Engine balance refers to how the inertial forces produced by moving parts in an internal combustion engine or steam engine are neutralised with counterweights and balance shafts, to prevent unpleasant and potentially damaging vibration. The strongest inertial forces occur at crankshaft speed (first-order forces) and balance is mandatory, while forces at twice crankshaft speed (second-order forces) can become significant in some cases.

Causes of imbalance

Although some components within the engine (such as the connecting rods) have complex motions, all motions can be separated into reciprocating and rotating components, which assists in the analysis of imbalances.

Using the example of an inline engine (where the pistons are vertical), the main reciprocating motions are:
 Pistons moving upwards/downwards
 Connecting rods moving upwards/downwards
 Connecting rods moving left/right as they rotate around the crankshaft, however the lateral vibrations caused by these movements are much smaller than the up–down vibrations caused by the pistons.

While the main rotating motions that may cause imbalance are:
 Crankshaft
 Camshafts
 Connecting rods (rotating around the piston end as required by the varying horizontal offset between the piston and the crank throw)

The imbalances can be caused by either the static mass of individual components or the cylinder layout of the engine, as detailed in the following sections.

Static mass
If the weight— or the weight distribution— of moving parts is not uniform, their movement can cause out-of-balance forces, leading to vibration. For example, if the weights of pistons or connecting rods are different between cylinders, the reciprocating motion can cause vertical forces. Similarly, the rotation of a crankshaft with uneven web weights or a flywheel with an uneven weight distribution can cause a rotating unbalance.

Cylinder layout
Even with a perfectly balanced weight distribution of the static masses, some cylinder layouts cause imbalance due to the forces from each cylinder not cancelling each other out at all times. For example, an inline-four engine has a vertical vibration (at twice the engine speed). These imbalances are inherent in the design and unable to be avoided, therefore the resulting vibration needs to be managed using balance shafts or other NVH-reduction techniques to minimise the vibration that enters the cabin.

Types of imbalance

Reciprocating imbalance
A reciprocating imbalance is caused when the linear motion of a component (such as a piston) is not cancelled out by another component moving with equal momentum, but opposite in direction on the same plane.

Types of reciprocating phase imbalance are:
 Mismatch in counter-moving pistons, such as in a single-cylinder engine or an inline-three engine.
 Unevenly spaced firing order, such as in a V6 engine without offset crankpins

Types of reciprocating plane imbalance are:
 The offset distance between crankpins causing a rocking couple on the crankshaft from the equal and opposite combustion forces, such as in a boxer-twin engine, a 120° inline-three engine, 90° V4 engine, an inline-five engine, a 60° V6 engine and a crossplane 90° V8 engine.

In engines without overlapping power strokes (such as engines with four or fewer cylinders), the pulsations in power delivery vibrate the engine rotationally on the X axis, similar to a reciprocating imbalance.

Rotating imbalance
A rotating imbalance is caused by uneven mass distributions on rotating assemblies

Types of rotating phase imbalance are:
 Unbalanced eccentric masses on a rotating component, such as an unbalanced flywheel

Types of rotating plane imbalance are:
 Unbalanced masses along the axis of rotation of a rotating assembly causing a rocking couple, such as if the crankshaft of a boxer-twin engine did not include counterweights, the mass of the crank throws located 180° apart would cause a couple along the axis of the crankshaft.
 Lateral motion in counter-moving pairs of assemblies, such as a centre-of-mass height difference in a pair of piston–connecting-rod assemblies. In this case, a rocking couple is caused by one connecting rod swinging left (during the top half of its crank rotation) while the other is swinging right (during the bottom half), resulting in a force to the left at the top of the engine and a force to the right at the bottom of the engine.

Torsional vibration

Torsional vibration develops when torque impulses are applied to a shaft at a frequency that matches its resonant frequency and the applied torque and the resistive torque act at different points along the shaft. It cannot be balanced, it has to be damped, and while balancing is equally effective at all speeds and loads, damping has to be tailored to given operating conditions. If the shaft cannot be designed such that its resonant frequency is outside the projected operating range, e.g. for reasons of weight or cost, it must be fitted with a damper.

Vibration occurs around the axis of a crankshaft, since the connecting rods are usually located at different distances from the resistive torque (e.g. the clutch). This vibration is not transferred to outside of the engine, however fatigue from the vibration could cause crankshaft failure.

Radial engines do not experience torsional imbalance.

Primary imbalance
Primary imbalance produces vibration at the frequency of crankshaft rotation, i.e. the fundamental frequency (first harmonic) of an engine.

Secondary balance

Secondary balance eliminates vibration at twice the frequency of crankshaft rotation. This particularly affects straight and V-engines with a 180° or single-plane crankshaft in which pistons in neighbouring cylinders simultaneously pass through opposite dead centre positions. While it might be expected that a 4-cylinder inline engine would have perfect balance, a net secondary imbalance remains.

This is because the big end of the connecting rod swings from side to side, so that the motion of the small end deviates from ideal sinusoidal motion between top and bottom dead centre on each swing, i.e. twice per crank revolution, and the distance the small end (and a piston connected to it) has to travel in the top 180° of crankshaft rotation is greater than in the bottom 180°. Greater distance in the same time equates to higher velocity and higher acceleration, so that the inertial force through top dead centre can be as much as double that through bottom dead centre. The non-sinusoidal motion of the piston can be described in mathematical equations.

In a car, for example, such an engine with cylinders larger than about 500 cc/30 cuin (depending on a variety of factors) requires balance shafts to eliminate undesirable vibration. These take the form of a pair of balance shafts that rotate in opposite directions at twice engine speed, known as Lanchester shafts, after the original manufacturer.

In V8 engines, the problem is usually avoided by using a cross-plane crankshaft, and a 180° or single-plane crankshaft is used only in high-performance V8 engines, where it offers specific advantages and the vibration is less of a concern.

Effect of cylinder layout
For engines with more than one cylinder, factors such as the number of pistons in each bank, the V angle and the firing interval usually determine whether reciprocating phase imbalances or torsional imbalances are present.

Straight engines

Straight-twin engines most commonly use the following configurations:
 360° crankshaft: This configuration creates the highest levels of primary and secondary imbalance, equivalent to that of a single cylinder engine.; but the even firing order provides smoother power delivery (albeit without the overlapping power strokes of engines with more than four cylinders).
 180° crankshaft: This configuration has primary balance but an uneven firing order and a rocking couple; also, the secondary imbalances are half as strong (and at twice the frequency) compared with a 360° straight-twin engine.
 270° crankshaft: This configuration minimises secondary imbalances; however, a primary-rotating-plane imbalance is present and the firing order is uneven. The exhaust note and power delivery resemble those of a 90° V-twin engine.

Straight-three engines most commonly use a 120° crankshaft design and have the following characteristics:
 Firing interval is perfectly regular (although the power strokes are not overlapping).
 Primary and secondary reciprocating-plane balance is perfect.
 Primary and secondary rotating-plane imbalances are present.

Straight-four engines (also called inline-four engines) typically use an up–down–down–up 180° crankshaft design and have the following characteristics:
 Firing interval is perfectly regular (although the power strokes are not overlapping).
 Primary and secondary reciprocating-plane imbalances are present.
 Secondary reciprocating forces are high, due to all four pistons being in phase at twice the rotating frequency.
 Counterweights have been used on passenger car engines since the mid-1930s, either as full counterweight or semi-counterweight (also known as half-counterweight) designs.

Straight-five engines typically use a 72° crankshaft design and have the following characteristics:
 A perfectly regular firing interval with overlapping power strokes, resulting in a smoother idle than engines with fewer cylinders.
 Primary and secondary reciprocating-plane balance is perfect.
 Primary and secondary rotating-plane imbalances are present.

Straight-six engines typically use a 120° crankshaft design, a firing order of 1–5–3–6–2–4 cylinders and have the following characteristics:
 A perfectly regular firing interval with overlapping power strokes. The use of two simple three-into-one exhaust manifolds can provide uniform scavenging, since the engine is effectively behaving like two separate straight-three engines in this regard.
 Primary and secondary reciprocating-plane balance is perfect.
 Primary and secondary rotating-plane balance is perfect.

V engines

V-twin engines have the following characteristics:
 With a V angle of 90 degrees and offset crank pins, a V-twin engine can have perfect primary balance.
 If a shared crank pin is used (such as in a Ducati V-twin engine), the 360° crankshaft results in an uneven firing interval. These engines also have primary reciprocating-plane and rotating-plane imbalances. Where the connecting rods are at different locations along the crankshaft (which is the case unless fork-and-blade connecting rods are used), this offset creates a rocking couple within the engine.

V4 engines come in many different configurations in terms of the 'V' angle and crankshaft configurations. Some examples are:
 The Lancia Fulvia V4 engines with narrow V angle have crank pin offsets corresponding to the V angles, so the firing interval matches that of a straight-four engine.
 Some V4 engines have irregular firing spacing, and each design needs to be considered separately in terms of all the balancing items. The Honda RC36 engine has a 90° V angle and a 180° crankshaft with firing intervals of 180°–270°–180°–90°, which results in uneven firing intervals within 360 degrees and within 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation. On the other hand, the Honda VFR1200F engine has a 76° V angle and a 360° crankshaft with shared crank pins that have a 28° offset, resulting in 256°–104°–256°–104° firing interval. This engine also has an unusual connecting rod orientation of front–rear–rear–front, with a much wider distance between cylinders ('bore spacing') on the front cylinder bank than on the rear, resulting in reduced rocking couples (at the expense of wider engine width).

V6 engines are commonly produced in the following configurations:
 60° V angle: This design results in a compact engine size, and the short crankshaft length reduces the torsional vibrations. Rotating plane imbalances. The staggering of the left and right cylinder banks (due to the thickness of the connecting rod and the crank web) makes the reciprocating plane imbalance more difficult to be reduced using crankshaft counterweights.
 90° V angle: This design historically derives from chopping two cylinders off a 90° V8 engine, in order to reduce design and construction costs. An early example is the  and  Chevrolet 90° V6 engines, which have an 18° offset crankshaft resulting in an uneven firing interval. Newer examples, such as the Honda C engine, use 30° offset crank pins, resulting in an even firing interval. As per V6 engines with 60° V angles, these engines have primary reciprocating plane and rotating plane imbalances, staggered cylinder banks and smaller secondary imbalances.

Flat engines

[Precision: A 'flat' engine is not necessarily a 'boxer' engine. A 'flat' engine may either be a 180-degree V engine or a 'boxer' engine. A 180-degree V engine as used in the Ferrari 512BB has opposed cylinder pairs whose connecting rods use the same crank throw. Contrary to this, in a 'boxer' engine, as applied in BMW motorcycles, each connecting rod has its own crank throw which is positioned 180 degrees from the crank throw of the opposed cylinder.]

Flat-twin engines typically use 180° crankshafts and separate crank throws and have the following characteristics:
 Primary and secondary reciprocating plane balance is perfect.
 Primary and secondary rotating plane imbalance is present.

Flat-four engines typically use a left–right–right–left crankshaft configuration and have the following characteristics:
 Primary imbalances are caused by the rocking couples of the opposing pistons being staggered (offset front to back). The intensity of this rocking couple is less than a straight-four engine, since the pairs of connecting rods swinging up and down move at different centre of gravity heights.
 Secondary imbalances are minimal.

Flat six engines typically use a boxer configuration and have the following characteristics:
 An evenly spaced firing interval with overlapping power strokes. A simple three-into-one exhaust for each cylinder bank provides uniform scavenging, since the engine is effectively behaving like two separate straight-three engines in this regard.
 Primary reciprocating plane and rotating plane imbalances, due to the distance along the crankshaft between opposing cylinders. A flat-six engine would have perfect primary balance if fork-and-blade connecting rods were used.
 Secondary imbalances are minimal, because there are no pairs of cylinders moving in phase, and the imbalance is mostly cancelled out by the opposing cylinder.
 Torsional imbalances are lower than straight-six engines, due to the shorter length of a flat-six engine.

Steam locomotives

This section is an introduction to the balancing of two steam engines connected by driving wheels and axles as assembled in a railway locomotive.

The effects of unbalanced inertias in a locomotive are briefly shown by describing measurements of locomotive motions as well as deflections in steel bridges. These measurements show the need for various balancing methods as well as other design features to reduce vibration amplitudes and damage to the locomotive itself as well as to the rails and bridges. The example locomotive is a simple, non-compound, type with two outside cylinders and valve gear, coupled driving wheels and a separate tender. Only basic balancing is covered with no mention of the effects of different cylinder arrangements, crank angles, etc. since balancing methods for three- and four-cylinder locomotives can be complicated and diverse. Mathematical treatments can be found in 'further reading'. For example, Dalby's "The Balancing of Engines" covers the treatment of unbalanced forces and couples using polygons. Johnson and Fry both use algebraic calculations.

At speed the locomotive will tend to surge fore-and-aft and nose, or sway, from side to side. It will also tend to pitch and rock. This article looks at these motions that originate from unbalanced inertia forces and couples in the two steam engines and their coupled wheels (some similar motions may be caused by irregularities in the track running surface and stiffness). The first two motions are caused by the reciprocating masses and the last two by the oblique action of the con-rods, or piston thrust, on the guide bars.

There are three degrees to which balancing may be pursued. The most basic is static balancing of the off-centre features on a driving wheel, i.e. the crankpin and its attached parts. In addition, balancing a proportion of the reciprocating parts can be done with additional revolving weight. This weight is combined with that required for the off-centre parts on the wheel and this extra weight causes the wheel to be overbalanced resulting in hammer blow. Lastly, because the above balance weights are in the plane of the wheel and not in the plane of the originating unbalance, the wheel/axle assembly is not dynamically balanced. Dynamic balancing on steam locomotives is known as cross-balancing and is two-plane balancing with the second plane being in the opposite wheel.

A tendency to instability will vary with the design of a particular locomotive class. Relevant factors include its weight and length, the way it is supported on springs and equalizers and how the value of an unbalanced moving mass compares to the unsprung mass and total mass of the locomotive. The way the tender is attached to the locomotive can also modify its behaviour. The resilience of the track in terms of the weight of the rail as well as the stiffness of the roadbed can affect the vibration behaviour of the locomotive.

As well as giving poor human ride quality the rough riding incurs maintenance costs for wear and fractures in both locomotive and track components.

Sources of unbalance

All the driving wheels have an out-of-balance which is caused by their off-centre crank pins and attached components. The main driving wheels have the greatest unbalance since they have the biggest crankpin as well as the revolving portion of the main rod. They also have the valve gear eccentric crank and the back end of the eccentric rod. In common with the linked driving wheels they also have their own portion of the side rod weight. The part of the main rod assigned a revolving motion was originally measured by weighing it supported at each end. A more accurate method became necessary which split the revolving and reciprocating parts based on the position of the centre of percussion. This position was measured by swinging the rod as a pendulum. The unbalance in the remaining driving wheels is caused by a crankpin and side rod weight. The side rod weights assigned to each crankpin are measured by suspending the rod on as many scales as there are crankpins or by calculation.

The reciprocating piston–crosshead–main-rod–valve-motion link is unbalanced and causes a fore-and-aft surging. Their 90-degree separation causes a swaying couple.

Measuring the effects of unbalance
The whole locomotive tends to move under the influence of unbalanced inertia forces. The horizontal motions for unbalanced locomotives were quantified by M. Le Chatelier in France, around 1850, by suspending them on ropes from the roof of a building. They were run up to equivalent road speeds of up to 40 MPH and the horizontal motion was traced out by a pencil, mounted on the buffer beam. The trace was an elliptical shape formed by the combined action of the fore-and-aft and swaying motions. The shape could be enclosed in a -inch square for one of the unbalanced locomotives and was reduced to a point when weights were added to counter revolving and reciprocating masses.

The effect of vertical out-of-balance, or varying wheel load on the rail, was quantified by Professor Robinson in the U.S. in 1895. He measured bridge deflections, or strains, and attributed a 28% increase over the static value to unbalanced drivers.

The residual unbalance in locomotives was assessed in three ways on the Pennsylvania Railroad testing plant. In particular, eight locomotives were tested at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. The three measurements were:

 The critical speed. This was defined as the speed at which the unbalanced reciprocating parts reversed the pull of the locomotive. At higher speeds this motion was damped by throttling oil flow in dashpots. The critical speed varied from 95 RPM for a Baldwin tandem compound to over 310 RPM for a Cole compound Atlantic.
 the horizontal motion at the pilot. As an example, the Baldwin compound Atlantic moved about 0.80 inch at 65 MPH compared with 0.10 inch for the Cole compound Atlantic.
 A qualitative assessment of the load on the plant supporting wheels. A 0.060-inch diameter wire was run under the wheels. Measuring the deformed wire gave an indication of the vertical load on the wheel. For example, a Cole compound Atlantic showed little variation from a 0.020-inch thickness for all speeds up to 75 MPH. In contrast, a Baldwin compound Atlantic at 75 MPH showed no deformation, which indicated complete lifting of the wheel, for wheel rotation of 30 degrees with a rapid return impact, over rotation of only 20 degrees, to a no-hammer blow deformation of 0.020 inch.

Qualitative assessments may be done on a road trip in terms of the riding qualities in the cab. They may not be a reliable indicator of a requirement for better balance as unrelated factors may cause rough riding, such as stuck wedges, fouled equalizers and slack between the engine and tender. Also the position of an out-of-balance axle relative to the locomotive centre of gravity may determine the extent of motion at the cab. A. H. Fetters related that on a 4–8–2 the effects of 26,000 lb dynamic augment under the cg did not show up in the cab but the same augment in any other axle would have.

Static balancing of wheels
Balance weights are installed opposite the parts causing the out-of-balance. The only available plane for these weights is in the wheel itself which results in an out-of-balance couple on the wheel/axle assembly. The wheel is statically balanced only.

Static balancing of reciprocating weight
A proportion of the reciprocating weight is balanced with the addition of an extra revolving weight in the wheel, i.e. still only balanced statically. The overbalance causes what is known as hammer blow or dynamic augment, both terms having the same definition as given in the following references. Hammer blow varies about the static mean, alternately adding to and subtracting from it with each wheel revolution.
In the United States it is known as dynamic augment, a vertical force caused by a designer's attempt to balance reciprocating parts by incorporating counterbalance in wheels.

The term hammer blow does not describe what takes place very well since the force varies continuously and only in extreme cases when the wheel lifts from the rail for an instant is there a true blow when it comes back down.

Up until about 1923 American locomotives were balanced for static conditions only with as much as 20,000 lb variation in main axle load above and below the mean per revolution from the unbalanced couple. The rough riding and damage led to recommendations for dynamic balancing including defining the proportion of reciprocating weight to be balanced as a proportion of the total locomotive weight, or with Franklin buffer, locomotive plus tender weight.

A different source of varying wheel/rail load, piston thrust, is sometimes incorrectly referred to as hammer blow or dynamic augment although it does not appear in the standard definitions of those terms. It also has a different form per wheel revolution as described later.

As an alternative to adding weights to driving wheels the tender could be attached using a tight coupling that would increase the effective mass and wheelbase of the locomotive. The Prussian State Railways built two-cylinder engines with no reciprocating balance but with a rigid tender coupling. The equivalent coupling for late American locomotives was the friction-damped radial buffer.

Dynamic balancing of wheel/axle assembly
The crankpin-and-rods weight on the wheels is in a plane outside the wheel plane location for the static balance weight. Two-plane, or dynamic, balancing is necessary if the out-of-balance couple at speed needs to be balanced. The second plane used is in the opposite wheel.

Two-plane, or dynamic, balancing of a locomotive wheel set is known as cross-balancing. Cross-balancing was not recommended by the American Railway Association until 1931. Up to that time only static balancing was done in America, although builders included cross-balancing for export locomotives when specified. Builders in Europe adopted cross-balancing after Le Chatelier published his theory in 1849.

Determination of acceptable hammer blow
Maximum wheel and axle loads are specified for a particular bridge design so the required fatigue life of steel bridges may be achieved. The axle load will not usually be the sum of the two wheel loads because the line of action of the cross-balancing will be different in each wheel. With the locomotive's static weight known the amount of overbalance which may be put into each wheel to partially balance the reciprocating parts is calculated. Strains measured in a bridge under a passing locomotive also contain a component from piston thrust. This is neglected in the above calculations for allowable overbalance in each wheel. It may need to be taken into account.

Response of wheel to hammer blow
Since the rotating force alternately reduces the wheel load as well as augmenting it every revolution the sustainable tractive effort at the contact patch drops off once per wheel revolution and the wheels may slip. Whether slipping occurs depends on how the hammer blow compares on all the coupled wheels at the same time.

Excessive hammer blow from high slipping speeds was a cause of kinked rails with new North American 4–6–4s and 4–8–4s that followed the 1934 A.A.R. recommendation to balance 40% of the reciprocating weight.

Out-of-balance inertia forces in the wheel can cause different vertical oscillations depending on the track stiffness. Slipping tests done over greased sections of track showed, in one case, slight marking of the rail at a slipping speed of 165 mph but on softer track severe rail damage at 105 mph.

Piston thrust from connecting rod angularity
The steam engine cross-head sliding surface provides the reaction to the connecting rod force on the crank-pin and varies between zero and a maximum twice during each revolution of the crankshaft.

Unlike hammer blow, which alternately adds and subtracts for each revolution of the wheel, piston thrust only adds to the static mean or subtracts from it, twice per revolution, depending on the direction of motion and whether the locomotive is coasting, or drifting.

In a double-acting steam engine, as used in a railway locomotive, the direction of the vertical thrust on the slide bar is always upwards when running forward. It varies from nothing at the end of stroke to a maximum at half stroke when the angle between the con-rod and crank is greatest. When the crank-pin drives the piston, as when coasting, the piston thrust is downwards. The position of maximum thrust is shown by the increased wear at the middle of the slide bars.

The tendency of the variable force on the upper slide is to lift the machine off its lead springs at half-stroke, and ease it down at the ends of stroke. This causes a pitching, and because the maximum up force is not simultaneous for the two cylinders, it will also tend to roll on the springs.

Similarities with balancing other machinery
The dynamic balancing of locomotive wheels, using the wheels as the balancing planes for out-of-balance existing in other planes, is similar to the dynamic balancing of other rotors such as jet engine compressor/turbine assemblies. Residual out-of-balance in the assembled rotor is corrected by installing balance weights in two planes that are accessible with the engine installed in the aircraft. One plane is at the front of the fan and the other at the last turbine stage.

See also
 Balancing machine
 Noise, vibration, and harshness

References
Citations

Sources

Balance

it:Contralbero
nl:Balansas
pt:Equilíbrio de motores de combustão interna

Engine balance


Torsam Khan (sometimes spelled "Torsan Khan") was a squash player from Pakistan. He belonged to a Pashtun family from Nave kali, Peshawar, Pakistan. He is the son of the 1957 British Open champion Roshan Khan, and the older brother of Jahangir Khan, who went on to become arguably the greatest squash player of all time. Torsam was groomed as a squash player by his father. In 1979, Torsam reached a career-high ranking of World No. 13 and was elected President of the International Squash Players Association. However that November, at the age of 27 and seemingly in excellent health, Torsam suffered a heart attack during a tournament match in Australia and died suddenly. His death profoundly affected his younger brother Jahangir, who was aged 15 at the time. Recently Jahangir revealed in a documentary telecasted on GEO Super that at the time of his death, Torsam had been on the verge of quitting as a player in order to concentrate on coaching Jahangir. Jahangir considered quitting the game himself immediately after Torsam's death, but instead decided to pursue a career in the sport as a tribute to his brother. Coached by Rahmat Khan (a cousin who was a close friend of Torsam's), Jahangir went on to achieve unprecedented heights within the game including a 555 match unbeaten streak between 1981 and 1986.

External links

 The Incredible Khans of Squash Part II
 Pakistan Squash - The Khan Supremacy Part VII

Pakistani male squash players
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Torsam Khan


Sir Luke Thompson (18 July 1867 – 15 January 1941) was a British coal merchant and Conservative politician.

Early life
Thompson was born on Chester Road, Bishopwearmouth, the son of John Thompson (1823–1883), a coal merchant, and his wife, Catherine (née Liddell, 1826–1915). After schooling, he became a ship's draughtsman before entering into the coal trade.

Politics
In the general election of 1922, Thompson was elected Member of Parliament for the two-seat constituency of Sunderland, alongside Walter Raine. Both were defeated by the Labour politicians Marion Phillips and Alfred Smith in the general election of 1929, Thompson regained the seat in a by-election in 1931, following Smith's death. He then held the seat alongside Phillips, briefly, and then with Samuel Storey. Retaining the seat after the general election of 1931, he sat until the general election of 1935 when he retired.

Thompson was knighted by George V in 1934.

Death
Thompson was accidentally killed on 15 January 1941 in Sunderland, aged 73, according to Sir Cuthbert Headlam, Bart. after "trying to work a winch and [getting] caught up in the machinery." He was buried in Bishopwearmouth Cemetery with his wife's parents and siblings.

Family
On 19 October 1895, Thompson married Ann Trobe Potts (1869–1946) at Fawcett Street chapel, Sunderland. They had two daughters, Dorothy Trobe (1896–?) and Catherine (1900–?).

References

External links

1867 births
1941 deaths
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
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Politicians from Sunderland
Politicians from Tyne and Wear
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Luke Thompson (politician)


Abel Lawrence Foster (September 17, 1802 - May 21, 1877) was a United States Representative from New York.

Biography
A. Lawrence Foster was born on September 17, 1802, in Littleton, Massachusetts.  He studied law in Vernon, New York, was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Morrisville, New York, in 1827.

Foster ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 1838. In 1840, he was elected as a Whig to the Twenty-seventh Congress (March 4, 1841, to March 3, 1843). During his term, Foster was Chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of the Treasury. He did not run for reelection in 1842.

In 1844, he moved to a farm in Fairfax, Virginia, which included the land that is now Tysons Corner. In the 1850s, he served as a Fairfax County Commissioner.

During the Civil War Foster supported the Union, and relocated temporarily to Washington, D.C.  In 1862, he was appointed U.S. Indian Agent for the Chippewa of the Mississippi in Minnesota.

After the Civil War he returned to Fairfax, and was appointed one of three U.S. Tax Commissioners for the northern part of the state after Virginia was readmitted to the Union.  In this capacity he was responsible for the sale to the federal government of the Robert E. Lee estate, which is now Arlington National Cemetery.

Foster's health began to fail in the 1870s, after which he resided in Washington, D.C. He died there on May 21, 1877, and was buried in Glenwood Cemetery.

In the 1890s, his heirs petitioned Congress to compensate them nearly $29,000 (over $712,000 in 2009) for Foster's property and supplies that were used by the Union Army or destroyed by the Confederacy.  In the early 1900s the United States Court of Claims authorized partial payment to resolve the case.

References

External links

 A. Lawrence Foster biography at the Political Graveyard
 Foster Genealogy on Google Books

1802 births
1877 deaths
People from Littleton, Massachusetts
People from Morrisville, New York
Politicians from Fairfax, Virginia
Politicians from Washington, D.C.
New York (state) lawyers
Members of the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors
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Burials at Glenwood Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)
Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers

A. Lawrence Foster


Charles Wriothesley ( REYE-əths-lee; 8 May 1508 – 25 January 1562) was a long-serving officer of arms at the College of Arms in London. He was the last member of a dynasty of heralds that started with his grandfather—Garter Principal King of Arms John Writhe.

Personal life
Charles Wriothesley was a younger son of Thomas Wriothesley, who also became Garter King of Arms, and his wife, Jane Hall. His uncle, William Wriothesley, had also served at the College of Arms as York Herald. Charles Wriothesley was born in London on 8 May 1508. In 1511, he moved with his family into Garter House, which his father had built as an embodiment of the family's rise to fame. His father sent him to Cambridge to study law. He was being educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge by 1522.

He seems to have married twice. His first wife was the daughter of a Mr Mallory. When he died at his lodgings London on 25 January 1562, however, there was no mention made of a wife or children in his funeral certificate. His fellow heralds paid for a splendid funeral. He was buried not in St Giles-without-Cripplegate, along with all the other members of his family, but in the middle aisle of St Sepulchre-without-Newgate. He left no will, and the great library of books that he had inherited from his father was sold after his death, many of its contents to Gilbert Dethick and his son William, the founders of a new heraldic dynasty.

Heraldic career
In October 1524, one of the pursuivants at the College of Arms was promoted to replace a senior herald that had died. This gave the Wriothesley family a chance to extend their dynasty. At age 16, Wriothesley was appointed Rouge Croix Pursuivant. His appointment was made formal by letters patent on 29 May 1525 with the annual salary of £10. Shortly after this appointment, Wriothesley resumed his interrupted legal training. In 1529 he became a gentleman of Gray's Inn.

In the early 1530s, Wriothesley reached the peak of his career as an officer of arms. He was a part of the ceremony that created Anne Boleyn as Marquess of Pembroke in 1532. He also attended her coronation the following year. The death of Thomas Wriothesley on 24 November 1534 set a series of promotions at the College of Arms into motion. Thomas Wall was made Garter King of Arms, and Charles was made Windsor Herald of Arms in Ordinary. Wriothesley's work as a herald seems to have been undistinguished, and he plainly did not prosper. When Thomas Wall died in 1536, after only two years' tenure as Garter, Wriothesley found himself overlooked for the promotion to his father's and grandfather's office. Even the succession of his cousin Thomas, Baron Wriothesley, to the Lord Chancellorship does not seem to have improved his prospects. When Christopher Barker died in 1550 Wriothesley was again passed over for promotion to Garter. His name appears in the charter of 1554 whereby King Philip and Queen Mary I established the heralds and their successors as a corporation with perpetual succession and granted them the house called Derby Place in which to keep safe their records and rolls and all things touching their faculty.

See also
 A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559, (Wriothesley's Chronicle)
 Heraldry
 King of arms

Notes

References

External links

 The College of Arms
 Heraldic List of Officers of Arms
 A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559, I Wriothesley's Chronicle, Volume I at Internet Archive
 A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559, II Wriothesley's Chronicle, Volume II at Internet Archive

1508 births
1562 deaths
English chroniclers
16th-century English historians
English genealogists
English officers of arms
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
Charles

Charles Wriothesley


George Robert Christensen (born 30 June 1978) is an Australian former politician and former journalist who was a member of the Australian House of Representatives from 2010 to 2022, as the member of parliament (MP) for the division of Dawson. He was a member of the Liberal National Party of Queensland and sat with the National Party in federal parliament, prior to leaving the party in April 2022 to join One Nation, just days before the end of his parliamentary term.

Christensen is known for his socially conservative political views. He is also known for his anti-Islamic views and links to far-right organisations and media figures.

Early years and background
Christensen was born in Mackay to third-generation cane farmers; his ancestors emigrated from Denmark in 1901. He is the eldest son to two disability pensioners. He joined the Young Nationals at the age of 15 and was state president of the Queensland Young Nationals from 2003 to 2004. Christensen was schooled in Andergrove, Walkerston and at Mackay State High before completing an undergraduate communications degree in journalism at Central Queensland University in Rockhampton in 2000. As a university student, Christensen was editor of The Student Advocate, a conservative university newsletter, and spent six months work experience at a community newspaper, The Pioneer News.

When he was 21 years old, Christensen briefly attended a seminary in Melbourne with the intention to become a Catholic priest. However, when his father "pointedly objected," Christensen chose not to pursue it. Later, in 2014, he converted to worship in the Antiochian Orthodox Church.

From 2001–2004, Christensen worked as an electorate officer and press secretary for federal Nationals MP De-Anne Kelly.

In 2005, Christensen founded a publishing business with Nicole Ratliff, his girlfriend of the time, to produce two community newspapers Walkerston & Valley Advertiser and Northern Beaches Advertiser. The business folded in 2013.

Political career

Local council
In 2004, Christensen was elected to Mackay City Council as a councillor, and in 2008 gained a seat on the amalgamated Mackay Regional Council. He was a director of the Mackay Regional Housing Company and Vice-President of Mackay Regional Council for Social Development. He was the foundation chair of Walkerston Community Kindergarten Association and former chair of HACC Transport Mackay Inc.

Parliament
Christensen ran as the LNP candidate for the seat of Dawson at the 2010 federal election. On 5 February 2010 the sitting member for Dawson, James Bidgood, announced that he would retire for health reasons after only one term. Christensen won the seat with a 5.02-point swing on a  two-party-preferred vote with a margin of 2.43 points.

Christensen gained national media attention during the election campaign for articles published by Christensen in the 1990s in The Student Advocate, a conservative university newsletter. The newsletter articles contained slurs against Jews, gays and women. Although Christensen claimed that the articles had been taken out of context, he said he was sorry for publishing the comments.

Member for Dawson
After the election, it was revealed that Christensen failed to resign from his position on the Mackay Regional Council before the election, putting himself at risk of High Court action which would not allow him to take office as the member for Dawson. Previously, independent Phil Cleary and Liberal Jackie Kelly had been faced with a by-election after failing to resign from public service positions before winning their respective seats. Despite this, several constitutional law experts said it was unlikely any legal challenge against Christensen would be successful because the constitution ban on "officers of profit under the crown" being elected to federal parliament would most likely not apply to local government councillors.

In July 2011, Christensen joined other Liberal National Party MPs in driving the entire Bruce Highway as part of a campaign to highlight problem areas on the road and to secure more funding for the Bruce Highway from the Commonwealth. During the road trip, one of the vehicles in the convoy of MPs hit what Christensen described as a "crater of a pothole" resulting in a tyre blowout.

In June 2011 Christensen drew criticism from fellow MPs for his manner of attack on Labor's shutdown of the live cattle trade to Indonesia. Christensen implied that Indonesia's religion (the dominant Islamic culture) is to blame for the torture of common cattle and that Australian farmers should not receive criticism for Indonesian mistreatment of live cattle exported to the nation.

In September 2012 he accused the National Health and Medical Research Council of demonising the sugar industry due to their recommendation to minimise sugar intake.

Christensen launched a campaign in October 2012 to persuade the producers of science fiction television series Doctor Who to film the program in Australia in celebration of the 50th anniversary of its first screening on Australian television on 12 January 2015. Two Doctor Who stars publicly supported Christensen's campaign.

2013–2016: Second term
In the 2013 Federal Election, Christensen won a second term in office by defeating Labor candidate Bronwyn Taha, adding a further 5.15% to give him a margin of 7.6%.

In March 2013, Christensen told media that he wanted to see the death penalty introduced for serious crimes including murder involving sexual assault. In May 2011, Christensen refused to back a motion condemning the death penalty and instead told federal parliament he supported the death penalty "for terrorists and for those found guilty of the most heinous of crimes – murder of a child, particularly those involving rape, murder of an elderly person or a person with disabilities, again particularly those involving rape".

In May 2014, Christensen stated on Twitter that those criticising the 2014 federal budget should "do a tour of Asia & live like these locals", featuring a photo of an impoverished backstreet in a non-specified country.

In July 2015, Christensen suggested on his website that Australia should consider corporal punishment for drug traffickers,  writing that "It's time to do things differently, and I suggest we take a look at how they address the problem in Singapore. Their use of corporal punishment seems to be a highly effective deterrent". In November 2015, Christensen again called for the bringing back of the death penalty.

On 25 February 2016, Christensen renewed calls for the suspension of the Safe Schools Program, an anti-bullying program, with a speech saying elements of the program sounded "a lot like the grooming work that a sexual predator might undertake". On 16 March, after receiving a briefing on a review of the Safe Schools program, Christensen and other conservative MPs declared the review a "stitch-up" with a narrow scope. In a speech later that day, Christensen called for a parliamentary inquiry into the program, linking an alleged "paedophilia advocate" with the foundation of the Safe Schools program.

On April 2016, Christensen introduced the Flags Amendment (Protecting Australian Flags) Bill 2016, which attempted to make it an offence to desecrate the Australian flag, but the bill did not get passed.

2016–2019: Third term
Christensen was returned for a third term at the 2016 federal election, with a reduced margin when there was a 4.51% swing against him towards the Labor Party candidate Frank Gilbert.

Christensen publicly encouraged Americans to vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 US election. Days before the election, Christensen issued a plea on Facebook for Americans to "do the rest of the free world a favour" and vote for Trump.

In February 2017, Cory Bernardi and George Christensen attracted criticism for speaking at the Q Society of Australia. The event received protests who called the event "racist". Christensen resigned as the Nationals' Chief Whip, effective from 1 March 2017, reasoning that being whip is untenable for 'the person that's supposed to be a standard bearer of discipline within the party to be out there talking against some of the Government policies as strenuously as I have been'.

A poll conducted by ReachTel in February 2017 revealed that, given the opportunity, Dawson constituents were equally likely to vote for One Nation as they were for the LNP - taking 30% versus 30.4% of first preference votes. One Nation has not run a candidate in the division of Dawson since Christensen won the seat, however, Christensen voiced his concern in 2016 that he would quite possibly lose his seat if One Nation placed a candidate against him. Christensen voted for One Nation in the 1998 Queensland election.

Christensen repeatedly threatened to resign from the LNP, and in February 2017 wrote a "letter of demand" to the Prime Minister in relation to inaction by the Federal Government to resolve a sugar industry dispute affecting his electorate. His father Ian Christensen wrote on social media "My Dad and George's Grandad, Tony Christensen, farmed the land (and) grew sugarcane for many decades ... If (Prime Minister Malcolm) Turnbull and the others in Cabinet think this is (an) idle threat from George I suggest they have a quick rethink and come down on the Aussie farmers' side." Christensen later apologised to Nationals leader Barnaby Joyce for his resignation threat.

In 2017, Christensen's trip to Malaysia as a "medical tourist" for stomach reduction surgery led to criticism from the Australian Medical Association, "We have a world-class system here in Australia. Why would anyone, much less a federal MP, go overseas to have a procedure they can safely have here? Isn't it the government's job to support our own health system?" While some doctors spoke of Christensen's bravery in speaking publicly about his struggle with weight, there was criticism about the Federal Government's failure to appreciate the "gravity of obesity as a public health problem and commit to meaningful policy and action." Christensen is a vocal supporter of the sugar industry and has rejected policies such as a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages aimed to reduce obesity. In noting a link between low-incomes and obesity, doctors stressed the importance of improving the public health system: "Unfortunately, a lot of our population are not in a position to seek measures like weight loss surgery because they simply can't afford it and our public hospitals are not providing it in anywhere near the numbers required."

On 26 February 2018, he ran a last-minute challenge for the leadership of the National Party against the ultimate winner, Michael McCormack.

2019–2022: Fourth term
At the 2019 federal election, held on 18 May 2019, Christensen was returned for a fourth term, with his previous margin increased by 11.43%.

In February 2020, Christensen travelled to the UK with fellow MP Andrew Wilkie to meet Australian WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, while calling for Assange to be released.

Christensen served on the "Inquiry into the destruction of 46,000 year old caves at the Juukan Gorge in the Pilbara region of Western Australia", which delivered its interim report in December 2020.

During and after the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Christensen, along with fellow backbencher Craig Kelly, aired conspiracy theories relating to the riots on social media. With these riots emboldening white supremacists and other far-right extremists in Australia, the refusal of Prime Minister Scott Morrison to reprimand them was seen as "dangerous" by one expert on violent extremism.

In April 2021, Christensen announced he would not recontest the 2022 federal election, avowing an original intent to serve only three terms, and to spend more time with his family.

In May 2021, several news sources reported that Christensen asked the Liberal National Party to disendorse him, which would have allowed Christensen to pocket a severance payment of over $100,000.

In January 2022, contrary to scientific consensus, Christensen called for Australian parents to not vaccinate their children against COVID-19, prompting the Prime Minister to urge Australians to 'disregard' Christensen's 'dangerous messages.'

On 7 April 2022, Christensen announced his resignation from the Liberal National Party "effective immediately", just days before the election was called, claiming the party was trying to be "all things to all people".

On 12 April 2022, Christensen announced he had joined Pauline Hanson's One Nation and rescinded his retirement to contest the election. He was on One Nation's Senate ticket in the Federal Election, held on 21 May.

By contesting the election again, albeit in a position on a senate ticket widely considered unwinnable, Christensen became eligible for the financial payout provided to defeated MPs, in Christensen's case reported to be around $105,000.

Australian Federal Police investigations

Facebook
On 18 February 2018, Christensen posted a Facebook photo of himself with a firearm, captioned "do you feel lucky, greenie punks?" (sic); it received widespread criticism and led to an investigation by the Australian Federal Police. He took the post down shortly after. Then-Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull told 3AW during an interview that the post was "very inappropriate and he took it down after he was spoken to about it".

Money transfers
Later in the same year, he was again investigated by the Australian Federal Police, due to the discovery of large amounts of money being sent overseas by the MP. The federal police found no crime had been committed under Commonwealth law but did raise concerns over whether he had compromised his position as an MP.

Overseas travel to Manila
Christensen was criticised for being in the Philippines for more days than he was in Parliament House for two years in a row, taking 28 trips there between 2014 and 2018. The Australian Federal Police again investigated Christensen's travel there and cash transfers, finding no evidence of wrongdoing, but advised then Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull that Christensen could be detained in Manila for questioning by Philippines police over his activities there.  Christensen was criticised for using taxpayer funds for domestic flights which connect with his Manila flights for these visits, and referred himself to the Independent Parliamentary Expenses Authority (IPEA) to prove that this was within the rules. The IPEA found some of Christensen's travel claims were non-compliant, and Christensen repaid the money.

In 2019, Christensen, now dubbed by his colleagues and the media as the "Member for Manila", blocked the release of the AFP travel inquiry documents.

In 2020, former Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull released details in his memoir of the 2018 police investigation into Christensen's travel to the Philippines, accusing George Christensen of spending up to 100 days a year overseas on full pay while staying in seedy hotels in Angeles City, the red-light district of the Philippines. It was also revealed that both the Australian and Philippines police were concerned that the MP would be a target for blackmail. Turnbull alleged that the AFP told him Christensen was spending "substantial sums in Manila bars and nightclubs as well as making many small payments to women there". Turnbull also alleged that this was against diplomatic advice: "Against the advice of our embassy in the Philippines, he had been staying in seedy hotels in Angeles City, which was not only recklessly unsafe but made him vulnerable to being compromised." Christensen was also making similar trips to Thailand. Turnbull alleged that Christensen threatened him via the dissolving message app, Signal, saying "'remember two words: parliamentary privilege; and two more years of it". Turnbull states that Christensen's "hypocrisy" made him "sick" - as Christensen also claimed to be a devout Christian.

Political positions

Climate change
In July 2014, Christensen likened climate change to science fiction in a series of comments comparing contemporary statements about climate change to science fiction movie plotlines. In September 2014, Christensen labeled Greenpeace and other environmentalists as terrorists, stating that they are "gutless green grubs" for opposing the expansion of the Abbot Point coal terminal in his electorate. In a speech to Parliament, Christensen said that "the greatest terrorism threat in North Queensland, I'm sad to say, comes from the extreme green movement".

In an interview with SBS Broadcasting Group, Christensen said that there was a conspiracy between the United Nations and most of the world's scientists to "make money out of the world wide carbon trade".

Christensen endorses the climate denial position taken by fellow conservative Member of Parliament, Craig Kelly.

Islam
In February 2013, Christensen was the only federal MP to attend a rally featuring controversial Dutch politician and anti-Islam campaigner Geert Wilders during his tour of Australia. Christensen said he supported Wilders' view that "people of dual citizenship who act in a way that is contrary to the values of this country and engage in extremist violence should have their citizenship stripped and be deported."

In the wake of the 2012 Sydney anti-Islam film protests in September, Christensen criticised those taking part in the demonstration, saying those who broke the law should "jump on the first plane and head back to where you come from because that stuff is just simply not on in this nation." He also called for authorities to investigate the parents of a young boy who held up a sign which read "behead all those who insult the prophet" during the protests and said the child in question should be put in the care of "better people".

In September 2014, Christensen called for a ban on the wearing of the burqa. In November 2014, Christensen claimed in an online opinion piece that halal certification was "outrageous" and a "religious tax". He also claimed that it is "entirely feasible" to think some halal certifiers could be financing groups such as Hamas or the Muslim Brotherhood. In December 2014, Christensen drew criticism after making comments on Twitter labelling the "I'll Ride With You" online solidarity campaign following the Sydney Siege as a "typical lefty (campaign) that falsely portrays Aussies as thugs who endanger Muslims." In another tweet, Christensen went on to state: "As I suspected. The #illridewithyou campaign is proudly brought to us by another #hatingwhitey lefty activist". The #illridewithyou hashtag was begun during the Sydney Siege, with thousands  of people offering to accompany Muslim women on trains, buses, ferries and planes if they felt vulnerable travelling wearing hijabs and burqas. It was inspired by claims about an incident on public transport at the time, which the originator of the claims later confessed on Facebook that she had "editorialised."

On 19 July 2015, Christensen stated in a speech at a Reclaim Australia rally in Mackay that it was "foolishly naive to think that" Australia was not "at war with radical Islam".

In February 2016, Christensen announced the launch of a new website, authorised by his office, to "fight the war on radical Islam." He called for writers and researchers to help him, without pay. As of July 2017 the website reads "Website coming soon" with a masthead depicting a sword, and crosshairs over a person holding a gun.

On 20 September 2017, Christensen moved a motion to ban the burqa at the National Party's annual conference in Canberra. The motion was voted down 51 votes to 55, with Christensen saying he would continue to advocate for the policy.

Alt-right media
Christensen has a couple of times appeared on alt-right media. In 2017 he appeared on "The Dingoes", a group that runs a podcast titled The Convict Report, which has included guests such as One Nation MP Mark Latham. Christensen has since expressed regret at his appearance. In September 2020, it was reported that Christensen was on "The Unshackled", another alt-right media group. He defended this appearance, with a spokesperson for Christensen, saying that "You do not 'catch' extremism by being interviewed by someone who has also interviewed people with extreme views."

In 2021 Christensen appeared on the TV show of American far-right conspiracy theorist Alex Jones.

Abortion
Christensen holds an ostensibly anti-abortion stance and has criticised all factions of parliament, including his own party, for funding local and international services which provide abortion. He was an outspoken critic of the Queensland Labor Party's successful effort to decriminalise abortion in 2018 and encouraged members of the public to oppose the reforms at numerous public rallies throughout early 2018.

COVID-19 pandemic
Christensen is a vocal critic of the Australian government response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

In October 2020 he called for the lifting of a ban on hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of COVID-19. In July 2021 he spoke at an anti-lockdown protest in Mackay, alongside Q-anon followers. On 10 August 2021, in the Australian federal parliament, he called for an end to lockdowns, considering them ineffectual. He also presented misleading and inaccurate evidence that "masks don't work" and "Domestic vaccine passports are a form of discrimination."  His claims conflict with information presented on the Australian Government's Department of Health website. Christensen was quickly censured by the opposition, the government, and the House of Representatives voted unanimously in favour, including his own party. He repeated his call for an end to lockdowns in the Australian federal parliament on 23 August 2021.

Facebook removed a video of Christensen's anti-lockdown speech after finding it contained "harmful health information" that breached Facebook's COVID-19 misinformation policy. Christensen also told parents to not vaccinate their children against COVID-19, against scientific consensus and the official policy of the government that Christensen is a member of.

Christensen caught COVID in April 2022 and self-administered ivermectin which is not an approved treatment for COVID in Australia.

Personal life
In 2019, Christensen married April Asuncion, whom he met in the Philippines in 2017. A joint investigation between Nine News, The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age alleged Christensen was a regular at the Ponytails bar - an adult entertainment venue in Angeles City. According to Nine News, the manager of the club stated Christensen was a "big spender". The media outlets also alleged that Christensen's wife was an employee at Ponytails. Christensen denied that and called the stories "defamatory".

Electoral performance

References

External links
 Liberal People – George Christensen
 Mackay Regional Council – Cr George Christensen
 Liberal National Party – George Christensen

1978 births
Abbott government
Living people
People from Mackay, Queensland
Liberal National Party of Queensland members of the Parliament of Australia
Australian conspiracy theorists
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Dawson
Turnbull government
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Australia
Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Roman Catholicism
Members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
21st-century Australian politicians
Australian republicans
Australian people of Danish descent
Australian people of Scandinavian descent
Australian critics of Islam

George Christensen


Samudra Raksa (Old Javanese: Defender of the seas) is a replica ship built in 2003 based on the relief of ships in the Borobudur temple. In the late 20th century, Philip Beale, a British sailor, became interested in depictions of the ship at Borobudur and decided to reconstruct one. Aided by government and international bodies, he organized an expedition team that constructed the ship and, from 2003 to 2004, sailed it from Indonesia to Madagascar and to Ghana, proving that long-distance trade could have occurred. The Samudra Raksa Museum was constructed at Borobudur Archeological Park to house the ship, opening in 2005, and provides other displays to interpret the ancient maritime history of Indonesians.

Description

The keel is 17.29 m long and the hull is about 19 m overall with a beam of 4.25 m and moulded depth of 2.25 m. The sailing draft was approximately 1.5 m. The ship was propelled by two layar tanja  (canted rectangular sails). The hull planking was bungor (sometimes called 'benteak') and decks were teak. The ship was not constructed with tall shields on the bow and stern like the reliefs because they obstructed the view to an extent that contravened Regulations for the Prevention of Collision at Sea.

The ship was named Lallai Beke Ellau (Bajo for "running with the sun") by its builder. The ship has 2 motors that are attached to the sides, their function is to maneuver when the boat is about to depart or when the boat is out of wind.

Borobudur ship expedition
Based on archeological and other evidence, scholars have learned that the bas reliefs of Borobudur depict the everyday life of 8th-century ancient Java, from courtly palace life to that of commoners in the village. An array of temple, marketplace, architecture, flora and fauna, dress, jewelry and fashion are portrayed, as well as modes of transportation including palanquins, horse carriages and ships.

In 1982, Philip Beale, a British sailor who previously served in the British Royal Navy, visited Borobudur to study traditional ships and marine traditions; he became fascinated with ten bas-relief images of ancient vessels depicted on Borobudur. He planned to reconstruct this ancient ship and to reenact the ancient maritime trade route. Working from very limited data—five stone carvings—but also his extensive naval experience, Beale organized an expedition team to reconstruct the ship and sail it from Jakarta in Indonesia to Madagascar, and then around the Cape of Good Hope to the west coast of Africa. He enlisted artisan experts and scholars in the effort.

Extensive research and design work preceded the building of the ship by a team of experienced Indonesian ship builders, based in the Kangean Islands some 60 miles north of Bali. Nick Burningham, an acknowledged expert on Indonesian watercraft and maritime archaeology, supervised the building of the vessel. The ship was built by Assad Abdullah al-Madani, a seasoned Indonesian traditional ship builder, and his men, with little more than a balsa wood model that Burningham had created to help him. The vessel is named Samudra Raksa (defender of the seas) and was inaugurated in Benoa Harbor, Bali on 15 July 2003 by the Minister for Tourism and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia, I Gede Ardika, together with Philippe Delanghe, UNESCO Office Jakarta Program Specialist for Culture.

The expedition took place during the 6 months from August 2003 until February 2004. It started in Tanjung Priok harbour, Jakarta on 30 August 2003, launched by President Megawati Sukarnoputri, and arrived in the port of Tema, Accra, Ghana on 23 February 2004. The epic voyage demonstrated ancient trading links between Indonesia and Africa (in particular Madagascar and East Africa). Vessels traveled by what was historically called the "Cinnamon shipping route" from Indonesian waters across the Indian Ocean to the Seychelles, Madagascar, and then past South Africa to Ghana for trade.

Today the Samudra Raksa is housed and displayed in Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur temple within the complex of Borobudur Archaeological Park. The Ship Museum Samudra Raksa was opened by Coordinating Minister for Welfare, Prof. Dr. Alwi Shihab of the Republic of Indonesia, on 31 August 2005. It was a tribute to the crew and all who worked with and supported the Borobudur Ship Expedition.

On stamps
In 2005, two stamps was released in commemoration of the expedition:

See also
 Sarimanok, another replica of Borobudur ship made in Philippines in 1985

References

Bibliography

Replica ships
Ships of Indonesia
Austronesian ships

Samudra Raksa


The sulcular epithelium is that epithelium which lines the gingival sulcus.  It is apically bounded by the junctional epithelium and meets the epithelium of the oral cavity at the height of the free gingival margin.  The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized.

References

Dental anatomy

Sulcular epithelium