politics, Sherman has no writing ability and Livingston is headed home to celebrate the birth of his new son.

A week later, Adams and Franklin visit Jefferson, who has spent the week moping; however, Adams has sent for Jefferson's beloved wife Martha on the grounds that "the sooner [Jefferson's] problem was solved, the sooner [theirs] would." She enters, and Adams and Franklin leave the young lovers in peace.  Adams, alone, again exchanges letters with his wife Abigail ("Yours, Yours, Yours"). The next morning, Franklin and Adams return and formally introduce themselves to Martha, asking her how the deeply intellectual and usually uncommunicative Jefferson wooed her ("He Plays the Violin"). Jefferson enters and silently reclaims his wife, requesting the other two men (by means of a note) to "kindly go away."

Act II
In June, with the Congress in what looks like a state of total lethargy, another gloomy dispatch from General Washington causes Adams to challenge Samuel Chase of Maryland to go with him and Franklin to the Army camp in New Brunswick, New Jersey, to check on conditions there. The other liberals also leave the chamber; with only the conservatives left, John Dickinson leads his congressional allies in a defense of their wealth, status and politics ("Cool, Cool Considerate Men"). They depart, leaving Andrew McNair (the custodian), the courier, and a workman in the chamber. The courier describes how his two closest friends were killed on the same day at Lexington ("Momma Look Sharp").

Some days later, Jefferson is outside the chamber while Mr. Thomson reads the declaration to the Congress. Adams and Franklin arrive, delighted: an exhibition of shooting by the Continental Army has convinced Chase, and Maryland will vote in favor of independence. They congratulate Jefferson on his work, and Franklin compares the creation of this new country to the hatching of a bird ("The Egg"). They debate which bird would best represent America: Franklin argues for the turkey and Jefferson suggests the dove, but Adams insists on the eagle. The others resign themselves to that choice.

On June 28, Hancock asks if there are any alterations to be offered to the Declaration of Independence. Many delegates voice suggestions. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina objects in particular to a clause condemning the slave trade. He accuses the northern colonies of hypocrisy, as they also prosper from slavery through the Triangle Trade ("Molasses to Rum"). Rutledge leads a walk-out with the delegates from both Carolinas and Georgia. The resolve of the other delegates is broken, and most of them also leave. Adams' faith in himself is shaken after a quarrel with Franklin, who understands that the slavery clause is "a luxury [they] can't afford" and that Adams seems to have forgotten, after being caught up in the slavery debate, that "the issue here is independence!" Adams calls on Abigail in his mind to help him, and she reminds him of his commitment to the cause. Bolstered by her (and the arrival of a delivery of kegs of saltpeter she had previously promised him), Adams recovers his energy and sends Franklin to try and win Wilson from Dickinson and Jefferson to talk to Rutledge. Re-reading a dispatch from Washington, Adams, now alone, wonders "Is Anybody There?" He is answered by Dr. Hall, the Georgia delegate, who changes Georgia's vote on the tally board from "Nay" to "Yea".

It is now July 2nd. Hancock calls for the vote on the Lee Resolution. At this moment, Rodney and Thomas McKean return to Congress to assure that Delaware will vote in favor of independence. Thomson calls on each delegation. Although Pennsylvania passes on their first call, the rest of the New England and Mid-Atlantic colonies vote in favor of independence except for New York, who abstains. When South Carolina is called, Rutledge again insists that the slavery clause be removed in exchange for the southern colonies voting in favor; Franklin argues they must first win independence before there is any hope of abolishing slavery, and Jefferson himself strikes out the passage. North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia all vote "yea". On Pennsylvania's second call, Dickinson is about to announce that his colony votes "nay" when Franklin requests that the delegation be polled. Franklin votes "yea" and Dickinson votes "nay", leaving the decisive vote in the hands of James Wilson. Wilson has previously subordinated himself to Dickinson; now, suddenly fearing that if he sides with Dickinson now he would be forever remembered as the man who prevented American independence, he changes his vote and votes for independence. With twelve colonies voting in favor of independence, none against and one colony abstaining, the resolution is unanimously adopted.

Hancock proposes that no man be allowed to sit in Congress without signing the Declaration. Dickinson announces that he cannot in good conscience sign it, and still hopes for reconciliation with England; however, he resolves to join the army to fight for and defend the new nation. Adams leads the Congress in a salute to Dickinson as he leaves the chamber.

On July 4, McNair rings the Liberty Bell in the background as Thomson calls each delegate to sign the Declaration. The delegates freeze in position as the Liberty Bell rings to a fevered pitch.

Productions
After out-of-town tryouts, the original Broadway production opened on Broadway on March 16, 1969, at the 46th Street Theatre (now the Richard Rodgers Theatre) and closed on February 13, 1972, after 1,217 performances. In its three-year run, it played in three different theatres: the 46th Street, the St. James Theatre (1970) and, finally, the Majestic Theatre (1971).  The principal cast included William Daniels, Howard da Silva, Paul Hecht, Clifford David, Ronald Holgate, David Ford, Virginia Vestoff and Ken Howard. Rex Everhart, who was da Silva's understudy, replaced him on the original Broadway cast album after da Silva suffered a mild heart attack, which required him to leave the show temporarily. Betty Buckley made her Broadway debut as Martha Jefferson in the original stage production. Clifford David left the production soon after opening. He was replaced as Rutledge by David Cryer who was in turn replaced by John Cullum who became one of the few Broadway replacements in history to recreate a role on film. (Cullum was succeeded in the Broadway production by Paul-David Richards.)

The musical toured for two years in the United States and was given a London production, opening on June 16, 1970, at the New Theatre. The production starred Lewis Fiander as Adams, Vivienne Ross as Abigail Adams, Ronald Radd, Bernard Lloyd, David Kernan as Rutledge, John Quentin as Jefferson and Cheryl Kennedy as Martha Jefferson.

An Australian production, also with Lewis Fiander, opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne on 26 June 1971 and moved to the Theatre Royal in Sydney on 11 September 1971.

1776 was revived by the Roundabout Theatre Company, opening on August 4, 1997, in a limited engagement at the Roundabout's home theater, the Criterion Center, before transferring to the George Gershwin Theatre on December 3, 1997, for a commercial run. It closed on June 14, 1998, after 333 performances and 34 previews. The production was directed by Scott Ellis with choreography by Kathleen Marshall, and featured Brent Spiner as Adams, Michael Cumpsty as Dickinson, Pat Hingle as Franklin, and Paul Michael Valley as Jefferson. Rex Everhart, who replaced Howard da Silva on the original cast album, was the standby for the role of Franklin.

The musical was produced in an Encores! City Center staged concert from March 30 to April 3, 2016. Directed by Garry Hynes, the cast starred Santino Fontana as John Adams, John Larroquette as Benjamin Franklin, John Behlmann as Thomas Jefferson, Christiane Noll as Abigail Adams, Nikki Renée Daniels as Martha Jefferson, Bryce Pinkham as John Dickinson, Alexander Gemignani as Edward Rutledge, André De Shields as Stephen Hopkins, and Jubilant Sykes as Richard Henry Lee. The cast included MacIntyre Dixon, Ric Stoneback, and Kevin Ligon reprising their roles from the 1997 revival as Andrew McNair, Samuel Chase, and George Read respectively. The production notably sported a racially diverse cast in light of the recent success of another musical about the Founding Fathers, Hamilton.

The musical was produced in Chicago, Illinois by Porchlight Music Theatre as part of their "Porchlight Revisits" series in November 2018. Directed by Michael Weber, Music Directed by Jeremy Ramey, with Musical Staging by Michelle Lauto.

A new revival of 1776 was to be staged at the American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.) in mid-2020, under the direction of Diane Paulus (Terrie and Bradley Bloom Artistic Director of A.R.T.), and then in Los Angeles at the Ahmanson Theatre, before arriving at the American Airlines Theatre, co-produced by ART and Roundabout Theatre Company. The team held a two-week workshop on Zoom in April 2020, but the production was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2021, A.R.T. announced that the production, now directed by Jeffrey L. Page and Paulus, would begin performances at A.R.T. in May 2022.

In April 2022 A.R.T. announced the revival cast of performers who identify as female, non-binary, and trans, and that the production would transfer to Roundabout's American Airlines Theatre in September 16th 2022 (where after previews it officially opened on October 6, 2022, and ran until January 8th 2023) and begin a 16-city national tour in February 2023. The cast (many of whom were making their Broadway debuts) included Crystal Lucas-Perry (later Kristolyn Lloyd) as Adams, Patrena Murray as Franklin, Elizabeth A. Davis as Jefferson, Allison Kaye Daniel as Abigail/Rev. Witherspoon, Eryn Lecroy as Martha/Dr. Hall, Carolee Carmello as Dickinson and Sara Porkalob as Rutledge.

The show received mixed to negative reviews, with Jesse Green of The New York Times criticizing its casting, writing that it "intensifies and complicates the argument." Green also wrote of the overall production that despite "underlining one's progressiveness a thousand times, as this 1776 does, [it] will not actually convey it better; rather it turns characters into cutouts and distracts from the ideas it means to promote."

Original casts and characters

Notable replacements
Broadway (1969-73)
John Dickinson: George Hearn
Edward Rutledge: John Cullum, Gary Beach
Thomas Jefferson: Jon Cypher
John Hancock: James Noble
Stephen Hopkins: Edmund Lyndeck
Lyman Hall: Edmund Lyndeck
Josiah Bartlett: Gary Beach

Broadway (1997-98)
John Adams: Michael McCormick
Benjamin Franklin: Rex Everhart (s/b)
Abigail Adams: Carolee Carmello

Broadway (2022)
John Adams: Kristolyn Lloyd

Music

Act I
Overture
"Sit Down, John" – Adams and Congress
"Piddle, Twiddle and Resolve" – Adams
"Till Then" – Adams and Abigail
"The Lees of Old Virginia" – Lee, Franklin and Adams
"But, Mr. Adams" – Adams, Franklin, Jefferson, Sherman and Livingston
"Yours, Yours, Yours" –  Adams and Abigail
"He Plays the Violin" – Martha, Franklin, and Adams
"Cool, Cool, Considerate Men" – Dickinson, Rutledge and The Conservatives
"Momma Look Sharp" – Courier, McNair and Leather Apron

Act II
"The Egg" – Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, and Congress
"Molasses to Rum" – Rutledge
"Compliments" – Abigail Adams
"Is Anybody There?" – Adams and Thomson
"Finale"

In the 2022 revival, the end of Act I is moved to after "He Plays the Violin".

Dramatic analysis
Scene Three of 1776 holds the record for the longest time in a musical without a single note of music played or sung – over thirty minutes pass between "The Lees of Old Virginia" and "But Mr. Adams", the next song in the show. On the DVD commentary, Peter Stone says that he experimented with adding various songs in this section, but nothing ever worked.  During this scene, dubbed "Big Three" by cast members, musicians were allowed to leave the pit, reportedly the first time in Broadway history that they were permitted to do so in the middle of a show.  Stone also notes that people often told him that, because of the subject matter and the large amount of dialogue, 1776 should have been a conventional play rather than a musical.  Stone believes that the songs create a playful, irreverent tone that helps bring the historical characters to life.

Historical accuracy
According to The Columbia Companion to American History on Film, historical "[i]naccuracies pervade 1776, though few are very troubling."  Because Congress was held in secrecy and there are no contemporary records on the debate over the Declaration of Independence, the authors of the play created the narrative based on later accounts and educated guesses, inventing scenes and dialogue as needed for storytelling purposes. Some of the dialogue was taken from words written, often years or even decades later, by the actual people involved, and rearranged for dramatic effect.

The central departure from history is that the separation from Great Britain was accomplished in two steps: the actual vote for independence came on July 2 with the approval of Lee's resolution of independence. The wording of the Declaration of Independence—the statement to the world as to the reasons necessitating the split—was then debated for three days before being approved on July 4. The vote for independence did not hinge on some passages being removed from the Declaration, as implied in the play, since Congress had already voted in favor of independence before debating the Declaration. For the sake of drama, the play's authors combined the two events. In addition, some historians believe that the Declaration was not signed on July 4, as shown in 1776, but was instead signed on August 2, 1776. The authors of 1776 had the delegates sign the Declaration on July 4 for dramatic reasons.

Of the four principal characters, the musical also notably focuses on Jefferson's wife, Martha, and Adams' wife, Abigail, but omits Dickinson's wife, Mary Norris, who was actually in Philadelphia at the time, unlike the other wives, and had a different perspective than the other wives. Franklin's common-law wife, Deborah Read, was deceased at this point, and his mistresses are not depicted, although he does mention a "Rendez-vous" he has to attend.

Many characters in 1776 differ from their historical counterparts. Central to the drama is the depiction of John Adams as "obnoxious and disliked". According to biographer David McCullough, however, Adams was one of the most respected members of Congress in 1776. Adams' often-quoted description of himself in Congress as "obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular" is from a letter written 46 years later, in 1822, after his unpopular presidency had likely colored his view of the past. According to McCullough, no delegate described Adams as obnoxious in 1776.  Historian Garry Wills earlier made a similar argument, writing that "historians relay John Adams's memories without sufficient skepticism", and that it was Dickinson, not Adams, who was advocating an unpopular position in 1776.

Dickinson, who refused to sign Adams' and Jefferson's declaration based on "rights of man" and "natural law", was seeking to avoid reopening issues from the English Civil Wars, including Oliver Cromwell's Puritan regime, and the Jacobitism cause. In 1689, these issues had been definitively resolved in the Glorious Revolution and the constitutionalization of the English Bill of Rights based in "rights and responsibilities of person"; the word "man" is not used except in the context of treason. The last Jacobite rebellion, seeking to re-establish Catholicism and the religious concept of "natural law", had only just happened in 1745, however. None of this background of Dickinson's position is depicted. (Dickinson would later draft the Articles of Confederation, a codification of the Continental Congress system that governed the United States until the present United States Constitution supplanted it; the Articles draw upon the "rights and responsibilities of person" language.)

For practical and dramatic purposes, the play does not depict all of the more than 50 members of Congress who were present at the time. The John Adams of the play is, in part, a composite character, combining the real Adams with his cousin Samuel Adams, who was in Congress at the time but is not depicted in the play (though he is mentioned). Although the play depicts Caesar Rodney as an elderly man near death from skin cancer (which would eventually kill him), he was just 47 at the time and continued to be very active in the Revolution after signing the Declaration. He was not absent from the voting because of health; however, the play is accurate in having him arrive "in the nick of time", having ridden 80 miles the night before (an event depicted on Delaware's 1999 State Quarter). In the play, Richard Henry Lee announces that he is returning to Virginia to serve as governor. He was never governor; his cousin Henry Lee III (who is anachronistically called "General 'Lighthorse' Harry Lee", a rank and nickname earned later) did eventually become governor and would also become the father of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. John Adams was also depicted in the play and the film as disliking Richard Henry Lee. That is not the case as, according to David McCullough, Adams expressed nothing but "respect and admiration for the tall, masterly Virginian." He did, however, contrary to what was portrayed in the play and the film, dislike Benjamin Franklin. Martha Jefferson never traveled to Philadelphia to be with her husband. In fact, she was extremely ill during the summer of 1776, having just endured a miscarriage. The play's authors invented the scene "to show something of the young Jefferson's life without destroying the unity of setting." James Wilson was not the indecisive milquetoast depicted in the play. The real Wilson, who was not yet a judge in 1776, had been cautious about supporting independence at an earlier date, but he supported the resolution of independence when it came up for a vote. Pennsylvania's deciding swing vote was actually cast by John Morton, who is not depicted in the musical.

The quote attributed to Edmund Burke by Dr. Lyman Hall in a key scene with John Adams is a paraphrase of a real quote by Burke.

The song "Cool Considerate Men" is anachronistic because the terms "right" and "left" in politics were not in use until the French Revolution of 1789. John Dickinson, who is portrayed as an antagonist here, was motivated mainly by his Quaker roots and his respect for the British Constitution, having lived in England for 3 years in the 1750s. He was no wealthier than some members of the pro-Independence faction, and freed his slaves in 1777. Thomas Jefferson wrote that "his name will be consecrated in history as one of the great worthies of the revolution".

The musical also deviates from history in its portrayal of attitudes about slavery. In 1776, after a dramatic debate over slavery, the southern delegates walk out in protest of the Declaration's reference to the slave trade, and only support independence when that language is removed from the Declaration. The walkout is fictional, and apparently most delegates, northern and southern, supported the deletion of the clause.

The musical claims that Edward Rutledge led the opposition to the supposedly anti-slavery clause in the original draft of the Declaration. This is inaccurate on two counts. First, the musical does not mention the motivation of the clause, namely the fact that, following Lord Dunmore's Proclamation, England was granting freedom to runaway slaves who joined its army. Second, Rutledge's leadership against the clause is completely fictional. According to Jefferson, the clause was opposed by South Carolina and Georgia, plus unspecified "northern brethren"; that is the limit of known information about opposition to the clause.

Thomas Jefferson is depicted as saying that he has resolved to free his slaves, something he did not do, except for a few slaves freed after his death 50 years later. Franklin claims that he is the founder of an abolitionist organization, but the real Franklin did not become an active abolitionist until after the American Revolution, becoming president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society in 1785.

James Wilson is portrayed as subordinating himself to Dickinson's opposition to independence, only changing his vote so that he would not be remembered unfavorably. In fact, Wilson was considered one of the leading thinkers behind the American cause, consistently supporting and arguing for independence, although he would not cast his vote until his district had been caucused.

The phrase "We are about to brave the storm in a skiff made of paper", placed in the mouth of John Hancock, was actually stated by John Dickinson ("Others strenuously assert...we ought to brave the Storm in a Skiff made of Paper.") in his arguments against independence.

In both the play and the film, John Adams sarcastically predicts that Benjamin Franklin will receive from posterity too great a share of credit for the Revolution.  "Franklin smote the ground and out sprang—George Washington. Fully grown, and on his horse.  Franklin then electrified them with his magnificent lightning rod and the three of them—Franklin, Washington, and the horse—conducted the entire Revolution all by themselves."  Adams did make a similar comment about Franklin in April 1790, just after Franklin's death, although the mention of the horse was a humorous twist added by the authors of the musical.

The 2022 revival production includes an excerpt of Abigail Adams' March 1776 letter to John Adams, known for its "remember the ladies" statement for women's rights.

Critical reception
In his review of the original 1969 production, Clive Barnes of The New York Times wrote, On the face of it, few historical incidents seem more unlikely to spawn a Broadway musical than that solemn moment in the history of mankind, the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Yet 1776... most handsomely demonstrated that people who merely go 'on the face of it' are occasionally outrageously wrong....  [1776] is a most striking, most gripping musical. I recommend it without reservation. It makes even an Englishman's heart beat faster... the characters are most unusually full... for Mr. Stone's book is literate, urbane and, on occasion, very amusing....  William Daniels has given many persuasive performances in the past, but nothing, I think, can have been so effective as his John Adams here.  This is a beautiful mixture of pride, ambition, an almost priggish sense of justice and yet – the saving grace of the character – an ironic self-awareness.

John Chapman of the New York Daily News wrote, This is by no means a historical tract or a sermon on the birth of this nation. It is warm with a life of its own; it is funny, it is moving... Often, as I sat enchanted in my seat, it reminded me of Gilbert and Sullivan in its amused regard of human frailties....  The songs and lyrics are, as I have indicated, remarkably original.

The New York Post noted, In this cynical age, it requires courage as well as enterprise to do a musical play that simply deals with the events leading up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence.  And 1776... makes no attempt to be satirical or wander off into modern bypaths.  But the rewards of this confidence reposed in the bold conception were abundant.  The result is a brilliant and remarkably moving work of theatrical art... it is Mr. Daniels' John Adams who dominates the evening, as he did the Congress.  Peter Hunt's direction, the choreography of Onna White, and the setting by Jo Mielziner are just right.

Recordings
 Original Broadway cast (Columbia, 1969), available on LP, Cassette and CD with Rex Everhart as Ben Franklin because of Howard da Silva's ill health at the time of recording.
 Original London cast (1970), available on LP
 British studio cast (1970), available on LP (Marble Arch MALS-1327)
 Original motion picture soundtrack (Columbia, 1972), available on LP, Cassette
 Studio cast (The Ray Bloch Singers) (date unknown), available on LP
 Broadway revival cast (1997), available on CD, Cassette

Awards and nominations

Original Broadway production

*Note: William Daniels, who starred as John Adams, was ruled ineligible for the Best Actor nomination because his name was not billed above the title of the show. He was nominated for Best Featured Actor, but refused the nomination.

1997 Broadway revival

2022 Broadway revival

Film adaptation

The 1972 film version of 1776 was produced by Jack L. Warner with Hunt again directing and Stone writing the screenplay. The film featured William Daniels as Adams, Ken Howard as Jefferson, Howard da Silva as Franklin, John Cullum as Edward Rutledge, Ron Holgate as Richard Henry Lee, and Virginia Vestoff as Abigail Adams, all of whom had performed their roles on Broadway.  The supporting cast was also mostly recruited from the Broadway production. The principal exceptions were Donald Madden and Blythe Danner, who took over the roles of John Dickinson and Martha Jefferson.

A Director's Cut of the original film has been released on DVD and Blu-ray.  Both the look and sound of the original film have been improved through modern technology.  Many cuts to the original film by the producer Jack Warner have been restored, including verses from the songs "Piddle Twiddle and Resolve" and "He Plays the Violin" and the entire "Cool, Cool, Considerate Men".  Musical underscoring has been removed from several scenes without songs in order to strengthen the focus on dialogue. Bonus material includes commentary by Director Peter Hunt and by Peter Stone, the book/screenwriter. Among other topics, they discuss artistic liberties and anachronisms used to dramatize the events.

In popular culture
Throughout the course of the third season of the Netflix original series Grace and Frankie, Robert, played by Martin Sheen, and his husband Sol, played by Sam Waterston, are persuaded to audition for a local production of 1776 by the local gay men's theater group, resulting in Robert landing the lead role of John Adams, much to the disappointment of Sol who was not cast.

The musical Hamilton references the song "Sit Down, John!" in a lyric from the song, "The Adams Administration", in the lyric: "Adams fires Hamilton/Privately calls him "creole bastard" in his taunts/Say what?/Hamilton publishes his response/Sit down, John, you fat mother." Lin-Manuel Miranda discovered the 1776 film in college and cites it as having paved the way for Hamilton.

See also
List of the longest-running Broadway shows
List of plays and musicals about the American Revolution
Hamilton (musical), a 2015 musical about Alexander Hamilton
 Founding Fathers of the United States

References

Bibliography
Stone, Peter, and Sherman Edwards. 1776: A Musical Play. New York: Viking Press, 1970. .
Bloom, Ken and Vlastnik, Frank. Broadway Musicals: The 101 Greatest Shows of all Time. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2004.
Kantor, Michael and Maslon, Laurence. Broadway: The American Musical. New York: Bullfinch Press, 2004.

External links

 1776 at the Music Theatre International website
 Rational Magic review of stage version and CD
 Classroom Study Integrating Musical Theatre in the classroom, JoAnne Freed
1776 music tracks on Masterworks Broadway
 2016 City Center conversation with William Daniels and Lin-Manuel Miranda about the legacy of 1776.

1969 musicals
Fiction set in 1776
Broadway musicals
Musicals inspired by real-life events
Musicals by Peter Stone
Musicals set in Pennsylvania
Musicals set in the 1770s
Tony Award for Best Musical
United States Declaration of Independence
Musicals about the American Revolution
Cultural depictions of Benjamin Franklin
Cultural depictions of Thomas Jefferson
Cultural depictions of John Adams
Cultural depictions of John Hancock
American patriotic songs
Tony Award-winning musicals
LGBT-related musicals

1776 (musical)


Stollberg is a former district in Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the district-free city Chemnitz, and the districts Mittlerer Erzgebirgskreis, Annaberg, Aue-Schwarzenberg, Zwickauer Land and Chemnitzer Land.

History
The district dates back to the Amtshauptmannschaft Stollberg, which was established in 1910. In 1939 it was renamed to Landkreis. In 1950 the district was dissolved and its municipalities were assigned to the neighboring districts Aue, Chemnitz and Zwickau. However two years later in another reform the district was recreated, only with a slightly different layout. In the communal reform of 1994 the district was enlarged by some municipalities from the district Chemnitz, and the city Zwönitz from the district Aue. On 1 August 2008 it was merged into the new district Erzgebirgskreis.

Geography
The district was located on the northwestern slope of the Ore Mountains.

Partnerships
Since 1990 the district had a partnership with the district Fürth in Bavaria.

Coat of arms
The left half of the coat of arms show the symbol of the Counts of Schönberg - the county of Schönberg covered most of the area of the district. To the right is the imperial eagle symbolizing the Pleissnerland, an imperial estate. The colours of the right side are also identical with those of Meissen, as another part of the district historically belonged to the County of Meissen.

Towns and municipalities

External links
 Official website (German)

History of the Ore Mountains

Stollberg (district)


Elijah W. Reed (November 27, 1827 – January 27, 1888) was a ship captain from Brooklin, Maine, who is credited with establishment of the menhaden fishing industry in Virginia's Northern Neck region.

In 1874, Captain Reed moved his business to Northumberland County, Virginia, along the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, an area where local watermen had been long established. He introduced a method of extracting large quantities of oil from the fish, by rendering millions of fish. Their oil was used as a lubricant and in lighting, as whale oil was; and the leftover bones and carcasses were valuable as fertilizer. Reed opened the first processing plant in the area. By 1885, Reedville was heavily engaged in the menhaden fishing industry. Menhaden factories on Cockrell Creek produced fish oil, meal, and fertilizer from menhaden. The menhaden fishing industry brought tremendous wealth to Reedville and to Northumberland County.

The unincorporated town of Reedville, Virginia, was named in his honor.

External links
Reedville Fisherman's Museum

1827 births
1888 deaths
People from Brooklin, Maine
Businesspeople from Maine
People from Reedville, Virginia
Businesspeople from Virginia
American sailors
19th-century sailors
19th-century American businesspeople

Elijah W. Reed


Roker Park was a football ground in Roker, Sunderland, England, which was the home of Sunderland A.F.C. from 1898 to 1997, before the club moved to the Stadium of Light. Its final capacity was around 22,500, with only a small part being seated; it had been much higher, attracting a record crowd of 75,118.

History

In the 1890s, the then Sunderland chairman and his brother decided to build a bigger ground for the club, to replace what was then the club's current ground at Newcastle Road. The club had negotiated to buy farmland that belonged to a Mr. Tennant and part of the agreement was that Sunderland would have to build a house on the site as well as their new stadium. Until this house was built, Sunderland still had to pay rent on the land.

Within a year of the land being bought, Roker Park had been built, with the wooden stands only taking three months to build. The Clock Stand had 32 steps, no seats and a crush barrier for safety. The turf was brought from Ireland, and lasted for 38 years. The pitch was designed to have a slight drop of about one foot from the centre of the pitch to each corner to help with drainage. The first event at the ground was an "Olympic Games and Band Contest" on 12 August 1898. On 10 September 1898 Roker Park was officially opened by Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 6th Marquess of Londonderry. The first match was a friendly against Liverpool which Sunderland won 1–0, with Jim Leslie scoring the stadium's first ever goal.

The stadium soon became famous for what was often referred to as the "Roker Roar", with then Tottenham and England captain Danny Blanchflower writing that "Nothing ever equalled the intensity of that wild roar at Roker Park".

The Roker End was concreted in 1912, and by 1913 the capacity had risen to 50,000. In 1929 the old wooden grandstand was demolished and replaced by a new Main Stand, which was designed by Archibald Leitch, whose influence, the criss-cross lattice work, can still be seen at Ibrox (Rangers), Home Park (Plymouth Argyle) and Goodison Park (Everton). Fragments of the iconic lattice work would later be used to separate parts of the car park at the Stadium of Light. The work on the new Main Stand nearly bankrupted the club. By this time the official capacity of Roker Park was 60,000 but at some matches they would have crowds as large as 75,000. More work continued in the 1930s and in 1936 the Clock Stand was rebuilt. The 114 m (375 ft) long structure was officially opened by Lady Raine, whose husband was Sir Walter Raine, the Chairman of Sunderland AFC at the time.

In 1943, during the Second World War, a bomb landed in the middle of the pitch and another nearby killed a policeman. In 1952, Roker Park was fitted with floodlights, being only the second ground in the country to do so after Arsenal's Highbury stadium. The lights were only a temporary addition, and were replaced by permanent structures at the end of the season after proving to be a success. When England hosted the 1966 World Cup, improvements were made to the Clock Stand, involving the addition of seats, and a roof over the Fulwell End. Temporary seating was also installed in the Fulwell End. The capacity of Roker Park during the World Cup was 40,310.

In 1955, Roker Park hosted an FA Cup Semi-Final replay, between (eventual winners) Newcastle United and York City, who were then in the third tier of English Football. Newcastle won the game 2–0 in front of a crowd of 55,239. Sunderland were in the other semi-final, but lost out 1–0 to Manchester City.

During the 1970s, there were even more improvements to Roker Park. These improvements included installing underground sprinklers, upgrading the floodlights to European Standard Lux Value, installing electronic crowd monitoring systems, and re-sheeting the roof. In the 1980s, with a downturn in the club's fortunes (which included a season in the Football League Third Division), Roker Park started to decline. The capacity was severely reduced following the report in the Hillsborough Disaster of 1989, with the Roker End suffering the most.

In the early 1990s, new Football Association (FA) rules following the publication of the Taylor Report meant the stadium would have to have been upgraded to all-seater status, which would have consisted of a much smaller capacity than the sort of attendances that Sunderland could expect, as they had played in the penultimate First Division campaign (1990–91 season) before the creation of the Premier League and were aiming for a swift return to the top flight (although promotion was ultimately not achieved until the 1995–96 season). The site was too confined for expansion so chairman Bob Murray decided to look for a site for a new stadium. In 1992, plans were unveiled to build a 48,000-seat stadium near the Nissan car factory in Washington, which would be part of a mega leisure complex, but Nissan objected to such a site being developed near their factory. Instead, five years later in 1997, Sunderland moved to the Stadium of Light, in nearby Monkwearmouth, on the site of the closed Monkwearmouth Colliery.

The 1996–97 season was the last at Roker Park, which was also Sunderland's first ever season in the Premier League, ending in relegation for the club. The last competitive match at the ground was a 3–0 victory over Everton.

Roker Park was also one of the most recent venues in the Premier League to feature standing accommodation. The only team to have had standing accommodation at its stadium since was Fulham, who still had terracing at Craven Cottage for one season after winning promotion in 2001, after which they ground-shared with QPR at Loftus Road for two seasons before returning to an all-seater Craven Cottage.

In a special ceremony after the final farewell game (coincidentally, also a 1–0 win against Liverpool in which Sunderland midfielder John Mullin scored the stadium's final goal at the Fulwell End) Charlie Hurley (voted the club's Player of the Century) dug up the centre spot of the ground for it to be planted at the new stadium. Following the move to the Stadium of Light, Roker Park was demolished and in its place was built a housing estate. To commemorate Roker Park, the streets were named Promotion Close, Clockstand Close, Goalmouth Close, Midfield Drive, Turnstile Mews and Roker Park Close.

Fan reactions to the move
Following the demolition of Roker Park, playwright Tom Kelly and actor Paul Dunn created a one-man play called I Left My Heart at Roker Park about a fan struggling with the move and what Roker Park meant for him; the play had its first run in 1997, and has been revived since.

Actor and Sunderland supporter Peter O'Toole described Roker Park as his connection to the club, saying that as a result of the change of grounds he was less of a fan.

In 1998, the BBC broadcast a six-part documentary named Premier Passions, which included a chronicle of Sunderland A.F.C. during the 1996–97 season, in which the club was relegated from the Premier League the year after winning promotion from the Football League First Division, and moved to the Stadium of Light.

International matches
Roker Park hosted the first of three full England internationals in 1899; a 13–2 victory over Ireland in the 1898–99 British Home Championship - the highest scoring game in the history of the tournament. Further Home Championship games were played at Roker Park in 1920 (v. Ireland) and 1950 (v. Wales), England winning both games. Three England B games were played at the ground, in 1954, 1980 and 1990. Roker Park also hosted four youth internationals - England U23 games in 1959 and 1970, and England U18 games in 1952 and 1956. The 1970 England U23 game against Scotland was abandoned due to snow after 60 minutes with England leading 3–1.

During the 1966 FIFA World Cup, Roker Park hosted three group stage games in Group 4 along with Ayresome Park, and a Quarter Final game between the Soviet Union and Hungary. The biggest World Cup attendance at the ground was 27,793 for the group stage game between the Soviet Union and Italy.

List of full and B-level Internationals

References

External links

 BBC Wear pictures - 1966 World Cup at Roker Park

Defunct football venues in England
1966 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Sunderland A.F.C.
Home Grounds of Sunderland A.F.C.
History of Tyne and Wear
Buildings and structures in the City of Sunderland
Premier League venues
Sports venues completed in 1897
1897 establishments in England
Defunct sports venues in Tyne and Wear
Sports venues demolished in 1998
English Football League venues
Demolished sports venues in the United Kingdom
1997 disestablishments in England
Sunderland

Roker Park


Bowers v. Hardwick was a 1986 United States Supreme Court (SCOTUS) case that said that the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution does not mean there is a a constitutional right for two people of the same gender to have sex.  The case was about two men, so the exact words they used were "homosexual sodomy."

The Supreme Court said that gay sex is not a deeply rooted right in American history and that it would not be possible for SCOTUS to create such a right without also creating a constitutional right to both adult incest and adultery. The majority opinion was written by Justice Byron White. The other justices who agreed were Chief Justice Warren Earl Burger and Justices Lewis Powell, William Rehnquist, and Sandra Day O'Connor. In a brief separate opinion, Chief Justice Burger said gay sex had been called bad for thousands of years, with William Blackstone calling gay sex worse than rape. The dissenting opinion came from Justices Harry Blackmun, John Paul Stevens, William Brennan, and Thurgood Marshall. They disagreed with the majority opinion.  Justice Blackmun said that the 14th amendment could create a constitutional right to have sex with another person of the same gender because of the right to privacy. He said that people have a right to be left alone and that saying this about gay sex did not mean people would be legally allowed to commit adult incest or adultery.

Seventeen years later, the Supreme Court made the opposite decision.  Bowers v. Hardwick was in the 2003 SCOTUS case Lawrence v. Texas.

References

1986 in the United States
United States Supreme Court cases
LGBT in the United States

Bowers v. Hardwick


Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee exposure to hazards when engineering controls and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at the source and may result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails.

Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment. This can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can therefore help to ensure safe and healthy working conditions through the correct use of PPE.

Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, which pose a threat to the safety and quality of life of workers. The hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot be applied, engineering controls and administrative controlswhich seek to design safer mechanisms and coach safer human behaviorare implemented. Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, it is not the desired mechanism of control in terms of worker safety.

History

Early PPE such as body armor, boots and gloves focused on protecting the wearer's body from physical injury. The plague doctors of sixteenth-century Europe also wore protective uniforms consisting of a full-length gown, helmet, glass eye coverings, gloves and boots (see Plague doctor costume) to prevent contagion when dealing with plague victims. These were made of thick material which was then covered in wax to make it water-resistant. A mask with a beak-like structure was filled with pleasant-smelling flowers, herbs and spices to prevent the spread of miasma, the prescientific belief of bad smells which spread disease through the air. In more recent years, scientific personal protective equipment is generally believed to have begun with the cloth facemasks promoted by Wu Lien-teh in the 1910–11 Manchurian pneumonic plague outbreak, although many Western medics doubted the efficacy of facemasks in preventing the spread of disease.

Types
Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. A single itemfor example, bootsmay provide multiple forms of protection: a steel toe cap and steel insoles for protection of the feet from crushing or puncture injuries, impervious rubber and lining for protection from water and chemicals, high reflectivity and heat resistance for protection from radiant heat, and high electrical resistivity for protection from electric shock. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the hazards expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of personal protective equipment may not lead to more contamination but do result in greater user satisfaction.

Respirators

Respirators are protective breathing equipment, which protect the user from inhaling contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of their respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type of respirator functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active (powered). Gas masks and particulate respirators (like N95 masks) are examples of this type of respirator. A second type of respirator protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.

In the United Kingdom, an organization that has extensive expertise in respiratory protective equipment is the Institute of Occupational Medicine. This expertise has been built on a long-standing and varied research programme that has included the setting of workplace protection factors to the assessment of efficacy of masks available through high street retail outlets.

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE), NHS Health Scotland and Healthy Working Lives (HWL) have jointly developed the RPE (Respiratory Protective Equipment) Selector Tool, which is web-based. This interactive tool provides descriptions of different types of respirators and breathing apparatuses, as well as "dos and don'ts" for each type.

In the United States, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provides recommendations on respirator use, in accordance to NIOSH federal respiratory regulations 42 CFR Part 84.  The National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL) of NIOSH is tasked towards actively conducting studies on respirators and providing recommendations.

Surgical masks are considered as PPE, but are not considered as respirators, being unable to stop submicron particles from passing through, and also having unrestricted air flow at the edges of the masks.

Skin protection

Occupational skin diseases such as contact dermatitis, skin cancers, and other skin injuries and infections are the second-most common type of occupational disease and can be very costly. Skin hazards, which lead to occupational skin disease, can be classified into four groups. Chemical agents can come into contact with the skin through direct contact with contaminated surfaces, deposition of aerosols, immersion or splashes. Physical agents such as extreme temperatures and ultraviolet or solar radiation can be damaging to the skin over prolonged exposure. Mechanical trauma occurs in the form of friction, pressure, abrasions, lacerations and contusions. Biological agents such as parasites, microorganisms, plants and animals can have varied effects when exposed to the skin.

Any form of PPE that acts as a barrier between the skin and the agent of exposure can be considered skin protection. Because much work is done with the hands, gloves are an essential item in providing skin protection. Some examples of gloves commonly used as PPE include rubber gloves, cut-resistant gloves, chainsaw gloves and heat-resistant gloves. For sports and other recreational activities, many different gloves are used for protection, generally against mechanical trauma.

Other than gloves, any other article of clothing or protection worn for a purpose serve to protect the skin. Lab coats for example, are worn to protect against potential splashes of chemicals. Face shields serve to protect one's face from potential impact hazards, chemical splashes or possible infectious fluid.

Many migrant workers need training in PPE for Heat Related Illnesses prevention (HRI).  Based on study results, research identified some potential gaps in heat safety education. While some farm workers reported receiving limited training on pesticide safety, others did not. This could be remedied by incoming groups of farm workers receiving video and in-person training on HRI prevention.  These educational programs for farm workers are most effective when they are based on health behavior theories, use adult learning principles and employ train-the-trainer approaches.

Eye protection

Each day, about 2,000 US workers have a job-related eye injury that requires medical attention. Eye injuries can happen through a variety of means. Most eye injuries occur when solid particles such as metal slivers, wood chips, sand or cement chips get into the eye. Smaller particles in smokes and larger particles such as broken glass also account for particulate matter-causing eye injuries. Blunt force trauma can occur to the eye when excessive force comes into contact with the eye. Chemical burns, biological agents, and thermal agents, from sources such as welding torches and UV light, also contribute to occupational eye injury.

While the required eye protection varies by occupation, the safety provided can be generalized. Safety glasses provide protection from external debris, and should provide side protection via a wrap-around design or side shields.
 Goggles provide better protection than safety glasses, and are effective in preventing eye injury from chemical splashes, impact, dusty environments and welding. Goggles with high air flow should be used to prevent fogging.
 Face shields provide additional protection and are worn over the standard eyewear; they also provide protection from impact, chemical, and blood-borne hazards.
 Full-facepiece respirators are considered the best form of eye protection when respiratory protection is needed as well, but may be less effective against potential impact hazards to the eye.
 Eye protection for welding is shaded to different degrees, depending on the specific operation.

Hearing protection

Industrial noise is often overlooked as an occupational hazard, as it is not visible to the eye. Overall, about 22 million workers in the United States are exposed to potentially damaging noise levels each year. Occupational hearing loss accounted for 14% of all occupational illnesses in 2007, with about 23,000 cases significant enough to cause permanent hearing impairment. About 82% of occupational hearing loss cases occurred to workers in the manufacturing sector.  In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration establishes occupational noise exposure standards.  The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health  recommends that worker exposures to noise be reduced to a level equivalent to 85 dBA for eight hours to reduce occupational noise-induced hearing loss.

PPE for hearing protection consists of earplugs and earmuffs. Workers who are regularly exposed to noise levels above the NIOSH recommendation should be provided with hearing protection by the employers, as they are a low-cost intervention. A personal attenuation rating can be objectively measured through a hearing protection fit-testing system. The effectiveness of hearing protection varies with the training offered on their use.

Protective clothing and ensembles

This form of PPE is all-encompassing and refers to the various suits and uniforms worn to protect the user from harm. Lab coats worn by scientists and ballistic vests worn by law enforcement officials, which are worn on a regular basis, would fall into this category. Entire sets of PPE, worn together in a combined suit, are also in this category.

Ensembles

Below are some examples of ensembles of personal protective equipment, worn together for a specific occupation or task, to provide maximum protection for the user:
 PPE gowns are used by medical personnel like doctors and nurses.
 Chainsaw protection (especially a helmet with face guard, hearing protection, kevlar chaps, anti-vibration gloves, and chainsaw safety boots).
 Bee-keepers wear various levels of protection depending on the temperament of their bees and the reaction of the bees to nectar availability. At minimum most bee keepers wear a brimmed hat and a veil made of fine mesh netting. The next level of protection involves leather gloves with long gauntlets and some way of keeping bees from crawling up one's trouser legs. In extreme cases, specially fabricated shirts and trousers can serve as barriers to the bees' stingers.
 Diving equipment, for underwater diving, constitutes equipment such as a diving helmet or diving mask, an underwater breathing apparatus, and a diving suit.
 Firefighters wear PPE designed to provide protection against fires and various fumes and gases. PPE worn by firefighters include bunker gear, self-contained breathing apparatus, a helmet, safety boots, and a PASS device.

In sports

Participants in sports often wear protective equipment. Studies performed on the injuries of professional athletes, such as that on NFL players, question the effectiveness of existing personal protective equipment.

Limits of the definition
The definition of what constitutes personal protective equipment varies by country. In the United States, the laws regarding PPE also vary by state. In 2011, workplace safety complaints were brought against Hustler and other adult film production companies by the AIDS Healthcare Foundation, leading to several citations brought by Cal/OSHA. The failure to use condoms by adult film stars was a violation of Cal/OSHA's Blood borne Pathogens Program, Personal Protective Equipment. This example shows that personal protective equipment can cover a variety of occupations in the United States, and has a wide-ranging definition.

Standardization

Legislation

United States
The National Defense Authorization Act for 2022 defines personal protective equipment as

Under this Act, US military services are prohibited from purchasing PPE from suppliers in North Korea, China, Russia or Iran, unless there are problems with the supply or cost of PPE of "satisfactory quality and quantity".

European Union
At the European Union level, personal protective equipment is governed by Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment (PPE). The Directive is designed to ensure that PPE meets common quality and safety standards by setting out basic safety requirements for personal protective equipment, as well as conditions for its placement on the market and free movement within the EU single market. It covers "any device or appliance designed to be worn or held by an individual for protection against one or more health and safety hazards". The directive was adopted on 21 January 1989 and came into force on 1 July 1992. The European Commission additionally allowed for a transition period until 30 June 1995 to give companies sufficient time to adapt to the legislation. After this date, all PPE placed on the market in EU Member States was required to comply with the requirements of Directive 89/686/EEC and carry the CE Marking.

Article 1 of Directive 89/686/EEC defines personal protective equipment as any device or appliance designed to be worn or held by an individual for protection against one or more health and safety hazards. PPE which falls under the scope of the Directive is divided into three categories:
 Category I: simple design (e.g. gardening gloves, footwear, ski goggles)
 Category II:  PPE not falling into category I or III (e.g. personal flotation devices, dry and wet suits, motorcycle personal protective equipment)
 Category III:  complex design (e.g. respiratory equipment, harnesses)

Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment does not distinguish between PPE for professional use and PPE for leisure purposes.

Personal protective equipment falling within the scope of the Directive must comply with the basic health and safety requirements set out in Annex II of the Directive. To facilitate conformity with these requirements, harmonized standards are developed at the European or international level by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN, CENELEC) and the International Organization for Standardization in relation to the design and manufacture of the product. Usage of the harmonized standards is voluntary and provides presumption of conformity. However, manufacturers may choose an alternative method of complying with the requirements of the Directive.

Personal protective equipment excluded from the scope of the Directive includes:
 PPE designed for and used by the armed forces or in the maintenance of law and order;
 PPE for self-defence (e.g. aerosol canisters, personal deterrent weapons);
 PPE designed and manufactured for personal use against adverse atmospheric conditions (e.g. seasonal clothing, umbrellas), damp and water (e.g. dish-washing gloves) and heat;
 PPE  used on vessels and aircraft but not worn at all times;
 helmets and visors intended for users of two- or three-wheeled motor vehicles.

The European Commission is currently working to revise Directive 89/686/EEC. The revision will look at the scope of the Directive, the conformity assessment procedures and technical requirements regarding market surveillance. It will also align the Directive with the New Legislative Framework. The European Commission is likely to publish its proposal in 2013. It will then be discussed by the European Parliament and Council of the European Union under the ordinary legislative procedure before being published in the Official Journal of the European Union and becoming law.

Research

Research studies in the form of randomized controlled trials and simulation studies are needed to determine the most effective types of PPE for preventing the transmission of infectious diseases to healthcare workers.

There is low certainty evidence that supports making improvements or modifications to PPE in order to help decrease contamination. Examples of modifications include adding tabs to masks or gloves to ease removal and designing protective gowns so that gloves are removed at the same time. In addition, there is low certainty evidence that the following PPE approaches or techniques may lead to reduced contamination and improved compliance with PPE protocols:  Wearing double gloves, following specific doffing (removal) procedures such as those from the CDC, and providing people with spoken instructions while removing PPE.

See also

  (Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear, known formerly as NBC)

  (hazardous materials)

 Normalization of deviance – one reason people stop using effective prevention measures

References

External links

 CDC - Emergency Response Resources: Personal Protective Equipment - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
 European Commission, DG Enterprise, Personal Protective Equipment
 Directive 89/686/EEC on Personal Protective Equipment
 A short guide to the Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992'  INDG174(rev1), revised 8/05 (HSE)

Headgear

Occupational safety and health
Risk management in business
Industrial hygiene
Safety engineering
Environmental social science
Working conditions

Personal protective equipment