Heaven is a 2002 romantic thriller film directed by Tom Tykwer, starring Cate Blanchett and Giovanni Ribisi. Co-screenwriter Krzysztof Kieślowski intended for it to be the first part of a trilogy (the second being Hell and the third titled Purgatory), but Kieślowski died before he could complete the project. The film is an international co-production among producers based in Germany, France, Italy, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The dialogue is in Italian and English.

Plot
The film is set in Turin, Italy. It opens with a prologue sequence showing the young Italian Carabinieri clerk Filippo (Ribisi) learning to fly a helicopter using a flight simulator. When he accidentally crashes the virtual helicopter by ascending too dramatically, his instructor tells him, "In a real helicopter, you can't just keep going up and up", prompting Filippo to ask, "How high can I fly?"

The film then cuts to Philippa (Blanchett), who is preparing to plant a bomb in the downtown office of a high-ranking businessman. Although everything goes according to her plan, the garbage bin in which she places the bomb is emptied by a cleaner immediately after she leaves and later explodes in an elevator, killing four people.

Philippa is tracked down by the Carabinieri, arrested, and brought to the station where Filippo works. When she is questioned, she reveals that she is an English teacher at a local school where several students have recently died of drug-related causes. Discovering that they had all been supplied by the same local cartel, she had contacted the Carabinieri with the names of the drug ring leaders, begging them to intervene, but was repeatedly ignored.

At her wits' end, she decided to kill the leader of the cartel, the businessman whose office she targeted. In the process of her interrogation, Filippo (who is translating her confession for his superiors) falls in love with Philippa and helps her escape from Carabinieri custody. After she kills the drug lord who was her original target, the pair become fugitives from the law and flee to the countryside, where they eventually find refuge with one of Philippa's friends and finally consummate their relationship.

When the authorities raid the house where they are hiding, the fugitives steal a Carabinieri helicopter parked on the front lawn and escape by air. The officers on the ground fire repeatedly at them, to no avail, as the craft climbs higher and higher and finally disappears.

Cast
 Cate Blanchett - Philippa
 Giovanni Ribisi - Filippo
 Remo Girone - The Father
 Stefania Rocca - Regina
 Alessandro Sperduti - Ariel

Critical reception
Heaven received generally positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has  approval rating, based on  reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "The story is the weakest link in this gorgeous and well-acted film." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Though comparisons abound to Kieślowski's earlier films, Roger Ebert also saw a similarity to Tykwer's Run Lola Run and The Princess and the Warrior. Though Heaven is "more thoughtful, proceeds more deliberately, than the mercurial haste" of Tykwer's films, "it contains the same sort of defiant romanticism, in which a courageous woman tries to alter her fate by sheer willpower."

References

External links

2002 films
2000s English-language films
English-language French films
English-language German films
English-language Italian films
2002 crime drama films
2002 crime thriller films
2002 romantic drama films
2000s romantic thriller films
American crime drama films
American crime thriller films
American romantic drama films
American romantic thriller films
British crime drama films
British crime thriller films
British romantic drama films
Films about terrorism in Europe
Films directed by Tom Tykwer
Films set in Turin
Films shot in Germany
Films shot in Tuscany
French crime drama films
French crime thriller films
French romantic drama films
German crime thriller films
German romantic thriller films
Italian romantic drama films
Italian crime thriller films
2000s Italian-language films
Films with screenplays by Krzysztof Kieślowski
Films with screenplays by Krzysztof Piesiewicz
2002 multilingual films
American multilingual films
British multilingual films
French multilingual films
German multilingual films
Italian multilingual films
2000s American films
2000s British films
2000s French films
2000s German films

Heaven (2002 film)


Kriváň () is a mountain in the High Tatras, Slovakia, that dominates the upper part of the former Liptov County. Multiple surveys among nature lovers have ranked it as the country's most beautiful peak.  Readily accessible along maintained marked trails and with the exceptional vistas afforded from its summit, it is the hikers' favorite mountain in the western part of the High Tatras. Kriváň has also been a major symbol in Slovak ethnic and national activism for the past two centuries. It has been referenced in works of art from 19th-century literature, through paintings, film documentaries, to a Polish rock track. A country-wide vote in 2005 selected it to be one of the images on Slovakia's euro coins.

Name
The name Kriváň, first recorded as Kriwan in 1639, is derived from the root kriv- meaning "bent" or "crooked". It reflects the angled appearance of its shape when viewed from the west and south, characterized in the work from 1639 as an "oxtail" (cauda bubula in the Latin original). The Slovak name is used in other languages including in Polish, rather than its potential Polonized version (Krzywań), except occasionally in Podhale in the immediate vicinity of the Tatras.

Two adjacent peaks in the nearby Malá Fatra range carry the same name - Veľký Fatranský Kriváň and Malý Fatranský Kriváň, and so does the village of Kriváň further away in southern Slovakia.

History

Elevation
Based merely on visual observation, Kriváň competed for the status of the highest mountain in the High Tatras with Lomnický štít, which dominates the view from the east, until 1793 when the latter was accurately identified as the higher of the two (but wrongly as the highest peak in the mountain range, an error corrected by Ludwig Greiner in 1837):

[Kriváň] is generally said to be the highest of all the Alps in the Carpathian chain; but this opinion is not supposed to be founded upon any measurement.

The relative elevations of the two mountains were determined by the English natural historian Robert Townson, who ascended both peaks in August 1793 and also made an early recorded comment on Kriváň's aesthetic appeal:

The weather was very fine, and the Krivan, having got in the night a cap of snow, looked sublime. [...] 1888 yards above the village of Vasetz [Važec]; the Krivan is therefore something lower than the Lomnitz Peak [Lomnický štít].

The exact elevation of Kriváň is currently recognized as

Kriváň is believed to have the greatest height from its base in the whole Tatras, as it rises from the bottom of the Kôprova valley or from Tri Studničky up to .

Ascents

Before 1800
A travel book  Ungarisher oder Dacianisher Simplicissimus written by Daniel Georg Speer in 1693 mentions a current legend (may have more ancient roots) explaining how Krivan got its shape. Lucifer (the carrier of light) flew over Tatras carrying some people to hell. His foot tripped on the tip of Krivan which got bent, and losing his balance he dropped the sinners who populated since the county of Liptov.
Records of explorations by miners in the Kriváň massif date to the first half of the 15th century. Their presence increased during the gold rush of the 16th century. Although they may not have been the first to do so, it is probable that some of the miners reached the top of Kriváň; remnants of their shacks have survived below Priehyba Ridge at the elevation of about 2,000 m (6,560 ft.) through the present, and the highest, long abandoned, Terézia Shaft is merely about 60 m (200 ft.) below the summit. The commercial exploitation of the meager deposits discovered at Kriváň proved to be barely viable. It was abandoned in the 18th century.

The Scottish doctor Townson who ascended it in 1793 provided some evidence that Kriváň was already a recognized occasional destination for tourists in the second half of the 18th century. His guide from Važec had been to the top several times before and Townson saw him collect small coins from under a summit stone where hikers would leave them for luck. The first recorded ascent of Kriváň was by the Lutheran Pastor Andreas Jonas Czirbes from Spišská Nová Ves on 4 August 1773.

Celebrities

The first celebrity to attempt ascent of Kriváň was the 30-year-old Habsburg Archduke Joseph in 1806, but the plan was abandoned due to inclement weather although parts of the winding road to the old gold mine high on the slopes had already been improved and a campsite built. The first VIP actually to reach the summit was the 43-year-old King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony in 1840. The plaque placed at the top to commemorate the first monarch who stood there was gradually destroyed by activists in the 1850s-1860s, who would have wished the inscription to include a comment in Slovak and who objected to where the inscription spoke of the Hungarian (ethnic) nation in reference to all the subjects of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Lower nobleman , an influential publisher based at Liptovský Mikuláš 20 miles from Kriváň, and his six friends climbed to the top of Kriváň on 24 Sept. 1835, which he described in the literary journal Hronka in 1837. The account may have stimulated its readers who lived farther away to follow their steps.

The ascent that became most memorable in Slovak culture was by Ľudovít Štúr, then a 25-year-old teaching assistant of Slovak at the Bratislava Lutheran Lýceum (a preparatory high school and college). In the summer of 1841 he traveled through the Slovak counties with his private Greek student Prince Aristarchos and stopped at Michal Miloslav Hodža's parish at Liptovský Mikuláš, whose younger brother Juraj was Štúr's student at the lýceum. Štúr and a group of locals, Fejérpataky Belopotocký among them, hiked to the top of Kriváň on 16 August, its first recorded ascent that included women.

National excursions

A similar hike, without Štúr, took place the following year, and then sporadically later. Their organizers called them "national excursions" with increasing frequency. They were constituted as an annual late-August event by the authorities at Poprad in 1955 in order to commemorate the anniversary of the uprising of 1944.  The attendance reached 480 people in 1981. They have continued with a broader national designation through the present. The National Ascent of Kriváň (Národný výstup na Kriváň) is an annual two-day event on the third weekend in August organized by the Slovak Tourist Club, Matica slovenská, and the towns of Vysoké Tatry and Liptovský Mikuláš. The number of persons allowed to ascend the summit on each of the event days is limited to 300.

Access
The three marked hiking routes to Kriváň start at different locations, but all ultimately converge at the elevation of about 2,145 m (7,035 ft.) for the final ca. 350-meter (1,150-foot) steep, rocky ascent to the summit − the only segment where both hands may be needed to maintain balance in places.

The trailhead of the blue-marked trail is on the road between Štrbské Pleso and Pribylina, the color stays the same to the summit; elevation gain ca. 1,300 m (4,265 ft.).
The green-marked trailhead is on the same road closer to Pribylina at Tri Studničky, the green trail links with the blue trail below the summit; elevation gain ca. 1,360 m (4,460 ft.).
Hikers starting from Štrbské Pleso follow the red-marked trail towards Podbanské only to its intersection with the blue-marked trail at Jamské pleso from where they follow the blue trail to the summit; elevation gain ca. 1,150 m (3,770 ft.).

The historical winding road built by miners for horse-drawn ore carts and used by hikers in the past, including the participants of the revered 1841 excursion, is between the green and blue trails and links up with the green trail above the timberline below Priehyba Ridge. The road is not marked, the Tatra National Park management decreed it off limits. It is partly obscured by shrubby mountain pines at higher elevations.

Kriváň has been favored by those appreciative of its aesthetic and historical allure, as well as by those who seek vistas from the top. Polls of nature lovers at large as well as of connoisseurs have consistently rated it as Slovakia's most beautiful mountain. The 360-degree view from the top is among the best in Slovakia with the scenery ranging from the populated valleys of upper Liptov, Spiš, and distant parts of Podhale, to the rugged drops of its north face, and many of the notable peaks of the Tatras including Giewont over Zakopane, Rysy, Lomnický štít, and  Gerlach, the highest peak of the Carpathians. The panorama is framed by the Western and Low Tatras, and by mountain ranges beyond them in good visibility.

Cultural images

Early development
The mountain is mentioned by Nikolai Gogol as the abode of two Cossack brothers, Ivan and Petro, in his short story 'The Terrible Vengeance', written in 1832.

After lower nobleman Gašpar Fejérpataky Belopotocký (1794-1874) published an account of his 1835 ascent of Kriváň in the literary journal Hronka in 1837, its editor-in-chief Karol Kuzmány (1806-1866) wrote the novella Ladislav (1838), whose title character, taking the long way home from Italy via Germany and the Polish Podhale, hikes to the summit of Kriváň where he and his friends talk about brotherhood among the Slavs, sing arousing songs, and imbibe Tokaj wine. Both works may have motivated the hike by Ľudovít Štúr and friends in 1841 that inspired him to write two poems published in 1842. Romantic poets soon became fervent admirers of the eye-catching mountain. Eugen V. Šparnensis (1827-after 1853) called Kriváň a marker of his homeland, the Slovaks were "Kriváň's children" for Janko Kráľ, Samo Chalupka's poem saw the mountain as a symbol of their place among the nations.

Popular culture
The significance the intellectuals began to ascribe to Kriváň and its images they created were gradually adopted by popular culture. An early instance is the poem Oh, Below Kriváň (Hej, pod Kriváňom; originally: Hej, pod Muráňom)  by Samuel Tomášik (1813-1887), which came to be seen as an anonymous folk song and is sometimes featured as such on folk albums. Likewise, the Polish poem Kriváň, High Kriváň! (Krywaniu, Krywaniu wysoki!) by Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer was labeled as a folk song and the author of the verses was not credited when its rock version by Skaldowie was released in 1972.

Visual arts
The short film Up the North Face of Kriváň (Severnou stenou na Kriváň; 1947) directed by Karol Skřipský with original music by Šimon Jurovský documented the first winter ascent of the Kriváň North Face, which, unlike the southern slopes of the massif, requires technical climbing. The mountain featured as an attractive backdrop in several films including Native Country (Rodná zem; dir. Josef Mach, 1954). It has appeared in numerous paintings, including by Ján Hála (1946), Miloš Alexander Bazovský (1956), Andrej Doboš (1967), and Ladislav Čemický (1979). The role of Kriváň in popular awareness and high culture was highlighted when a country-wide vote in 2005 selected it to be one of the images on Slovakia's euro coins.

See also
"Lightning over the Tatras"
Mountain Rescue Service (Slovakia)

References

External links

Mountains of Slovakia
Mountains of the Western Carpathians
High Tatras

Kriváň (peak)


Castle Williams is a circular fortification of red sandstone on the northwest point of Governors Island, part of a system of forts designed and constructed in the early 19th century to protect New York City from naval attack. It is a prominent landmark in New York Harbor. Together with Fort Jay, it is managed by the National Park Service as part of Governors Island National Monument.

Design and construction

Castle Williams was designed and erected between 1807 and 1811 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel (later Colonel) Jonathan Williams, Chief Engineer of the Corps of Engineers and first Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Williams was also a relative of Benjamin Franklin. The castle was one component of a defensive system for the inner harbor that included Fort Columbus (later renamed Fort Jay) and the South Battery on Governors Island; Castle Clinton at the southern tip of Manhattan, Fort Wood on Liberty Island, and Fort Gibson on Ellis Island.

Its pioneering design consisted of multiple levels of enclosed or fortified gun emplacements (casemates). It established a prototype for American coastal fortification design for the rest of the 19th century. The nearly circular fortification, 40 feet high and 210 feet in diameter, was constructed of sandstone walls 7 to 8 feet thick. Each of its four levels had 13 casemates (or pairs of barbette mounts on the fort's roof) that could hold 26 cannons of varied caliber. The four-tier arrangement was only duplicated in the US by Battery Weed at Fort Wadsworth on Staten Island and Fort Point in San Francisco. However, at Castle Williams the third tier was intended as barracks and was not armed.

Before its completion, Colonel Henry Burbeck, commanding the defenses of New York City, issued an Army order on November 24, 1810, that named the castle for its designer and builder: "In future the Stone Tower on this Island (by the approbation of the Secretary of War) will bear the name of CASTLE WILLIAMS, in honor of the commandant of the United States Corps of Engineers, who designed and erected it."

Civil War
During the Civil War, the casemates of Castle Williams were used to house newly recruited Union troops, to serve as a barracks for the garrison's troops, and to imprison Confederate enlisted men and deserters from the Union Army. After 1865, it became a low-security military prison that was also used as quarters for recruits and transient troops. By the 1880s, the castle, with its pitted and crumbling walls, was considered to be an aging and obsolete fortification. Improvements that included the installation of central heating and plumbing were most likely made in 1895 when Castle Williams was designated one of the U.S. Army's ten military prisons.

Prison

A commitment to preserve the forts of Governors Island was made in the early 20th century by Secretary of War Elihu Root when landfill operations doubled the size of Governors Island between 1901 and 1912. The castle was fitted up as a model prison in 1903. It was most likely wired for electricity when it became available on the island in 1904. The angled gate walls were remodeled in 1912-13 to create a two-story guardhouse, using stones from two demolished magazines within the courtyard. Castle Williams became the Atlantic Branch of the Fort Leavenworth Disciplinary Barracks in 1915, and the Eastern Branch of the United States Disciplinary Barracks in 1921. Expansion of the plumbing system occurred in 1916, and complete renovation of the plumbing, central heating, and electrical systems was carried out in the 1930s. The floors and roof were also reinforced with steel in the 1930s, and steel grating and solitary confinement cells were installed in selected casemates of the second and third tiers.

Extensive renovations were carried out in 1947-48 that gave the courtyard an industrial appearance. Concrete balconies enclosed with steel sashes replaced existing wooden galleries, and a three-story brick addition enclosed a steel stair. Concrete floors and brick partitions were installed in the casemates of the second tier, and steel security sashes and doors replaced those made of wood. Castle Williams ceased operations as a military prison in 1965 when the U.S. Army closed its post at Fort Jay and moved Headquarters, First United States Army from Governors Island to Fort Meade, Maryland.

Closure and preservation

The U.S. Coast Guard arrived on Governors Island in 1966 and initially considered demolishing the castle. Instead it became a community center that provided a nursery, meeting rooms for scouts and clubs, a woodworking shop, art studios, a photography laboratory, and a museum. With the relocation of those civilian functions to new locations on the island in the mid-1970s, the castle ended its military career in a state of mild neglect as a storage facility and landscape shop for the Coast Guard. When the Governors Island Coast Guard base closed in 1997, the Coast Guard's Civil Engineering Unit Providence stabilized the building with temporary replacement windows, repointing, stone patching with Jahn Mortar and a new roof.

In 2003, Castle Williams and the neighboring fortification, Fort Jay, were transferred to the National Park Service under the administration of the Governors Island National Monument. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

See also
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on Islands
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan on islands

References
Notes

Bibliography

"Castle Williams" on Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)

External links

Explore Castle Williams - National Park Service

Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Castles in the United States
Forts in Manhattan
American Civil War prison camps
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
Defunct prisons in New York (state)
War of 1812 forts
Infrastructure completed in 1811
1807 establishments in New York (state)
Governors Island
Museums in Manhattan
Military and war museums in New York (state)
Forts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places

Castle Williams


Ivane "Vano" Zodelava (; 2 May 1957 – 5 February 2019) was a Georgian politician who served as Mayor of Tbilisi from 10 August 1998 to 19 April 2004.

Early career
Born in Tbilisi, the capital of then-Soviet Georgia, Zodelava graduated from the Tbilisi State University (TSU) with a degree in engineering in 1978. After a brief academic career at the TSU, he became involved with the Komsomol, a Communist political youth organization in the Soviet Union in 1981. He advanced through the Communist Party ranks and served as head of the Ordzhonikidze district in Tbilisi from 1990 to 1991. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Zodelava was involved in private entrepreneurship before becoming head of the Tbilisi Revenue Inspection service in 1996 and Deputy Premier of the Tbilisi Municipality in 1997. He then served as mayor of Poti, a maritime city in western Georgia, from 1997 to 1998.

Mayor of Tbilisi
On 10 August 1998, President Eduard Shevardnadze appointed Zodelava mayor of Tbilisi. He tenure was marked by continued social and economic challenges to the capital, such as frequent power outages, as well as damage to the city's infrastructure due to the 2002 Tbilisi earthquake. After the 2002 Georgian local elections, Zodelava's rule was challenged by the opposition-dominated Tbilisi City Assembly, then chaired by the young reformist politician Mikheil Saakashvili. The opposition accused Zodelava of corruption and campaigned for the mayor's dismissal, and/or impeachment. On 15 November 2002, the Assembly passed a vote of no confidence in the mayor. As a result, most members of the city government resigned. However, the Assembly lacked legal power to sack the mayor, who, at that time, was appointed directly by the president. Shevardnadze refused to replace Zodelava, who then stood by the president's side in the controversial November 2003 parliamentary election. Following Shevardnadze's resignation on 23 November 2003 in the course of the bloodless Rose Revolution, Zodelava remained in his position until 19 April 2004, when the newly elected President Mikheil Saakashvili dismissed Zodelava and appointed Zurab Chiaberashvili in his stead.

After 2004, Zodeleva distanced himself from politics. He was severely injured in a car accident near Tbilisi in July 2017 and died in coma on 5 February 2019.

References

1957 births
2019 deaths
Union of Citizens of Georgia politicians
Mayors of Tbilisi
Tbilisi State University alumni
Road incident deaths in Georgia (country)

Vano Zodelava


People's Houses () were originally leisure and cultural centres built with the intention of making art and cultural appreciation available to the working classes. The first establishment of this type appeared in Tomsk, Russian Empire in 1882. Soon people's Houses became popular in England (1887, "People's Palace"), Scotland, Turkey and other European states.

The term "people's house" (e.g., folkets hus, casa del pueblo, maison du peuple, etc.) was further used in continental Europe for working-class public community centres, each of which often had associations with particular trade union organizations and political parties.

Russian Empire

The first People's House () was built in Tomsk in 1882, and several more were erected in the capital of Russia, St. Petersburg during that decade. By the beginning of the 20th century the capital supported about 20 People's Houses: these provided entertainment, educational clubs for middle-class intelligentsia, petty officials, students, soldiers and workers, etc. Typically, a People's House included a library, reading room, theatre, tea rooms, a bookshop, a lecture hall with stage where activities such as Sunday school, evening classes for adults and choral singing might be held. Some included a museum with various types of visual aids used in lectures in the course of systematic training, and which were also used for travelling and permanent exhibitions.

The biggest and most famous People's House opened in Russia was built in Alexandrovsky Park in 1899–1900, and opened by Tsar Nicholas II, after whom it was named "Establishment for People's Entertainment of Emperor Nicholas II" ("Заведение для народных развлечений императора Николая II"), or, in short, "People's House of Emperor Nicholas II "("Narodny Dom Imperatora Nikolaya II"). This originally housed a concert hall, a theater, a public library and a restaurant. There was a small nominal entrance charge, with the only extra being charged for a seat at the theater. The English publication Contemporary Review noted these facilities, enviously commenting:"it is exactly what our People's palace was intended to be and is not". More such People's Houses were built in Moscow and other places in Russia.

United Kingdom
In the late 19th century, People's Palaces started being built in grim urban districts. The concept was to raise morale and morality through inspiring buildings which offered cultural nourishment. Costly, taking years to build and lavishly decorated, they were designed to provide a focal point for civic pride, venues for meetings and public events.

Notably these were built according to neo-Gothic style, as promoted by Augustus Pugin and John Ruskin: Pugin believed the harmonious style of the architecture could influence morality, while Ruskin in his book The Stones of Venice examined the architecture of the Italian Renaissance mercantile republics, believing it expressed the spirit of freedom. Architects adopted these ideas in their building of People's Palaces in the north of England and in Scotland, both to assert the cultural credentials of those regions and to provide an improving influence over the citizens of burgeoning industrial towns.

In 1899 Joseph Rowntree and Arthur Sherwell proposed that People's Houses should be built as part of a programme by the Temperance Party to provide "recreations of the simplest and least exacting kind, such as would specially appeal to those to whom the stress of their daily lives leaves little inclination for anything more than physical relaxation and cheerful intercourse": that is, a viable alternative to the public house.

Western Continental Europe

In Western Continental Europe, the "people's house" is a generic term used to refer to proletarian community centres located in almost all cities.

When the labour movement and trade unions began to organize towards the end of the 19th century, the workers were in great need for premises of their own where they could hold meetings without interference. Opposition against the labour movement from the capitalists and landlords was strong and workers were not welcome to use existing premises. Landowners even forbade open-air meetings.

The workers in many Western European countries decided to buy their own land and build their own houses. The idea spread all over Western Europe. Construction was funded through co-operative ventures, various forms of contribution and not least voluntary work.

Most Western European "people's houses" were built along a similar model as the "Maison du Peuple" established in Belgium in 1899; that building was built as the headquarters of the Belgian Labour Party.

Norway
Antecedents to the modern folkets hus in Norway were established by Marcus Thrane's labour movement in the early 1850s. While the movement itself was short-lived and the branches were few, Thrane's attempt was succeeded by the first "workers' societies" () by parish priest Honoratus Halling in 1850, which were less politically radical. In 1864, Eilert Sundt established the Christian Workers' Society (today known as the Oslo Workers' Society ()).

However, when Danish agitator Marcus Jantzen came to Norway in 1873 to establish a social democratic union, he and his acolytes were prohibited from discussing politics, so meetings organized by Jantzen were held in the open air in Tjuvholmen; by this time, the labour movement in Norway had taken off and largely associated with labour or socialist parties with similar woes of space for meetings, thus increasing the demand for separate facilities. The first modern people's house was established in Vikersund in 1890, and the oldest still existing is the People's House in Spjærøy, Østfold (built 1898).

The People's House in Oslo was established in 1907, and throughout the 20th century, over 200 people's houses were established throughout Norway. The People's House Association was established in 1947 to represent these establishments, and the People's House Fund is the primary loan provider for people's houses in Norway.

Spain

In Spain, the casa del pueblo ("people's house") is a general term for local branches of both the PSOE party (although the term has been officially retired from most PSOE offices save for those in the Basque Country) and the Unión General de Trabajadores; in addition, the CNT-AIt trade union makes use of similar branch offices, although they are largely described as ateneo popular or ateneo obrero ("people's university" and "worker's university" respectively).

The term has been used to describe clearing houses of information for Spanish employees and workers,  for unskilled agricultural and industrial workers. The first was founded by Pablo Iglesias in 1908 in Madrid; the office was created in a former ducal palace on Calle del Piemonte, and similar houses were established throughout the country afterwards, particularly in the Basque country and in Asturias.

Sweden

In Sweden "The People's House" () is historically associated with organizations affiliated with the Swedish labour movement. The name is also used for Norwegian and Danish people's houses.

"The people's park" (folkets park) is a prevalent feature of many Swedish towns, serving similar purposes.

In Stockholm, the construction of the first people's house started in 1897 in Norra Bantorget square. It was opened in 1901, and by 1906 the Russian Bolsheviks and Mensheviks were welcomed to hold their fourth congress at Stockholm Folkets hus. In 1955 the original Stockholm people's house was demolished, as was most of lower Norrmalm during the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. It was replaced by the current people's house building, which was built at the same place.

Italy
The first casa del popolo ("house of the people") built in Italy was in Massenzatico, a small village in the nearby of Reggio Emilia, on September 9, 1893. The casa del popolo was inaugurated by Società Artigiana Cooperativa di Villa Massenzatico, in front of some of the most important Italian and European Socialist Party representants as Camillo Prampolini, Filippo Turati and Emile Vandervelde.
Many Case del popolo have been retasked, though the name is sometimes used in their later names. The name is also used for businesses that were not originally a casa del popolo, similar to others such as in Brussels where it is used as the name for a restaurant, or in Montreal for a music bar.

Turkey

People's Houses () were established in Turkey in 1932, to give formal education to adults. The  People's House developed programs on language and literature, fine arts, library and publications, history. On July 2, 1932, the first Turkish History Conference was assembled in the Ankara People's House. The activities of the people's houses were subsidized from the state treasury, and served all citizens.

With the establishment of multi-party politics in Turkey, most of the initial initiatives supported by the Republican People's Party (RPP) began to be questioned during 1945-1951. The opposition Democratic Party (DP) wanted to put an end to the People's Houses. The Democratic Party perceived the People's Houses as a strong political institution among the civilians which propagated the RPP's point of view. The DP wanted to cut public expenses to the institution from the government budget. The RPP proposed to reorganize them instead of closing, as they wanted to preserve the institution as part of Atatürk's heritage. The DP, who criticized the houses for closely identifying with the RPP, rejected the proposal; people's houses and property were confiscated once the DP gained a majority in the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1951.

See also
 Chitalishte
 Folkpark
 Kominkan
 Mechanics' institutes
 Narodny dim
 Village Institutes

Notes

Literature
 Москва начала века / авт.-сост. О. Н. Оробей, под ред. О. И. Лобова — М.: O-Мастеръ, 2001. — С. 367—368. — 701 с. — (Строители России, ХХ век). — .
 Рябков В. М. Антология форм праздничной и развлекательной культуры России (XVII — начало XX): уч.пособие / В. м. Рябков. — Чел.акад.культуры и искусств. -Челябинск, 2006. — 706 с.
 Виноградов А. П. История культурно-просветительской работы в СССР −1970. — 246 с.

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In mathematics and statistical analysis, bicoherence (also known as bispectral coherency) is a squared normalised version of the bispectrum. The bicoherence takes values bounded between 0 and 1, which make it a convenient measure for quantifying the extent of phase coupling in a signal. The prefix bi- in bispectrum and bicoherence refers not to two time series xt, yt but rather to two frequencies of a single signal.

The bispectrum is a statistic used to search for nonlinear interactions. The Fourier transform of the second-order cumulant, i.e., the autocorrelation function, is the traditional power spectrum. The Fourier transform of C3(t1,t2) (third-order cumulant) is called bispectrum or bispectral density. They fall in the category of Higher Order Spectra, or Polyspectra and provide supplementary information to the power spectrum. The third order polyspectrum (bispectrum) is the easiest to compute, and hence the most popular.

The difference with measuring coherence (coherence analysis is an extensively used method to study the correlations in frequency domain, between two simultaneously measured signals) is the need for both input and output measurements by estimating two auto-spectra and one cross spectrum. On the other hand, bicoherence is an auto-quantity, i.e. it can be computed from a single signal. The coherence function provides a quantification of deviations from linearity in the system which lies between the input and output measurement sensors. The bicoherence measures the proportion of the signal energy at any bifrequency that is quadratically phase coupled.  It is usually normalized in the range similar to correlation coefficient and classical (second order) coherence. It was also used for depth of anasthesia assessment and widely in plasma physics (nonlinear energy transfer) and also for detection of gravitational waves.

Bispectrum and bicoherence may be applied to the case of non-linear interactions of a continuous spectrum of propagating waves in one dimension.

Bicoherence measurements have been carried out for EEG signals monitoring in sleep, wakefulness and seizures.

Definition
The bispectrum is defined as the triple product

where  is the bispectrum evaluated at frequencies  and ,  is the Fourier transform of the signal, and  denotes the complex conjugate. The Fourier transform is a complex quantity, and so is the bispectrum. From complex multiplication, the magnitude of the bispectrum is equal to the product of the magnitudes of each of the frequency components, and the phase of the bispectrum is the sum of the phases of each of the frequency components.

Suppose that the three Fourier components ,  and  were perfectly phase locked. Then if the Fourier transform was calculated several times from different parts of the time series, the bispectrum will always have the same value. If we add together all of the bispectra, they will sum without cancelling. On the other hand, suppose that the phases of each of these frequencies was random. Then, the bispectrum will have the same magnitude (assuming that the magnitude of the frequency components is the same) but the phase will be randomly oriented. Adding together all of the bispectra will result in cancellation, because of the random phase orientation, and so the sum of the bispectra will have a small magnitude. Detecting phase coupling requires summation over a number of independent samples- this is the first motivation for defining the bicoherence. Secondly, the bispectrum is not normalized, because it still depends on the magnitudes of each of the frequency components. The bicoherence includes a normalization factor that removes the magnitude dependence.

There is some inconsistency with the definition of the bicoherence normalization constant. Some of the definitions that have been used are

which was provided in Sigl and Chamoun 1994, but does not appear to be correctly normalized. Alternatively, plasma physics typically uses

where the angle brackets denote averaging. Note that this is the same as using a sum, because  is the same in the numerator and the denominator. This definition is directly from Nagashima 2006, and is also referred to in He 2009 and Maccarone 2005.

Finally, one of the most intuitive definitions comes from Hagihira 2001 and Hayashi 2007, which is

The numerator contains the magnitude of the bispectrum summed over all of the time series segments. This quantity is large if there is phase coupling, and approaches 0 in the limit of random phases. The denominator, which normalizes the bispectrum, is given by calculating the bispectrum after setting all of the phases to 0. This corresponds to the case where there is perfect phase coupling, because all of the samples have zero phase. Therefore, the bicoherence has a value between 0 (random phases) and 1 (total phase coupling).

A physical interpretation
Among the three normalizations above, the second one can be interpreted as a correlation coefficient defined between energy-supplying and energy-receiving parties in an second order nonlinear interaction, whereas the bispectrum has been proven to be the corresponding covariance. Therefore, just as correlation cannot sufficiently demonstrate the presence of causality, a significant bicoherence peak also cannot sufficiently substantiate the existence of an nonlinear interaction.

See also
Coherence (signal processing)

References

 Hagihira, S., Takashina, M., Mori, T., Mashimo, T., & Yoshiya, I. (2001). Practical Issues in Bispectral Analysis of Electroencephalographic Signals. Anesthesia & Analgesia, 93(4), 966-970. Retrieved from http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/content/93/4/966.abstract
 Hayashi, K., Tsuda, N., Sawa, T., & Hagihira, S. (2007). Ketamine increases the frequency of electroencephalographic bicoherence peak on the alpha spindle area induced with propofol. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 99(3), 389-95. doi:10.1093/bja/aem175
 Nagashima, Y., Itoh, K., Itoh, S.-I., Hoshino, K., Fujisawa, A., Ejiri, A., Takase, Y., et al. (2006). Observation of coherent bicoherence and biphase in potential fluctuations around geodesic acoustic mode frequency on JFT-2M. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 48(5A), A377-A386. doi:10.1088/0741-3335/48/5A/S38
 He, H. (2009). The Canonical Bicoherence -€" Part I : Definition, Multitaper Estimation, and Statistics. Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions, 57(4), 1273-1284. Retrieved from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4749274
 Maccarone, T. J., & Schnittman, J. D. (2004). The bicoherence as a diagnostic for models of high-frequency quasi-periodic oscillations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 357(1), 12-16. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08615.x
 Mendel JM. "Tutorial on higher-order statistics (spectra) in signal processing and system theory: theoretical results and some applications." Proceedings of the IEEE, 79, 3, 278-305
 M J Hinich, "Testing for Gaussianity and linearity of a stationary time series", Journal of Time Series Analysis 3(3), 1982 pp 169–176.
HOSA - Higher Order Spectral Analysis Toolbox. (shareware for Microsoft Windows-type personal computers.)
 Sigl, J.C. and N.G. Chamoun. 1994. An introduction to bispectral analysis for the electroencephalogram. Journal of Clinical Monitoring 10:392-404.
 T.H. Bullock, J.Z. Achimowicz et al., "Bicoherence of intracranial EEG in awake, sleep and seizures", Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology and EEG, 1997,vol.231,pp. 130–142.
 J.L. Shils, M. Litt, B.E. Skolnick, M.M. Stecker, "Bispectral analysis of visual interactions in humans", Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1996;98:113-125.

Complex analysis
Integral transforms
Fourier analysis

Bicoherence


Valya Samvelyan () wis a popular Armenie female fowk-sangster.

She stairtit her airtistic career at Soviet samodeyatelnost (sel activity) but then she wan the competition bi Yerevan Radio an became a solo-sangster o the Ensemble of Folk Instruments of Radio of Armenia.

Amang the maist popular sangs in her interpretation wur "Anushik Im Quyrik", "Antsar Aygus Nayelov", "Zov Gisher" an "Shorora" bi Sayat-Nova, gusan Sheram, Alexey Ekimyan an ithers.

She dee'd in a caur accident.

Her son Ara Gevorgyan is the producer o her posthumous "Toghetsir indz menak" (You did let me alane) an "Anushik im quyrik" (My sweet sister) albums.

References

Freemit airtins
Valya Samvelyan

Armenie female sangsters

Valya Samvelyan


S. S. Mani Bhagavathar was an Indian Carnatic music singer, cine actor and a playback singer in Tamil language films.

Early life
Born at Thirupanangudi in Mayavaram and his full name is S. Subramanian Mani Bhagavathar. He was the principal disciple of Papanasam Sivan.

Music career
Whenever Guru Papanasam Sivan composed a new song, he would first teach it to S. S. Mani to sing. Mani's duty was to practice it well and then demonstrate it to famous singers like D. K. Pattammal, Madurai Mani Iyer and many others. Every year, during the Tamil month of Margazhi (December–January), Papanasam Sivan will do the street Bhajan circulating Kapaleeshwarar Temple in Mylapore with a group of singers. Mani was one of the regular group member. After the death of Papanasam Sivan, Mani continued the Bhajan until his dying day. S. S. Mani or S. S. Mani Bhagavathar was a registered musician at Tiruchirappalli All India Radio broadcast station. He also functioned as a teacher in Kalakshetra. He accompanied Papanasam Sivan and Madurai Srirangam Aiyangar in their music concerts. He also accompanied Kothamangalam Subbu in his Katha Kalakshepams (musical discourses).

Film career

As a Singer
S. S. Mani worked in the music group at Gemini Studios. During this time he sang the first song Ananda Nadamidum Paathan in the raga Kethaara Gowlai for the film Nandanar. He accompanied Kothamangalam Subbu and M. D. Parthasarathy in another song Vara Vara Kettupochu for the same film. He sang a virutham Annaiyum Thanthaiyumaagum for the film Avvaiyar. He accompanied M. D. Parthasarathy in the song Aathoram Kodikaalaam for the film Chandralekha. He also lent his voice to T.E.Varadan in the 1947 film Kannika.

As an actor
He featured as Lord Krishna in the 1934 film Pavalakkodi. He also featured in supporting roles in Naveena Sadaram (1935) and Krishnan Thoothu (1940)

Family & Relationships
Music Director S. V. Venkatraman is his brother-inlaw (sister's husband). S. V. Venkatraman is a cousin of Kothamangalam Seenu. Mani's wife is a niece of Kothamangalam Subbu (his father's younger brother's daughter). Thus, Kothamangalam Subbu and Kothamangalam Seenu became relatives through S. S. Mani.

A forgotten man
Film historian Randor Guy writing in his article reviewing the film Kannika 1947, said "Mani was Papanasam Sivan's nephew and assisted him in his films. He also sang songs that were played against the credit titles. Sadly, Mani is hardly remembered today."

References

Bibliography
 , son of Kothamangalam Subbu (in Tamil)

External links

Indian male film actors
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Tamil playback singers
20th-century Indian male classical singers

S. S. Mani Bhagavathar


Vice-Admiral Sir Charles William Rawson Royds KBE CMG ADC FRGS (1 February 1876 – 5 January 1931) was a career Royal Navy officer who later served as Assistant Commissioner "A" of the London Metropolitan Police from 1926 to 1931. In this role, he was in charge of administration and uniformed operations and also carried the courtesy title of Deputy Commissioner.

Royds was born in Rochdale, Lancashire. He attended Eastman's Royal Naval Academy in Southsea before becoming a naval cadet in June 1892. In August 1892, he went to sea in the cruiser HMS Immortalité of the Channel Squadron. As a midshipman, he served in the cruisers HMS Australia and HMS Barfleur. In September 1896, he was commissioned as a sub-lieutenant. In 1897, he was appointed to the cruiser HMS Champion in the Training Squadron. In 1898, he received early promotion to lieutenant for his skilled command of a boat that picked up a man who had fallen overboard in the Baltic. In 1899 he sailed to the West Indies aboard HMS Crescent.

From 1901 to 1904, Royds was first lieutenant of the RRS Discovery on Robert Falcon Scott's National Antarctic Expedition. Cape Royds in Antarctica was named after him. He then joined the battleship HMS Bulwark in the Mediterranean, and in 1907 transferred to HMS King Edward VII in the Channel Fleet. In June 1909, he became executive officer in the rank of commander. In January 1911, he became the first executive officer of the battleship HMS Hercules, and in August 1913 transferred to the same post in HMS Iron Duke, another new battleship and flagship of Admiral Jellicoe.

On 31 December 1914, Royds was promoted to captain and became flag captain to Admiral Sir Stanley Colville, commanding Orkney and Shetland. Six months later, he was given command of the battleship HMS Emperor of India. He remained in her until January 1919, and was appointed Companion of St Michael and St George (CMG) on 3 June 1919 for his war service. He served at Dover for a time and then was the last captain of the Royal Naval College, Osborne, from 2 January 1921 until its closure in May 1921. He then became director of physical training and sports at the Admiralty, from 17 May 1921, succeeding his elder brother, Percy (himself later an admiral). From October 1923 to 15 October 1925, he was commodore of the Royal Naval Barracks at Devonport, his last naval appointment.

On 1 January 1926, he succeeded Sir James Olive as Assistant Commissioner "A" and Deputy Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police. In March 1926, he retired from the Royal Navy on promotion to rear-admiral. On 3 June 1929, he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the Metropolitan Police Centenary Honours, and in the same year was made an ADC to the King. On 23 May 1930, he was promoted to vice-admiral on the Retired List. Royds died suddenly while still in office as assistant commissioner, and while acting as commissioner during General Byng's absence on sick leave. He suffered a heart attack while attending a rehearsal of the Strauss Ball at the Savoy Hotel and was rushed to Charing Cross Hospital, but was pronounced dead on arrival.

Royds was a very large man, standing well over six feet tall. In 1918, he married the widowed Mary Louisa Blane, a former actress. They had a daughter named Minna Mary Jessica Royds.

Footnotes

External links
Photographic portrait of Royds in the National Portrait Gallery

Assistant Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis
Deputy Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis
1876 births
1931 deaths
Captains and Commandants of the Royal Naval College, Osborne
Royal Navy admirals
Explorers of Antarctica
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
People from Rochdale
People educated at Eastman's Royal Naval Academy
Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society
Military personnel from Lancashire
Royal Navy personnel of World War I

Charles Royds


Moses Bruine Cotsworth (Willitoft, Yorks 3 December 1859 – Vancouver 4 June 1943) was a British accountant, business analyst, and calendar reformer.

He started his career in a variety of companies where his analytical skills were valuable.  Based on his work at the North Eastern Railway Company, he published a book on railway rates. In 1907, he was chosen to chair a commission to reorganize the British Columbia civil service.

His interest in calendar reform began when he was working at a railroad company. He found that monthly accounting was greatly complicated by the fact that months did not divide evenly into weeks. He devised what is now known as the International Fixed Calendar, a solar calendar in which each of 13 months has 28 days. In 1922, he founded the International Fixed Calendar League in an effort to gain adoption of his calendar by businesses and government. American entrepreneur George Eastman adopted the calendar for use in his Eastman Kodak Company, where it was used from 1928 to 1982.

Later in life Cotsworth moved to British Columbia. He died in Vancouver.

Legacy and honors
Cotsworth was elected as a Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants, of the Royal Statistical Society, and of the Geological Society.

References

 Francesca Rossetti, Inventory of the Moses Bruine Cotsworth Fonds at the Library of the University of British Columbia, March 2000.

Chronologists
People from Bubwith

1859 births
1943 deaths
British emigrants to Canada

Moses B. Cotsworth


Areopagus is the name of a rock formation close to the Acropolis, in Athens, Greece. In Greek, the hill is called  Areios Pagos, the hill of Ares. The name was also used for the Athenian council that was held there. It was the oldest known institution of Athens. After the Battle of Marathon (which the Greek won against the Persians) a runner ran from Marathon to Athens. Legend has it, that the runner died, after telling about the Greek victory, on Areopagus.

Today, the Supreme Court of Justice in Greece, is called Areopagus.

Athens

Areopagus