A Koreatown (Korean: 코리아타운), also known as a Little Korea or Little Seoul, is a Korean-dominated ethnic enclave within a city or metropolitan area outside the Korean Peninsula.

History
Koreatowns as an East Asian ethnic enclave have only been in existence since the mid 1860s, as Korea had been a territorially stable polity for centuries; Jaeeun Kim describes it, "The congruence of territory, polity, and population was taken for granted." Large-scale emigration from Korea was only mainly into the Russian Far East and Northeast China; these emigrants became the ancestors of the 2 million Koreans in China and several hundred thousand ethnic Koreans in Central Asia.

Koreatowns in the western countries such as the United States, Canada have only been in place much later with the Los Angeles Koreatown receiving official recognition in 2008. Also many Koreatowns are not officially sanctioned where the only evidence of such enclaves exist as clusters of Korean stores with Korean signage existing only on the storefronts. In the 1992 Los Angeles riots, many Korean businesses were targeted where the signage only served to point out targets for rioters. In Philadelphia's Koreatown, anti-Korean sentiment was so strong that official signage was often vandalized as residents protested the "official recognition" of such areas, making many Koreatowns across the western countries never having official statuses that many Chinatowns receive today. Many Koreatowns today exist in a suburban setting as opposed to the urban settings of Chinatown mainly because many ethnic Koreans, especially in the western countries, fear crime that is often associated with the city dwellings and the higher quality of schools as education is often a top priority, which is why the Philadelphia Koreatowns exist in suburban settings such as Cheltenham, Pennsylvania instead of its original location in the Olney section of Philadelphia.

Characteristics
The features described below are characteristic of many modern Koreatowns.

Korean signage

Many modern Koreatowns will exhibit the usage of the Korean language and Hangul on storefront signs sometimes on official highway signage.  Officially sanctioned Koreatowns may also exhibit signs in the local language. In English, the word "Koreatown", "Little Korea" and "Korea Way" can sometimes be seen, as in the case with the Los Angeles Koreatown. As Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea as well as one of the two official languages in China's Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, there are approximately 80 million people who speak Korean worldwide. For over a millennium, Korean was written with adapted Chinese characters called hanja, complemented by phonetic systems like hyangchal, gugyeol and idu. In the 15th century, a national writing system called hangul was commissioned by Sejong the Great, but it only came into widespread use in the 20th century, because of the yangban aristocracy's preference for hanja.

Most historical linguists classify Korean as a language isolate

 while a few consider it to be in the controversial Altaic language family. The Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax.

Korean restaurants

Many Koreatowns will have stores that serve Korean cuisine, usually serving as the major differentiator between other East Asian and Southeast Asian ethnic enclaves such as Chinatown and Little Saigons. The Korean national cuisine known today has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Southern Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, Korean cuisine has evolved through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.

Korean cuisine is largely based upon rice, vegetables and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes (banchan) that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Kimchi is served often, sometimes at every meal. Commonly used ingredients include sesame oil, doenjang (fermented bean paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, pepper flakes and gochujang (fermented red chili paste).

Locations

Korean demographics

Many Koreatowns are actual ethnic enclaves where nearly four-fifths of migrant Koreans live in just three countries: China, the United States and Japan. Other countries with greater than 0.5% Korean minorities include Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, New Zealand, and Uzbekistan. All these figures include both permanent migrants and sojourners. If one focuses on long-term residents, there were about 5.3 million Korean emigrants as of 2010.

Americas

Argentina

Buenos Aires's 'Barrio Coreano' is in the neighborhood of Flores, specifically in the south of this neighborhood. The primary artery of the district is Avenida Carabobo, which houses various Korean businesses and organizations, including restaurants, beauty salons, a Korean school (Instituto Coreano Argentino) and churches, among others.
In recent years, there has been a huge move from the Bajo Flores towards the Avellaneda Avenue, the reason being the increasing theft and insecurity around the slums close to Avenida Castanares. What some might call these days "The New Koreatown" has been increasing in size at a faster rate while the shops in Avenida Carabobo have been closing.
There are over 22,000 Koreans in Argentina, most of them in Buenos Aires, where the Asian population is around 2.5%.

Brazil

Brazil has several Korean enclaves but, recently a Koreatown was formed in Bom Retiro a densely populated area of Brazil's biggest city, São Paulo.

The city of Fortaleza in Ceará state hosted many immigrants from South Korea in Brazil.

The Korean consulate in Brazil said that the municipal government in São Paulo has designated Bom Retiro as 'Koreatown' and could pass an ordinance that will see the city provide administrative and financial support to the new community.

Chile

The Korean population of Chile is mostly concentrated in Patronato in Santiago.  Currently, approximately 3000 Koreans live in Chile.
The Korean community is well organized and united.  Colonia Coreana organizes several events annually.  Among these events are: soccer tournaments, Korean festivals, and the annual Mr. and Ms. Patronato.

Mexico

Mexico has a large Korean population that lives in and around Zona Rosa in Mexico City. According to the newspaper Reforma, there are at least 1,000 Koreans living in Zona Rosa and about 3,000 total in Colonia Juárez, the larger official neighborhood of which Zona Rosa is a part.  The area around Hamburgo, Praga, Florencia, and Biarritz streets converted into "Pequeño Seul," or Little Seoul in the 1990s before receding since then.

Canada

Toronto, Ontario
Toronto officially designated the area on Bloor Street from Bathurst Street to Christie St. as Koreatown in 2004.[12] According to the 2001 census Toronto had roughly 43,000 Koreans living in the city,[13] and in 2011 the numbers have grown to 64,755.[14] The Korean community in Toronto has developed Koreatown such that it offers a Korean grocery store,[15]hairdressers, karaoke bars and a multitude of restaurants.[16] The City of Toronto describes Koreatown as "primarily a business district offering a wide range of Korean restaurants, high-end-fashion Korean boutiques, herbalists, acupuncturist and many other unique services and shops which are filled with made-in-Korea merchandise."[12] Koreatown Toronto is also known for its Spring Dano Festival, which is run on the 5th day of 5th month of the Korean Lunar Calendar. The festival is run is the Christie Pits area and has been run for the past 21 years with the exception of 2013 when it was cancelled.[12][17] Today, although many Koreans work in the area, very few Koreans actually live there. An influx of Latino immigrants is changing the demographics of the area today.

Koreatown North is the unofficial name for the area situated along Yonge Street from Sheppard Avenue in North York, an administrative area in northern Toronto, to the Clark Avenue in neighboring Thornhill, Ontario. This area does not have official signage as they are mixed with establishments catering to Persians and Chinese clientele.

Vancouver, British Columbia
The highest concentration of Koreans is found near Lougheed Town Centre in Burnaby, British Columbia and in the adjacent city of Coquitlam. Along the North Road (from Delestre Ave (South) to Burquitlam Skytrain Station (North)), sizable supermarkets such as Hannam Supermarket and H mart, hair shops, Korean restaurants, bars, law firms, accountants' offices, realty offices, child care, clinics and auto repair shops are to be found. For a few years, following the housing boom, the number of Korean Canadians has increased in Langley, Surrey, Port Coquitlam, Maple Ridge, Mission and Abbotsford, and more businesses are opening up shops and offices in east Metro Vancouver and Fraser Valley.

United States

The first large group of Korean Immigrants settled in America between 1901 and 1905. Between those years 7,226 immigrants, including 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children, came on 65 trips. Most of the early immigrants of that period had some contract with American missionaries in Korea. For some Western-oriented Korean intellectuals, immigrating to the United States was considered useful, in part, to help them in the modernization of their homeland. Consequently, the recruiter for labourers for the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA), David Deshler, had no trouble finding Koreans from a wide range of social classes willing to sail to Hawaii.

San Francisco, Dinuba, and Riverside, California have a claim as the first Korean U.S. settlement.

Atlanta, Georgia
Atlanta has a population of approximately 50,000 individuals of Korean descent. Atlanta's Koreatown is mostly centered around the corridor extending from Duluth, Georgia, westward along Buford Highway into northeast Atlanta. KoreanBeacon named Atlanta #5 in its list of Top Korean-American cities, citing the Korean population in Gwinnett County, GA (which contains Duluth) doubling over the past decade, in addition to large stretches of Buford Highway being populated with retail and services with many signs in Korean. Atlanta also has four Korean-language television stations broadcast in the Atlanta area, in addition to a local daily Korean newspaper, the Atlanta ChoSun.

Aurora, Colorado
Roughly two thousand Korean immigrants live in Aurora, and the stretch of Havana Street running from Mississippi Avenue to Iliff Avenue contains a very high number of Korean businesses. A motion to designate the surrounding area as an official Koreatown was at one time considered by the Aurora City Council.

Baltimore, Maryland

There is a small portion of lower Charles Village, referred to as the Station North Arts and Entertainment District, is sometimes referred to as Koreatown or Little Korea and is home to a number of Korean restaurants, but it has not been officially designated as a Koreatown. This developing Koreatown is bounded on the north by 24th Street, on the south by North Avenue, on the west by Maryland Avenue, and on the east by St. Paul Street. Meanwhile, suburban Ellicott City, Maryland and Catonsville, Maryland has also developed Koreatowns, along Route 40.

Boston, Massachusetts
Boston's Koreatown is in Allston Village and includes parts of Cambridge Street and Brighton, Harvard, and Commonwealth Avenues, with a growing Korean and Korean American residential and commercial presence.

Chicago, Illinois
Chicago's Albany Park neighborhood has been referred to as Chicago's "Koreatown" since the 1980s. The majority of Korean shops in Albany Park can be found along Lawrence Avenue (4800 North) between Kedzie (3200 West) and Pulaski (4000 West). This particular section of Lawrence Avenue has been officially designated by the city of Chicago as "Seoul Drive" because of the multitude of Korean-owned enterprises on the street. Although many of the Korean Americans in the neighborhood have been moving to the north suburbs in recent years, it still retains its Korean flavor. Every year there is a Korean festival, and the neighborhood is home to a Korean television station (WOCH-CD Ch. 41) and radio station (1330 AM) as well as two Korean-language newspapers. There are still many Korean businesses interspersed among the newer Mexican bakeries and Middle Eastern grocery stores. Approximately 45% of the businesses on this particular stretch of Lawrence Avenue are owned by Korean-Americans.

Columbus, Ohio

Koreatown is in the vicinity of Bethel and Henderson Roads in Northwest Columbus. This area includes several Korean grocery stores, churches, and restaurants.

Dallas, Texas
Dallas has the largest Korean-American community in Texas and second (to Atlanta) in the southern United States. A sizable Koreatown can be found in Dallas, though this mostly commercial area of the city has not been officially designated as such. Instead, large signs situated at the intersection of Harry Hines Boulevard and Royal Lane proclaim the area as the Asian Trade District. The signs also feature depictions of a red and blue "taeguk," a symbol that is prominently featured on the national flag of South Korea, thereby acknowledging the specifically Korean affiliation of the district. This area in the Northwest part of the city is characterized by a large number of Korean-owned businesses serving the city's sizable Korean-American community, concentrated along a 1.5 mile strip of Royal Lane between Luna Rd and Harry Hines Blvd.  Although Korean business is undoubtedly the most dominant in the area, there are isolated Chinese and Vietnamese businesses as well. Another Koreatown can be found in Carrollton, Texas, which is part of the greater DFW area. This area is referred to as "New Koreatown" by locals, due to it growing from the arrival of Hmart to the city. Over the years, more and more restaurants and shops have opened around the Hmart.

Honolulu, Hawaii
Korean businesses congregate on Keeaumoku Street, which earned the nickname "Koreamoku." As of 2016 it has been officially designated as a Koreatown. Roughly bounded by Kalakaua Ave (East), Kapiolani Blvd. (South), King St. (North) and Keeaumoku St. (West).

Houston, Texas

Spring Branch in Houston is considered to have the largest Koreatown in the Houston area.

Orange County, California

Koreatown (also referred to as Little Seoul or the Korean Business District on nearby street signage) is on Garden Grove Boulevard between Beach Boulevard (Route 39) and Brookhurst Street in Garden Grove, Orange County, California. The Korean population in Orange County more than doubled between 1990 and 2010.

Los Angeles, California

The Greater Los Angeles Area is home to the largest number of ethnic Koreans outside of the Korean Peninsula. Koreatown is an officially recognized district of the city and contains probably the heaviest concentration of Korean residents and businesses. However, when the term "Koreatown" is used it usually refers to a larger area that includes the adjacent neighborhoods of Wilshire Center, Harvard Heights and Pico Heights. Koreans began to move into the area in the late 1960s after changes in US immigration laws as part of the greater Civil Rights Movement (especially the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 which formally ended the Chinese Exclusion Act), establishing numerous businesses, although never outnumbering Latino residents. In the aftermath of the 1992 riots, Koreatown entered into a period of development, especially during the 1994 Asian Market Crisis as South Korean investors sought to invest in the then-profitable California real-estate market. More recently, L.A.'s Koreatown has been perceived to have experienced declining political power secondary to re-districting and an increased crime rate, prompting an exodus of Koreans from the area.

New York metropolitan area
As of the 2010 United States Census, the self-identified Korean American population in the metropolitan New York Combined Statistical Area was 218,764, the second largest population of ethnic Koreans outside Korea.

According to the 2011 American Community Survey, there were approximately 100,000 Korean Americans in New York City, with two-thirds living in borough of Queens. In particular, Fresh Meadows is home to the most Korean immigrants of any neighbourhood in the city. In Bergen County, New Jersey, where several towns are home to significant Korean populations, the survey counted 63,247 Korean Americans or 6.9% of the total population. The Korean population in borough of Manhattan has nearly doubled to approximately 20,000 since the 2000 Census.

As of 2014, there were 180 franchisees of Korean coffeehouse chain Caffe Bene in the metro area. Korean Air and Asiana Airlines provide non-stop flights from Seoul to JFK Airport.

Manhattan

In Midtown Manhattan, Koreatown is bordered by 31st and 33rd Streets, Fifth Avenue, and the Avenue of the Americas, close to the Empire State Building and Macy's at Herald Square. The heart of the district is the block of 32nd Street between Fifth Avenue and Broadway, officially nicknamed "Korea Way", which features stores on multiple stories, with small, independently run establishments reaching up to the third or fourth floors, including restaurants, exuding an ambience of Seoul. The New York City Korean Chamber of Commerce estimates there to be more than 100 small businesses on the block. It is home to numerous restaurants that serve both traditional and/or regional Korean cuisine and Korean fusion fare (including Korean Chinese cuisine), several bakeries, grocery stores, supermarkets, bookstores, consumer electronics outlets, video rental shops, tchotchke and stationery shops, hair and nail salons, noraebang bars, nightclubs, as well as cell phone service providers, internet cafés, doctors' offices, banks, and hotels. Approximately twelve 24/7 restaurants conduct business on Korea Way. According to the 2000 Census, a slightly larger area including Koreatown was 46 percent Asian. Koreatown is expanding eastward toward Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan.

Long Island

The Long Island Koreatown is one of the largest and fastest growing ethnic enclaves outside Korea. The core of this Koreatown originated in the Flushing neighborhood borough of Queens. It has continued to expand rapidly eastward through the neighborhoods of Murray Hill, Bayside, Douglaston and Little Neck, and into adjacent suburban Nassau County, Long Island. In the 1980s, a continuous stream of Korean immigrants many of whom began as workers in the medical field or Korean international students moved to New York City to find or initiate professional or entrepreneurial positions. They established a foothold on Union Street in Flushing between 35th and 41st Avenues, featuring restaurants and karaoke (noraebang) bars, grocery markets, education centers and bookstores, banking institutions, offices, electronics vendors, apparel boutiques and other commercial enterprises. As the community grew more affluent and rose in socioeconomic status, Koreans moved eastward along Northern Boulevard, buying homes in more affluent and less crowded Queens neighborhoods and Nassau County, bringing their businesses with them. The eastward pressure was created in part by the inability to move westward due to the formidable presence of the enormous Flushing Chinatown () centered on Main Street. The expansion led to the creation of an American Meokjagolmok or Restaurant Street, around the Murray Hill station of Long Island Rail Road station which is reminiscent of Seoul. According to The New York Times, a "Kimchi Belt" stretches along Northern Boulevard and the Long Island Rail Road tracks, from Flushing into Nassau County; while according to a Korean food chef, "Queens is the closest you can come to authentic Korean food". The Long Island Koreatown features numerous restaurants that serve both traditional and/or regional Korean cuisine. Korean Chinese cuisine is also available in the Long Island Koreatown.

Bergen County

Koreans began moving to Eastern Bergen County, New Jersey in the 1980s and by the 1990s, several enclaves were established. According to the 2010 Census, Bergen County had the highest per capita population of Koreans of any United States county, at 6.3%, including all of the nation's top ten municipalities by percentage of Korean population.  In 2012, the county mandated the publication of voting ballots in the Korean language.
The two most prominent Koreatowns are centered along Broad Avenue in Palisades Park and Leonia, Ridgefield and around the intersection of Main Street and Lemoine Avenue in Fort Lee, close to the George Washington Bridge. Both districts have developed dining destinations for Korean cuisine, while Broad Avenue in Palisades Park has evolved into a dessert destination as well. Koreatown, Palisades Park has been nicknamed the Korean village and Koreatown on the Hudson. The Chusok Korean Thanksgiving harvest festival has become an annual tradition celebrated in Overpeck County Park. Korean chaebols have established North American headquarters operations in Bergen County, including Samsung, LG Corp, and Hanjin Shipping. Korean professionals have also expanded northward into the Northern Valley area and more recently, into adjacent Rockland County, New York. Route 303 in Tappan, New York, Rockland County, has become the hub of Korean activity in the Lower Hudson Valley area.

Oakland, California

The largest concentration of Korean businesses and community services in the San Francisco Bay Area is centered on Oakland's Telegraph Avenue between 20th and 35th Streets between Downtown Oakland and the Temescal district. Roughly 150 Korean-owned businesses are located in the neighborhood, including a shopping center and Korean American community centers. This segment of Telegraph Avenue is lined with bright banners proclaiming the district as "Koreatown-Northgate" with the slogan "Oakland's got Seoul" and accompanied by an annual cultural festival. Officially named "Koreatown-Northgate", the area was characterized by urban decay before Korean Americans began opening businesses and reviving the area in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Before 1991, the area was characterized by homelessness and crime and was known as the Northgate district. The aftermath of the Los Angeles Riots of 1992 also saw a large number of Koreans from Southern California moving to the Bay Area and opening businesses and buying property in the district on a large scale. There has been criticism from the non-Korean residents about the city officially naming the district Koreatown, mostly from the African American population who form the majority in the area. Despite Korean Americans owning much of the property in the neighborhood, the largest group of residents still remains African American. Tensions remain between African Americans and Koreans in the neighborhood, which has witnessed declines in both populations. Despite some Koreans continuing to move into the neighborhood, the majority of the Bay Area's Korean population is concentrated in the suburbs surrounding Oakland and in the South Bay.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Philadelphia's first Koreatown is located in the Olney section of the city. Since the late 1980s, the Korean community has expanded to the north and now straddles the border between Philadelphia proper and the suburb of Cheltenham, though many Korean American businesses and organizations and some residents remain in Olney and adjoining neighborhoods. Upper Darby Township, bordering West Philadelphia, also has a large Korean American population; meanwhile, a rapidly growing Korean population and commercial presence has emerged in nearby suburban Cherry Hill, New Jersey since 2010, centered along Marlton Pike.

Washington, D.C.
Koreatown in Annandale, Virginia starts at the intersection of Little River Turnpike and Hummer Road, runs for 1.5 miles to the turnpike's intersection with Evergreen Lane and provides a hub for the 93,787 individuals of Korean descent residing in the Washington-Baltimore-Northern Virginia, DC-MD-VA-WV Combined Statistical Area, as estimated by the 2009 American Community Survey. According to the Boston Globe, over 1,000 Korean-owned businesses are in Annandale. They cater to Koreans as well as non-Koreans. Businesses and establishments include accountants, banks, bakeries, billiards, bookstores, churches, college preparatory classrooms, cybercafés, department stores, newspapers, optometrists, real estate offices, restaurants and salons.

East Asia

Mainland China

The population of Koreans in China include millions of descendants of Korean immigrants with citizenship of the People's Republic of China, as well as smaller groups of South and North Korean migrants, with a total of roughly 2.3 million people as of 2009. China has the largest ethnic Korean population living outside mainland Korea.

Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture has 854,000 ethnic Koreans living there who are  or  (),  () and form one of the 56 ethnicities officially recognized by the Chinese government.

Beijing

There are roughly 200,000 Koreans living in Beijing, including 120,000 Chosŏnjok/Joseonjok (ethnic Korean citizens of China) and about 80,000 South Korean migrants. Prominent areas include Wudaokou and Wangjing.

There are two Koreatowns in Beijing: The bigger Korean enclave is in Wangjing in the Chaoyang district. There are many Korean companies who have established their businesses in Wangjing. Wangjing also has an all-Korean international school (all grade levels) in the Wangjing vicinity. Many of the Korean businesses in Wangjing cater towards families, businessmen, students and tourists with restaurants, bath houses/spas, bookstores, clubs/bars, golfing and Korean banks. Although Wangjing is known as a Korean district, there is a great number of third- and fourth-generation Korean Chinese ethnic minorities who live and coexist with South Korean nationals.

The second Koreatown, Wudaokou, is in the Haidian district where most of the city's universities are. Because of the vibrant university scene in Wudaokou, there are many Korean college students who live and attend universities in this area.

Although the Korean districts are on different ends of the city, Wangjing and Wudaokou are connected by subway line 13.

Qingdao
An estimated 182,000 ethnic Koreans live in Qingdao, Shandong Province, including 134,000 Chosŏnjok/Joseonjok and 48,000 South Korean migrants.

Shenyang

Shenyang has a large Koreatown known as Xita/Sŏtap/Seotap (; , ) meaning Western Pagoda. Both North and South Korea have consulates in Shenyang but in different districts.

Shanghai

86,000 Koreans live in Shanghai, including 65,000 Chosŏnjok/Joseonjok and 21,000 South Korean migrants. Longbai in the Minhang district, to the west of the city, has a Korean-oriented neighborhood.

Hong Kong

In 2011, there were 13,288 individuals of Korean descent in Hong Kong. Kimberley Street in Tsim Sha Tsui has Korean restaurants and grocery stores; and is known by the local nicknames Korean Street and Little Korea ().

Japan

During the Korea under Japanese rule, approximately 2.4 million ethnic Koreans emigrated to Japan. Some for economic reasons and some were forced to move during the Second World War to work as laborers. While most departed after the war, still many chose to remain and were joined in the 1950s by a wave of refugees from Jeju Island. Today, Koreans, known as Zainichi Koreans (, Chaeilchosŏnin/Jaeil-Joseon-in, who on paper retain the nationality of the old Korea) or Zainichi Koreans (, Chaeil-han-guk-in/Jaeil Hangug-in, who have adopted South Korean nationality), are the third ethnic minority in Japan, amounting to 436,000 in 2022. Those with North Korean ties are a key source of remittances to North Korea. There is a separate group of more recent migrants from South Korea with strong links to their home country, and there is a considerable cultural gap between these so-called "newcomers" and the Zainichi Koreans.

A shantytown of former forced laborers, Utoro district, exists in Uji, part of Kyoto Prefecture.

Osaka

Ikuno Korea Town in Osaka has a population of over 58,000, making it the largest in Japan. In Ikuno Ward, 16% of the inhabitants are of Korean origin. Tsuruhashi in the Ward is the largest Koreatown in Japan and is dominated by Jeju Islanders. Imazato-Shinchi is an area increasingly dominated by recent South Korean "new-comers". The total Korean population in Osaka prefecture amounted to 93,000 in 2022.

Tokyo

According to official statistics in 2022, the Korean population in Tokyo amounted to 92,000, which was the second largest following that of Osaka.

Tokyo's Korean-oriented commercial centre is located in the district of Okubo around the area of Shin-Okubo Station and Okubo Station in Shinjuku Ward. Shinjuku Ward itself has over 9,100 registered Korean residents, representing over 10% of the registered Korean residents in Tokyo.  Unlike other Japanese Koreatowns, the Okubo Koreatown developed after World War II and is dominated by "new-comers" - recent immigrants from South Korea who have retained their ethnic and cultural identity, as can be seen from the ubiquitous signs written in hangul.

One of the contributing factors in the development of Okubo into a Korean area was the low rents. The low rents and willingness of landlords to accept foreign tenants attracted Korean and other Asian migrants to the area. These businesses cater to the migrant community and increasingly Japanese who come to experience ethnic cuisine. Other immigrants from China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and various other nationalities including Muslim and Nepali operated stores make this one of the most colourful and multicultural areas in Tokyo.

The area around Mikawashima station on the Jōban Line, to the north of the city, is a Koreatown dominated by Zainichi immigrants from Jeju island.

Also noteworthy is a smaller-scale Zainichi Korean quarter to the southeast of Ueno station, and to the southwest, a community of South Korean "new-comers".

Shimonoseki
Green Mall in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi is a Koreatown. It is also known as "Little Pusan" partly because of the Kanpu ferry that goes to the city of Pusan in South Korea.

Taiwan

A small Koreatown exists in Zhongxing Street located in Yonghe District, New Taipei City

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

A 31,000 m2 Koreatown block is being constructed on north Jakarta Pulomas. Upon its completion, it will be the first artificially made Koreatown in the world with 7 blocks and 9 buildings.

Koreans in Indonesia number approximately 40,000, which makes Indonesia the 12th largest country with Koreans living outside Korea.

Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur

There are more than 20,000 Koreans living in the capital of Malaysia. Sri Hartamas is an affluent residential township in the city which houses many migrants families, particularly from Korea. There are two Korean supermarkets in the area - Seoul Mart and Lotte Mart, various Korean restaurants and many Korean hair salons. Malaysia's first officially registered school for Korean nationals, the Malaysia Korean School, was established on 7 December 1974; it had 26 teachers and enrolled 148 students as of 2006. It is located on Jalan Ampang.

Philippines

The most well-known Koreatown in the Metro Manila area is located in Makati's Barangay Poblacion. Most of the Korean businesses can be found in the area bounded north-south by JP Rizal Avenue and Jupiter, and east-west by Makati Avenue and Rockwell Drive, with P. Burgos running roughly through the middle of the area. In Quezon City, the Kalayaan Plaza Building has various Korean businesses, apartments and a church (one of seven or eight Korean churches in QC that existed in 2005).

On Angeles, Pampanga. Anunas is the barangay that houses the city's Koreatown, a chain of Korean establishments along the Fil-Am Friendship Highway. Anunas is also identified as one of the growth centers of the city, focusing on light industries such as woodcarving and rattan craft.

Currently, Manila Mayor Isko Moreno and South Korea Ambassador to the Philippines Kim Inchul are in talks about establishing a "Korea Town" in Manila's Malate district

Singapore

There are Koreatowns in the Upper Bukit Timah area and the Tanjong Pagar area due to the large number of Koreans living in these two areas. Koreans in Singapore formed a population of 16,650 individuals as of 2010, according to the South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

Thailand

There is one Koreatown in Bangkok near Sukhumvit Soi 12 and one in Phuket.
It consists mainly of North Korean refugees and South Korean expatriates, along with a number of South Korean immigrants who have naturalised as citizens of Thailand and their descendants.

Vietnam

Koreans in Vietnam is a community of Vietnam with a population of Korean migrants along with Vietnamese citizens of Korean ancestry. The population initially came in a military capacity, fighting on both sides of the Vietnam War. After the end of the war, there was little Korean migration or tourism in Vietnam, until the rise of the South Korean economy and the decline of the North resulted in an influx of South Korean investors and North Korean defectors, as well as South Korean men seeking Vietnamese wives. As of 2011, according to statistics of South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, they numbered roughly eighty thousand people, making them the second-largest Korean diaspora community in Southeast Asia, after the Korean community in the Philippines and the tenth-largest in the world. A more recent estimate from Vietnam Television says their population might be as large as 130,000.

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

Europe

United Kingdom

London

The south west London suburb of New Malden is home to the largest population of both South Koreans and North Koreans in Europe. One-third of New Malden residents are Korean and the town is a cultural hub for Koreans in the United Kingdom. Korean businesses include two large supermarkets (H Mart and Korea Foods), several corner shops, cafés, karaoke bars, travel agents, hair dressers, butchers and over 20 restaurants.

Oceania

Australia and New Zealand

Sydney

Koreatown in the Sydney central business district is located around Pitt Street between Bathurst and Goulburn streets and Liverpool Street between George and Elizabeth streets. The area contains many retail businesses such as restaurants, grocers, travel agents, and bars on a block between Liverpool Street. Koreatown, along with the adjacent Thai Town, emerged in the early 21st century, decades after Chinatown was established nearby in 1980.

The eastern part of the town centre of Eastwood, in northern Sydney, is also officially promoted as "Koreatown".

Other concentrations of Korean shops and restaurants, exist around the secondary transport hub of Strathfield railway station, also sometimes referred to as "Little Korea", as well as in Campsie (said to be the first)  which is home to the Sydney Korean Society. These areas feature a concentration of restaurants and shops catering to Korean cultural needs, as well as number of Korean-speaking businesses.

Melbourne
Melbourne's de facto Koreatown is concentrated around the vicinity of La Trobe Street, specifically Healeys Lane. It also now has a distinct pocket on Victoria Street, North Melbourne directly opposite the Queen Victoria Market.

See also

 Chinatown
 Japantown
 Little Saigon
 Little Manila
 Little India
 List of named ethnic enclaves in North American cities
List of named ethnic enclaves in Philippine cities

References

Citations

Sources

External links

 Sign Language: Colonialism and the Battle Over Text, a law journal paper about zoning ordinances in several New Jersey towns and their effects on Korean businesses
 Asian-Nation: Asian American Ethnic Enclaves & Communities by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
 'Koreatown' Image Divides A Changing Annandale, from the Washington Post

Koreatown


Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board, known shortly as CMWSSB, is a statutory board of Government of Tamil Nadu which provides water supply and sewage treatment to the city of Chennai and its metropolitan region.

Chennai is one of the metros in India that are dependent mostly on ground water supply. Ground water in Chennai is replenished by rain water and average rainfall in Chennai is  1276 mm. Chennai receives about 985 million liters per day (mld) from various sources against the required amount of 1200 mld and the demand is expected to rise to 2100 mld by 2031. The newly constructed Minjur desalination plant adds another 100 mlds to the city's growing demand.

As of 2012, Chennai Metrowater supplies about 830 million litres of water every day to residents and commercial establishments.

History of Sewerage Construction and development
Till about the mid of 19th century, Chennai received water from local shallow wells and tanks. Fraser, a civil engineer who visited Madras, forwarded a proposal to the government to tap the Kortalayar river which is situated about 160 km northwest of Chennai and it was accepted. The project consisted of a masonry weir across Kortalayar at Tamarapakkam and diverted the water into Cholavaram lake and hence into the Red Hills lake through a channel. The works were completed in 1870 at a cost of about  1.85 million. In 1872, a Valve House at Red Hills and an earthen supply channel to supply water to Chennai by gravitation was constructed. In early 1890, surface drains in the city were connected to Pumping Stations and the wastewater conveyed for disposal away from inhabitation.

The authorities observed an increase in population in the beginning of the 20th century. Hence, they decided to develop a comprehensive drainage scheme. The proposal for this scheme to cater to the needs of a topographically flat, fast growing city was formulated in 1907 and works were initiated in 1910 and completed during 1914 in stages. The systems were designed for the population of 6.5 lakhs expected in 1961 at 114 lit. per capita per day of water supply. The system originally consisted of a network of force mains and brick gravity sewers served by 3 Pumping Stations at Royapuram, Purasaiwalkam and Napier Park and ultimately discharging wastewater into the sea at Kasimedu on the Northeastern boundary of the city. A fundamental change to this system was made in 1956 by laying a force main to divert part of the sewage discharged from the Purasaiwalkam Pumping Station to Kodungaiyur where the sewage farm was established. The aim of this diversion was to utilise the sewage for irrigation and fertilising agricultural land. But one of the implied benefit of this was the conservation of fresh water whose supply was scarce. Thereafter a comprehensive wastewater management scheme was formulated. The implementation of these schemes commenced in 1961 and had undergone modifications periodically commensurate with the system requirements of an expanding City and the growing population. The wastewater system for the city has been divided into five drainage zones. These zones of macro systems covering the entire City had independent zonal collections, conveyance, treatment and disposal facilities.

Zone-1 covers the areas of Tondaiarpet, Washermenpet, Royapuram, George Town and Chindadripet. Zone-2 comprises areas such as Nungambakkam, Chetpet, Kilpauk, Egmore, Purasaiwalkam, Ayanavaram, Perambur, Vyasarpadi, Sembium, Kolathur, Periyar Nagar, Jawahar Nagar and Kodungaiyur. It is the largest of all zones. Zone–III lies between Zone–II and Zone–IV to the West. It comprises Thyagaraya Nagar, Kodambakkam, Arumbakkam, Anna Nagar and Koyambedu. The areas covered by Zone-4 are Ashok Nagar, Saidapet, Jafferkhanpet, K.K. Nagar and Nesapakkam. Zone–V is the second largest of the five macro systems and is to the South of the City which is bifurcated by the Adyar River. Areas covered are Ice House, Mylapore, Adyar, Guindy, Velacherry, Gandhi Nagar and Indra Nagar.

Therefore, considerable amount of efforts were made by the government to ensure the administration and development of a proper wastewater system in Chennai.

Reservoirs
Chennai has fresh water reservoirs/lakes namely Poondi, Sholavaram, Red Hills, Chembarambakkam and Veeranam  cater the daily needs of water for people of Chennai.

Chennai receives most of its water from Poondi Lake (3,231 Mcft), Sholavaram Lake (881 Mcft), Red Hills Lake (3,300 Mcft) and Chembarambakkam Lake (3,645 Mcft).

The Veeranam Water Supply Project was implemented as an additional source of water to Chennai City.  The Project was commissioned in the year 2004 to supply 180 MLD of water to Chennai City by drawing water from Veeranam Lake.  This lake receives water from Cauvery River system through Kollidam, Lower Anicut and Vadavar Canal besides rainwater from its own catchment area.  The capacity of the lake is 1465 mcft.  The lake water is treated at Vadakuthu Water Treatment Plant by pumping raw water at a distance of 20 km. from Sethiathope to Vadakuthu through a 1775 mm dia mild steel pipe.  The treated water is then pumped at a distance of 8 km. to Break Pressure Tank at Kadampuliyur through a 1750 mm dia mild steel pipe and from there the water is carried to a distance of about 200 km. Through the mild steel pipe of 1875 mm and 1500 mm dia by gravity to Porur Water Distribution Station near Chennai.  From this Distribution Station, water is pumped to a distance of 1.2 km. and distributed to Chennai City through Trunk mains and Water Distribution stations.

Reverse Osmosis and Desalination
Chennai has Reverse osmosis plants namely at Velachery, Nochikuppam, Kasimedu, and Ayodhyakuppam. It takes raw Brackish water from bore wells, store in tanks and then purifies it before supply.

Desalination plant is located at Kattupalli, Minjur. The Chennai Water Desalination Ltd. (CWDL) is setting the plant infrastructure and maintaining the plant for 25 years as per agreement between CWDL and CMWSSB. The CMWSSB purchase water from them and supplies to the city network through Madhavaram Booster Station.

In an effort to alleviate the woes of Chennaiites, Tamil Nadu Government has forged into projects acquiring fresh water by desalinating sea water. The first such desalination plant was built in  in Kattupalli village near Minjur about 35 km north of Chennai. Minjur desalination plant which supplies 100 million litres a day water to Chennai city was inaugurated on 31 July 2010. Second water desalination plant of 100mld capacity constructed and commissioned at Nemmeli, South of Chennai City. Besides two new Sea Water Reverse Osmosis Plants (SWRO) are proposed of 150mld (funded under KFW) at Nemmeli and 400mld (funded under JICA) at Perur are proposed for catering to Chennai Water Supply.(Reference: Municipal Administration and Water Supply department of Government of Tamil Nadu, Policy Note 2015 -2016)

The Water Treatment Plants are:
Kilpauk Water Treatment Plant: 270 MLD
Puzhal Water Treatment Plant: 300 MLD
Vadakuthu Water Treatment Plant (Veeranam Lake source): 180 MLD
Chembarambakkam Water Treatment Plant: 530 MLD

Sewage
Chennai City Sewerage System was designed in 1910 for an estimated 1961 population of 6.6 lakhs. A comprehensive improvement to the city sewage system was designed in 1958 for an estimated 1976 population of 25.5 lakhs and 1991 population of 27.2 lakhs at a sewage flow rate of 110 lpcd in 1976 and 180 lpcd in 1991; the city was also divided into five zones with proposals for five independent disposal works. It was planned to isolate the system of collection, transmission and disposal of sewage in each zone in order to obviate the difficulties of the relay system. Presently the sewerage network in Chennai city has covered 98% of its area. As the capacity of sewers was limited, during rainy days they became surcharged due to ingress of storm water. Any surplus of sewage in excess of pumping stations capacity was drained into the nearby natural water courses of the city viz. Cooum river, Adyar river, Buckingham canal and Otteri Nalla.
The following are the Sewage Treatment Plants of CMWSSB as of February 2016
1)Kodungaiyur 270mld (110+80+80), 2)Villivakkam 5mld 3)Koyambedu 214mld (34+60+120)4)Nesapakkam 117mld (23+40+54) and 5)Perungudi including Alandur and considering BOD and SS load 163mld {79 (instead of installed 54)+72 (instead of installed 60)+12)totalling to 769 mld (million litres per day) in 13 units of which 535mld is powered by Biogas (produced during the Sewage Treatment) engines.( Reference: Municipal Administration and Water Supply Department of Government of Tamil Nadu Policy Note 2015–2016, page 223). Besides two sewage treatment plants are under construction at Thiruvatriyur (31mld) and Sholinganallur (18mld).

Rain Water Harvesting
The importance of conservation of water and rainwater harvesting can not be understated. While issuing Planning Permission for construction of major developments such as flats, residential developments, office, shopping and other commercial complexes, the condition to provide rain water-harvesting structures within the premises was put and ensured to be provided before issue of Completion Certificates. Provision of rainwater structures in all types of developments, irrespective of size or use was made mandatory by amending DCR and Building Byelaws in the year 2001, not only for the buildings proposed to be constructed but also for all the existing buildings.
After implementation of this scheme widely in CMA, a significant increase in the ground water levels and also quality of ground water was noted.

Contamination
The water quality in Chennai is a long way to reach International standards as outlined in this study published in April 2007. Researchers from National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Chennai Zonal Laboratory, Chennai found Cryptosporidium oocytes in Chennai water. Cryptosporidium is an enteric parasitic protozoan capable of causing diarrhea.

Expansion
As of 2011, MetroWater is catering for a population of 5 million. With the expansion of the corporation area in 2011 from 174 sq km to 426 sq km, which increased the number of wards of the Chennai Corporation from 155 to 200 and the number of zones from 10 to 15, MetroWater's customer base is expected to increase by an additional 1.7 million when the new areas are covered. The number of area offices of MetroWater would also be changed to correspond with the corporation's zones. While the existing 155 depot offices of MetroWater would be reduced to 107, 93 new depot offices would be added from merged areas. At present, each depot office serves a population of about 50,000. Since two or three wards have been merged into one, the coverage of the depot office would increase by 20,000. There are also proposals to construct sewage treatment plants in Mangadu and Villivakkam as part of the plans to build new infrastructure for the newly merged areas.

The growth in the sewerage services compared to 1978 when the C.M.W.S.S. Board was formed until May 2017 are as below:

Environment protection
The Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewage Board has shown its concern for environment through its sewage treatment process. In this process, bio-gas is produced and is being used to produce power to run the plants. This incidentally reduces the discharge of Green House Gas into the atmosphere and provides for Carbon Trading. CMWSS Board has adopted Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) which leads to savings in energy cost to a turn of Rs.43.05 lakhs per month.

See also

Water management in Chennai
Water supply and sanitation in India
Telugu Ganga project

References

External links

 Sewage Water Treatment in Chennai

Water management authorities in India
State agencies of Tamil Nadu
Government agencies established in 1978
Government of Chennai
1978 establishments in Tamil Nadu


John Cole's Book Shop (originally John Cole's Book and Craft Shop) was a bookstore in La Jolla, San Diego, California. It was founded in 1946 by John (d. 1959) and Barbara Cole (d. 2004) on Ivanhoe Avenue, and moved in 1966 to the Wisteria Cottage at 780 Prospect Street. The cottage had housed Ellen Browning Scripps' half-sister Virginia, and La Jolla Country Day School, prior to becoming the location of John Cole's Book Shop.  Susan and Charles Cole, the daughter and son of John and Barbara Cole worked in the book shop as did Susan's daughter Trilce and Charles' son Zachary.  Zachary sold harmonicas in the book store.  Parties were held for numerous authors over the years.  The La Jolla Museum of Contemporary Art lent sculptures to John Cole's Book Shop which were displayed on the grounds.

John Cole's Book Shop specialized in books about Mexico, and specifically the Baja Peninsula as well as Mexican art.

Theodor Seuss Geisel, better known as Dr. Seuss, was a close friend of both John and Barbara Cole as early as the 1940s, lived in La Jolla and regularly signed books for the shop.

The shop closed in 2005, and the cottage is to be turned into a museum by the La Jolla Historical Society.

References

Bookstores in California
La Jolla, San Diego
Buildings and structures in San Diego
Independent bookstores of the United States
Retail buildings in California
1946 establishments in California
2005 disestablishments in California
Retail companies established in 1946
Retail companies disestablished in 2005
Companies based in San Diego
Defunct companies based in California

John Cole's Book Shop


Michael Younesi (born February, 1987) is an American filmmaker, whose directing and producing work includes television, films and advertisements. He is perhaps best known as director and executive producer of the Emmy-nominated Netflix series Project Mc2. He also directed the short film Liberation. He is a graduate of the USC School of Cinematic Arts. In December 2019, Younesi wrote and directed the original movie, Adventure Force 5 for Vudu and Studio71.

Filmography

References

External links

Living people
American film directors
American film producers
American television directors
American television producers
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
1987 births

Michael Younesi


Ian Roderick Macneil of Barra (20 June 1929 - 16 February 2010), The Macneil of Barra, Chief of Clan MacNeil, also known as Clan Niall and 26th of Barra, also Baron of Barra) was a Scottish American legal scholar.

Early life and education
Macneil was the son of Robert Lister Macneil. He was educated at the University of Vermont, USA (BA, 1950, majoring in Sociology) and Harvard (LL.B., 1955) where he studied contracts under the noted theorist Lon L. Fuller. He was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He served as an infantry Lieutenant in the US Army from 1951 to 1953 and remained in the reserve until 1969, when he was honourably discharged with the rank of Major. He married Nancy (née Wilson) and they had three sons (one deceased) and a daughter.

Career

His legal career began as a Clerk to the US Court of Appeals (1955–1956), followed by practising law in Concord, New Hampshire, until 1959, when he became assistant professor of law at Cornell University, advancing to associate professor in 1962, then a full professorship, and finally becoming the Frank B. Ingersoll Professor of Law. In 1972 he became professor of law at the University of Virginia and in 1980 Wigmore Professor at Northwestern University. After retirement he became John Henry Wigmore Professor Emeritus at Northwestern but went to live in Edinburgh throughout his retirement, where he was highly active in the affairs of the Clan Macneil. He spent some time at the University of East Africa at Dar es Salaam (now the University of Dar es Salaam) as visiting professor in 1965–1967, part of a highly distinguished tradition at Dar es Salaam that also hosted William Twining and Patrick Atiyah.

Macneil as Clan Chief
According to clan tradition, Ian Macneil, having succeeded his father, Robert Lister Macneil of Barra in 1970, was the 46th Chief of the Clan, in line of descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages, High King of Ireland, and 26th Macneil of Barra. Notable events during his tenure included his gifting of the crofting estate of Barra to the Scottish nation, and his granting of a lease of the medieval Kisimul Castle to Historic Scotland for 1000 years at an annual rent of £1 and one bottle of whisky. On his death he was succeeded in the position of Chief by his son Roderick Wilson Macneil.<ref>See Who's Who' (A&C Black: London).</ref>

Scholarship
Macneil was a scholar  in the field of contract law and is particularly associated (along with  Stewart Macaulay) with the invention of "Relational Contract Theory". This theory had its first outing at the Association of American Law Professors' annual conference in late 1967 and was first alluded to in print in Macneil's article "Whither Contracts?" in 1969. However, the first really substantial articles laying down the foundations of the theory appeared in 1974. "Restatement (Second) of Contracts and Presentiation" and "The Many Futures of Contracts". He developed the theory further in "Contracts: Adjustment of Long-Term Economic Relations Under Classical, Neoclassical, and Relational Contract Law", and in his monograph The New Social Contract. He wrote more on relational contracts after 1980, mainly concerned with explaining and defending the theory, which has been much misunderstood by academic commentators, whether critical of or in favour of relational theory, but the outlines and much of the detail of the theory were settled by 1980.

In 2000 Macneil renamed his theory "essential contract theory" to distinguish it from other possible versions of relational contract Further interesting explanation has been given by Macneil in "Reflections on Relational Contract Theory after a Neo-classical Seminar".

Macneil was also responsible, with Speidel and Stipanowich for a magisterial five-volume treatise on US arbitration law, Federal Arbitration Law: Agreements, Awards, and Remedies under the Federal Arbitration Act(Little, Brown: Boston, 1994), which in 1995 won the American Association of Publishers' Best New Legal Book award, as well as a monograph on arbitration.

The main elements of Macneil's relational contract theory were developed in a series of publications from 1969 to 1980, some of which are outlined below. He continued to publish articles and participate in colloquia in this field after 1980; however, the publications discussed below represent the key, formative literature of Macneil's version of relational theory. Subsequent publications have been mainly explanatory of the work done throughout the 1970s.

Essential Contract Theory
Macneil's theory posits that the traditional approach of doctrinal contract law in the common law countries, which he calls "classical" and "neoclassical", which concentrates on "the deal" at its time of making, and treats individual contracts as discrete entities, is an inadequate and inaccurate tool for the study of contracts. He argues that all contracts are in fact not discrete at all but belong in the context of complex webs of exchange relations. This theory can be seen as a counter to both the "death of contract" idea, that contract as a separate idea was no longer relevant and that breach of contract is best regarded just as another tort (civil wrong), most closely associated with Grant Gilmore, and to Legal formalism in contract, in which the approach is to ignore, to a large extent, contextual matters surrounding the contract and concentrate only on the express terms and a strictly limited range of implied terms (though Robert E. Scott has argued that a formalist approach can still work within the context of an acceptance of a relational view of contract). Contract relations fall along a spectrum from the highly relational (e.g., long-term employment contracts) to the "as if discrete", largely transactionalised relation (e.g., spot purchases of commodities). All relations, though, are connected with and belong within a broader social context, with which successful relations must be harmonised. It is possible to draw axes through many facets of contractual relations, indicating the likely features of such facets in relations falling at different points along the spectrum.

What is particularly distinctive about his approach is his postulation of a number of "norms in a positivist sense", of which 10 common contract norms apply to all contracts: (i) role integrity; (ii) reciprocity (or 'mutuality'); (iii) implementation of planning; (iv) effectuation of consent; (v) flexibility; (vi) contractual solidarity; (vii) the 'linking norms' (restitution, reliance and expectation interests); (viii) the power norm (creation and restraint of power); (ix) propriety of means; and (x) harmonisation with the social matrix.
By "norms in a positivist sense" Macneil means that they are norms-in-fact, that is to say that they are observable in operation, to distinguish them from norms in the sense of normative as opposed to positive economics. The extent to which a particular exchange relation is in harmony with the norms is likely to influence the success of the relation in terms of its longevity (where appropriate) and the ability of the parties to gain the full range of benefits that the exchange can potentially offer. The extent to which the actual doctrinal law harmonises with these norms can arguably determine the usefulness of legal tools and interventions in exchange relations, but it is a complicated question.

Reception
A symposium on relational contract theory was held at Northwestern University in 1999, with papers given by a number of American contract scholars including Stewart Macaulay, Melvin Eisenberg, Jay Feinman, Eric Posner, Robert E. Scott, and Richard Speidel.

Macneil's work is often considered inaccessible and difficult to read. And Macneil expressed some disappointment at the reception of the work among legal scholars: 'I have now had over a decade to accept that there had never been any race to a relational theory of contract, nor have the succeeding years seen either widespread acceptance of (or indeed much challenge to) my particular theory or the development of other relational theories.' However, the Northwestern symposium and other more recent work goes some way to correcting that omission. In particular, David Campbell has published an edited collection of Macneil's relational contract theory work. Macneil's work in particular has also been discussed by Richard Austen-Baker, who relates Macneil's system of norms to English contract law doctrine, and used Macneil's theory to discuss the need or otherwise of further regulation of consumer contracts.

Death
Macneil died 16 February 2010, at the age of 80.

Selected bibliography
Macneil is the author of over 60 papers, monographs and other works.

I.R. Macneil:
'When Acceptance Becomes Effective' in R.B. Schlesinger (Ed) Formation of Contracts: A Study of the Common Core of Legal Systems (Oceana Pubs: Dobbs Ferry, 1968)
'Whither Contracts?' (1969) 21 Journal of Legal Education 403
'Restatement (Second) of Contracts and Presentiation' (1974) 60 Virginia Law Review 589
'The Many Futures of Contracts' (1974) 47 Southern California Law Review 691
'A Primer of Contract Planning' (1975) 48 Southern California Law Review 627
'Contracts: Adjustment of Long-Term Economic Relations Under Classical, Neoclassical, and Relational Contract Law' (1978) 72 Northwestern University Law Review 854Contracts: Exchange Transactions and Relations, 2d edn (Foundation Press: Mineola, 1978) (1st edn, 1971)The New Social Contract (Yale UP: New Haven, Conn, 1980)
'Economic Analysis of Contractual Relations: Its Shortfalls and the Need for a "Rich Classifactory Apparatus"' (1981) 75 Northwestern University Law Review 1018
'Efficient Breach: Circles in the Sky' (1982) 68 Virginia Law Review 947
'Values in Contract: Internal and External' (1983) 78 Northwestern University Law Review 340
'Reflections on Relational Contract' (1985) 141 Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 541
'Exchange Revisited: Individual Utility and Social Solidarity' (1986) 96 Ethics 567
'Relational Contract Theory as Sociology: A reply to Professors Lindenberg and de Vos' (1987) 143 Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 272
'Contract Remedies: A Need for a Better Efficiency Analysis' (1988) 144 Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 6American Arbitration Law: Reformulation – Nationalisation – Internationalisation (OUP: Oxford, 1992)

(with R.E. Speidel and T.J. Stipanowich) Federal Arbitration Law: Agreements, Awards and Remedies Under the Federal Arbitration Act (5 vols) (Little, Brown: Boston, 1994)
'Contracting Worlds and Essential Contract Theory' (2000) 9 Social and Legal Studies 431
'Relational Contract Theory: Challenges and Queries' (2000) 94 Northwestern University Law Review 877
'Reflections on Relational Contract Theory after a Neo-classical Seminar' in H. Collins, D. Campbell and J. Wightman (Eds), The Implicit Dimensions of Contract'' (Hart: Oxford, 2003)

References

1929 births
2010 deaths
Harvard University alumni
University of Vermont alumni
Northwestern University faculty
Cornell University faculty
University of Virginia faculty
Scottish clan chiefs
American people of Scottish descent
Ian Roderick
Legal writers
Scottish lawyers
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
Scottish feudal barons
20th-century Scottish businesspeople

Ian Roderick Macneil


A grape tomato is a small, usually oblong tomato.  They are similar in size to a small cherry tomato and they both have a similar taste, but the grape tomato also has the similar oblong shape of a plum tomato.  The tomatoes were introduced to the United States market in 1997 by grower Andrew Chu, who got them from Taiwan's Known-You Seed Co, though the majority of the production is by a company called Procacci Brothers, who market them as "Santa Sweets". They are considered a difficult crop to grow, as they do not produce as heavily as many cherry tomato varieties.

It is believed that the tomatoes originated in Southeast Asia.  They are eaten as bar snacks in some parts of Thailand.

Tomatoes

Grape tomato


Paralympic Nordic skiing is a Winter Paralympics sport consisting of biathlon and cross-country skiing.  The sport is governed by the International Paralympic Committee, with its subcommittee for Nordic skiing known as World Para Nordic Skiing.

Paralympic Nordic skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes.

Classifications
 Main : Para-Nordic skiing classification

The classifications used by the Canadian Paralympic Committee are:

Visually impaired

B1 - totally blind (no sight)
B2 - partially sighted (visual acuity of 20/60 – limited sight)
B3 - partially sighted (visual acuity above 20/60 to 6/60 –more sight than B2)

Standing Skiers

LW1 - double above-knee amputees
LW2 - outrigger skiersLW3 - double below-knee amputees
LW4 - skiers with prosthesisLW5/7- skiers without polesLW6/8 - skiers with one pole
LW9/1 - disability of arm and leg (after amputation)
LW9/2 - disability of arm and leg (cerebral palsy)

Sitting Skiers

LW10 - high degree of paraplegia, no muscles in lower body
LW11 - lower degree of paraplegia, with muscles in lower body
LW12/1 - lower degree of paraplegia, lower incomplete paralysis
LW12/2 - double above-knee amputees

Para Equipment

Sitting skiers use Nordic sit-skis consisting of a seat on a frame mounted with bindings onto two cross-country skis. Paralympic-quality sit-skis are made of ultra-lightweight materials, and are custom made and fitted to each athlete.

Blind skiers use headsets and sound location boxes to communicate with their guide. Blind athletes in the biathlon use a rifle equipped with electro-acoustic glasses (an optronic system) which allows aiming by hearing. The closer the rifle points to the centre of the target, the higher the tone is. The different tones that occur when the rifle is moved allow the shooter to find the exact centre of the target.

References

External links
 World Para Nordic Skiing

Nordic skiing
Nordic skiing

Paralympic Nordic skiing


Emile Barnes (18 February 1892 – 2 March 1970) was a New Orleans jazz clarinetist.

Barnes studied under Lorenzo Tio Jr., Alphonse Picou, George Baquet, and Louis Nelson Delisle (also known as "Big Eye" Louis Nelson). Active professionally in New Orleans by 1908,  he was long well regarded locally for his bluesy and distinctively individualistic style. He played with the Chris Kelly band in from the late 1910s through the 1920s.  Barnes did not become widely known to jazz fans outside of New Orleans until he made recordings during the revival era for American Music Records.  He performed at the opening night of Preservation Hall and also in his later years. In the 1930s he played with Wooden Joe Nicholas, and in the 1940s with Kid Howard.  Barnes was featured on several Folkways Records New Orleans compilation albums during the 1950s, and again in the early 60s as a solo artist. When British trumpeter Ken Colyer jumped ship and visited New Orleans in 1953, he recorded with  a pick-up band including Barnes.

Emile Barnes' younger brother Paul "Polo" Barnes was also a noted professional clarinetist.

References
Leonard Feather and Ira Gitler, The Biographical Encyclopedia of Music. Oxford, 1999, p. 39.

1892 births
1970 deaths
Dixieland clarinetists
American jazz clarinetists
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
20th-century American musicians

Emile Barnes


Otros Aires is an Argentine 21st-century tango music group founded in 2003 in Barcelona by Argentine musician and architect Miguel Di Genova.

Otros Aires mixes early tango and milonga structures from the beginning of the 20th century (Gardel, Razzano, D'Arienzo, etc.) with electronic sequences, melodies and lyrics from the 21st century.

The project counts many collaborators like Diego Ramos (piano and arrangements), Chloë Pfeiffer (piano), Lalo Zanelli (piano), Martin Bruhn (drums), Martin Paladino (drums), Manu Mayol (drums and production) Pablo Potenzoni (drums), Javier Saume Mazzei (drums), Christian Maturano (drums), Carlos Ocorso (percussion), Hugo Satorre (bandoneon), Lisandre Donoso (bandoneon), Herve Esquis (bandoneon), Emmanuel Trifilio (bandoneon), Simone Van Der Veerden (bandoneon), Korey Ireland (bandoneon), Joe Power (harmonica), Nick Wadlew (cover art), Pablo Meketa (cover art), Marcelo Sofia (cover art), Charly Fiorentino (cover art), Miru Trigo (photography) and Santiago Saponi (video director), among others.

On December 11, 2004, known as "Tango day", Otros Aires released its first CD at the , commemorating the birthday of the singer.

The band's quick international success has led to them touring the world since 2006. With about 40 tours, including more than 200 cities in Europe, North America and South America, Otros Aires has performed at some of the most important venues and world music festivals in the world, including Lincoln Center (NYC), Dublin National Concert Hall, Bardentreffen Festival (Nuremberg), Amsterdam Roots Festival, Greensound Festival (Bucharest), and Pirineos Sur Festival (Spain), and also at the world's most relevant tango festivals including Buenos Aires Tango Festival several times.

Otros Aires' songs have been featured in television shows like Dancing with the Stars and America's Got Talent in the US and Strictly Come Dancing in the UK.

Discography
 Otros Aires (2004):
 "Sin Rumbo" (with samples from "La Viruta" performed by the Orquesta de Juan D'Arienzo in 1936)
 "Percanta" (with samples from the first tango song in history, "Mi Noche Triste", recorded by Carlos Gardel)
 "La Pampa Seca" (with samples from "El Carretero" recorded by Carlos Gardel in 1922)
 "Barrio de Tango"
 "Milonga Sentimental" (with samples from "Milonga Sentimental" recorded by Carlos Gardel in 1933)
 "Aquel muchacho bueno" (with samples from "Aquel Muchacho Triste" recorded by Carlos Gardel in 1929)
 "Rotos en el Raval"
 "De puro curda"
 "Amor que se baila" (based on "Milonga De Mis Amores")
 "En dirección a mi casa" (with samples from "El Carretero" recorded by Carlos Gardel in 1922)

 Otros Aires Dos (2007):
 "Allerdings Otros Aires"
 "Otro Puente Alsina"
 "Otra Noche en 'La Viruta"
 "Los Vino"
 "Niebla del Riachuelo"
 "Un Baile a Beneficio"
 "La Yumba" (based on the same piece by Osvaldo Pugliese)
 "Junto a las Piedras"
 "Otra Esquina"
 "A Veces"

 Vivo En Otros Aires (2008):
 "Introducción"
 "Milonga Sentimental"
 "Sin Rumbo"
 "Rotos En El Raval"
 "Allerdings Otros Aires"
 "Un Baile A Beneficio"
 "Otra Noche En La Viruta"
 "Aquel Muchacho Bueno"
 "Barrio De Tango"
 "La Pampa Seca"
 "Amor Que Se Baila"
 "Percanta"
 "Los Vino"
 "La Yumba"
 "Allerdings Otros Aires" [correctly listed twice]

 Otros Aires Tricota (2010):
 "Tristeza de Arrabal"
 "Essa" (based on "9 de Julio")
 "Quisiera Que Estés Conmigo"
 "Barrio De Amor"
 "Tangwerk"
 "Junto A La Aurora"
 "Mariposita"
 "El Misionero"
 "No Sé"
 "La Otra Orilla"

 Otros Aires 4 (2013):
 "Big Man Dancing"
 "Perfume De Mujer"
 "Buenos Aires Va"
 "Raro" ()
 "El Porteñito"
 "Poema"
 "Con Un Hachazo Al Costado"
 "Perfect Day"
 "Otro Puente Alsina Reloaded"
 "Volver a Verte"
 "Catedral"
 "Big Man Dancing" (Remix by Vivi Pedraglio)
 "Los Vino Movilo" (Bonus)

 Otros Aires Perfect Tango (2016):
 "Amor o Nada"
 "Like a Tango"
 "Bailando sin Paraiso"
 "Solo esta Noche"
 "Perfect Tango"
 "Todo Baila"
 "Perro Viejo"
 "Digital Ego"
 "Un Matecito y un Beso"
 "I've seen That Face Before"

References

External links
otrosaires.com, official website
Sin Rumbo videoclip

Argentine musical groups
Tango music groups

Otros Aires


The Iran-Contra affair was a scandal that happened from August 1985 to March 1987. The scandal involved the United States Government selling weapons to Iran in exchange for hostages and funds for the Nicaraguan Contras. It happened under President Ronald Reagan's government. When 1,500 missiles were shipped three hostages were released but those three hostages were soon replaced with three more hostages. Secretary of State George Shultz called it "a hostage Bazaar"

Oliver North was tried in court for the affair because he took the blame instead of Reagan. The court found North to be not guilty.

On March 4, 1987, Reagan himself apologized to the American people and said it was all his fault. George H. W. Bush later pardoned anyone who was involved in the affair.

While President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of the Contra cause, the evidence is unclear as to whether he knew about the scandal.

On November 25, 1986, President Reagan announced the creation of a Special Review Board to look into the matter; the following day, he appointed former Senator John Tower, former Secretary of State Edmund Muskie, and former National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft to serve as members. This commission was called the Tower Commission. Towards the end, the committee said that there was no evidence to say that Reagan had anything to do with the affair.

References

Other websites
Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs, a comprehensive website

1985 in the United States
1986 in the United States
1987 in the United States

Political scandals in the United States
Presidency of Ronald Reagan

Iran–Contra affair


The Brush Creek Work Center in Medicine Bow National Forest near Saratoga, Wyoming is a ranger station of the USDA Forest Service, Region 2 that was built during 1937-41 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  It was designed by architects of the United States Forest Service in rustic style.  The designs were applications of standard plans.

The site has three contributing buildings and five non-contributing ones, on an included area of .  The contributing buildings are an office/residence, a residence, and a garage; the non-contributing ones include several sheds.

According to its nomination to the National Register:
The Brush Creek Work Center is significant ... for its association with expansion of Forest Service administration from custodial superintendence to active resource management. Built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, it reflects the contribution of this Federal Works program to the expansion of Forest Service resource management during the 1930s. It is also significant [architecturally] because it embodies a distinctive style of architecture developed by the Forest Service during the Depression-era. The use of standard plans was typical of remote Forest Service installations and the log building style conformed well with the forested surroundings. The buildings represent a distinctive Forest Service architectural design style and philosophy.

It was built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, with first logs cut in 1937 and completion in 1941.

The site is located in a valley of Barrett Creek and Brush Creek.

It was listed on the NRHP on April 11, 1994.

References

External links
Brush Creek Work Center, at Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office

United States Forest Service architecture
Park buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
Government buildings completed in 1937
Buildings and structures in Carbon County, Wyoming
Medicine Bow National Forest
Rustic architecture in Wyoming
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
National Register of Historic Places in Carbon County, Wyoming
1937 establishments in Wyoming

Brush Creek Work Center


Richard Hygons (also Higons, Huchons, Hugo; c. 1435 – c. 1509) was an English composer of the early Renaissance.  While only two compositions of this late 15th-century composer have survived, one of them, a five-voice setting of the Salve Regina Marian antiphon, has attracted interest from musicologists because of its close relationship to music being written at the same time on the continent, as well as its high level of workmanship.

Life
Hygons seems to have spent his entire career at Wells Cathedral; at any rate, no records survive indicating his activities elsewhere.  He is first mentioned in 1458 as a vicar-choral, and in 1460 he was ordained as an acolyte.  Between 1461 and 1462 he was one of the five organists that the cathedral employed. A document dated 7 December 1479 gives more detail than any other about his duties: he was given a house to use, rent-free, near to the cathedral; he was given an annual salary of a little over 96 shillings; he was to teach all aspects of music to the choristers, and was expected to teach organ to anyone who had the talent.  His required presence at certain masses, Vespers, and Matins was also given in detail.

In 1487 he received a substantial raise in annual salary, and became the principal organist of the cathedral.  By 1507 his health was in decline, and he appointed a deputy (Richard Bramston) to help him carry out some of his duties.  He was still alive in May 1508, when he hired another assistant, and he died at Wells, probably in 1509.

Music and influence
Only two compositions of Hygons are known to survive:  a two-voice setting of the Gaude virgo mater Christi, which appears on a single surviving leaf of a choirbook from Wells Cathedral (the enormous majority of music from the 15th century and early 16th century was destroyed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry VIII), and the famous Salve Regina from the Eton Choirbook.

The Salve Regina is unique among English music of the period in that its cantus firmus, drawn from the melisma on the word "caput" in the Sarum antiphon Venit ad Petrum, is the same as that from three earlier Caput masses by composers from elsewhere:  Jacob Obrecht, Johannes Ockeghem, and an anonymous composer once thought to be Guillaume Dufay.  Recent research has suggested that this third mass was actually by an unknown Englishman working in the early 15th century, and is the original for the later three works.  The Salve Regina, being based on a votive antiphon for Maundy Thursday, was probably intended for use on that day.

The difficulty, complexity, and craftsmanship shown in Hygon's Salve Regina has suggested that the musical standards at Wells Cathedral at the end of the 15th century were high, and matched those of musical centres across the Channel.

References and further reading
Nicholas Sandon: "Richard Hygons", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed April 16, 2006), (subscription access)
Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance.  New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954.

External links

English classical composers
Renaissance composers
1430s births
1500s deaths
15th-century English people
16th-century English composers
English male classical composers

Richard Hygons


KFAR (660 AM) is a commercial radio station programming news/talk in Fairbanks, Alaska, United States, broadcasting on 660 AM. Founded in 1939 by industrialist Austin E. Lathrop, KFAR is the oldest radio station in Fairbanks and one of the oldest in Alaska.  KFAR airs Fox News Radio throughout the day and carries national radio programs through Compass Media Networks, Genesis Communications Network, Premiere Networks, and Westwood One, among others. The station previously held longtime affiliations with the ABC Radio Network, Mutual Broadcasting System and the previous incarnation of Westwood One.

Since adopting the news/talk format during the 1980s, KFAR has had a long-standing commitment to airing locally produced talk radio programming; the station turned down The Rush Limbaugh Show when it was originally offered in favor of local programming. KFAR is currently the only news/talk station in Fairbanks to produce local call-in talk shows. Their primary competitor, KFBX, airs locally produced news and public affairs programming (on weekday morning drive and midday, and on Sunday morning, respectively), but no local talk shows. To drive home this distinction, KFAR makes heavy use of the slogan Local Talk Radio. Problem Corner (which has aired on the station since 1961), patriots lament show and The Michael Dukes Show comprise a total of 4 hours of airtime each weekday. KFAR has also aired a succession of local talk shows on Saturday mornings.

History
KFAR was founded in 1939 by Austin E. Lathrop. The station marked his entry into broadcasting, as Lathrop continued to diversify and expand his business empire throughout the Alaska Territory. Lathrop hired engineer Stanton Bennett to build the station. Bennett, in turn, recommended that Lathrop hire a young engineer he worked with in Oregon named Augie Hiebert, who would later become influential in starting Lathrop's second radio station, KENI.

For most of the station's early existence, its studio was in the Lathrop Building in downtown Fairbanks. The station shared space in the building with other Lathrop enterprises, such as the Fairbanks Daily News-Miner. Its transmitter was on Farmers Loop Road, northeast of the University of Alaska, on a tract of land owned by Lathrop (around which the Fairbanks Golf and Country Club was later built). On the radio dial, it was originally on 610 kHz and moved to 660 kHz in 1956.

Following Lathrop's death in 1950, his numerous businesses continued to be run by his business associates under the corporate umbrella of The Lathrop Company, with the radio stations under subsidiary Midnight Sun Broadcasting Company.  One of those associates, Alvin O. "Al" Bramstedt, purchased the Lathrop broadcasting holdings in 1960.  Changing the name slightly to Midnight Sun Broadcasters, Bramstedt and his company operated the station throughout the 1960s and 1970s.  Midnight Sun also operated sister station KFAR television on channel 2, with much cooperation and intermingling of on-air personnel evident.

Bramstedt retired and sold off his holdings in the early 1980s. The partnership of Bill Walley, Edward A. Merdes and Louis Frank Delong, doing business as Borealis Broadcasters, purchased the station. They would also launch KWLF during this time period.

The station was later owned by New Northwest Broadcasters, which purchased Borealis.  It is currently owned by Rob Ingstad, through licensee Rob Ingstad Licenses, LLC, and goes by the branding of The Radio Station. Perry Walley, the company's general manager, is the son of Bill Walley and grew up around the station, as did his brother Terry, who is the general manager of rival broadcaster Tanana Valley Television.

External links
 FCC History Cards for KFAR
 KFAR's Website

1939 establishments in Alaska
News and talk radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1939
FAR

KFAR


Malena Mörling (born 1965), is a Swedish-American poet and translator.  She is the author of two books of poetry, Ocean Avenue, which won the New Issues Press Poetry Prize in 1998 and Astoria, published by Pittsburgh Press in 2006. In 1999, she received the Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award

Biography
She has translated works by the Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer, the Finland-Swedish poet Edith Södergran and numerous other Swedish poets as well as the American poet Philip Levine into Swedish. She was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship in 2007 and a Lannan Foundation Literary Fellowship in 2010. She is a research associate at the School For Advanced Research on the Human Experience in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Mörling has received exceptional praise for both "Ocean Avenue" and "Astoria" by editors and poets. Ed Ochester, for The Best American Poetry wrote: "MALENA MÖRLING's poems are low-key, minimalist, utterly unpretentious and yet--how does she do it?--they speak about the central conditions of our lives as few poems do."  Gerald Stern wrote: "Malena Mörling's passion is for observing. She sees everything--victims, suicides, lost mothers, compulsive counters, blind women in buses--with a penetrating eye. She is deeply aware of the moment of 'passing through' and it informs her poetry. "Ocean Avenue" is subtle, lovely, and original."

Mörling was born in Stockholm, Sweden 1965.  She was raised in southern Sweden.   She is currently Professor in the Department of Creative Writing at The University of North Carolina at Wilmington and Core Faculty in The Low Residency MFA program at New England College.

References

Swedish poets
1965 births
Living people
New England College faculty
Rona Jaffe Foundation Writers' Award winners
20th-century Swedish poets

Malena Mörling


San Pietro Infine is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Caserta in the Italian region Campania, located about  northwest of Naples and about  northwest of Caserta. San Pietro Infine borders the following municipalities: Mignano Monte Lungo, San Vittore del Lazio, Venafro.

History
The area was contented by the Oscans and the Samnites in the 3rd century BC and was colonized by the Romans during the Third Samnite War. The burgh itself has medieval origins and was part of the territories of the Abbey of Monte Cassino.

The town was the site of a major military engagement in World War II and, thus, the subject of a well-known war-time documentary about that battle, The Battle of San Pietro, directed by John Huston. The modern town is actually a rebuilt version, with the older and original town — a few hundred meters away — having been totally destroyed in the war.

Main sights
Church of San Michele, with a 16th-century portal.
Arch of the Barons, in Gothic style. It was probably the entrance of an ancient castle.
Church of Madonna of the Water.

References

External links
 Official website

Cities and towns in Campania

San Pietro Infine


Rallycross is a form of sprint style automobile racing, held on a closed mixed-surface racing circuit, with modified production or specially built road cars, similar to the World Rally Cars.  It is mainly popular in the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Great Britain. An inexpensive, entry level type of rallycross is the Swedish folkrace or its Norwegian counterpart, the so-called bilcross. The folkrace is most popular in Finland where it was founded back in the late 1960s. In Europe, rallycross can also refer to racing 1:8 scale off-road radio-controlled buggies.

History

Origins of rallycross

The sport started as a TV show (with especially invited rally drivers), produced by Robert Reed of ABC Weekend TV for ITV's World of Sport programme, at Lydden Circuit (between Dover and Canterbury) in Great Britain on Saturday, 4 February 1967. The first true rallycross was organised by Bud Smith (d. 1994) and the Tunbridge Wells Centre of the 750 MC, with the aid of Lydden Circuit owner Bill Chesson (d. 1999), and was won by later Formula One driver as well as 1968 Rally Monte Carlo winner Vic Elford in a showroom Porsche 911 of the British importer AFN, ahead of Brian Melia in his Ford Lotus Cortina and Tony Fall in a BMC Mini Cooper S.

After that inaugural event there were another two test rallycrosses at Lydden, on 11 March and 29 July, before the new World of Sport Rallycross Championship for the ABC TV viewers started with round one on 23 September, to be followed by round two on 7 October. The series was run over a total of six rounds (three at Lydden and three at Croft) and was eventually won by Englishman Tony Chappell (Ford Escort Twin Cam), who became the first British Rallycross champion after winning the final round of the new series on 6 April 1968 at Lydden.

However, the true birth of rallycross is often wrongly connected with the cancellation of the 1967 RAC Rally, due to foot-and-mouth disease, in November 1967, about ten months after the maiden event. Some foreign entrants for the RAC had also planned to take part in the 1st international rallycross at Lydden Circuit, on Saturday, 25 November 1967, but went home immediately after the rally had been cancelled on the evening of 17 November, and was replaced by a single special stage (won by Swede Erik Carlsson in a Saab 96 V4) for the sake of the disappointed television companies. RAC Rally stage number one by then, Camberley, was on Ministry of Defence land and not affected by movement restrictions caused by the disease in rural areas. Subsequently, only British drivers competed in the maiden international rallycross event one week later, which was eventually won by Andrew Cowan and his Hillman Imp. Thames Estuary Automobile Club's (TEAC) premier event, the original Clubman's rallycross, was held the day after. It opened up the new rally drivers' fun-sport to many amateur competitors, proved very successful and thereby paved the way for the first generation of real rallycross specialists, many of them coming from the ranges of autocross and autograss racing.

After one and a half years and several rallycross events at Lydden as well as Croft Circuit (near Darlington) the BBC adopted the young sport for its Grandstand programme while ITV dropped it after the British Rallycross Winter Series 1968/69. In 1969 Lydden Circuit and Croft Circuit were joined by another RX venue, Cadwell Park in Lincolnshire. However, while both Lydden and Croft nowadays are still in use for rallycross Cadwell Park later dropped this type of car racing from its schedule.

Expansion to the Netherlands
Rob Herzet (AVRO), a Dutch counterpart to Robert Reed, discovered rallycross during a visit to Great Britain in 1968 and immediately understood its potential for the television viewers. By that time there were nearly ten million Britons watching some of the events on television. Back home in the Netherlands, Herzet contacted the race and rally driver as well as motoring journalist Gerard van Lennep (a cousin to Formula One driver Gijs van Lennep) to discuss his find. Both agreed that this form of sprint racing could be also appropriate for the Netherlands. Van Lennep soon started his investigations and found a military testing ground near the town of Venlo, close to the Dutch-German border. Actually there had been two venues available, the one at Venlo in Limburg and one at Elst in Gelderland, but the aid offered by the army turned the decision into the favour of Venlo.

On Saturday 17 May 1969 a group of invited rally and racing drivers went to the spot for a test day. Everybody was really satisfied and enthusiastic and only three weeks later, on Saturday 7 June the first rallycross event on the European continent was held. The track consisted of a section of concrete runway, loose sections through heathland and a hollow, about 40 metres long and 10 metres deep, usually used for tank testing. Although the soft heath soil and the muddy hollow hampered most of the two dozen or so competitors, or at least their mostly rather aged cars, the event produced much fun for all concerned as well as the TV audience. Overall victory went eventually to Hans Kok and his valuable NSU 1200 TT.
Davy Van Den Branden 9 Times Belgian Champion. And 5 times Netherlands Champion.

The Dutch television company AVRO gave green light to Rob Herzet as well as another three rounds counting towards the so-called AVRO-Trophy and on 16 August of the same year NSU campaigner Hans Kok claimed the first national Dutch rallycross title. On Oktober 4 1969 Holland saw its last Rallycross event of the first season, a stand-alone one-off race organised on a temporary track that was quickly set up on pastureland near the 'Europahal' at the town of Elst, halfway between Arnhem and Nijmegen. Here it was young Briton 'Jumping' Jeff Wiliamson who drove his Riley 1300 to overall victory. On 1 November the Dutch Rallycross Association was founded and, during 1970, organised another five events at Venlo. For 1971 the Nederlandse Rallycross Vereniging (NRV) moved the sport to its new continental home at Valkenswaard near Eindhoven. The Eurocircuit opened on Saturday 17 April with a race that was won by Jan de Rooy and his famous DAF 555 Coupé 4WD and became the first track in the World that was especially designed and built purely for rallycross purposes.

Expansion to Australia
Rallycross came to Australia in 1969 with a one off meeting at Leppington in New South Wales. Events were held at Calder Park Raceway in Melbourne until the mid 1970s and at the Catalina Park circuit in Katoomba in New South Wales from 1972 until the early 1980s. Circuits at Towac near Orange in New South Wales as well as Tailem Bend and Whyalla in South Australia were also used, but after a dozen or so years the sport faded in Australia. Peter Brock was especially successful driving for the Holden Dealer Team in a supercharged Holden Torana GTR.

The inaugural Australian Rallycross Championship was held at the Tailem Bend circuit on 24 June 1979 and was won by Larry Perkins, driving a 2.0-litre Volkswagen Beetle for Kruger Motors. This was the only Australian Rallycross Championship to be contested.

A national rallycross championship was set to return to Australia in 2015 in the form of the Extreme Rallycross Championship, originally scheduled to consist of seven events held across 2015 and 2016. However, the series was cancelled after just one event had been held due to a lack of entries. A proposed Victorian championship, titled Rallycross Australia, was also cancelled before a single event had been run.

Soviet Union
In Soviet Union history of rallycross (under name of autocross) goes back to 1949 when first competitions were held for light trucks, as well as passenger cars. First competitions resembled more light offroad race over 20-40km course, but over time races shortened and purpose built tracks were established. In 1970s and 1980s autocross was among most popular autosport disciplines in Soviet Union with hundreds of racing tracks and various classes of trucks, light cars and purpose built buggies competing. Most classes were effectively one-make classes, with few performance upgrades available, which together with wide state support made autocross popular and easily accessible to enthusiasts. Since late 1970s local regulations for autocross were harmonized with FIA regulations for rallycross. Until that time most tracks were unpaved, since then more partially paved rallycross tracks were built.

In the United States
In October 2009 Rally America (for two years operating under the tag RallyCar) announced it would begin sanctioning European style rallycross events in the United States. The inaugural season of the RallyCar Rallycross Championship, held in 2010, featured four events and several rally, rallycross and drifting competitors have shown an interest in contesting these races. All four events (August 29, October 3, November 6, November 7) were organised at New Jersey Motorsports Park.

A closed-format circuit race called Rallycross was a regular event at the X Games for some years. It was first added to the X Games XVI in 2010 under the name SuperRally. This event involved heavily modified production cars with turbocharged engines running at 600 BHP, all-wheel drive, sequential gearboxes, and offroad style suspension tuned for long jumps.

The Global RallyCross Championship was a Red Bull-sponsored championship that began in 2011 with five rounds in Irwindale, California (The Revolution), Snoqualmie, WA (Twin Peaks), Fountain, CO (Last Chance) and X Games 17 in the streets of Downtown Los Angeles. The series had several popular drivers such as Tanner Foust, Ken Block, Travis Pastrana, Finn Marcus Grönholm, Kiwi Rhys Millen, Dave Mirra, Frenchman Stéphane Verdier, Swede Michael Jernberg and Briton Liam Doran. The events were televised on ESPN. In 2012, the series grew to seven events run in conjunction with NASCAR Sprint Cup and IndyCar weekends as well as X Games 18 in Los Angeles. Several marques fielded factory- or importer-supported efforts including Ford, Hyundai, Subaru and Dodge. In 2013 the series went to Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, and Munich, Germany, and a rained-out event in Barcelona, Spain. GRC Lites made their debut in Loudon, New Hampshire.

In 2018, the Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas, hosted the World Rallycross race event on September 29–30 at the purpose-built track.

The Americas Rallycross Championship began competition in 2018. However, it was cancelled after the 2019 season due to a lack of sponsors.

Pastrana launched his own rallycross championship Nitro Rallycross in 2021.

In the United Kingdom
The Motorsport UK British Rallycross Championship presented by Cooper Tires is the current national series in the United Kingdom. The calendar features iconic rallycross circuits including Lydden Hill Race Circuit. Recognised as an official championship by the MSUK, the governing body of motorsport in Great Britain.

FIA European Rallycross Championship and FIA World Rallycross Championship

The first FIA World Rallycross Championship (World RX) took place from 4–5 May 2014, alongside the FIA European Rallycross Championship (Euro RX), the latter formerly known as FIA European Championships for Rallycross Drivers. Former World Rally Championship champion Petter Solberg took first place to become the first FIA World Rallycross Championship winner.

The 2014 FIA World Rallycross Championship consists of 12 events globally for the Supercar category.

FIA World and European Rallycross Championship cars are built based on production car body shells of vehicles homologated for Group A and Group N, or permitted by a special FIA list for non-homologated cars to be used in rallycross but are extensively modified.

Race format
Different rallycross championships and events use different formats and scoring systems.

Electric rallycross
The FIA made changes to rallycross categories before the beginning of 2021 season. The Supercar category was renamed to RX1, and a new electric rallycross supercar category RX1e was introduced. The Junior RX2 series were dropped, and Junior electric series RX2e were introduced. RX1e championship is expected to debut in 2022 season, consisting of the RX1 supercars retrofitted with two 250kW electric motors (equivalent of 680 horsepower), and equipped with 52kWh performance battery.

Similar types of racing

In Australia and in the United States, there are the dirt track racing, close to rallycross, but with two big differences, the vehicles are sprint cars, late models, modifieds and midgets instead, and they usually run in oval dirt tracks.

In Great Britain, they have the British autocross where some of the pioneers of rallycross started. In other Europeans countries there is the autocross, similar to British one, but with the cars starting the race at the same time, like in rallycross. Also there is the crosskart racing.

The motocross, which is similar to rallycross, but with motorcycles, ATVs and Pit bikes is very popular worldwide. It also have the bike motocross and the side car motocross.

In France, they have camion cross, (truck cross in English) similar to rallycross, but with trucks instead. The most known championship is the Coupe de France de camion cross.

See also

 Crosskart
 FIA Autocross
 Motocross
 BMX
 Truck cross
 Dirt track racing

References

Auto racing by type
Sports originating in England

Rallycross


Rabbi Menahem ben Helbo Kara (Hebrew: רבי מנחם בן הלבו קרא; 1015-1085) was an 11th-century French tosafist, who is one of the earliest commentators on the Bible in northern France. He is known for his numerous Tosafot, and halakic principles which greatly influenced Rashi.

Biography
Born into a scholarly French Jewish family. His brother was Simeon Kara and his nephew, whom he taught, was Joseph Kara. In his early years, Menahem studied in Provence, which accounts for the presence of Arabic words as well as some Provençal forms of French in Rashi. Menahem wrote comments on the piyyutim which he collected into a work known as "Pitronim" ("solutions"). In this work he covered all of Nevi'im and Ketuvim, but he did not cover the Torah which was a deliberate decision on his part. Almost all of his commentaries are no longer extant as they were apparently superseded by Rashi's commentaries. The majority of Menahem's teachings were preserved by his nephew Joseph, who transmitted them to Rashi.

Biblical exegesis
His approach to Biblical exegesis can be summarized into the following five principles:

 To always aim to explain the plain meaning of the text (pshat), while still drawing from rabbinic midrashim as a basis for interpretation.
 To keep comments short, and concise.
 To recognize the intimate connection between Hebrew and Arabic.
 To use French and German words to provide context for complex Hebrew and Aramaic terms.
 To find links between different passages, and to interpret halakha based on the context of certain words.

These principles were immensely instrumental in shaping Rashi's own approach.

References

11th-century French rabbis
Tosafists
1015 births
1085 deaths

Menahem ben Helbo