Timothy John Byford (; 25 July  1941 – 5 May 2014) was an author, film director, translator, and educator.

Byford was born in England, but spent most of his life in Belgrade. He became a naturalized citizen of Serbia in 2004. He directed children's television programmes, first in the UK for the BBC, and later in Yugoslavia, for TV Belgrade and TV Sarajevo. His children's TV series enjoyed great success in former Yugoslavia, and continue to be popular.

Biography
Born in Salisbury, Wiltshire, Byford started his TV career directing films for the BBC Blue Peter programme. His first TV documentary "I Want to Be a Showjumper" won a BAFTA Harlequin "Rediffusion Star Award" (for Children's Programmes) in 1970.

In 1971 he moved to Yugoslavia, where he married and continued to write and direct children's television programmes during the 1970s and 1980s. He is best known for his children's TV series: Neven ('Marigold'), Babino unuče ('Granny's Boy') and Poletarac ('Fledgling'), all for TV Belgrade,  as well as Nedeljni zabavnik ('Sunday Magazine'), 'Musical Notebook' and Tragom ptice Dodo ('On the Trail of the Dodo'), all for TV Sarajevo. 'Fledgling' won a Grand Prix at the Prix Jeunesse International Festival in Munich in 1980.

He spent his last fifteen years teaching English, writing and translating. In 2006, after 40 years of working with children, he joined the Children's Cultural Centre Belgrade, where he wrote and directed programmes, taught English and translated. He has written and published a self-portrait trilogy, "Pigs Do Not Eat Banana Skins", completed a collection of seven short stories under the title "The Golden Candlestick", and completed his official autobiography, "Warts and All".

His name is also associated with a park in the southern suburbs of Belgrade, Banjica Forest, as during the late 1980s he campaigned for it to have special protection because of the large number of nightingales and other species of birds that nest in it. The wood is now an officially protected natural habitat and has its name changed officially to Byford's Forest in 2015.

On 1 April 2010, Byford celebrated the 50th year of his artistic career with the opening of his photograph exhibition, Joy in 100 Pictures, consisting of photographs he took at the 'Joy of Europe' festivals in 2008 and 2009. The same year, he appeared on screen as a cricket umpire in a television advert for Mivela water during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The ad featured players from the Serbia national cricket team and Serbian footballer Radosav Petrović.

Pension issue
Byford moved to Belgrade, Serbia, former Yugoslavia in 1971 and as a foreigner he was not allowed to participate in the state's pension fund system. Since his wife was from former Yugoslavia (now Serbia), he should inherit the citizenship right after a certain number of years spent in marriage. He received Serbian citizenship only at the age of 65 after intervention of Serbia's then president Boris Tadić. It was too late to become a pension fund participant, since he would be at the age of 80 before he gains the right for a minimal pension.

On 1 January 2011, Serbian newspaper agency Blic wrote an article about Mr. Byford being rejected for a national recognition award for his contribution and previous work (which effectively provides the right to a national pension), despite being nominated by several of his colleagues as described in an interview. Rejecting Mr. Byford's requests for the pension caused significant discontent among people who remember his work from their childhood. Two weeks later after the original article was published, Mr. Byford applied for and received a regular pension, giving him the right to apply for a National Pension. In a later article Byford thanked many supporters who offered their help and started a petition on a Facebook social network. As a result, Mr. Byford received several job offers, but many of them he had to turn down due to his specific health issues. Mr. Byford eventually returned to RTS as a consultant in the Children's Programmes Department. In January 2012 he received national recognition and was awarded a National Pension.

Death
In 2005 Byford was diagnosed with multiple myeloma, a type of cancer formed by malignant plasma cells. He died of the illness on 5 May 2014 in Belgrade. Byford was cremated at the Belgrade's  Novo Groblje cemetery on 12 May 2014. He was survived by his former wife Ljudmila "Mila" Stanojević; wife  Zorica and  three sons : Justin, Jovan, Andrej.

References

External links
Official website

1941 births
2014 deaths
People from Salisbury
Serbian writers
English film directors
Serbian film directors
English television directors
Serbian television directors
Serbian translators
Serbian educators
Serbian people of English descent
Deaths from multiple myeloma
Deaths from cancer in Serbia
English emigrants
Immigrants to Yugoslavia
Naturalized citizens of Serbia
20th-century translators
20th-century Serbian educators
21st-century English writers
21st-century Serbian educators

Timothy John Byford


Hastings Entertainment was an American retail chain that sold books, movies, music, and video games and functioned as a video rental shop. As of 2016 it had 126 superstores, which were mainly located in the South Central United States, Rocky Mountain States, and in parts of the Great Plains and Midwestern states. Hastings Entertainment stores were also located in many college towns in the U.S. Hastings Entertainment was headquartered in Amarillo, Texas.

The company initially weathered the decline of video rental stores, outliving both Blockbuster Video and Hollywood Video. However, declining sales finally forced the company to shift its primary focus to collectibles and comic books in the 2010s. Through the early to mid 2010s, Hastings became the largest comic book retailer in the United States. While this strategy initially benefited the company, it ultimately suffered from a decision made during a mass expansion in the 1990s to lease all of its properties rather than purchase them, which lowered the business' overall value. Amidst ongoing rebranding, the company was sold to merchandising firm Draw Another Circle LLC in 2014 for $21.4 million (~$ in ). Hastings suffered under Draw's management, plunging the company $140 million into debt. In an effort to save the company, Draw Another Circle named Jim Litwak the President and CEO of Hastings in December 2015. Litwak had previously salvaged Macy's and Trans World Entertainment from near-bankruptcy in the 1990s and early 2000s, respectively,. However, this strategy did not save Hastings Entertainment either.

History
In 1968, the company was founded as a retailing division of Western Merchandisers, Inc., a books and music wholesaler. In 1990, Western Merchandisers became a subsidiary of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. In 1994, Wal-Mart sold Western Merchandisers to Anderson Media Corporation, and the former Western Merchandisers then operated as Anderson Merchandisers.

On 7 March 2000, the company restated its earnings in the first three-quarters of fiscal 1999.
On 14 March 2000, Hastings Entertainment, Inc. was sued for reporting profits of more than $12 million during the Class Period, while they used Hastings common stock to maintain false reports of the company's growth and profitability, by raising almost $40 million in an initial public offering. Hastings paid $5.75 million for settlement.

Despite the closure of other video rental stores such as Blockbuster and Hollywood video, Hastings initially thrived in the early 2010s due to a diversification of merchandise. In 2010, the company opened an account with Diamond Comic Distributors, making Hastings the largest direct market comic book retailer in the United States.  The comic sections of all stores were expanded in connection with the Diamond account. The same year, the company opened up a sports equipment retailer called Sun Adventure Sport in Amarillo and later added a store in Lubbock, Texas. In August 2011, Hastings opened Tradesmart, a store in Littleton, Colorado, specializing in used electronics, media, and novelties.

In 2012, after years of losses and with more losses projected in the future, the company's directors decided to shop the company to potential buyers. In April 2014, Hastings agreed to be purchased by Draw Another Circle, LLC, a company controlled by merchandising executive Joel Weinshanker, for $21.4 million; another Weinshanker subsidiary had already owned 12.4 percent of Hastings. The buyout deal called for Hastings CEO John Marmaduke, son of the chain' founder Sam Marmaduke, to retire with a $1.5 million cash payment and for stockholders to be paid off at $3 a share. The purchase was completed in July 2014.

In 2013, Hastings redesigned its stores to emphasize toys, gifts, consumer electronics, musical instruments, disc golf, skateboards, hobby, and sport licensed and branded products, which had higher profit margins, as sales of books, music, and videos declined. The move also sought to combat the growing popularity of digital media, by emphasizing products which could not be downloaded.

In November 2014, Draw Another Circlethe parent company of Hastings Entertainmentpurchased MovieStop, a 44-store regional chain in the southeastern U.S. that sold primarily used movies and related entertainment merchandise.

In June 2016, Hastings Entertainment filed for bankruptcy protection. Under Draw Another Circle's management, the company had suffered heavy losses, accumulating $140 million in debt. Hastings Entertainment was granted an extra week to find new investors or restructure the business as a franchise. Failing to find any interested parties, the company went up for auction on 20 July 2016. Although several businesses bid with the intention of continuing to operate Hastings, they were outbid when liquidation firms Hilco Merchant Resources LLC and Gordon Brothers Retail Partners LLC pooled their resources to outbid them. Rather than allow the few Hastings that were still profitable to continue operating, Hilco and Gordon Brothers opted to liquidate the entire company and closed all remaining stores by the end of October 2016. Calendar Holdings LLC, operator of calendars.com and the Go! calendar and game retail stores, purchased Hastings' intellectual property at auction for $300,000. One fan of the Hastings franchise, Mason Morgan, stated on an online video he contacted the Calendar Holding LLC to find out what they plan to do with the stores. He said they have yet to respond to any of his emails.

The number of retail stores in 23 states was about 150 a few years before bankruptcy with 3,850 employees.

Entertainment retailer Vintage Stock took over at least five former Hastings locations. In July 2017, 2nd & Charles took over the store location in Littleton, Colorado. In December 2017, 2nd & Charles took over the store location in Conroe, Texas.

References

Further reading

External links
Intellectual Owners of Hastings - Calendar Holdings website

Defunct retail companies of the United States
Bookstores of the United States
Music retailers of the United States
Companies based in Amarillo, Texas
Defunct companies based in Texas
American companies established in 1968
Retail companies established in 1968
Retail companies disestablished in 2016
1968 establishments in Texas
2016 disestablishments in Texas
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2016
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq

Hastings Entertainment


The odontophore is part of the feeding mechanism in molluscs. It is the cartilage which underlies and supports the radula, a ribbon of teeth. The radula is found in every class of molluscs except for the bivalves.

The feeding apparatus can be extended from the mouth of the animal, and the radular ribbon can slide over the odontophore. By moving the radula and odontophore over a surface, the teeth cut and scoop up food particles and convey them into the mouth, whence they enter the oesophagus.

The diagrams here show the feeding apparatus of a generalized gastropod. The details shown do not necessarily apply to predatory species such as the cone snails, which have a highly specialized feeding mechanism.

References

Mollusc anatomy
Gastropod anatomy
Cephalopod zootomy

Odontophore


Godfrey IV (died 26 or 27 February 1076), known as the Hunchback, was Duke of Lower Lorraine from 1069 until his death in 1076, succeeding his father  Godfrey the Bearded.

In the year of his accession, he married Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, daughter of his stepmother Beatrice of Bar, and thus became margrave of Tuscany. Godfrey and Matilda had only one child, Beatrice, who was born in 1071 and died the same year. From 1071 onwards, Godfrey lived apart from his wife. The two spouses were on opposite sides in the Investiture Controversy: Matilda was a partisan of Pope Gregory VII and Godfrey of Emperor Henry IV.

He warred on Henry's behalf against Magnus, Duke of Saxony, in 1075 and on that of the bishop of Utrecht in 1076 against Counts Dirk V of Holland and Robert I of Flanders.  He was assassinated by spear in Vlaardingen while "answering the call of nature". Despite Matilda's opposition he nominated his nephew Godfrey of Bouillon to succeed him, but the emperor instead appointed his own son, Conrad.  Godfrey of Bouillon succeeded eventually in 1087 and gained fame on the First Crusade.

See also
 List of people who died on the toilet
 Toilet-related injuries and deaths

References

Sources

1076 deaths
House of Limburg
Margraves of Antwerp
Godfrey 2
Dukes of Lower Lorraine
Regents of Tuscany
French royalty and nobility with disabilities
Year of birth unknown
People murdered in the Netherlands
Deaths by blade weapons
Lords of Bouillon
Matilda of Tuscany
House of Ardenne–Verdun

Godfrey the Hunchback


"Helix the Cat" is a science fantasy short story by American writer Theodore Sturgeon.  The story was written in 1939 or 1940 and submitted to John W. Campbell, editor of Unknown  and Astounding Science Fiction magazines. The editor rejected it, as he felt it did not fit into either fantasy or science fiction categories.

The manuscript was placed in storage, thought lost by the author, and returned to him  about thirty years later. It was published, without any alterations, in Astounding: The John W Campbell Memorial Anthology, in 1973.

Plot summary

The story is narrated by Pete Tronti, a struggling inventor.  Whilst experimenting with a new form of glass, he is trying to perfect, Pete is astonished to hear a disembodied voice from within the bottle he is working with. The voice announces itself to be the soul of Wallace Gregory, who has just died in a road accident. He is hiding from Them, who search out and eat souls.

Gregory persuades Tronti to create a body for him and eventually he takes possession of the body of Helix, Tronti's pet cat. Between them, they  modify Helix's body and increase his intelligence. But when Helix/Gregory start to take over Tronti's life, he decides he has no option but to kill the cat. Helix escapes and goes into business as a cat burglar.

1973 short stories
Short stories by Theodore Sturgeon

Helix the Cat


Paul-Joseph de Montgolfier (28 April 1913 – 8 November 1942) was a French fighter pilot, flying Curtiss 75 Hawks with the GC II/5 fighter group when World War II began.

De Montgolfier was born in Saint-Marcel-d'Ardèche, France. On 6 November 1939, Paul de Montgolfier and 8 other pilots were escorting bombers over the Sarre region when they were jumped by 27 Messerschmitt fighters of JGr 102. The French pilots scored 5 victories (and another 5 probable victories, including one shot down by Montgolfier) for the loss of only two of their own. This fight - known as the "9 against 27" fight was to become legendary and Hannes Gentzen, the CO of JGr 102, was summoned back to Berlin and threatened with court-martial for such disastrous results.

Montgolfier went on top score more victories until the Nazi invasion of France : he was shot down on 15 May 1940 and wounded. He was credited with 5 aerial victories. After recovering, he went back to active service and was killed in action fighting the Allied landing at Casablanca on 8 November 1942.

List of aerial victories
1. Bf 109; 06 Nov 39 - Probable, shared with Lt Trémolet

2. He 111; 23 Nov 39 - Destroyed, shared with Sgt Audrain, Sgt Bouhy and 3 RAF pilots. Over Boulay.

3. Do 17; 02 Mar 40 - Probable, shared with A/C Gras, S/C Janebas

4. Bf 109; 10 May 40 - Destroyed over Luxemburg.

5. ??

Awards
 Légion d'Honneur
Médaille Militaire
Croix de Guerre avec palme

1913 births
1942 deaths
French Air and Space Force personnel
French World War II flying aces
French military personnel killed in World War II
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France)
Aviators killed by being shot down

Paul de Montgolfier


Nike may refer to:

 Nike (mythology), Greek goddess who personifies victory.
 Nike, Inc., major American manufacturer of athletic shoes, apparel, and sports equipment.
 Project Nike, US Army missile project.
Nike-Hercules Missile, solid fuel propelled anti-aircraft warfare missile.
 Various  American sounding rockets including Nike Apache, Nike Iroquois, and Nike Nike
 307 Nike, sizeable Main belt asteroid.
 Nike Award, Polish language literature prize
 Nike, a fictional character in The Underland Chronicles children's books by Suzanne Collins

Nike


Jenin (; , , ) is a city in the State of Palestine, in the Israeli-occupied West Bank. The city serves as the administrative center of the Jenin Governorate of Palestine and is a major center for the surrounding towns. Jenin came under Israeli occupation in 1967, and was put under the administration of the Palestinian National Authority as Area A of the West Bank in 1993.

In 2017, Jenin had a population of approximately 50,000 people, whilst the Jenin refugee camp had a population of about 10,000, housing Palestinians who fled or were expelled from their homes during the 1948 Palestine War. The camp has since become a stronghold of Palestinian militants, and the location of several incidents relating to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

Etymology
Jenin has been identified as the place "Gina" or "Ginah" mentioned in the Amarna letters from the 14th century BCE, as a town in Canaan. Jenin is commonly identified with the later biblical city of Ein-Ganim, from , meaning "the spring of gardens" or "the spring of Ganim", probably referring to the many springs located nearby. The present-day Arabic name is believed to preserve the city's ancient name.

History

Ancient period
Jenin is identified with a number of important towns mentioned in ancient sources. Throughout history, it was referred to as "Ein Ganim", "Beth Hagan", "Ginah", and "Ginae", along other names. Tell Jenin, believed to constitute the original settlement core of the city, is located at the center of what is today Jenin's business district.

Bronze Age
Jenin has been identified as the place "Gina" or "Ginah" mentioned in the Amarna letters from the 14th century BCE. At the time, it was a vassal state of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The people of Gina managed to kill the warlord Labaya during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten.

Iron Age
Jenin is identical to Ein-Ganim, which the Hebrew Bible describes as a Levite city belonging to the Israelite Tribe of Issachar. It has also been associated with Beth-Haggan, mentioned in 2 Kings in connection with Ahaziah's flight from Jehu, before he is wounded at Ibleam and later dies in Megiddo. The Book of Judith renders its name as "Gini".

Roman and Byzantine periods
Josephus, a Roman-Jewish historian of the 1st-century CE, mentions "Ginae" as being in the great plain, on the northern border of Samaria. During the Roman period, Ginae was settled exclusively by Samaritans. The people of Galilee were disposed to pass through their city during the annual pilgrimages to Jerusalem. In 51 CE, a Galilean Jew was killed in Ginae by hostile Samaritans while en route to Jerusalem to celebrate Sukkot. With Roman procurator Cumanus failing to respond, Jewish Zealots led by Elazar the Son of Deinaeus (Ben Dinai) sought vengeance, and several Samaritan villages in Aqrabatene were destroyed.

Biblical commentator F. W. Farrar raised the possibility that this Samaritan village, "the first village at which [a traveler taking the road from Galilee to Judea over Mount Tabor] would arrive", was the one which rejected the disciples of Jesus in Luke's Gospel at the point where Jesus and his followers begin his journey towards Jerusalem.

Ceramics dating from the Byzantine era have been found here. There is no mention of Jenin in the reports of the Muslim conquest of the Levant from the Byzantines, which, according to the historian Moshe Sharon, "is not surprising, since it was a small place of minor importance".

Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk periods
Jenin came under Crusader rule in 1103. The Crusaders called it Le Grand Guerin (Latin: Garinum or Gallina Major), to distinguish it from the town of Zir'in, which they called "Petit Grin". Under the Crusaders it was a small seigniory, forming part of the Principality of Galilee or the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Shortly before the Battle of Hattin in 1187, Jenin was captured by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin, who destroyed the nearby fort, Castellum Beleismum. In the 1220s, the geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi described Jenin as "a small and beautiful town, lying between Nabulus and Beisan, in the Jordan Province. There is much water, and many springs are found here, and often have I visited it." In 1229, a peace was concluded between Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and Sultan al-Kamil, during the Sixth Crusade, whereby the city was given to the Crusaders, but Sultan as-Salih Ayyub was able to control it permanently in 1244 after the Battle of La Forbie.

In 1255, it was agreed between the Ayyubid sultan in Syria, an-Nasir Yusuf, and the first Mamluk sultan in Egypt, Izz al-Din Aybak, to give the latter all of the lands lying west of the Jordan River, and thus Jenin entered into the possession of the Mamluks. It was one of eleven subdistricts of Mamlakat Safad (Province of Safed). In the late 13th century, Mamluk emirs (commanders) stationed at Jenin were ordered by Sultan Qalawun () "to ride every day with their troops before the fortress of 'Akka, so as to protect the coast and the merchants." As one of the stations of the Mamluk barid (postal route) between the Mamluk capital Cairo and Damascus, it was one of the towns where fires were lit to warn of a Mongol attack. The geographer al-Dimashqi mentioned Jenin around 1300. From the time of Qalawun's son, Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad (), it was a station on the route where ice was transported to Cairo for the sultans' drink houses. The Mamluk historian al-Qalqashandi (d. 1418) described Jenin as "an ancient spacious town which is riding on a shoulder of a nice valley in which there is a river of flowing water" north of Qaqun "on the top end of Marj Bani Amer [Jezreel Valley]". He also noted that it contained the mausoleum of Dihyah al-Kalbi, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Ottoman era

The Ottomans conquered Mamluk Syria in 1516. Jenin became the administrative center of a nahiya (subdistrict) of the Lajjun Sanjak (Lajjun District). The sanjak was officially called the Iqta (Fief) of Turabay until 1559 when it became officially known as the Lajjun Sanjak. The Turabay dynasty was the ruling house of the Bedouin Banu Haritha tribe, whose members held the governorship of Lajjun from the start of Ottoman rule through 1677. The tax registers from 1548–1549 report that Jenin had a population of eight households, all Muslim. They paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, goats and beehives, in addition to occasional revenues; a total of 2,000 akçe. All of the revenue went to a waqf (religious endowment) in the name of the Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri (). Turabay rule was occasionally interrupted, including in 1564, when a certain Kemal Bey was appointed sanjak-bey (district governor) by the Ottomans. On 15 October 1564 Kemal Bey requested from the beylerbey (provincial governor) of Damascus that the stone caravanserai of Jenin be repaired, garrisoned and serve as the chief headquarters of the Lajjun sanjak-bey in order for Lajjun to prosper and for the road connecting Damascus to Jerusalem and Egypt to become secure. The official response was that the caravanserai be turned into a fortress; the fortress became ruined at some later point and 19th-century residents of Jenin used to claim that certain large rocks strewn in the village were the remnants of the 16th-century fortress.

The Turabays, who remained nomads in the plain between Mount Carmel and Caesarea, made Jenin the administrative headquarters of Lajjun and used the town Izz al-Din Cemetery to bury their dead. A large, domed mausoleum was built for the grave of one of the chiefs and sanjak-beys of the family, Turabay ibn Ali (d. 1601). Known as Qubbat al-Amir Turabay (Dome of the Emir Turabay), it was described in a 1941 report as a ruined structure, and Sharon, writing in 2017, notes that it "does not exist anymore". No other graves of the Turabays in Jenin had survived into the 20th century. During the conflict between Fakhr al-Din of the Ma'n dynasty, who governed the sanjaks of Sidon-Beirut and Safed, and the Turabays, in 1623, Fakhr al-Din captured Jenin and stationed his men there. In 1624 the most prominent Turabay chief and sanjak-bey of Lajjun, Ahmad ibn Turabay, drove out the Ma'nid troops from Jenin and established his personal residence in the town.

In the mid-18th century, Jenin was designated the administrative capital of the combined districts of Lajjun and Ajlun. There are indications that the area comprising Jenin and Nablus remained functionally autonomous under Ottoman rule and that the empire struggled to collect taxes there. During the Napoleonic Campaign in Egypt which extended into Syria and Palestine in 1799, a local official from Jenin wrote a poem enumerating and calling upon local Arab leaders to resist Bonaparte, without mentioning the Sultan or the need to protect the Ottoman Empire.

In the late 19th century, some members of the Jarrar family, who formed part of the mallakin (elite land-owning families) in Jenin, cooperated with merchants in Haifa to set up an export enterprise there. During the Ottoman era, Jenin was plagued by local warfare between members of the same clan. The French explorer Guérin visited in 1870. In 1882, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine described Jenin as "The capital of the district, the seat of a Caimacam, a town of about 3,000 inhabitants, with a small bazaar. The houses are well built of stone. There are two families of Roman Catholics; the remainder are Moslems. A spring rises east of the town and is conducted to a large masonry reservoir, near the west side, of good squared stonework, with a long stone trough. This reservoir was built by 'And el Hady, Mudir of Acre, in the first half of the century  [..], north of the town is the little mosque of 'Ezz ed Din, with a good- sized dome and a minaret."

British Mandate period

According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, Jenin had a population of 2,637, consisting of 2,307 Muslims, 7 Jews, 108 Christians, 212 Hindus and 3 Sikhs. From 1936, Jenin became a center of rebellion against the British Mandatory authorities. By the summer of 1938, residents of the city embarked on "an intensified campaign of murder, intimidation and sabotage" that caused the British administration "grave concern", according to a British report to the League of Nations. The city played an important role in the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, prompted by the death of Izz ad-Din al-Qassam in a fire-fight with British colonial police at the nearby town of Ya'bad months prior to the start of the revolt. On 25 August 1938, the day after the British Assistant District Commissioner was assassinated in his Jenin office, a large British force with explosives entered the town. Despite having captured and killed the assassin, British forces ordered the inhabitants to leave, and blew up one quarter of the town as a form of punishment.

Jenin was used by Fawzi al-Qawuqji's Arab Liberation Army as a base.

1948 War

In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the city was defended by the Iraqi Army, then captured briefly by the forces from Israel's Carmeli Brigade during the "Ten Days' fighting" following the cancellation of the first cease-fire. Prior to the battle, the city's residents fled temporarily. The offensive was actually a feint designed to draw Arab forces away from the critical Battle for Jerusalem, and gains in that sector were quickly abandoned when Arab reinforcements arrived.

Jordanian control
In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and after the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Jenin came under Jordanian rule. It was annexed by Jordan in 1950.

The Jenin refugee camp was founded in 1953 by Jordan to house displaced Palestinians who fled or were expelled during the 1948 War. In 2014 the camp had a population of 16,000. For 19 years, the city was under Jordanian control. A war cemetery for Iraqi soldiers and local combatants is located on the outskirts of Jenin.

The Jordanian census of 1961 found 14,402 inhabitants in Jenin.

Israeli occupation

Jenin has been under Israeli occupation since the Six-Day War, in 1967.

On 14 May 1989, during the early months of the First Intifada. Mohammad Jibrin, aged 45, died in Ramallah Hospital after being beaten by Israeli soldiers in Jenin. Three months later, in response to a question from a member of Knesset Defence Minister Yitzhak Rabin wrote that there was no investigation by the Military Police Investigator.

In 1996, Israel handed over control of the city to the Palestinian National Authority in keeping with the Oslo Accords. Known to Palestinians as "the martyrs' capital", the camp's militants, some 200 armed men, included members of Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Tanzim, Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) and Hamas. By Israel's count, at least 28 suicide bombers were dispatched from the Jenin camp from 2000–2003 during the Second Intifada. Israeli army weekly Bamahane attributes at least 31 militant attacks, totaling 124 victims, to Jenin during the same period, more than any other city in the West Bank.

During the al-Aqsa Intifada, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield with the stated aim of dismantling terrorist infrastructure so as to curb suicide bombings and other militant activities. The army encircled and entered six major Palestinian population centers in the West Bank, among them Jenin. During the Battle of Jenin (2002) in April 2002, 23 Israeli soldiers and 52 Palestinians, including civilians,  were killed. Human Rights Watch reported that the refugee camp, which was the major battleground, suffered extensive damage. Witnesses stated unarmed people were shot and denied medical treatment, and as a result died. Human Rights Watch have regarded many killings to be unlawful such as the death of a 57-year-old wheelchair bound man who was shot and run over by a tank despite having attached a white flag on his wheelchair. A 37-year-old man who was paralysed was crushed under the rubble of his house, his family was refused to be allowed to remove his body. A 14-year-old boy was killed as he travelled to purchase groceries during the temporary relief of the curfew that was imposed by the army. Medical staff were shot at (one nurse killed) while trying to reach the wounded even after clearly being in uniform displaying the red crescent symbol. There have also been reports of Israeli soldiers using Palestinians as human shields, one father described how a soldier rested his rifle on his 14-year-old son's shoulder as he shot. Israel denied the entry of rescue teams and journalists into Jenin even after they withdrew. Over the following years, Jenin was subject to extended curfews and targeted killings.

During a gun-battle with Islamic Jihad militants whom Israel says were firing at troops from inside the UN compound, an Israeli military sniper shot and killed a UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) employee, Iain Hook (54) on November 22, 2002. The sniper reportedly mistook a cellphone in Hook's hands for a gun or grenade.

In the framework of the Valley of Peace initiative, a joint Arab-Israeli project is under way to promote tourism in the Jenin region. In 2010, 600 new businesses opened in Jenin. The Canaan Fair Trade is headquartered in Jenin. Director of The Freedom Theatre in Jenin, Juliano Mer-Khamis, was killed by masked gunmen in the city in April 2011. Mer-Khamis co-founded the theatre with Zakaria Zubeidi, former military chief of the al-Aqsa Brigades who had renounced violence.

On 6 February 2020, a Palestinian policeman, Tarek Badwan, was shot dead by an Israeli sniper as he stood at the entrance to the Jenin police station and chatted with a colleague. No explanation has been forthcoming. The incident was recorded on video.

On 17 June 2022, Israeli forces conducted a raid in the al-Marah area of the city. During the raid, Israeli forces opened fire on a car, killing three Palestinians and seriously injuring another.

On 26 January 2023, Israeli forces killed nine in a clash with Islamic Jihad militants during a raid in the city and refugee camp of Jenin.

On 3 July 2023, shortly after 1 a.m., Israeli forces attacked the city's refugee camp using drone-fired missiles and ground troops. Eight Palestinians died from injuries sustained during the attack and a further eighty were injured, nine of them critically. Fifty Palestinians, whom Israeli forces labeled "militants," were arrested. Israeli forces cut off telecommunications and electricity in the area and medical professionals struggled to reach the injured. Israel claimed that while they were targeting suspected members of the Jenin Brigades, an armed group. The refugee camp has a population of roughly 17,000 inhabitants and is about a quarter a square mile in size.

On 19 September 2023, four Palestinians were killed during another Israeli military invasion of the city – among them a 15-year-old Palestinian boy, chased and killed for having noticed the Israeli undercover soldiers sneaking into the Jenin refugee camp.

During the 2023 Hamas-Israel war, Israeli forces carried out multiple operations in Jenin. On October 22, the IDF conducted an airstrike targeting an underground compound beneath the Al-Ansar Mosque in the city. It was reported to be the first airstrike in the West Bank since the Second Intifada. The IDF stated that the strike aimed at operatives from Hamas and PIJ who were planning a terror attack.

Geography
Jenin is situated at the foot of the rugged northernmost hills (Jabal Nablus) of the West Bank, and along the southern edge of the Jezreel Valley (Marj Ibn Amer), which the city overlooks. Its highest elevation is about 250 meters above sea level and its lowest areas are 90 meters above sea level. Immediately southwest of Jenin is the Sahl Arraba plain (Dothan Valley), while further south is the Marj Sanur valley. About 1.5 kilometers to Jenin's east is Mount Gilboa (Jabal Faqqua).

Jenin is 42 kilometers north of Nablus, 18 kilometers to the south of Afula, and 51 kilometers southeast of Haifa. The nearest localities are Umm at-Tut and Jalqamus to the southeast, Qabatiya and Zababdeh to the south, Burqin to the southwest, Kafr Dan to the west, Arranah, Jalamah and the Arab Israeli village of Muqeible to the north, Deir Ghazaleh to the northeast, and Beit Qad and Deir Abu Da'if to the east.

Government
Jenin municipality was established in 1886 under the Ottoman rule with no more than 80 voters and elections were made every 4 years until 1982 when the Israeli government took control over the municipality until 1995.

List of Jenin mayors:

Andulmajeed Mansour
Abdulrahman Al-Haj Hassan
Ragheb Al-Souki
Al-Haj Hassan Fazaa'
Tawfeek Mansour
Bshara Atallah
Hussein al-Abboushi
Aref Abdulrahman
Fahmi al-Abboushi

Tahseen Abdulhadi
Abdulraheem Jarrar
Saleh Arif Azzouqa
Hussni Al-Souki
Ahmed Kamal Al-saa'di
Ahmed Shawki Al-Mahmoud
Shehab Al-Sanouri
Abdullah Lahlouh
Waleed Abu Mwais (appointed)
Hatim Jarrar

Municipal elections were held in Jenin on 15 December 2005. Six seats each were won by Hamas and the local coalition of Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Jenin was one of several Palestinian cities where Hamas showed a dramatic growth in electoral support.
 Doctor Hadem Rida was then elected as Mayor of the city, until he was arrested by the Israel Forces and spent 3 years in jail. After his release, he resigned from the position and went back to practice in his clinic in Jenin city.

Demographics
According to the 2017 census by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Jenin had a population of 49,908, the Jenin Refugee Camp of 10,417 on 373 dunams (92 acres). Some 42.3% of the population of the camp was under the age of 15.

Public institutions and landmarks

The Freedom Theatre is a theatre and cinema in the Jenin refugee camp.
 The Horse of Jenin is a famous monument built in 2003 by German artist Thomas Kilpper and young people from Jenin of scrap metal from cars destroyed by Israeli forces.
 The city has a monument honoring German pilots shot down in Jenin during the First World War, which incorporates an original wooden propeller.
 An old British Mandate landing strip, Muqeible Airfield, is located in Jenin.
 The Khalil Suleiman Hospital is located in Jenin.
 The main and largest mosque of Jenin is the Fatima Khatun Mosque, built in 1566.
 Another mosque in Jenin is the Al-Ansar Mosque.

Education and culture

The Arab American University is located in Jenin's vicinity.

Cinema Jenin is the largest movie theater in the area. The cinema, which reopened in 2010 after a 23-year intermission, has indoor and outdoor screens, a film library and educational facilities.

Strings of Freedom is an orchestra in Jenin founded by an Arab citizen of Israel, Wafaa Younis, who travels form her home in central Israel to teach music to the local youth.

References

Bibliography

External links

Welcome To Jinin
Survey of Western Palestine, Map 8: IAA, Wikimedia commons
A project aimed at reopening a movie theater for the residents of Jenin and the refugee camp.
Peace and Prosperity in the West Bank in-depth report on NOW on PBS
Heart of Jenin documentary on PBS wide angle

Bronze Age sites in the State of Palestine
Cities in the West Bank
Jenin Governorate
Municipalities of the State of Palestine
Palestinian Christian communities

Jenin


Piccadilly is a small village in the North Warwickshire district of the county of Warwickshire in England. It is located near to the larger village of Kingsbury (where population details are included), and is four miles south of Tamworth.

History

Piccadilly was built in 1904 to house miners who worked at the nearby Kingsbury Colliery, and the village was built on land belonging to the mine. It consisted of two rows of three-storey houses along one main street.

Piccadilly earned its name from Piccadilly in London, which was the home of Colonel Dibley, one of the village's founders. Dibley asked the miners what they would like to call their new village, but when nobody could think of an appropriate name, he chose Piccadilly.

In 1908 a clubhouse was built. It had been turned into a pub named The Jewel in the Crown but this has now been demolished and social housing built.

The village remained much the same until 1947 when prefabricated housing was built to house more mineworkers. These were demolished in the early 1960s after which the local authority of the time, Tamworth Rural District Council, used the land to build council houses. These remain to the present day.

The mine was closed in 1968 and is now the Kingsbury link Business park.

Miners Memorial Wall

In 2009 a memorial wall was built containing the names of all the miners who worked at Kingsbury Colliery and Dexter Colliery. In the center of the wall there is a miner's lamp that is always lit to commemorate those who have died and those who remember working down the mines.

Demographics
According to the 2001 Census the population of the Hurley and Wood End ward was 3,642. Over 99.5% of people (3,550) describe themselves as White British with only 89 people from other ethnic groups. The most common distance travelled to work is , which is essentially to Tamworth, with the most common form of employment being manufacturing. The Ward almost has an almost exact 50:50 split of males and females, with a ratio of 1,822 to 1,820 respectively. According to Kingsbury Parish Council there are 142 houses in the village.

Governance
The village is part of the Kingsbury civil parish.

The village was originally part of the Tamworth Rural District from its creation, until 1965 when it became part of the Atherstone Rural District. In 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 it became part of the newly formed district of North Warwickshire. Inside North Warwickshire it is part of the Hurley and Wood End Ward, and because of the mining connection the village often elects Labour councillors.

It is part of the North Warwickshire constituency and the current MP is Conservative Craig Tracey.

Crime
In 2009 there was an average of 3.6 crimes per 1,000 people for the ward of Hurley and Wood End, and during the same period there were 5 crimes per head for the borough of North Warwickshire. In 2010 the figure was down to 3 crimes per head. The most common type of crime is anti-social behaviour.

Recreation
The village has a large cricket field and play area. The nearest village hall is in Wood End

Education
There has never been any educational institution in the village. The nearest primary school is Wood End Primary School, and the nearest comprehensive school is Kingsbury School. In terms of further education, the area is served by North Warwickshire and Hinckley College at Nuneaton. There is also Tamworth and Lichfield College.

Health
The nearest GP's surgeries can be found in Kingsbury and Hurley. The George Eliot Hospital at Nuneaton is the area's local hospital. It has an Accident and Emergency Department. Out-of-hours GP services are also based at George Eliot. There is also Good Hope Hospital in Sutton Coldfield.

Public services
The village uses a Birmingham (B) Postcode unlike Wood End which uses a Coventry (CV) post code, The postal town is Tamworth which makes it often written as being part of Staffordshire despite being in Warwickshire. Water and sewage services are provided by Severn Trent Water.

The nearest Warwickshire Police and Warwickshire Fire and Rescue stations are in Atherstone.

Religion
There has never been any place of worship in the village, which technically makes it a hamlet. The nearest place of worship is St Michael & All Angels Church in Wood End. The Parish Church of St Peter & St Paul is also located close by at Kingsbury. Both of these are Church of England churches. Piccadilly also falls into the Roman Catholic Parish of St. John The Baptist, with the main collegiate church being St. John's Presbytery in Tamworth.

Transport
The village lies next to the M42 motorway, with the nearest exit being at Junction 10.

The village has a bus stop on Trinity Road which is served by Route 118, which connects Piccadilly to Kingsbury and Tamworth. A new shelter was provided by Kingsbury Parish Council in November 2007. The nearest railway station is at Wilnecote. But Water Orton and Coleshill Parkway are also a short distance away from the village.

The nearest airport is Birmingham International, which is  away.

Media
The local newspaper covering the area is the Tamworth Herald.

Local radio includes BBC Coventry & Warwickshire, Free Coventry & Warwickshire and Capital Mid-Counties.

The village is covered by the Central ITV and BBC West Midlands TV regions broadcast from the nearby Sutton Coldfield transmitting station.

References

External links

Villages in Warwickshire
Kingsbury, Warwickshire
1904 establishments in England

Piccadilly, Warwickshire


August Franz Josef Karl Mayer (2 November 1787 in Schwäbisch Gmünd – 9 November 1865 in Bonn) was a German anatomist and physiologist.

He received his education at the University of Tübingen, obtaining his doctorate in 1812. Afterwards, he worked as a prosector at the Academy of Bern, where in 1815 he was named a professor of anatomy and physiology. From 1819 to 1856 he was a professor at the University of Bonn. Among his better known students at Bonn were Johannes Peter Müller and Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von Bischoff.

His name is associated with a female reproductive disorder known today as Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome (MRKH); named in conjunction with Carl von Rokitansky, Hermann Küster and Georges André Hauser.

Selected works
He was the author of around 145 published works, many of them written from the viewpoint of natural philosophy.
 Ueber Histologie und eine neue Eintheilung der Gewebe des menschlichen Körpers, 1819 – On histology and a new division of tissues of the human body.
 Beschreibung einer graviditas interstitialis uteri, 1825.
 Supplemente zur Biologie des Blutes und des Pflanzensaftes, Book 1, 1827 – Supplements on the biology of the blood and of plant sap.
 Über Verdoppelungen des Uterus und ihre Arten, nebst Bemerkungen über Harenscharte und Wolfsrachen, 1829.
 Supplemente zur Lehre vom Kreislaufe, 1827 - Volume 1, 1835 – Supplements to the doctrine of circulation.
 Flimmerbewegungen, Leben der Blutsphären, Monadenlehre: 2, 1836.
 Die Metamorphose der Monaden, 1840 – The metamorphosis of monads.
 Beiträge zur anatomie der entozoen, 1841 – Contributions to the anatomy of Entozoa.
 Anatomische Untersuchungen über das Auge vom Walfisch, 1853 – Anatomical investigations on the eye of the whale.
 Ueber die Struktur der Häutedeckungen der Cetaceen, 1855 – On the structure of cetacean skin.
 Zur Anatomie des Orang-Utang und des Chimpanse, 1856On the anatomy of the orang-utan and the chimpanzee
 Ueber die fossilen Ueberreste eines menschlichen Schädels und Skeletes in einer Felsenhöhle des Düssel- oder Neander-Thales, 1864 – Concerning the fossil remains of a human skull and skeleton in a cave of the Düssel or Neander valley.

References

1787 births
1865 deaths
German anatomists
German physiologists
People from Schwäbisch Gmünd
University of Tübingen alumni
Academic staff of the University of Bern
Academic staff of the University of Bonn

August Franz Josef Karl Mayer


Sir Albert Charles Seward FRS (9 October 1863 – 11 April 1941) was a British botanist and geologist.

Life
Seward was born in Lancaster.  His first education was at Lancaster Grammar School and he then went on to St John's College, Cambridge, intending to fulfil parents' wish that he would dedicate his life to the Church. His boyhood interest in botany and zoology soon resurfaced, helped along by inspiring lectures from William Crawford Williamson. His aptitude soon became apparent and he was appointed lecturer in botany at Cambridge University in 1890, later becoming a tutor at Emmanuel, and still later succeeding Harry Marshall Ward as Professor of Botany, Cambridge University from  1906 to 1936. There, he became a founding member of the University of Cambridge Eugenics Society, eventually becoming its Chairman. He was joint editor (with Francis Darwin) of More letters of Charles Darwin (1903). He was elected as fellow of the Royal Society in 1898 and was awarded the Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London in 1908. In 1931 Seward dismissed the notion of a biological origin of stromatolites. This rejection became known as "Seward's folly".

Seward's studies of Mesozoic palaeobotany earned him membership of the Royal Society at the youthful age of thirty-five. He devoted a great deal of time to education, both as college and departmental administrator, and as writer on educational matters. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation Seward when citing a botanical name.

His interest in plants went beyond the living and the fossil. In 1935 he published a study on the floral carvings in the chapter house of Southwell Minster.

Seward died in Oxford, aged 77.

Family

His daughter married his prize pupil, John Walton son of the artist Edward Arthur Walton. John was later Professor of Botany at Glasgow University.

Timeline
1885-86 First class honours at Cambridge University
1886 Embarks on a career in palaeobotany
1890-1906 Lecturer in botany at Cambridge
1892 Sedgwick Prize for essay Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate
1894-95 Publication of "The Wealden Flora", 2 vols
1898 Fellow of the Royal Society of London
1898-1919 Publication of "Fossil Plants", 4 vols
1900-1904 Publication of "The Jurassic Flora", 2 vols
1906-36 Professor of botany at Cambridge
1908 Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London
1909 Publication of "Darwin and Modern Science" - Essays edited by A. C. Seward
1915-36 Master of Downing College, Cambridge
1922-24 President of the Geological Society of London
1924-26 Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge
1925 Royal Medal of the Royal Society
1930 President of the Fifth International Botanical Congress
1930 Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society
1931 President of the International Union of Biological Sciences
1931 Publication of "Plant Life Through the Ages"
1934 Darwin Medal of the Royal Society
1936 Knighthood conferred
1939 President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

Selected publications

Fossil Floras of Cape Colony (1903)
 More Letters of Charles Darwin (Volume 1, Volume 2, 1903) [with Francis Darwin]
Darwin and Modern Science (1909)
Links With the Past in the Plant World (1911)
Science and the Nation (1917)
Plant Life Through the Ages (1933)
Geology for Everyman (1943);

References

External links

1863 births
1941 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Botanists with author abbreviations
British botanists
British geologists
Charles Darwin biographers
Fellows of the Geological Society of London
Fellows of the Royal Society
Masters of Downing College, Cambridge
Paleobotanists
Presidents of the British Science Association
Royal Medal winners
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Wollaston Medal winners
Professors of Botany (Cambridge)

Albert Seward


Colin James Loader (10 March 1931 – 19 June 2021) was a New Zealand rugby union player who represented the All Blacks between 1953 and 1954.

Born in Dannevirke in 1931, Loader was educated at Hutt Valley High School, where he was a member of the 1st XV between 1948 and 1950. He first represented Wellington from the University club, but switched to the Hutt club in 1952.

A second five-eighth and centre three-quarter, Loader was selected for the 1953–54 All Black tour to the British Isles, France and North America. He played 16 matches on the tour, including four test matches, scoring three tries in all. He made his international debut in Dublin against Ireland on 9 January 1954. He played all four of his test matches at the centre three-quarter position. He did not play for the All Blacks again and retired from rugby at the end of the 1955 season. He later coached at the Hutt club.

Loader died in Dunedin on 19 June 2021.

References

1931 births
2021 deaths
New Zealand international rugby union players
New Zealand rugby union coaches
New Zealand rugby union players
People educated at Hutt Valley High School
Rugby union centres
Rugby union players from Dannevirke
Wellington rugby union players

Colin Loader


Gömmaren (Swedish: literary "The Hider") is a small lake located in the municipality Huddinge in southern Stockholm, Sweden.  It is the easternmost lake in the Tyresån Lake System.

The lake empties to the west through Gömmarbäcken ("Gömmaren Rill") and to the east through Fullerstaån ("Fullersta Stream"), which is further downstream guided in culverts under the commercial centre of Huddinge (Huddinge Centrum) before flowing south-east to empty into Lake Trehörningen.  Motorboats are not allowed on the lake.  Its clear water makes it popular for various open-air activities such as angling and bathing in summer, and skating in winters as it is one of the first lakes in Huddinge to freeze.  Bathing from cliffs surrounding the lake is popular, but a sand beach is also available.  A local fishing society (Långsjön-Gömmarens Fiskevårdsförening) manages lake conservation and supplies the general public with fishing permits.

History
Notwithstanding the lake's name, documented from the 18th century and most likely hinting at the hidden away location, settlements have been present near the lake since the Stone Age.  The property of Vårby Gård, a nearby homestead, used to reach the lake in the 18th century, but the central building burnt down in 1975 and none of its gardens, brewing, bakery, smithy, or poultry houses are left.

Catchment area
The lake is located in a forest forming part of the Gömmaren Nature Reserve created in 1995 and as such is considered as important for recreation and nature conservation, a popular destination both for lovers of open-air life and for schools.

Environmental influence
The water of the lake is very clear and virtually colourless, which reflects the nutrient-poor flat rock pine forest of the surrounding area.  Settlements south of the lake provide most of the nutrient contribution to the lake and about 80 per cent of the phosphorus input.  A hydrogeological examination in 1985 showed the surrounding soil is poorly fit to take up increased levels of waste water.  Acidification has been neutralized by liming which has produced excellent pH-levels.

Flora and fauna

Many species of aquatic plants are present in the lake: reed, common club-rush, water horsetail, narrow leaf cattail, white beak-sedge, gypsywort, bulbous rush, white waterlily, broad-leaved pondweed, alternate water-milfoil, and intermediate bladderwort.  Along the shores are grey willow, goat willow, aspen, black alder, bog-myrtle, tall bog-sedge, common sedge, bottle sedge, slender sedge, cranberry, and round-leaved sundew.

Fish species native to the lake include northern pike, perch, roach, and, to some degree, rudd.  There are many introduced species such as rainbow trout, North American brook trout, trout, and the hybrid species splake making the lake well-attended by anglers during both summers and winters.  Crayfish plague eliminated the population of noble crayfish in 1987, but some 1200 signal crayfish were introduced in the early 1990s.

Common birds are mallard and common gull, but other species such as common goldeneye, common tern, and a couple of black-throated diver breed by the lake, and heron and osprey feed in the area.  Trees by the lake shores also attract long-tailed tit and lesser spotted woodpecker, and occasionally whooper swan, and great crested grebe are reported by the lake.

Additionally, many species of dragonflies have been reported but no inventory of bats has been made.

Notes

References

External links

Geography of Stockholm
Lakes of Stockholm County

Gömmaren


Herron is a small suburb located in the Peel region of Western Australia just off the Old Coast Road, between Mandurah and Bunbury just beyond Mandurah's urban area. It is on a narrow strip between Lake Clifton and Yalgorup National Park to the west, and Harvey Estuary to the east.

History
The area was known as "Koolijerrenup" by the local Noongar people.

Present day
Herron contains a couple of roadhouses for passing trucks and motorists on Old Coast Road, while rural residential estates have sprung up nearby, and olive groves and orchards operate from Island Point. At nearby Mount John, a local engineering company operates a liquid waste facility.

The City of Mandurah has coordinated a foreshore stabilisation scheme at Island Point to offset degradation caused by devegetation of the coastal dunes and the 1994 construction of the Dawesville Channel which has increased tides on the estuary. A Green Corps team has collected 500 grams of seed from a range of species and is now working with the council to revegetate the area.

The City of Mandurah and neighbouring Shire of Waroona developed a combined structure plan for the Herron-Lake Clifton area in 2006, anticipating a population increase in the region after the Forrest Highway, a continuation of the Kwinana Freeway from Perth, is completed.

Transport
Herron is not served by public transport.

References

Suburbs of Mandurah
Towns in Western Australia

Herron, Western Australia


There are different movements in Christianity. Over time, each of these movements developed a number of rules to follow. An ecclesiastical court is a court of law that only uses one of these sets of rules to judge people. In the case of the Roman Catholic Church, these rules are known as Canon law, and they can be found in the Codex Iuris Canonici.

Christianity
Courts (law)

Ecclesiastical court


End Special Anti-Robbery Squad (End SARS) or #EndSARS is a social movement in Nigeria that started on Twitter. The movement asked the government to end the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (called SARS for short), which is part of the Nigerian Police Force.

It supports ending police brutality and oppression in Nigeria. It started on social media campaign using the hashtag #ENDSARS to demand Nigeria's government stop using SARS on Nigerian people. The people were tired of being hurt by SARS officers. SARS kept hurting Nigerians and in 2020 there were very big protests. Many Nigerians came to the protests, but the government beat up and shot the protesters. On one day, the government killed about 30 protesters in Lagos. People all over the world started protesting too. Many people in the movement are now protesting not just SARS but the whole Nigerian government.

References

2020 in Nigeria
October 2020 events

End SARS


Cox v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 536 (1965), is a United States Supreme Court case based on the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. It held that a state government cannot employ "breach of the peace" statutes against protesters engaging in peaceable demonstrations that may potentially incite violence.

Background
The case arose after the picketing of a segregated restaurant on December 14, 1961, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, led to the arrest of 23 student protesters from Southern University, a black college. The next day, B. Elton Cox, a minister, arranged a protest of 2,000 people at the courthouse where the students were being held. The police agreed to allow the protest as long as it was across the street from the courthouse.

Between 100 and 300 whites gathered on the other side of the street. The protesters proceeded in a peaceful orderly fashion, and began to sing songs and hymns causing the jailed students to respond by singing.

Cox then gave a speech exhorting the protesters that upon departure from the courthouse, to proceed into downtown to sit at the segregated lunch counters, This caused "muttering" and "grumbling" in the gathering white crowd across the street. The sheriff then ordered the protesters to disperse, but before they could, the police fired tear gas into the black group, injuring some, including minister Cox who was hit in the ankle by a tear gas canister. No arrests were made then, but the next day Reverend Cox was arrested at a church and charged with four offenses under Louisiana law, criminal conspiracy, disturbing the peace, obstructing public passages, and picketing before a courthouse. This heavy raft of charges Cox held was a pretext to charge exorbitant bail with the design of draining the funds of the local civil rights movement, and silencing his leadership. Cox was later acquitted of criminal conspiracy but convicted of the other three offenses and sentenced to a total of one year and nine months jail time and fined $5,700. In two separate judgments the Louisiana Supreme Court affirmed all three convictions. Both judgments were appealed.

Social context
All courts adhere to the same judicial standards as the Supreme Court, but local and state courts are more immediately influenced by the political and social environments specific to their location and representative body (Vines 1965: 5). For example, during the 1950s and 1960s, the courts governing states and cities in the southern United States were more greatly influenced by the race struggles that they lived with and saw daily than courts in other areas of the country. In contrast to this, the "Supreme Court justices should have no constituency; they are appointed for life to sit as judges over all people." (Steel 1968) Largely for this reason, Southern African Americans much preferred arguing in front of federal courts, where they felt they had a greater chance of being judged fairly and according to the law. Studies during the 1950s and 1960s show that African Americans were correct in their favoring of the federal courts over state, as federal courts decided in favor of African American defendants 60% more often than cases in Southern state courts. (Vines 1965: 10) This caused much tension and strife within the respective Southern state or community and forced the Supreme Court to rule in response to the controversial issues of race and discrimination.

By late 1964, when the Supreme Court heard arguments in Cox v. Louisiana, demonstrations and protests marked a change in American society. In a 1965 New York Times editorial, James Reston spoke on protest and social change when he said "this rising protest in the nation is having its effect." (Reston 1965: 34) Reston also said "the new activist spirit of the church and the university in America, allied to the modern television and airplane, is now having a profound influence on law and politics in the United States." (Reston 1965) The large scale of demonstrations during this time period gained much public attention, with increased media attention and viewership. Nielsen ratings increased 46% more than average during coverage of a 1963 civil rights march in Washington DC. (see Adams, Val. "TV: Coverage of March". The New York Times August 29, 1963: p. 43.)

Court's decision
Justice Goldberg, writing for the court, overturned Cox's conviction.

A film of the protest was a key piece of evidence, countering the State's claim that the singing from the jail turned the peaceful assembly into a riotous one; the judges watched it with rapt attention. The film showed the protest was peaceful until the police joined in.

Labor unions were a factor in the Court's decision. Labor unions use picketing as a common tactic, so any case concerning public assembly is of great interest to labor groups. Justices Black and Clark made note of the obstruction charge as bad for labor picketing in their opinions, and even stated that the threat to labor picketing was their main reasoning for that decision. (Kalven 1965) In the words of one justice, Hugo L. Black, "Those who encourage minority groups to believe that the United States Constitution and Federal laws give them a right to patrol and picket in the streets whenever they choose, in order to advance what they think to be a just and noble end, do no service to those minority groups, their cause, or their country." (Graham, pg 2) Another link with labor groups is Associate Justice Goldberg, the Justice who delivered the opinion in Cox v. Louisiana, was formerly special counsel to the major labor group the AFL–CIO (The New York Times July 16, 1960 pg. 7).

Cox v. Louisiana did not provide the response and verdict that some critics believe it could have (Steel, pg. 2) Instead, the Court's response to the civil rights movement was more ambivalent and reflective of white attitudes that were against black protest. Of the three convictions of Cox, (breach of peace, picketing near the courthouse, and obstruction of a public passageway), the justices all agreed that the breach of peace conviction did not stand. The justices disagreed about the convictions of picketing near the courthouse and the obstruction of a public passageway. While the courts did upset the convictions, "the opinions ... bristled with cautions and with a lack of sympathy for such forms of protest (Klaven pg. 8)."

See also
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 379
Brown v. Louisiana
Adderley v. Florida
Edwards v. South Carolina

References & further research
 Adams, Val.  "TV: Coverage of March."  The New York Times August 29, 1963: p. 43.
 Katzenbach, Nicolas DeB.  "Protest, Politics, and the First Amendment."  Tulane Law Review April 1970: p. 444.
 Kalven, Harry Jr.  "The Concept of the Public Forum: Cox v. Louisiana" Supreme Court Review Vol. 1965 (1965): p. 8. 9 Graham, p. 2.
 Kenneth C. Vines, "Southern State Supreme Courts and Race Relations," Western Political Quarterly 18 (1965): p. 5.
 Lewis M. Steel, "A critic's view of the Warren Court – Nine Men in Black Who Think White", The New York Times (October 13, 1968).
 Reston, James.  "Washington : The Rising Spirit of Protest."  The New York Times March 19, 1965: p. 34. 6 Ibid
 "Labor Endorsement of Ticket Expected."  The New York Times July 16, 1960: p. 7

References

External links

First Amendment Library entry for Cox v. Louisiana
Oral History with B. Elton Cox

1965 in United States case law
Freedom of assembly
United States First Amendment case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Free Speech Clause case law
History of Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Legal history of Louisiana
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
Civil rights movement case law

Cox v. Louisiana


Marcy Village Apartments is a historic community located in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. Built in 1939, the , 19-building apartment community compose a historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 24, 2004. Ground for the development was broken the week of March 20, 1939, and work was started on a full-time basis with Everett A. Carson of Indianapolis as the builder. Architects, Granger & Bollenbacher of Chicago, created the Colonial Revival apartment community for owners at the time, Marcy Realty Corporation.

History
On October 10, 1938, a project hearing was held before the Board of Zoning Appeals on a petition for variance to permit construction to start within two weeks on the $1,680,000 multi-apartment project to be located in northeast Indianapolis. Samuel B. Sutphin of New Augusta, owner of the 25-acre site for the proposed project, filed the petition with the zoning board.

Purchase of the site by the Marcy Realty Corporation depended upon favorable action by the zoning board. The multi apartment project first was planned by its sponsors on a tract at 59th street and the Monon Railroad but was abandoned when nearby property owners protested. The new site was bounded on the north by 46th street between College and Keystone Ave in Indianapolis, just north of the Indiana State School for the Deaf. Development of the project took 500 workmen nearly eight months to construct.

The Marcy Village large-scale housing project was the first Federal Housing Administration project of its type completed in Indiana. The buildings are distributed over the twenty-five-acre tract.

Marcy Village, which represents an expenditure of approximately $1,690,000, was an implemented under section 207of the National Housing Act of 1934. Under that section, sponsors may borrow from some private lending institution approved by the government any amount up to $5,000,000, at an interest rate not to exceed 4%, for terms to be approved by the administer and which in some instances run as long as thirty three years, for the construction of apartment buildings or groups of single-family buildings. At the time, Marcy Village was the 90th project completed in Indiana under that plan, though Marcy Village was the largest of its type in Indiana.

Colonial architecture is the primary design of the nineteen buildings of the project. Additionally to the apartments, there were shops consisting of five storerooms, which were occupied by a drug store, grocery, barber shop, beauty shop, and dentists' and doctors offices.

General contractor
General contractor for the project was Everett A. Carson, Indianapolis-based general contractor, and father of Dr. Wayne Carson, surgeon and sponsor. E. A. Carson built structures in and near Indianapolis, including the front for SS. Peter and Paul Cathedral on North Meridian Street, St. Joan of Arc Catholic Church and parochial school building, and several academic buildings for Indiana University.

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Residential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Colonial Revival architecture in Indiana
1939 establishments in Indiana
Residential buildings completed in 1939
Residential buildings in Indianapolis
Historic districts in Indianapolis
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis

Marcy Village Apartments


Henry Clay Pleasants (February 16, 1833 – March 26, 1880) was a coal mining engineer and an officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He is best known for organizing the building of a tunnel filled with explosives under the Confederate lines outside Petersburg, Virginia, which resulted in the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864. The Union troops, however, failed in their opportunity to break the Siege of Petersburg.

Early life and career
Pleasants was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to an American father and a Spanish mother. He did not live in the United States until he was 13, when he was sent to school in Philadelphia. He worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad and in anthracite coal mines.

In 1857, he moved to Pottsville, Pennsylvania, to become a civil engineer in the local mining industry. In 1860, he married Sarah "Sallie" Bannan, daughter of publisher Benjamin Bannan, but she died of illness on October 15 of that same year. A tradition, probably apocryphal, states that Pleasants's decision to join the army the following year was motivated by a desire to be killed in battle and join her in death.

Civil War
With the outbreak of hostilities, Pleasants became a second lieutenant in the 6th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, which enlisted for only three months. He re-enlisted as a captain in the 48th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment in July 1861. The regiment initially saw service in the Western Theater but came to the Eastern Theater and fought in such battles as Antietam, Second Bull Run, Fredericksburg and in the Wilderness.

By 1864, Pleasants had risen to lieutenant colonel and commanded the 48th Pennsylvania, which was one of the units outside Petersburg. Many of the 48th were coal miners, and Pleasants supposedly heard his men suggest running a shaft under the Confederate lines. Pleasants went to his superiors, who approved the plan. He battled a lack of supplies as well as a lack of interest on the part of Union generals until other attacks on Petersburg had failed.

He was successful in his construction to such an extent that the explosion killed nearly 300 Confederate soldiers. However, the Union troops, under Ambrose Burnside, failed to take advantage of the explosion and suffered considerable casualties in what is known as the Battle of the Crater. The Confederates recovered their original position.

Pleasants was appointed to temporary command the 2nd Brigade, 2nd Division, IX Corps, June 18, 1864, to June 25, 1865. He was mustered out of the volunteers on December 18, 1864.

On January 13, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Pleasants for appointment to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from March 13, 1865, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on March 12, 1866. His brevet appointment citation specifically mentions his service at Petersburg.

Later life
Pleasants returned to Pottsville after mustering out of the army and resumed his role as a mining engineer for the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, rising to the positions of chief engineer and then superintendent. He died at Pottsville, Pennsylvania on March 27, 1880, and was buried in the Charles Baber Cemetery in Pottsville.

In popular culture
Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel The Guns of the South features Pleasants as a significant character.

See also

 Hispanics in the American Civil War
 List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Pleasants, Henry, Inferno at Petersburg, Philadelphia, Chilton Book Co., Book Division 1961.

1833 births
1880 deaths
Burials at Charles Baber Cemetery
People from Pottsville, Pennsylvania
Union Army officers
Argentine emigrants to the United States
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War

Henry Pleasants


The rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) is a North American species of fish of the family Osmeridae. Walleye, trout, and other larger fish prey on these smelt. The rainbow smelt prefer juvenile ciscoes, zooplankton such as calanoid copepods (Leptodiaptomus ashlandi, L. minutus, L. sicilis), and other small organisms, but are aggressive and will eat almost any fish they find. They are anadromous spring spawners and prefer clean streams with light flow and light siltation. The rainbow smelt face several barriers. They are weak swimmers and struggle to navigate fish ladders  preventing them from making it past dams to the headwater streams where they spawn. The rise in erosion and dams helped to decimate the smelt population in the 1980s. There are currently plans to try to reduce damming and to help control erosion.

Description
The body of the rainbow smelt is slender and cylindrical. It has a silvery, pale green back and is iridescent purple, blue, and pink on the sides, with a light underside. When full grown, the rainbow smelt is between  long and weighs about . Individuals over  long are known.

Distribution and habitat
The rainbow smelt is widespread across North American watersheds. The North American native range of the rainbow smelt extends through the Atlantic drainages between New Jersey and Labrador to Arctic drainages, and the Pacific drainages as far south as Vancouver Island. The rainbow smelt has been introduced into water bodies in the U.S. states of Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin.

Rainbow smelt invaded the Great Lakes watershed through the intentional introduction of eggs from historically known landlocked populations in Maine to Crystal Lake, Michigan in 1912. This lake drains into Lake Michigan, from which fish escaped into Lake Michigan and spread quickly throughout the Great Lakes and their tributaries. Early records documenting the smelt's range expansion in the Great Lakes include Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, and Lake Superior. Rainbow smelt were first reported from Lake Ontario in 1929, and probably reached it by dispersal along natural waterways from the Finger Lakes, New York, where they were intentionally introduced in 1917. The ability of rainbow smelt to disperse is determined by the connectivity of lakes, the ability of smelt to move through connecting streams, and the suitability of connected lakes as habitat. Rainbow smelt are weak swimmers so they cannot make it over fish ladders. This has helped to prevent an even wider spread of their range.

Rainbow smelt occur in rivers, coastal areas and ponds. In their anadromous territories, they spend the summers along the coast, normally in waters no more than  deep and no more than  from shore. They overwinter under the ice in estuaries, producing an antifreeze protein and glycerol. In the spring, they spawn at night in small streams, often ones that go dry in the summer.

Ecology
In 1883 Stedman and Argyle found that the rainbow smelt consumed bloaters (Coregonus hoyi) and alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus). However, they also stated that this predator had not affected the population of bloaters but that impact could be a possibility. A 2003 study by Horppila et al. shows that smelt densities can exceed 40,000 individuals per hectare and may create a large predation pressure on the lake. Horppila et al. also states that a single smelt can consume between 0.12 and 0.14 grams food wet weight per day. Another study showed that in Lake Ontario the primary food sources for rainbow smelt were slimy sculpins (Cottus cognatus) and opossum shrimp (Mysis relicta), but nothing was said on whether this predation had significant impact on the populations. In 1973 Havey reported that there was increased growth in landlocked Atlantic salmon populations after the introduction of the smelt. It was also shown by Brandt and Madon in 1986 that adult lake trout (Salvalinus namaycush) could be a keystone predator species for the smelt. Hrabik et al. (1998) found evidence of competition for food between introduced rainbow smelt and native yellow perch (Perca flavescens) in Wisconsin lake habitats, and smelt may be partially responsible for the decline of Great Lakes whitefish (Coregonus spp.). The U.S. EPA stated in 2008 that they believe the smelt contributed to the extinction of the blue pike (Stizostedion vitreum glaucum) by outcompeting for food. Acidity may alter smelt distributions because they were not found in small lakes with pH less than 6.0 in several surveys. Because of snowmelt, rainbow smelt eggs might be exposed to lethal pH decreases in poorly buffered lakes.

Life history
Rainbow smelt are anadromous, ascending from saltwater to freshwater to spawn. Smelt are also capable of completing their life history exclusively in freshwater. Landlocked adult rainbow smelt spawn shortly after ice-off at night in the lower reaches of streams. Shaw found in his research that no shoreline spawning had ever occurred. McKenzie states that the number of eggs extruded by a female is positively related to its size and Nellbring stated in his 1989 research that the eggs are adhesive and attach to substrates such as gravel, sand, mud, or submerged vegetation. Eggs are left unattended and hatch in 1–4 weeks, depending on water temperature. The time to sexual maturity is dependent on food supply and water temperature and abundant food and warmer temperatures encourage faster growth. Crossman and Scott state that in optimal conditions and large lakes, rainbow smelt may reach  and can live for over seven years.

Fishing

Rainbow smelt are fished both commercially and for sport. Commercial harvests are down from historic levels; for example around 1880 an annual harvest from the Charles River alone was around 9 million fish, while today few smelt are found in the Charles River. They are commonly processed into animal feed, but are also eaten by humans. They are a popular winter game fish and the spring smelt run is a tradition in many parts of their distribution. Fishing for rainbow smelt using a gill net has historically been a popular activity along the City of Chicago's lakefront.

Management
The populations of the rainbow smelt in areas where it has been introduced, such as the Great Lakes, have been increasing in many regions, even with efforts to control its spread. Several things are being done to manage this species. Massive fish removal by over-fishing reduced the rainbow smelt populations in some lakes by the 1980s. Some people are taking a chemical approach to this growing problem, using Rotenone. While this is effective, it also harms other organisms and is unpopular with the public. Cox and Kitchell state that declines in smelt numbers, following natural recovery or stocking of grown predator fish, have been reported from lakes ranging in size from Lake Superior and Hessen. Additionally, similar results were found in a small pond near Lillehammer, Norway in 1983. This research shows that the reintroduction of large piscivores such as walleye can help lead to the reduction of chemicals and poison needing to be used.

The rainbow smelt is a U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service  Species of Concern, one of those species about which the U.S. Government's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has some concerns regarding status and threats, but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA).

See also
 Smelt (fish)

References

Other references

External links
 Gulf of Maine Rainbow Smelt Information and Population Trends
 Michigan DNR Fish Identification
 Species fact sheet by Earl J.S. Rook
 Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fisheries factsheet
 U.S. Geologic Survey Nonindigenous Aquatic Species page

Osmerus
Freshwater fish of the Arctic
Freshwater fish of North America
Fish of the Great Lakes
Fish of the United States
Fish described in 1814
Taxa named by Samuel L. Mitchill

Rainbow smelt


The Crusade for Freedom was an American propaganda campaign operating from 1950–1960. Its public goal was to raise funds for Radio Free Europe; it also served to conceal the CIA's funding of Radio Free Europe and to generate domestic support for American Cold War policies.

General Dwight D. Eisenhower inaugurated the Crusade for Freedom on 4 September 1950. The first chairman was Lucius D. Clay, Eisenhower's successor as military governor of occupied Germany. The Crusade for Freedom, officially managed by the National Committee for a Free Europe (NCFE), had direct ties to the Office of Policy Coordination, the State Department, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

One of the Crusade's first actions was to create a Freedom Bell, designed after the American Liberty Bell. This bell traveled around the United States, along with a Freedom Scroll for people to sign, and was then sent to West Berlin, where it was dedicated by Clay on 24 October 1950. Crusaders also organized rallies, parades, and contests to mobilize support from ordinary Americans.

Origins
The Crusade was conceived during 1948–1950 under the auspices of Frank Wisner and the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC). The OPC began seeking ways to implement NSC 20/4, a National Security Council directive to "place the maximum strain on the Soviet structure of power and particularly on the relationships between Moscow and the satellite countries." After the National Committee for a Free Europe (NCFE) was formed in May 1949, its backers decided that to appear legitimate the organization would need to seem independently funded.

NCFE hired public relations experts Abbott Washburn and Nate Crabtree to help create a public image for its efforts. According to Washburn, "They said, 'if we can get something that will raise some money, too, that's great,' but it was clear that their first desire was involvement by the public to make this a volunteer thing." Washburn and Crabtree suggested using the Liberty Bell as the symbol for the Crusade and, under instructions from the NCFE, sought out General Lucius D. Clay as its chairman. (Clay had won popularity and recognition through his supervision of the Berlin Airlift).

Early on, the Crusade gained promises of support and cooperation from key individuals and groups, including John J. McCloy, high commissioner in West Germany, and the Advertising Council, a high-profile public-relations group previously known as the War Advertising Council.

Eisenhower speech

The Crusade was launched with a speech by General Eisenhower, who preceded Clay as the military governor of Germany. The speech, given at 11:15PM (EST) on 4 September 1950 (Labor Day), was broadcast to millions of people over all major radio networks. It is now identified by historians as one of the major early public speeches of the Cold War.  Eisenhower said:

To destroy human liberty and to control the world, the Communists use every conceivable weapon—subversion, bribery, corruption, military attack! Of all these, none is more insidious than propaganda.

Spurred by this threat to our very existence, I speak tonight—as another private citizen, not as an officer of the Army—about the Crusade of freedom. This crusade is a campaign sponsored by private American citizens to fight the big lie with the big truth.

Eisenhower also introduced the concept of the Freedom Scroll:

In this Battle for Truth, you and I have a definite part to play. During the Crusade, each of us will have the opportunity to sign the Freedom Scroll. It bears a declaration of our faith in freedom, and of our belief in the dignity of the individual, who derives the right of freedom from God. Each of us, by signing the Scroll, pledges to resist aggression and tyranny wherever they appear on Earth. Its words express what is in all our hearts. Your signature on it will be a blow for liberty.

The text of Eisenhower's speech appeared in all major newspapers, as well as magazines Time and Newsweek, which received the text in advance for inclusion in the September 4 issue.

Freedom Bell

Washburn and Crabtree's Freedom Bell in West Berlin was designed by Walter Dorwin Teague in New York. Written on the bell were words from Abraham Lincoln: "That this world Under God shall have a new birth of freedom."

The bell was created in England and shipped to New York City for a parade following Eisenhower's speech. Traveling by truck, it made a circuit around the country and returned to New York by 8 October. It arrived in West Berlin on 21 October and was officially dedicated by Clay on 24 October 1950.

Organization
Jurisdiction over the Crusade for Freedom was shared among several agencies, and the chain of command was ambiguous. The Psychological Strategy Board assumed ultimate control over the project (along with other propaganda and psychological warfare operations) in May 1952.

Corporate members were many and included Henry Ford II and Gardner Cowles Jr., executive of the Farfield Foundation (another CIA front), donor to the Gardner Cowles Foundation, and sponsor of the journal History. The Crusade also gained the support of religious leaders such as Rabbi Bernard J. Bamberger, president of the Synagogue Council of America, and Archbishop Francis Spellman.

The campaign benefited from the direct collusion of the American media—including The New York Times  and the San Francisco Examiner—which knew of its CIA connections but chose not to report them.

CIA
The CIA provided much of the Crusade for Freedom's funding, spending $5 million in five years (equivalent to upwards of 55 Million in 2023). According to Christopher Simpson's Blowback, the CIA, through the Crusade became the biggest political advertiser in the United States during this period.

The Crusade for Freedom helped to create public legitimacy for ex-Nazis who collaborated with the U.S. government to call for the downfall of the USSR. The CIA also used Crusade for Freedom to send money to this group covertly, by providing funds to a group called the International Refugee.

Activities in the United States
The Crusade for Freedom gained support from hundreds of national and local organizations, conducting a countless array of events across the United States.  Some programs were national in scope:

Fundraising

The official domestic goal of the Crusade for Freedom was to solicit donations from American citizens, and it succeeded in raising $1,317,000 in its first year. However, these funds represented only a small portion of the total amount spent on Radio Free Europe and other propaganda activities.

The Crusade encouraged Americans to donate "Truth Dollars", small donations that confirmed their investment in the project without creating a major financial barrier. The 1954 fundraising campaign (the Crusade's most successful) used images of George Washington on money as a symbol of American freedom.

Leaping Lena

Leaping Lena was a homing pigeon, reported lost in early August, 1954 during a routine flight in West Germany, and then found again bearing an anti-Communist note signed "Unbowed Pilsen."  She was flown to the United States, and treated as a Cold War hero.  She was then adopted by Radio Free Europe and the Crusade as a mascot.

Freedom Scroll
The Crusade for Freedom asked Americans to sign a "Freedom Scroll" with the following text:

In the belief that freedom is the most precious of human rights, I gladly sign my name to this Freedom Scroll as evidence of my participation as a free citizen In the Crusade for Freedom, supporting the National Committee for a Free Europe and its striking arm, Radio Free Europe. In so doing, I join hands with millions of other Americans in bringing truth and hope to the courageous freedom-hungry people behind the Iron Curtain.

Over 16 million people signed the scroll over the course of the campaign.

Hollywood
The Crusade for Freedom successfully generated American support for Cold War efforts abroad, promoting messages like "Fight the Big Lie with the Big Truth" and "Help Truth Fight Communism". Ronald Reagan was a major US spokesperson for the campaign. Reagan also starred in pro-Crusade film The Big Truth (1951), which depicts RFE broadcasts into Czechoslovakia. Clips this film were shown as advertisements (produced by the Hearst Corporation and the Advertising Council) for the Crusade for Freedom during the 1951–2 fundraising campaign.

The Crusade also secured the cooperation major Hollywood directors and producers, including Cecil B. DeMille, Darryl F. Zanuck, and particularly Walter Wanger, who became a major booster for the campaign in Los Angeles.

Youth Crusade
The Crusade organized a half hour radio program, with Bing Crosby and his four sons, called  "Youth Crusade with the Crosbys." Crosby asked young people to donate three cents (giving up three sticks of gum) for the sake of freedom in Europe. Wednesday, 3 October 1951, was declared "Youth Crusade Day", and students of all ages listened to the Crosby radio program in their school classrooms.

Balloon launches

In 1954, the Fraternal Order of Eagles conducted an "Eagles Flight for Freedom", in which 4,164 helium balloons were dispersed across the United States. These balloons were similar to those being sent across the Iron Curtain into Eastern Europe. They carried leaflets, identification cards, and envelopes for Truth Dollar donations. The finder of the furthest-traveling balloon won a $25 bond, and the whole event was covered by Henry Luce's Life magazine. The Eagles executed similar programs in 1955 and 1956, and also asked respondents to nominate people and organizations for "Freedom Awards".

Statement contests
The Crusade held statement and essay contests encouraging Americans to draft language for broadcast into Europe. A few of these took place in 1950 and 1951. The concept went into widespread practice in 1958–1959, with the Truth Broadcast contest, which was operated and promoted chiefly by the Advertising Council. Advertisements asked listeners to complete the sentence: "As an American, I support Radio Free Europe because...."

The contest was announced through radio, magazines, newspapers, and journals. It was also promoted in the Educational Edition of Reader's Digest, used in 50% of American High Schools, with an exercise asking students to complete the sentence, imagine their own broadcasts, and answer some questions about Radio Free Europe. Winners flew to Munich and read their entries over the radio.

Developments

The Crusade began a second American campaign, led by Harold Stassen, on Labor Day (3 September) 1951. Eisenhower, now the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization gave another speech.  These yearly campaigns continued throughout the decade.

In 1952, Clay stepped down as chairman, concerned that the Crusade was becoming "big business" and that large corporate donations would undermine its image. Henry Ford II took over as chairman (he also became chairman of the American Heritage Foundation, which backed the Crusade). Eisenhower (introduced over radio by Ford II) gave his third Crusade for Freedom speech on 11 November 1952—one week after he was elected president. In the same broadcast, listeners heard the defeated Adlai Stevenson also express his support for the Crusade, stating: "The programs have a spontaneity and freshness, which no official information agency can have. Freedom speaks most clearly between man and man, when its voice is neither muffled nor amplified by government intervention nor other official trappings." (Eisenhower had reportedly been prepared to order leaflet drops over immigrant communities such as Hamtramck blaming Stevenson for "betraying" the liberation agenda in Eastern Europe.)

See also
 Astroturfing
 Charles Douglas (C. D.) Jackson
 CIA influence on public opinion
 Church Committee
 Operation Mockingbird
 Radio Free Asia

References

Bibliography

Simpson, Christopher. Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War. New York: Collier, 1988.
 Wilford, Hugh. The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008.  .

External links

 Q&A sheet about the Crusade for Freedom and RFE — hosted on Richard H. Cumming's Cold War Radios blog
 Cartoon publicizing the Truth Broadcast contest
Crusade for Freedom a 1956 film produced by Crusade for Freedom

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
American propaganda during the Cold War
1950s in the United States
Organizations established in 1950
1960 in the United States
Anti-communist organizations in the United States

Crusade for Freedom


Ilham Mahdi al Assi was a 13-year-old Yemeni girl who died as a result of bleeding following her first sexual intercourse with her husband,  23-year-old  Abed al-Hikmi, who was later detained by police. The practice of marrying young girls was condemned by an NGO as "child rape condoned under the guise of marriage."

Yemen has a tribal culture, and the marriage of young girls is common; most Yemeni girls are married before they reach puberty. A proposed law setting a minimum age of 17 for women and 18 for men to marry was opposed by conservative Yemenis, including women.

References

Child marriage in Yemen
Deaths in Yemen
Marital rape
Violence against women in Yemen

Ilham Mahdi al Assi


Omar Zoboli (born 1953, Modena) is an Italian oboist, since 1998 till 2018 professor at the Musikhochschule Basel - Switzerland

Studies and competitions
He studied Oboe under Sergio Possidoni, Heinz Holliger and Paul Dombrecht. Experience and inspiration was gained by working with Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Frans Brüggen.

He gained first prize at the International Competition of Ancona and at the Italian Television (RAI) Competition for Young Performers 1978.

Activities, performances
He owes his international reputation largely to his first recordings (among others a CD dedicated to Antonio Pasculli, the "Paganini of the Oboe") which were received with great acclaim, and brought engagements at various festivals and with major orchestras in Berlin, Rotterdam, Paris, Warsaw, Lugano, Geneva, Zurich, Basel, Milan, London, Japan and the United States.

Besides being a soloist, he is an enthusiastic performer varying from duo to baroque ensemble, playing on period instruments, and from wind octet (Ottetto Classico Italiano) to larger string-wind groups and contemporary music included improvisation.

Composers like Sylvano Bussotti, Niccolò Castiglioni, Paul Glass, Éric Gaudibert, Francesco Hoch, Alessandro Lucchetti, Luca Mosca, Albert Möschinger, Mario Pagliarani, Gianni Possio and many others have written for and dedicated works to him.

He has recorded a DVD (Lebrun Concerto, Frans Brüggen conducting) and about 30 LPs and CDs for Accord, Claves, Divox, Ex Libris, Harmonia Mundi, Jecklin, Koch-Schwann, Stradivarius, Teldec and others with works that represent the oboe repertoire of the last three centuries at its very best.

Omar Zoboli has been oboe soloist of the Radio Orchestras of Lugano (RSI) and Naples (RAI), the St. Gallen Symphony Orchestra and the Kammerorchester Basel.

He has played baroque and classical oboes with Concentus Musicus Wien (Nikolaus Harnoncourt), Il Giardino Armonico (Giovanni Antonini), Scintilla Orchester Zürich, I Barocchisti (Diego Fasolis).

Since 1991, he has also been conducting with great success his own projects with large wind ensembles and orchestras.

Teaching, master classes
He has been invited to give master classes in England at the Royal College of Music in Kensington and at the Royal Academy of Music, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, Czech Republic, Italy, Switzerland, South America, China.

Since 1988 till 2018 he has been teaching oboe and chamber music at the Basel Music Academy. Actually professor for chamber music at Conservatorio della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano.

References

External links
 Official Homepage
 International Double Reed Society
 Musikhochschule Basel
 Kammersolisten Zug
 Kammermusik Akademie Blonay
 Agentur Annette Voigt
 Interview with Omar Zoboli; Fernando Carli in "Corriere del Ticino" Lugano (Switzerland) 2-4-86

1953 births
Living people
Italian classical oboists
Male oboists
Musicians from Modena

Omar Zoboli