The 1880 Republican National Convention convened from June 2 to June 8, 1880, at the Interstate Exposition Building in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Delegates nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio and Chester A. Arthur of New York as the official Republican Party candidates for president and vice president in the 1880 presidential election.

Of the 14 men in contention for the Republican nomination, the three strongest leading up to the convention were Ulysses S. Grant, James G. Blaine, and John Sherman. Grant had served two terms as president from 1869 to 1877, and was seeking an unprecedented third term in office. He was backed by the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party, which supported political machines and patronage. Blaine was a senator and former representative from Maine who was backed by the Half-Breed faction of the Republican Party. Sherman, the brother of Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman, was serving as Secretary of the Treasury under President Rutherford B. Hayes. A former senator from Ohio, he was backed by delegates who did not support the Stalwarts or Half-Breeds.

With 379 votes required to obtain the nomination, on the first ballot Grant received 304 votes, Blaine 285, and Sherman 93. Balloting continued for several days without producing a nominee. After the thirty-fifth ballot, Blaine and Sherman switched their support to a new "dark horse", James Garfield. On the next ballot, Garfield won the nomination with 399 votes, 93 more than Grant. Garfield's Ohio delegation chose Chester A. Arthur, a Stalwart, as Garfield's running mate. Arthur won the vice presidential nomination with 468 votes, and the longest-ever Republican National Convention adjourned. The Garfield–Arthur Republican ticket narrowly defeated Democrats Winfield Scott Hancock and William Hayden English in the 1880 presidential election.

Background
As President of the United States, Rutherford B. Hayes had caused tension within the post-American Civil War Republican Party. In an effort to aid post-war Reconstruction, he had offered government appointments to Southern Democrats, most of whom were former Confederates. His actions were contrary to the then-prevailing spoils system of patronage appointments and the campaign strategy of "waving the bloody shirt" employed by Republicans in the years after the war. Hayes's actions drew heavy criticism from party loyalists, including Roscoe Conkling of New York, leader of the Stalwarts, and James G. Blaine of Maine, leader of the Half-Breeds. Hayes had known since the dispute over the 1876 election that he was unlikely to win in 1880, and had announced at his 1877 inauguration that he would not run for a second term. Without an incumbent in the race, the Stalwarts and Half-Breeds each hoped to nominate their candidate.

Ulysses S. Grant

At the close of Grant's two terms as president in 1877, the Republican-controlled Congress suggested that Grant not return to the White House for a third term. Grant did not seem to mind and even told his wife Julia, "I do not want to be here [in the White House] another four years. I do not think I could stand it." After Grant left the White House, he and his wife used their US$85,000 savings to travel around the world. A biographer from the New York Herald, John Russell Young, traveled with the Grants and documented their journey in a book called Around the World with General Grant. Young saw that Grant's popularity was soaring, as he was treated with splendid receptions at his arrivals in Tokyo and Peking.

After Hayes' falling-out with the Republican Party and a perceived desire on the part of the United States' electorate for a strong man in the White House, Grant returned to the United States ahead of schedule, in hopes of seeking a third term. With the backing of the Stalwarts and calls for a "man of iron" to replace the "man of straw" in the White House, Grant was confident that he would receive the Republican nomination. Roscoe Conkling, leader of the Stalwart faction, formed a "triumvirate" with J. Donald Cameron of Pennsylvania and John A. Logan of Illinois to lead Grant's campaign. Conkling supported Grant because a Grant victory would give Stalwarts great influence in the White House. Grant accepted Stalwart support because he knew he could count on Stalwart leaders to solidify their state delegations at the convention, which would propel him toward the nomination. Conkling was so confident that he said, "Nothing but an act of God could prevent Grant's nomination." An aide to the ex-president, Adam Badeau, commented that Grant had become "extremely anxious to receive the nomination" and did not think that there was any chance of failure.

However, close friends of Grant saw that public support for his return to the White House was slipping. John Russell Young took Grant aside and told him he would lose the election, and should withdraw to avoid embarrassment. Young argued that Grant was being heavily attacked by opponents, who were against a third term. Young also told Grant that if he won, he would be indebted to the triumvirate. Grant felt that his Stalwart friends had been of great assistance and deserved political patronage if he won. Nonetheless, he listened to Young, and wrote a letter to J. Donald Cameron that authorized his name to be withdrawn from the nomination contest if his other Stalwart backers concurred. Upon hearing of his letter, Julia Grant was insistent that her husband should not withdraw his name. She said, "If General Grant were not nominated, then let it be so, but he must not withdraw his name – no, never." Young delivered the letter to the triumvirate in Chicago on May 31, but they took no action.

James G. Blaine

The other main contender for the Republican nomination was James G. Blaine, U.S. senator from Maine. Blaine had previously served in the United States House of Representatives, including serving as Speaker of the House from 1869 to 1875. Blaine and Conkling had a long-standing feud that started during an 1866 debate on the floor of the House of Representatives, and Blaine hoped to win, or to damage Conkling by preventing Grant's nomination. Four years earlier Blaine had campaigned for the nomination; in the weeks prior to the 1876 convention, he was accused of committing fraudulent activities involving railroad stocks. The specifics of Blaine's involvement were detailed in the Mulligan letters. Blaine pleaded his own defense on the floor of the House of Representatives, and read aloud selected, edited portions of the letters that were not incriminating. Despite his attempt to clear his name, Blaine was tarnished by the scandal for the rest of his career. On the Sunday before balloting was to begin in Cincinnati, Ohio, Blaine collapsed at the steps of Washington Congregational Church. He was unconscious for two days, and as a result, he lost supporters who were doubtful over his health and whether he was capable of handling the presidency. Blaine was also ridiculed by opponents, who accused him of faking illness to gain sympathy; the New York Sun headlined "Blaine Feigns a Faint". On the first ballot of the 1876 convention, Blaine received 285 votes, while Conkling was in second place with 99. After five more ballots resulted in no consensus, on the seventh ballot Conkling and other candidates switched their support to Hayes to ensure Blaine would not be nominated. Hayes defeated Blaine by 384 votes to 351.

After Blaine's failure in 1876, his supporters believed that he needed to be nominated in 1880 if he was ever going to be president, reasoning that if he tried for the nomination twice and failed, he could not count on another opportunity. As his campaign manager, William E. Chandler, put it:
Despite the Mulligan letters scandal, Blaine had succeeded remarkably in his 1880 campaign, attracting nationwide support for his candidacy. He argued for the gold standard, support for big business, a tariff to protect American jobholders, civil rights for freed Blacks and Irish independence.

John Sherman

John Sherman was a longtime senator from Ohio who also served the state in the House of Representatives in the late 1850s and early 1860s. As a senator, Sherman led the planning of the national banking system. He also oversaw the national policy for the post-Civil War banking system, and helped restore the nation's finances after the Panic of 1873. Under President Hayes, Sherman served as the Secretary of the Treasury, advocating for the gold standard and building up the country's gold reserves. Sherman's supporters did not have much confidence in his presidential bid. He was known as the "Ohio Icicle" for his uncharismatic personality, which made him unappealing to voters. His colleagues commented that in public, Sherman "was not eloquent, though a graceful speaker, confining himself almost entirely to statements of fact." In private, he was "reserved, self-contained", a personality with which many Americans were uncomfortable. If elected, Sherman intended to continue his support for the gold standard. Prior to the start of the convention, papers had predicted him to receive 110 votes in the balloting. Sherman felt that he still had a chance at the nomination if Grant's supporters broke apart after five or six ballots.

James Garfield

James Garfield came to Chicago as a senator-elect from Ohio, who had represented the state in the United States House since 1863. He was elected to the Ohio Senate in 1859, and the following year was admitted to the Ohio bar. He served as state senator until 1861, when he enlisted in the Union Army at the start of the Civil War. Garfield was assigned to command the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and had the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky. Garfield led an attack with a number of infantry regiments against Confederate cavalry at Jenny's Creek on January 6, 1862. The Confederates retreated, and for leading his men to victory, Garfield was promoted to brigadier general in March 1862.

Garfield served under Major General Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Shiloh and under Thomas J. Wood at the siege of Corinth. Garfield's health deteriorated and he was assigned to serve on a commission that investigated the conduct of Union general Fitz John Porter. In the spring of 1863, Garfield returned to the field as chief of staff for William S. Rosecrans, commander of the Army of the Cumberland. After the disastrous Chickamauga campaign in September 1863, Rosecrans was relieved of his command. Garfield had fought bravely during the battles, so his reputation was not damaged, and he was subsequently promoted to major general. Garfield's fame spread, and William Dennison engineered Garfield's 1862 election to Congress. As Whitelaw Reid commented, Garfield was "the most able and prominent of the young politicians who entered the army at the outbreak of the war." Garfield did not want to leave the army, so he personally visited President Abraham Lincoln for advice. Lincoln told Garfield that he had more generals than he could handle, and what he needed was political support, so Garfield took his seat in the House in December 1863.

Garfield was reelected every two years from 1864 to 1878. In 1872, he faced allegations of corruption for receiving $329 in tainted money in the Crédit Mobilier of America corruption scandal. Garfield denied the charges and hired William E. Chandler to defend him. There was not much evidence against Garfield, so no action was taken against him by Congressional investigators, and his political career was not significantly affected. Four years later, when James G. Blaine moved from the House to the United States Senate, Garfield became the Republican floor leader of the House. That year, Garfield served as a member of the Electoral Commission that awarded 20 contested electoral votes to Rutherford B. Hayes in his contest for the Presidency against Samuel J. Tilden. Though not affiliated with the Stalwarts or Half-Breeds, Garfield was a friend of Blaine. Prior to the 1880 Republican National Convention, Garfield expressed his support for Blaine, but when Sherman entered the race, Garfield backed his fellow Ohioan.

Pre-convention politics

In January, local district caucuses picked delegates to state Republican conventions. The state conventions then selected delegates to the national convention. The candidates engaged in behind-the-scenes maneuvering, including Sherman's use of Treasury employees from Southern states who owed him their jobs taking part in local caucuses that elected state delegations loyal to Sherman. Each state-level leader then used state conventions to pick delegates loyal to the leader's candidate. In the New York state convention, which took place in Conkling's hometown of Utica, Grant's supporters won a 217–180 majority over Blaine's, but Conkling oversaw passage of a resolution declaring that, "the Republicans of New York believe the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant as presidential candidate of urgent importance, and the delegates this day assembled are called upon and instructed to use their earnest and united efforts to secure his nomination.

Conkling commanded delegates to follow the resolution, and if they were to violate it, he guaranteed they would be personally dishonored and subjected to political revenge. However, in Chicago, a number of New York delegates went against the resolution and expressed support for Blaine. J. Donald Cameron used similar tactics to intimidate dissenters at Pennsylvania's state convention. The third triumvir, John A. Logan, locked Blaine supporters out of the Illinois state convention and replaced them with personally chosen Grant supporters.

By May 29, four days before the opening of the convention, trainloads of delegates, lobbyists, reporters, and campaign followers had arrived at Chicago's Union and Dearborn railway stations. Candidate supporters channeled through the streets with daily parades and rallies. Pre-convention predictions of the outcome were published by a number of sources. The Albany Evening Journal predicted Blaine would begin with 277 votes, Grant with 317, Sherman with 106, and 49 for other candidates. No candidate was predicted to win on the first ballot the 379 votes necessary to claim the nomination. Many in Chicago knew that a victor, most probably Grant, would only be determined if the unit rule, which required all delegates from a state must vote for the candidate preferred by that state's delegation, was in effect. If not, then a long deadlock would result until at least one major candidate succumbed.

Before voting began, delegates had to make a determination on the unit rule. Prior to the start of the convention, Garfield noted, "I regard it [the unit rule] as being more important than even the choice of a candidate." If the unit rule was supported by a majority of the delegates, the triumvirate would solidify Grant's support and win the nomination. Unfortunately for the Half-Breeds, triumvir J. Donald Cameron was chairman of the Republican National Committee. Cameron planned to suppress any opposition to the unit rule. But his plan leaked, and within days almost all the delegates knew about it. Supporters of Sherman and Blaine knew that they had to stop Cameron. Blaine's forces agreed that they could only prevent Cameron from imposing the unit rule by removing him as the chair of the Republican National Committee.

At 7:00 P.M. on May 31, Cameron convened the committee's last meeting before the convention. Of the forty-six attendees, Cameron counted only sixteen allies. The rest were anti-Grant delegates who planned to block Cameron. Colorado senator Jerome B. Chaffee handed Cameron a handwritten anti-unit rule motion that was orchestrated by William E. Chandler. Cameron expected this and ruled Chaffee's motion out of order. Under questioning by Chaffee, Cameron explained that the committee could only appoint a temporary convention chairman but could not vote on the unit rule, which he said was the purview of the convention's Rules Committee. Cameron then used a ruling from George Congdon Gorham, a California Stalwart delegate who as secretary of the United States Senate was an expert on parliamentary procedure, to sustain his action. One by one, anti-Grant delegates unsuccessfully tried to appeal Cameron's ruling. Gorham proclaimed that as committee chairman, Cameron could do "as he saw fit." Marshall Jewell, a Connecticut delegate and national committee member who had served as Grant's Postmaster General, spoke against Cameron's rulings. Cameron did not comment but called for a brief recess. After the recess, he acknowledged a motion from William E. Chandler to elect George Frisbie Hoar, a neutral senator and delegate from Massachusetts, as the convention's temporary chairman.

The committee voted 29–17 in favor of Hoar. The meeting adjourned at midnight and the members agreed to continue the following morning. News of Cameron's behavior spread throughout town overnight. His hardliner strategy had failed, and Conkling and other Grant managers sought to regain control of the situation before it became any worse. The next morning, Conkling asked his trusted colleague, Chester A. Arthur, to solve the problem. Arthur met with Chandler and the rest of the anti-Grant committee members at the entrance to the committee's suite. In the discussion, Arthur acknowledged that Grant's supporters had rejected Hoar as temporary chairman, but might be willing to reconsider. He proposed that if Grant's supporters agreed to Hoar as temporary chairman and delegates were permitted to decide on the unit rule in a free vote, Cameron would be retained chairman of the national committee. After discussing Arthur's proposal for a number of minutes, Chandler and Arthur came to agreement. Arthur was confident that since Chandler, the leader of Blaine's campaign, had accepted the deal, "it would be agreed by the Grant men." Chandler then discussed the compromise with the thirty anti-Grant committee members, and also with Garfield, who had previously expressed opposition to the unit rule. 23 of 30 anti-Grant men agreed to the terms, and Garfield commented that the proposition "must be accepted" in the "spirit of reconciliation."

The committee reconvened again on the afternoon of June 1, with Cameron sitting as the committee chairman. Arthur made a number of motions that indicated Grant's supporters from New York and Pennsylvania would support Hoar for temporary chairman of the convention. No one objected and the motions were accepted. The meeting then adjourned. A reporter from the New York Tribune later remarked that Grant's supporters had been "saved from utter ruin by the excellent management of General Arthur...."

The convention

At noon on Wednesday, June 2, Cameron gaveled in the seventh Republican National Convention and placed the nomination of Hoar as temporary chairman before the delegates, who approved unanimously. Delegates John H. Roberts of Illinois and Christopher L. Magee of Pennsylvania were selected to serve as temporary convention secretaries. Senator Eugene Hale of Maine submitted a resolution for a roll call, in which the chairman of each state delegation would announce his appointees to the convention's three committees. The committees were formed, and the convention adjourned at five minutes past three in the afternoon.

The convention reconvened at 11:00 A.M. on June 3. Conkling submitted a motion for a recess, which was rejected. Another New York delegate, Henry R. Pierson from the Committee on Permanent Organization, submitted a proposal to make the temporary convention assignments permanent. The motion was adopted, and the convention recessed until 5:00 P.M. After the recess, a motion was made for the Committee on Rules to be directed to report, but a substitute motion from George H. Sharpe of New York called for the Committee on Credentials to report. The substitute motion was rejected by a vote of 406 to 318, and the original resolution was laid on the table. At 7:30 P.M., the convention was adjourned until 10:00 A.M. the following morning.

The next morning, Conkling submitted a resolution that bound every delegate to support the party's presidential ticket. Conkling said that "no man should hold his seat here who is not ready so to agree." A voice vote was called, and the resolution received nearly unanimous delegate support. However, about a dozen or so delegates answered "no". Conkling was shocked. He asked, "[who] at a Republican convention would vote 'no' on such a resolution?" He then demanded a roll call. Most dissenters chose not to declare their disagreement on the record. Only three, all from West Virginia, voted "no", and they were showered with a "storm of hisses." Conkling then introduced a resolution to strip the three West Virginians of their votes. The West Virginians heavily criticized Conkling, prompting Garfield, who was sitting with the Ohio delegation, to try to settle the matter. He stated that the convention would be making a mistake by approving Conkling's motion, and asked for time to state his case. He went on to argue that the three West Virginians should not "be disenfranchised because they thought it was not the time to make such an expression [about a candidate]." He stated that "there never can be a convention...that shall bind my vote against my will on any question whatever." Garfield won the delegates crowd over. Conkling did not take the defeat well and recognized Garfield's growing popularity by sending him a note which read, "New York requests that Ohio's real candidate and dark horse come forward."

Afterwards, the fight over credentials erupted into a free-for-all. After John A. Logan had barred anti-Grant delegates from the state convention earlier in the year, they had decided to file credential reports. At the meeting between Arthur and Chandler, both men had agreed that the credentials issue could be discussed at the convention. A Chicago lawyer who supported Grant, Emery Storrs interrupted the legal argument over credentials by mocking the Blaine campaigners. His remarks set off a barrage of comments from both the Blaine and Grant sides. The convention went out of control, as people started shouting and jumping throughout the convention hall. As Garfield commented, the convention "seemed [as if] it could not be in America, but in the Sections of Paris in the ecstasy of the Revolution." The fracas continued until 2:00 A.M. when acting chairman Green B. Raum, the United States Commissioner of Internal Revenue, banged the gavel to end the demonstration.

Presenting the nominees
On Saturday night, the alphabetical roll call of the states to present nominees was conducted. The first candidate for the Republican nomination emerged when the Michigan delegation was in roll call. James F. Joy, the seventy-year-old president of the Michigan Central Railroad, gave the speech nominating Blaine. Joy was not a practiced public speaker, and he stumbled and rushed through his nomination speech, "because we are all now impatient for the voting." Joy ended his speech by nominating "James S. Blaine" for the Republican ticket. Promptly, a number of delegates yelled back, "G! G. Blaine, you fool!" The delegates from the next state in the roll call, Minnesota, nominated Senator William Windom as their "favorite son" candidate. Nine states later, Roscoe Conkling of New York stepped up to the podium to present his nomination for Ulysses S. Grant.

The crowd of 15,000 responded by erupting in cheers. Conkling built up the crowd's energy with his speech, and then introduced his candidate by proclaiming, "New York is for Ulysses S. Grant. Never defeated–never defeated in peace or in war, his name is the most illustrious borne by living men." He later spoke of Grant's loyalty to the American people, and then scolded Grant's enemies who had brought up the third term issue. Conkling tried to show that Grant was an honest person who had won the delegates "without patronage and without emissaries, without committees, [and ] without bureaus...." After Conkling finished his speech, boos and hisses came from Blaine and Sherman backers, while applause was heard from Stalwart supporters of Grant. After North Carolina's roll call, the Ohio delegation brought out James Garfield to give the nomination speech for John Sherman.

Garfield had not actually written a speech, and was nervous about speaking in front of such a large crowd. Before heading to Chicago, Sherman told Garfield that Garfield's speech should stress Sherman's "courageous persistence in any course he had adopted." Garfield started his speech by emphasizing his overwhelming pride for his role in the convention. Garfield then listed the qualities that a president should possess and stressed the importance of party unity. It wasn't until near his conclusion that he mentioned Sherman by name. Many reports of Garfield's speech describe it as enthusiastic, eloquent, and well received. Some accounts indicate that it was so well-received that it caused delegates to begin thinking of Garfield as a contender for the presidential nomination.

On the other hand, some members of the Sherman campaign were disappointed by Garfield's speech. One telegram from a Sherman backer sent to Sherman himself claimed that, "[Garfield] has been of no service to you...he was extremely lukewarm in his support." Rumors began to spread that Ohio Governor Charles Foster and Garfield, who were in adjoining suites at the Grand Pacific Hotel, were "conspiring to bring Garfield out as [a] candidate...." News of the finger-pointing within the Sherman camp had carried into newspapers across the country. The Albany Evening Journal reported that "[t]here is a general belief that the Ohio delegation is ready to desert Sherman and go over to Blaine in a body."

Although he had become popular with the delegates after his speech, Garfield was upset over the accusations of those inside the Sherman group, and he worried how they would affect him in the future. His close colleagues felt he was becoming too popular, too quickly. Friends, like Lorenzo Coffin, felt that his "time is not yet." Garfield heeded the advice of his friends to lower his profile at the convention, but he had already made a deep impression on the delegates. Late on the night of Sunday June 6, Benjamin Harrison, the leader of the Indiana delegation, came to Garfield's hotel suite and asked him under what conditions he would accept the nomination. Garfield replied that he had come to the convention for the sole purpose of supporting John Sherman, and told Harrison that Garfield's "name must not be used [in the nomination]."

Balloting
At ten o'clock on Monday morning, convention chairman Hoar banged his gavel to open the convention. Eugene Hale moved to immediately proceed to the presidential nominee balloting, and Roscoe Conkling seconded the motion. Newspapers had predicted the results of the balloting, and the delegates knew that it would take a number of ballots before a victor could be found. The first surprise during the balloting roll call came when John A. Logan of Illinois announced that of his state's forty-two delegates, only twenty-four were in support of Grant. This was not as "solid" as Logan had previously advertised to the rest of the Grant backers. New York faced a similar situation. Of its seventy delegates, fifty-one supported Grant, seventeen were for Blaine, and the remaining two supported Sherman. Pennsylvania fared even worse, as only thirty-two of the state's fifty-eight delegates put in their support for Grant.

After all the states were polled, the results were tabulated. Grant received 304 votes, Blaine had 284, Sherman had 93, Senator George F. Edmunds received 34, Elihu B. Washburne, who had served as the United States Ambassador to France under President Grant, had 30, and Minnesota senator William Windom received 10. Of the states represented by the "triumvirate", sixty delegates did not support Grant. None of the candidates were close to the 379 needed to secure the nomination, so the balloting continued throughout the day.

In Washington, D.C., both Blaine and Sherman were disappointed by their first-ballot vote totals. Blaine had been told that he should expect around 300 first-ballot votes, but his actual total fell sixteen short, and it was also one vote fewer than the total he received on the first ballot at the 1876 Convention. Sherman was told to expect 110 votes, which was significantly lower than the expected totals for Blaine and Grant. However, Sherman felt his chance would come later, when the Grant vote split apart. After Sherman heard his first-ballot vote totals, he grew visibly angry that "some of them [the votes] were taken away from him before the ballot began." He was upset that nine Ohio delegates bolted from Sherman and voted for Blaine. Sherman blamed Blaine for causing the defection "by [methods of] falsehood, ridicule and treachery." In Galena, Illinois, Grant did not express any emotions after being told about the first-ballot vote totals. As one newsman reported, "[t]he silent soldier was smoking his cigar with all his usual serenity." Grant's wife, Julia, expected a deadlock, and suggested to her husband that he surprise the delegates in Chicago with a visit. Grant thought this was unwise because it gave an appearance of bad luck and bad manners. Despite his wife's attempts to change his mind, Grant remained adamant.

Meanwhile, the delegates at the convention continued to cast ballots until a victor could be determined. On the second ballot of the day, Pennsylvania delegate W. A. Grier cast a vote for James Garfield. However, the Garfield support remained with that one delegate's vote for most of the day. The delegates cast eighteen ballots before taking a recess for dinner. After dinner, they came back and cast ten more ballots. Still, no candidate was close to the 379 votes needed to win. After twelve hours of balloting, Massachusetts delegate William Lovering moved to adjourn for the night. A few Grant delegates objected, but the motion to adjourn was passed by a vote of 446 to 308. After twenty-eight ballots, Grant had 307 votes, Blaine had 279 and Sherman had 91, and the rest of the votes were split between favorite son candidates including Windom and Edmunds.

Suggestions for introducing a "dark horse" candidate began to take place. Members backing each major candidate were still determined to win the nomination, but some delegates felt the deadlock could not be broken unless new candidates were introduced. Backers for Sherman and Blaine met after the convention was adjourned. Chandler laid down his terms. Blaine had nearly 300 votes, and could not simply withdraw. As Chandler explained, even "[i]f Mr. Blaine permits his column to be broken, [then] Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Nevada, California, Oregon & twelve votes in the Territories will go to Grant...[as would] Mr. Blaine's Southern votes." Both sides argued until two or three in the morning, but no decision had been reached. Grant leaders had also met that night in Roscoe Conkling's suite in the Grand Pacific Hotel. They discussed the imposing dangers of Grant's nomination bid, such as the third-term resistors. Many speculated that Grant was not going to receive the nomination. The Grant backers discussed the other two chief candidates, and found them both to be unacceptable. Some of the men called for Conkling himself as a substitute for Grant. They argued that with Grant out of the race, Conkling would face little resistance for the Republican nomination. However, Conkling refused, saying "[even] if I were to receive every other vote in the Convention, my own would still be lacking, and that I would not give. I am here as the agent of New York to support General Grant to the end. Any man who would forsake him under such conditions does not deserve to be elected, and could not be elected."

The first ballot on Tuesday morning, June 8, saw two major breaks in the voting. Massachusetts switched their twenty-one votes from Edmunds to Sherman, spiking Sherman's total to 116, the highest thus far. Chandler also convinced three Minnesota delegates to switch their support from Windom to Blaine. By the thirty-second ballot, Blaine had dropped six votes from the night before, and Grant had increased his total to 309. Despite the relatively small changes, Conkling confidently claimed that the "[m]embers of the N.Y. Delegation assert that Grant will be nominated before one o'clock." On the thirty-third ballot, nine Wisconsin delegates shifted their support from Grant to Washburne. On the next ballot, sixteen of twenty Wisconsin delegates changed their votes to Garfield. Garfield immediately called to Hoar to raise a point of order. Garfield "challenge[d] the correctness of the announcement", claiming that without his consent, he should not be receiving votes. Hoar dismissed Garfield's question, claiming later that he denied Garfield because he did not want to see a presidency undone by a simple point of order, meaning he did not want Garfield to stop the momentum for his own candidacy. At this point the vote totals for the major candidates stood at 312 for Grant, 275 for Blaine, 107 for Sherman, and 17 for Garfield. Then, during the thirty-fifth ballot roll call, Indiana shifted all 27 of its votes (mostly from the Blaine column) to Garfield. Four Maryland delegates and one delegate each from Mississippi and North Carolina also switched their votes to Garfield, bringing his total to 50.

Blaine, seeing that his chances for winning the nomination were slipping, concluded that Garfield was the most suitable alternative. Garfield was a close friend, and Blaine felt that by supporting Garfield, he could defeat Grant and Conkling and possibly receive an appointment in Garfield's administration. Similarly, Sherman, acting upon advice from his colleagues, decided to shift all his support to Garfield, to "save the Republican Party." Both candidates told their supporters to support Garfield.

With the Blaine and Sherman forces now rallying to Garfield, the movement became a stampede on the next ballot, the convention's thirty-sixth. Garfield won 399 votes, 93 more than Grant, putting him over the top and giving him the Republican nomination. Blaine finished with 42, Washburne had 5, John Sherman had 3, and the remaining were split amongst other minor candidates. Garfield was so overwhelmed with emotion after winning the nomination that an Inter Ocean reporter noted that he looked "pale as death, and seemed to be half-unconsciously to receive the congratulations of his friends." The convention was in a mad frenzy as thousands of people chanted for Garfield, and later joined in the singing of the Battle Cry of Freedom. Grant followers, like Conkling, looked on with "glum faces" and made "no effort to conceal their disappointment." Conkling took great pride in the 306 delegates who had supported Grant throughout the entire balloting. With the Grant supporters, Conkling formed a "Three Hundred and Six Guard" society. The society held annual dinners, and even drew up a commemorative coin with the inscription, "The Old Guard".

Afterwards, Hoar banged his gavel and announced, "James A. Garfield, of Ohio, is nominated for President of the United States." Garfield wrote a letter to his wife stating that "if the results meet your approval, I shall be content." Garfield's wife, Lucretia, was thrilled with her husband's nomination and gave her approval. (Garfield subsequently resigned the Senate seat to which he had been elected for the term beginning in 1881, and the Ohio Legislature then elected Sherman.)

Garfield and the Ohio delegation desired a New York Stalwart as Garfield's vice presidential running mate, partly to placate Conkling, and partly to balance the ticket geographically. Levi P. Morton declined after consulting with Conkling, who was still unhappy over Grant's loss and advised Morton not to accept. The nomination was then offered (surreptitiously, and without consulting Garfield) to Chester A. Arthur, who had close Stalwart ties to Conkling, but who had impressed delegates with his work to broker the compromise on the selection of a convention chairman. Conkling tried to talk Arthur out of accepting, urging him to "drop it as you would a red hot shoe from the forge," but Arthur insisted that he would, calling the Vice Presidency "a greater honor than I ever dreamed of attaining." Arthur won the nomination after he received 468 votes, next to 193 for Washburne, and 44 for Jewell. Former Governor Edmund J. Davis of Texas and several others were also nominated, but received little support. After Hoar banged his gavel at 7:25 P.M. on June 8, the longest ever Republican National Convention was adjourned.

Presidential Balloting / 5th Day of Convention (June 7, 1880)

Presidential Balloting / 6th Day of Convention (June 8, 1880)

Vice Presidential Balloting / 6th Day of Convention (June 8, 1880)

Aftermath
Garfield led the first front porch campaign for the Presidency. He did not travel that much, and he usually stayed at home to present his presidential agenda to visitors. Garfield enlisted the support of the other candidates from the convention to help with the campaign. The 1880 Democratic National Convention chose Winfield Scott Hancock as the presidential candidate and William Hayden English as his vice-presidential running mate. The election featured a very close popular vote that put Garfield ahead with a majority of less than 10,000; some sources put the margin as low as 2,000. However, Garfield won the election with 214 of the 369 electoral votes in the country.

On July 2, 1881, Garfield was shot by a former Chicago lawyer named Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. Guiteau was a staunch supporter of the Stalwarts, and he even gave speeches in New York to rally Grant supporters. After Garfield was elected president, Guiteau repeatedly tried to contact the president and his Secretary of State James G. Blaine in hopes of receiving the consulship in Paris. After finally being told by Blaine that he would not get the position, Guiteau decided to seek revenge on Garfield. He planned Garfield's assassination for weeks. After shooting Garfield, he proclaimed "I am a Stalwart and Arthur will be President." Garfield died on September 19, more than two and a half months after the shooting. After a lengthy trial, Guiteau was sentenced to death, and he was hanged on June 30, 1882.

See also
List of Republican National Conventions
1880 United States presidential election
United States presidential nominating convention
History of the Republican Party
1880 Democratic National Convention

Notes

References

Sources

Books

Journal

Website

External links
 Republican Party platform of 1880 at The American Presidency Project
 Garfield acceptance letter at The American Presidency Project

1880 conferences
Political conventions in Chicago
Republican National Conventions
1880 United States presidential election
1880 in Illinois
June 1880 events
19th-century political conferences
1880s political events

1880 Republican National Convention


Burnout or burn-out may refer to:

Entertainment
Burnout (film), a 2017 Moroccan film
Burn Out (film), a 2017 French film
Burnout (ride), a Funfields amusement ride in Australia
Burnout (series), a racing game series created by UK company Criterion Games, with a notable emphasis on dangerous driving and crashes
Burnout (video game), the first game of the same series
Burnout: Championship Drag Racing, a 1998 video game
"Burn Out" (CSI), an episode from the seventh season of the television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Burn Out (G.I. Joe), a fictional character in the G.I. Joe universe, member of the Dreadnoks

Music

Albums
Burn Out (album), a 1998 album by Christian pop punk band Slick Shoes
Burnout (Ox album), a 2009 album by Canadian band Ox
Burnout (Anarbor album), 2013 album by alternative rock band Anarbor

Songs
"Burn Out" (Sipho Mabuse song), 1983
"Burnout", a song by Green Day from Dookie, 1994
"Burn Out", a song by TGT from Three Kings, 2013
"Burn Out" (Midland song), 2017
"Burn Out" (Martin Garrix and Justin Mylo song), 2018
"Burnout" (10 Years song), 2018
 "Burn Out", a song by Anson Lo, 2020

Fatigue-related uses

Occupational burnout, characterized by exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy within the workplace
Caregiver burnout, occupational burnout in the context of unpaid caregiving
Autistic burnout, a state of intense mental, emotional, or physical exhaustion experienced by some autistic people
Overtraining syndrome, also called burnout among athletes

Other uses
Burnout (clothing), devoré, a fabric technique particularly used on velvets
Burnout (vehicle), when a vehicle's tires are spun so they produce smoke

See also
Burned Out (disambiguation)

Burnout


Clan Kelly is a Scots clan. The clan daes nae hae a chief recognised bi the Lord Lyon King o Arms, therefore the clan haes no staundin unner Scots Law. Clan Kelly is considered an armigerous clan, meanin that it is considered tae hae haed at ane time a chief who possessed the chiefly arms, houiver no ane at present is in possession o sic arms. The anly evidence for Clan Kelly is a reference tae Kelly o that Ilk bi Alexander Nisbet, who blazoned the arms or, a saltire sable between fower fleurs de lis azure.

The surname Kelly haes multiple different origins, wi the name originating in Ingland, Ireland an Scotland. The clan name mey be variant o Kelloe, a barony in the lands o Home in Berwickshire. Thare is an aa a Kelloe in Durham an anither in Northumberland. An early Scots bearer o the name wis William de Kellaw, who wis bailiff tae Alexander III in 1278. Anither wis Richard de Kellow, who is recorded in 1338 as a witness tae a charter in Roxburghshire. The name is an aa foond in Fife an Angus in twa place-names, for example Kellie Castle. In 1378, John de Kelly wis Abbot at Arbroath. Anither different group ar the Mackellies o Galloway an Wigtownshire. Thir mey likely be o "Celtic" strynd.

Kelly
Kelly

Clan Kelly


Mihelca () is a small settlement in the Primskovo area of the Municipality of Šmartno pri Litiji in central Slovenia. The area is part of the historical region of Lower Carniola and is now included in the Central Slovenia Statistical Region.

A small chapel-shrine on Fat Hill () in the settlement is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and dates to the late 18th century.

References

External links
Mihelca on Geopedia

Populated places in the Municipality of Šmartno pri Litiji

Mihelca


François Chalais (; December 15, 1919 – May 1, 1996) was a prominent French reporter, journalist, writer and film historian. The François Chalais Prize at the annual Cannes Film Festival is named after him.

Biography
Born in Strasbourg in 1919, Chalais' real name was François-Charles Bauer. His journalism career began under the German occupation of France during World War II, as a writer for several collaborationist publications. Nevertheless, he was awarded the Médaille de la Résistance after the liberation and continued a lengthy and distinguished career, most notably with France Soir from 1976 to 1986 and Le Figaro from 1980 to 1987. Chalais was a regular fixture on French television during the Cannes festival, interviewing celebrities and movie stars, often with his first wife and cohost France Roche.

In 1949 he fought and lost a duel with swords with director Willy Rozier, provoked by comments Chalais had made about actress Marie Dea.
In one of his reports for the French television program Panorama, titled "Spécial Vietnam: le nord vu par François Chalais" (Vietnam Special: The North Seen by François Chalais), Chalais interviewed an American pilot who was in a North Vietnamese prison hospital, John McCain. The report offered a rare glimpse of everyday life in North Vietnam during the war and featured an interview with North Vietnamese Prime Minister Pham Van Dong.

Chalais was the author of numerous books, including 18 novels and 3 memoirs.

Chalais married his second wife, Mei-Chen (née Nguyen Thi Hoa), after his famed 1968 broadcast on North Vietnam. In 1969, he was a member of the jury at the 19th Berlin International Film Festival.

Chalais died of leukemia in Paris in 1996.

Selected filmography
 Lovers of Toledo (1953)
 Pity for the Vamps (1956)

See also
 Au diable la vertu (1953)
 Candide ou l'Optimisme au XXe siècle (1960)

References

External links
2004 French presidential decree making Mei-Chen Chalais a Knight of National Order of Merit
Biography for François Chalais
François Chalais, le rendez-vous manqué (about 1997 trip to Vietnam by Mei-Chen Chalais and Chalais' cameraman Jean-Pierre Janssen, a trip François had promised to his wife)
French Archives Release Footage of McCain's Vietnam Captivity
John McCain au Vietnam – Panorama – ITA (Institut national de l'audiovisuel) Archive footage
Mort de François Chalais – Obituary, L'Humanité
Reporter's widow plans to sue over McCain interview
Association Francois Chalais

1919 births
1996 deaths
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
French male non-fiction writers
20th-century French journalists
French duellists
Writers from Strasbourg
20th-century French male writers
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in France

François Chalais


Lemuriformes  are an infraorder of Primates. It combines the lemurs of Madagascar, with the galagos and lorises of Africa and Asia.

The lorises and lemurs are a monophyletic clade. However, a popular alternative taxonomy puts the lorises in their own infraorder, the Lorisiformes.

Evolutionary history
Lemuriform origins are unclear and debated. The main problem is a lack of clear transitional fossils.

Molecular clock estimates suggest that lemurs and the lorisoids diverged in Africa during the Paleocene, about 62 mya.  Between 47 and 54 mya, lemurs got to Madagascar by rafting.  In isolation, the lemurs diversified and filled the niches often filled by monkeys and apes today.

In Africa, the lorises and galagos diverged during the Eocene, about 40 mya. Unlike the lemurs in Madagascar, they have had to compete with monkeys and apes, as well as other mammals.

Adapiformes
Because the skeletons of adapiforms share strong similarities with those of lemurs and lorises, researchers have often referred to them as "primitive" strepsirrhines, lemur ancestors, or a sister group to the living strepsirrhines.  They are included in Strepsirrhini, and are considered basal members of the clade.

Although their status as true primates is not questioned, their relationship with other primates in Strepsirrhini is unclear. Sometimes they are put in their own infraorder; sometimes they are sometimes reduced to families in the Lemuriformes.

References

Lemuriformes


RRR (which stands for Rise, Roar, Revolt) is a 2022 Indian Telugu-language period action drama movie. It is written and directed by S. S. Rajamouli. The film is a fictional story about two Indian revolutionaries, Alluri Sitarama Raju (Charan) and Komaram Bheem (Rama Rao), who fought against the British Raj and Nizam of Hyderabad respectively. It stars N. T. Rama Rao Jr., Ram Charan, Alia Bhatt, Olivia Morris, and Ajay Devgn. It was going to release on January 7, 2022, but was postponed indefinitely. Made on a budget of ₹400 crore (US$53 million), RRR was initially scheduled for theatrical release on 30 July 2020, which has been deferred multiple times due to production delays and followed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, the film was theatrically released on March 25, 2022.

Plot
In 1920, British General Scott and his wife visit Adilabad district, and forcefully take away Malli, a Gond tribal girl to serve as their maidservant in Delhi. To rescue the girl, Komaram Bheem arrives in Delhi with his men. They capture a wild tiger in the forests to aid their mission. Nizam of Hyderabad warns Scott's office about the same.

Alluri Sita Rama Raju is a police officer who proves his ability to serve the Empire. When Lady Buxton offers a promotion to the officer who catches the leader of the Gond tribe alive, Ram comes forward. He attends a meeting of the independent activists and proposes to assassinate Scott. As their goals seem to align, Bheem's aid Lachhu asks Ram to meet Bheem. However, Lachhu flees when he senses that Ram is a police. Lachhu tells Bheem about this who asks him to hide.

Ram and Bheem accidentally meet and team up to save a boy. Bheem introduces himself as a Muslim named Akhtar while Ram hides his identity of an officer. They become best friends. Bheem comes across Scott's niece Jennifer when they are trying to sneak into the palace. Ram helps Bheem to get close to her. Jennifer invites Bheem to a party which the duo attend. Impressed by his dance, Jennifer invites Bheem to the palace. Bheem silently meets Malli, assuring her rescue. Ram captures Lachhu to ask whereabouts about their leader but in vain. Lachhu gets hold of a common krait and throws it onto Ram which bites him. Lacchu warns Ram that it can kill him within an hour without anti-venom, known only to Gond people. Ram finds his way to Bheem who saves him. Bheem confesses to Ram by telling him about their mission.

Bheem and his men barge into the palace with a truck full of wild animals. Bheem unleashes them onto the British soldiers. However, Ram obstructs him as a police officer. Bheem pleads not to arrest him but Ram does not budge. Furious, Bheem fights off Ram, and goes on to climb the palace walls. Ram stops him while General Scott holds Malli at point blank. Bheem surrenders with no option left.

Bheem is sentenced to death via a public execution. Scott offers mercy if he kneels but Bheem refuses despite heaving lashing by Ram. He sings a song which motivates the public to rebel. Bheem is taken away by the officers. Ram recalls that his father Venkat Ramaraju had rebelled and sacrificed his life against the British. Venkat takes a promise from Ram that he'd a deliver a weapon to every person who takes part in the rebellion.

Venkat's friend Venkateswarulu informs Ram that his promise is going to be fulfilled since he is appointed as in charge of a shipment of arms. Ram, however, puts saving Bheem and the girl as his priority. He requests Scott to execute Bheem in the outskirts as a part of his plan. However, Scott recognizes the ploy, and injures him. Bheem frees himself and fights the guards off. Ram shoots a Britisher over Malli's head to save her. Misunderstanding this as an attack, Bheem beats up Ram and escapes with Malli. Bheem and his men hide in Hathras but the British officers arrive there. Sita recognizes that they are in danger and drives away the officers by lying that the place is infected with small pox. Sita reveals that she is Ram's cousin and love interest. She adds that Ram is sentenced to death as he went against the British to save his best friend. Bheem regrets his actions and promises Sita to rescue Ram.

Bheem sneaks into the Barracks with the help of blue print given by Jennifer. He frees Ram from the prison, taking him on his shoulder as the latter is unable to walk. Together, they fight the guards and escape. Bheem treats Ram, however, the soldiers attack them in the woods. Ram takes bow and arrows from a shrine of Lord Rama and retaliates. Bheem joins him with a javelin. They fight off the soldiers and head towards the palace. They blast a motorcycle into a room full of TNT, and explode the building. Bheem retrieves guns and ammunition and delivers it to Ram. Lady Scott is killed in the chaos while Scott is killed by Ram and Bheem.

They reunite with Sita, Jennifer and others. Upon Ram's insistence, Bheem requests to return the favour by educating him. Ram returns to his village and delivers the weapons as promised while Bheem returns to his hamlet, reuniting Malli with her mother.

Cast
N. T. Rama Rao Jr. as Komaram Bheem, a Gond tribal leader from Telangana who fought against the Nizam of Hyderabad for the liberation of Hyderabad State.

Charan as Alluri Sitarama Raju, an independence activist and a tribal leader from Andhra Pradesh. He was involved in the Indian independence movement and fought against the British Raj.

Varun Buddhadev as Young Alluri Sitarama Raju

Ajay Devgn as Venkata Rama Raju, Rama Raju's father

Alia Bhatt as Sita, Rama Raju's cousin and love interest

Spandan Chaturvedi as Young Sita

Shriya Saran as Sarojini, Rama Raju's mother

Samuthirakani as Venkateswarulu

Ray Stevenson as Scott Buxton

Alison Doody as Lady Buxton

Olivia Morris as Jennifer, Bheem's love interest

Chatrapathi Sekhar as Chandu, Bheem's companion

Makarand Deshpande as Bheem's companion

Rajeev Kanakala as Venkat Avadhani, special advisor to the Nizam

Rahul Ramakrishna as Lacchu

Edward Sonnenblick as Edward

Chakri as Rama Raju's brother

References

Other websites

Telugu-language movies
Period action movies
Movies directed by S. S. Rajamouli
Epic movies
2020s Indian movies
2022 action movies
2022 drama movies
Movies set in India
Movies set in the 1920s
2022 movies

RRR (movie)


The Burlington Traction Company is a historic trolley maintenance facility at Riverside Avenue and North Winooski Avenue in Burlington, Vermont.  The property includes two brick trolley barns, built c. 1900 and c. 1910 respectively, that were used as public transit maintenance facilities until 1999, after which they were adaptively repurposed to other residential and commercial uses.  The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.

Description and history
The former maintenance facility of the Burlington Traction Company is located in Burlington's Old North End neighborhood, on a triangular parcel bounded on the north by Riverside Avenue and the southeast by North Winooski Avenue.  The property includes three historic buildings and a modern apartment house, as well as a small public park at the intersection of the two roadways.  Abutting Riverside Avenue is a long and narrow single-story gable-roofed brick building, built as a trolley barn about 1910, with an adjoining battery house dating to about 1905.  Facing North Winooski Avenue is a larger brick barn, built about 1900.  Its main facade consists of four large bays that have finished in small-pane glass and adapted to commercial use.  Between this building and the triangular park stands the modern apartment house.

The property was used as a transit maintenance facility since at least 1885 when the Winooski and Burlington Horse Railway Corporation built a maintenance building for its horsecars.  Its successors, the Burlington Traction Company and Burlington Rapid Transit, built and expanded the surviving facilities, which were used first for streetcars and then buses until 1999. The last tenant of the maintenance facility was Vermont Transit Lines.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Chittenden County, Vermont

References

Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Burlington, Vermont
Colonial Revival architecture in Vermont
Buildings and structures completed in 1900
Buildings and structures in Burlington, Vermont
Transportation buildings and structures in Chittenden County, Vermont

Burlington Traction Company


Nationality law is the law of a sovereign state, and of each of its jurisdictions, that defines the legal manner in which a national identity is acquired and how it may be lost. In international law, the legal means to acquire nationality and formal membership in a nation are separated from the relationship between a national and the nation, known as citizenship. Some nations domestically use the terms interchangeably, though by the 20th century, nationality had commonly come to mean the status of belonging to a particular nation with no regard to the type of governance which established a relationship between the nation and its people. In law, nationality describes the relationship of a national to the state under international law and citizenship describes the relationship of a citizen within the state under domestic statutes. Different regulatory agencies monitor legal compliance for nationality and citizenship. A person in a country of which he or she is not a national is generally regarded by that country as a foreigner or alien. A person who has no recognised nationality to any jurisdiction is regarded as stateless.

Principles
Nationality law can be broadly categorized into three principles:

 jus soli, or right by birth on the soil;
 jus sanguinis, or right of the blood; and
 jus matrimonii, or right of marriage.

Laws may be based on any one of these principles, but they commonly reflect a combination of all three principles. Generally speaking, countries in the Americas have a strong jus soli heritage.

Jus soli

Jus soli is the principle, whereby birth on a country's territorial jurisdiction—e.g., land, or in some cases, vessel registered as being registered as under the jurisdiction of that country (aeroplanes, ships)—confers nationality of the country of birth to the child. In most countries, this originated from the English common law tradition that all persons born on the King's land owed an allegiance to the King. This law was inherited by the colonies and subsequently codified into their own domestic laws, such as in the United States, Canada, Australia, etc.

Jus soli laws are not always absolute: sometimes countries with jus soli laws require lawful residence in the country before the authorities will observe this right, such as in Cambodia or Thailand. Sometimes jus soli laws only operate generationally, such as in some Middle-Eastern countries, where a child born in the territory will only acquire nationality if the child's father (regardless of parental nationality) was born in the same territory. Sometimes jus soli will be restricted by age.

There is also an intersection between the principles, wherein only persons of a certain race or blood will acquire nationality at birth. For instance, in Liberia, African-born persons will acquire nationality while those of non-African origin will not be entitled to this privilege.

Jus sanguinis

Jus sanguinis is the principle whereby the nationality of a person is dictated by their blood (i.e., parentage or ancestry). For instance, in Italy, nationality may be transmitted perpetually if one can find an Italian ancestor up until the founding of the Italian state in their lineage. By contrast, other states may restrict their jus sanguinis transmission of nationality up to the registration of the second generation down the family line.

Jus matrimonii
Some states automatically confer nationality on the basis of marriage. A prominent example of a country with jus matrimonii laws is Cape Verde.

The common practice within and among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman should have the nationality of her husband; i.e., upon marrying a foreigner, the wife would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband and lose her previous nationality, often with the reciprocal recognition by the other country. Legal provisions existed that automatically naturalised married women, and sometimes married men as well. This led to a number of problems, such as: loss of the spouses' original nationality; spouses losing the right to consular assistance, as such cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals; and men becoming subject to military service obligations.

There has been a shift towards a principle that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage automatically affecting the nationality of either spouse, nor of a change of nationality by one spouse during marriage automatically affecting the nationality of their spouse. However, in many jurisdictions spouses can still obtain special and fast processing of applications for naturalisation.

Naturalization

Most states today allow for aliens to acquire a nationality via a process known as naturalization on the basis of long-term residence and other conditions. This process and the conditions it entails are detailed in the states' nationality laws. Some nationality laws have special provisions to make it easier for diaspora populations to become nationals.

Limits to nationality law
By international custom, each sovereign state generally has the right to freely determine who it will recognise as its nationals and citizens. Such determinations may be made by custom, statutory law, case law (precedent), or a combination of either. In some cases, the determination may be governed by public international law—e.g., by treaties and the European Convention on Nationality.

Nevertheless, states' rights to determine who their nationals are is not absolute, and states must comply with their human rights obligations concerning the granting and loss of nationality. In particular, nationals must not be arbitrarily deprived of their nationality. The right to a nationality and the prohibition against depriving one's nationality is codified in article 15 of the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights".

Article 1 of the "Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws" states:

It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals. This law shall be recognised by other States in so far as it is consistent with international conventions, international custom, and the principles of law generally recognised with regard to nationality.

The "Inter-American Court of Human Rights" went further in limiting state's right to determine nationality:

 [T]he manners in which States regulate matters bearing on nationality cannot today be deemed within their sole jurisdiction; [the powers enjoyed by the States in that area] are also circumscribed by their obligations to ensure the full protection of human rights.

Ethnic group-related provisions, by country
The nationality laws of several countries have special provisions in them to simplify naturalization of favored ethnic groups. The laws in these countries appear to reflect a desire by governments to guarantee a safe haven to diaspora populations, particularly those assumed to be living under precarious conditions. A non-exhaustive list of such countries laws follows.

Armenia
Article 14 of the Constitution of Armenia (1995) provides that "individuals of Armenian origin shall acquire nationality of the Republic of Armenia through a simplified procedure." This provision is consistent with the Declaration on Independence of Armenia, issued by the Supreme Soviet of Armenia in 1989, which declared, in article 4, that "Armenians living abroad are entitled to the citizenship of the Republic of Armenia."

Bulgaria
According to the Constitution of Bulgaria, Article 25(2): "A person of Bulgarian origin shall acquire Bulgarian nationality through a facilitated procedure."

Chapter Two of the Bulgarian Citizenship Act is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship", the first section of which is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship by Origin", and provides at article 9 that "[a]ny person...whose descent from a Bulgarian citizen has been established by way of a court ruling shall be a Bulgarian citizen by origin." Separately, article 15 of the Act provides that "[a]ny person who is not a Bulgarian citizen may acquire Bulgarian citizenship...if he/she...is of a Bulgarian origin."

China

The immigration law of China gives priority to returning Overseas Chinese (i.e., ethnic Chinese who were living abroad). As a result of the intersection between this provision—and other factors such as China's poor human-rights record that discourage foreign nationals in general from wanting to move there—practically all immigrants to China are ethnic Chinese, including many whose families lived outside of China for generations. The Chinese government encourages the return of Overseas Chinese with various incentives not available to others, such as "tax breaks, high salaries and exemptions from the one-child policy if they had two children while living abroad." The "rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese" are afforded special protection according to Articles 50 and 89(12) of the Chinese Constitution.

Hong Kong
In April 2015, the Hong Kong Government announced a pilot scheme named "Admission Scheme for the Second Generation of Chinese Hong Kong Permanent Residents" (ASSG).

Taiwan
The immigration law of Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) gives priority to returning Taiwanese and overseas Chinese who are not nationals of the People's Republic of China, Chinese who were living abroad, and encourages their return. However, although Republic of China have not ceded the claim on mainland China, the government does not consider the people in mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau as Republic of China nationals.

Overseas ethnic Chinese can register as Republic of China national and apply for a Republic of China passport, however, they do not automatically have a right of return to Taiwan area if they don't have a household registration there.

Not all Republic of China nationals have a right of return to Taiwan area even if they hold a Republic of China passport—specifically, those without a household registration in Taiwan area do not automatically have the right of return, may be refused entry, removed or deported from Taiwan area, and an entry permit is needed before 2011.

Czech Republic
The Czech Republic grants nationality—and thus the right of residence—to anyone whose parents are or were Czech nationals, unless the individual is also a national of a country that has a treaty with the Czech Republic barring dual nationality of the Czech Republic and that country. Moreover, people of Czech origin might be granted the right to permanent residence (Czech origin is a reason worth of consideration).

In 1995, the Czech Republic amended its Nationality Law to provide the Interior Ministry with the discretion to waive the usual five-year residency requirement for foreigners that had been resettled in the Czech Republic by 31 December 1994. This amendment was aimed particularly at several hundred ethnic Czechs which had been brought by the Czech government from the Ukrainian region of Volhynia, and was of a limited duration. The amendment was consistent with what the Czech Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has identified as "the Czech government's policy principles regarding the resettlement of foreigners of Czech origin living abroad." A private fund, the People In Need Czech TV Foundation, worked with government authorities between 1995 and 2001 to effect this resettlement in the specific instance of Russian and Kazakh nationals of Czech origin, and had resettled approximately 750 such persons as of 2000.

Finland
The Finnish Aliens Act provides for persons who are of Finnish origin to receive permanent residence. It is usually Ingrian Finns from the former Soviet Union who exercise this right, though American, Canadian, and Swedish nationals with Finnish ancestry are eligible.

The Finnish Immigration Service states that, under certain conditions, persons with "Finnish roots" or an otherwise "close connection to Finland" may receive a residence permit in Finland without the requirement of any further grounds (e.g., work or studies). Receiving a residence permit depends on the directness and closeness of Finnish ancestry. If the ancestry dates back several generations, a residence permit cannot be granted on this basis.

According to the Immigration Service, people who may be granted a residence permit based on these conditions can be divided into the following three groups:

 former Finnish nationals
 persons of other Finnish origin, including those who have at least one parent or grandparent who has been a native Finnish national.
 persons who either were evacuated from Ingria or served in the Finnish army in 1939–1945. This group includes persons from areas of the former Soviet Union who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality by Soviet or post-Soviet authorities; or who have at least one parent or two grandparents who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality in official documents (e.g., in their internal passports). This group also includes all persons who were transferred to Finland between 1943 and 1943 from areas occupied by Germany and were subsequently returned to Soviet Union; or who served in the Finnish Defence Forces during the Second World War qualify. To qualify for permanent residence permit, the persons in this group must have a basic knowledge of spoken and written Finnish or Swedish. The knowledge is tested in pre-immigration training and in a subsequent language test. In addition, they must have a pre-arranged permanent residence in Finland, but the labour authorities assist in finding an apartment.

Greece
Various phenomena throughout Greek history (e.g., the extensive colonization by classical Greek city states; the vast expansion of Greek culture in Hellenistic times; the large dominions at times held by the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire; and the energetic trading activity by Greeks under the Ottomans) all tended to create Greek communities far beyond the boundaries of modern Greece.

Recognizing this situation, Greece grants nationality to broad categories of people of ethnic Greek ancestry who are members of the Greek diaspora, including individuals and families whose ancestors have been resident in diaspora communities outside the modern state of Greece for centuries or millennia.

"Foreign persons of Greek origin," who neither live in Greece, hold Greek nationality, or were necessarily born there may become Greek nationals by enlisting in Greece's military forces, under article 4 of the Code of Greek Citizenship, as amended by the Acquisition of Greek Nationality by Aliens of Greek Origin Law (Law 2130/1993).  Anyone wishing to do so must present a number of documents, including "[a]vailable written records...proving the Greek origin of the interested person and his ancestors."

India
A Person of Indian Origin (PIO) is a person living outside of India and without Indian nationality, but of Indian origin up to four generations removed. It is available to persons of Indian origin anywhere in the world as long as they have never been nationals of Pakistan or of Bangladesh (a reservation excluding Muslims who joined Pakistan during or after the 1947 partition). This unusual type of nationality by descent is an intermediate form of nationality in that it does not grant the full portfolio of rights enjoyed by Indian citizens.

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003 and Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005 make provision for an even newer form of Indian nationality, the holders of which are to be known as Overseas Citizens of India (OCI). Overseas nationality is not substantially different from PIO rights. Holding either PIO or OCI status does, however, facilitate access to full Indian citizenship. An OCI who has been registered for five years, for instance, need be resident for only one year in India before becoming a full national.

Ireland

Irish nationality law provides for acquisition on the basis of at least one Irish grandparent. Note that, for the purposes of Irish nationality law, a person born anywhere on the island of Ireland is considered "Irish." (The island includes Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, where British nationality law applies; thus, people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to both British and Irish nationality.)

The entitlement to nationality of all people born on Ireland and its islands was stipulated by the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State and the 1937 Constitution of Ireland, and reinforced by the 1998 Belfast Agreement. A person born outside of Ireland with entitlement to Irish nationality through a grandparent born in Ireland may pass that right on to her or his own children. To do so, however, that person must register her or his birth in Ireland's Foreign Births Register prior to the children's births. Irish law also automatically grants nationality at birth to any individual born abroad to a parent who was born in Ireland, without the need to register with the DFA prior to the granting of citizen's rights like holding an Irish passport.

Separately from this right, the Irish minister responsible for immigration may dispense with conditions of naturalisation to grant nationality to an applicant who "is of Irish descent or Irish associations," under section 15 of the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1986. With rare exceptions the applicant must be resident in the island of Ireland before applying for naturalisation.

Israel

The Law of Return is legislation enacted by Israel in 1950, that gives all Jews, persons of Jewish ancestry up to at least one Jewish grandparent, and spouses of Jews the right to immigrate to and settle in Israel and obtain nationality, and obliges the Israeli government to facilitate their immigration. Originally, the law applied to Jews only, until a 1970 amendment stated that the rights "are also vested in a child and a grandchild of a Jew, the spouse of a Jew, the spouse of a child of a Jew and the spouse of a grandchild of a Jew." This resulted in several hundreds of thousands of persons qualifying for immigration to Israel (mainly from the former Soviet Union) but not being recognized as Jews by the Israeli religious authorities, which on the basis of halakha recognize only the child of a Jewish mother as being Jewish. People who would be otherwise eligible for this law can be excluded if they can reasonably be considered to constitute a danger to the welfare of the state, have a criminal past, or are wanted fugitives in their countries with the exception of persecution victims. Jews who convert to another religion also lose the right of return. Since 1950 2,734,245 Jews have immigrated to Israel.

Japan
A special visa category exists exclusively for foreign descendants of Japanese emigrates (nikkeijin) up to the third generation, which provides for long-term residence, unrestricted by occupation, but most nikkeijin cannot automatically acquire Japanese nationality, and must instead go through the process of naturalization. However, the Minister of Justice can waive the age and residence requirements if an applicant for naturalization has a special relationship to Japan, such as a Japanese parent.

Norway
The Kola Norwegians were Norwegians who settled along the coastline of the Russian Kola Peninsula from approximately 1850 to the closure of the border in the 1920s. It is estimated that around 1000 Norwegians lived on the Kola peninsula in 1917. The Kola Norwegians were deported to or put in camps in other parts of Russia during the course of World War II.

It was only after 1990 that many of the Kola Norwegians again dared to emphasize their background. Only a few had been able to maintain a rusty knowledge of Norwegian. Some of them have migrated back to Norway. There are special provisions in the Norwegian rules of immigration and nationality which eases this process for many Kola Norwegians. These provisions are in general stricter than in some other countries giving "Right of return." In order to obtain a permit to immigrate and work in Norway a Kola Norwegian will have to prove an adequate connection to Norway such as having at least two grandparents from Norway. Citizenship will then be awarded according to regular rules. As of 2004 approximately 200 Kola Norwegians had moved back to Norway.

Philippines
Republic Act No. 9225, approved 29 August 2003, provided that all Philippine nationals who become nationals of another country shall be deemed not to have lost their Philippine nationality. It further states that natural-born Filipinos who have lost their Philippine nationality in this manner may repatriate by taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic, and that their children whether legitimate, illegitimate or adopted, below 18 years of age, shall be deemed nationals of the Philippines.

Russia
Russia offers citizenship to individuals descended from Russian ancestors who can demonstrate an affinity for Russian culture and, preferably, speak Russian. Concern about Russia's shrinking population prompted the program. This has had a positive effect because this has not only reversed Russia's population decline but has also increased the birth rate. Officials estimate that 25 million members of the Russian diaspora are eligible for nationality. The Foreign Ministry has sent emissaries to countries around the world to urge the descendants of Russian emigrants to return home.  The majority of these emigrants have returned from Ukraine, many of them young men looking for better education and job opportunities. The Crimean War in 2014 triggered a mass exodus of ethnic Russians living in Crimea.

Spain
There are three categories of Spanish nationality:

 de origen ('original')
 por residencia ('by residence')
 por opción ('by choice')

De origen is (almost exclusively) acquired at the moment of birth, mainly to a Spanish parent, and can never be lost. Por residencia is acquired through a predetermined period of legal residency in Spain. This distinction is important because Spanish nationality laws primarily follow iure sanguinis, including those relating to the right of return.

The third category, por opción ('by choice'), is given to some people of Spanish origins that, though not complying with the requisites to attain nationality through origin, are able to prove close ties to Spain; this option is given mainly to the children of people that have attained or recovered Spanish nationality after their birth, but it has age limits and one must exercise this choice prior turning 20 (in some countries, like Argentina, prior turning 23, as majority of age is attained at 21 there). Most of the por opción clauses do not confer original status (except those included in the Historical Memory Law), thus it can be lost, and, in case one possesses nationality other than those described below as historically related to Spain (e.g., United States), renounce their current nationality in front of Spanish consular officials.

In practice this renunciation has little practical effect, and in some cases no effect, as only renunciations made to one's own country's officials has an effect on the linked nationality. The Historical Memory Law () which took effect in December 2008, introduced temporary two-year changes to current Spanish nationality laws. Those whose father or mother were born original Spaniards (regardless of their place of birth, whether they are still living, or whether they currently hold Spanish nationality) and those whose grandparents emigrated due to political or economic reasons will have the right to de origen Spanish nationality. Until and while the Law of Historic Memory takes effect, the following laws will also apply:

 Natural-born Spanish emigrants (mainly exiles from the Spanish Civil War and economic migrants) and their children are eligible to recover their de origen Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. They also have the right to maintain any current nationality they possess.
 Regardless of their place of birth, the adult children and grandchildren of original Spaniards (original Spaniards are those who, at the moment of their birth, were born to people who possessed Spanish citizenship) can also access Spanish nationality on softer terms than other foreigners: they require just 1 year of legal residence, and they are exempted from work restrictions. This law in practice also benefits the great-grandchildren of emigrant Spaniards as long as their grandparents (born outside of Spain) are/were original Spaniards.
 Ibero-Americans and nationals of other countries historically related to Spain (Portugal, Andorra, Philippines, and Equatorial Guinea) also have a Right of Return: They can apply to Spanish nationality after 2 years of legal residence (the usual time is 10 years for most foreigners) and they have the right to keep their birth nationality.
 Those of Sephardic Jewish origin also have the right to apply for nationality after a year of legal residency in Spain. Since the rediscovery of Sephardi Jews during the campaigns of General Juan Prim in Northern Africa, the Spanish government has taken friendly measures towards the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 under the Alhambra Decree and persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition. The motivation for these measures was a desire to repair a perceived injustice, the need of a collaborative base of natives in Spanish Morocco, and an attempt to attract the sympathy of wealthy European Sephardis like the Pereiras of France. The Alhambra Decree was revoked.

In November 2012, the Spanish government announced that it would eliminate the residency period for Sephardic Jews, and permit them to maintain dual nationality, on the condition that such naturalization applicants presented a certificate of their Sephardic status from the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain.

Spanish diplomacy exercised protection over Sephardis of the Ottoman Empire and the independent Balkanic states succeeding it. The government of Miguel Primo de Rivera decreed in 1924 that every Sephardi could claim Spanish nationality. This right was used by some refugees during the Second World War, including the Hungarian Jews saved by Ángel Sanz Briz and Giorgio Perlasca. This decree was again put to use to receive some Jews from Sarajevo during the Bosnian War.

In October 2006, the Andalusian Parliament asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would ease the way for Morisco descendants to gain Spanish nationality. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the United Left. Such a measure might have benefited an indeterminate number of people, particularly in Morocco. However, the call went unheeded by the central Spanish authorities.

Ukraine

According to Ukrainian law, anyone who was a citizen of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic who was residing in Ukraine at the time of its declaration of independence and any stateless person living on the territory of Ukraine at the moment of its declaration of independence was granted nationality. Anyone born abroad to at least one parent with Ukrainian nationality, including permanent residents of Ukraine, is entitled to Ukrainian nationality. Children born within the territory of Ukraine to at least one Ukrainian parent, stateless persons with at least one Ukrainian grandparent, and children adopted by Ukrainian citizens are also eligible to become nationals.

United Kingdom
The British Nationality Act 1948 conferred full and equal nationality and settlement rights in Britain on all 800 million subjects of the worldwide British Empire.  The Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968, amending legislation passed in 1962, removed the right of entry from 200,000 south Asians long resident in British East Africa who had become the victims of the Africanization drive in newly independent Kenya and wished to move to Britain. The act required "substantial connection" to Britain, defined as:

Further provisions extended rights to stepchildren. The wording of this legislation refers to 'Citizenship', 'Naturalisation' and 'Residence', and at no point refers to any specific ethnicity or ethnic group. Announcing his support for right of return legislation in Britain, Member of Parliament Quintin Hogg stated that, "All the great nations of the earth have what the Jews call a Diaspora," and affirmed that nations "special and residual obligation(s) toward them," which include recognizing their right to nationality.

The Immigration Act 1971 affirmed the principles of the 1968 legislation, giving the right of immigration to the grandchildren of British nationals and nationals born in the Commonwealth nations.  It was in effect long enough to enable the descendants of ethnic Britons to return to Britain from the former colonies.

The British Nationality Act 1981 differentiated between British nationality, British Overseas Citizenship, and British Dependent Territory Citizenship, recognizing the right of settlement only for British nationals. It is notable that it was enacted after the contraction of the Empire was completed, and was offered to all substantial populations of descendants of ethnic Britons in the former colonies.

United States
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the latest of a series of such Acts, establishes nationality law of the United States. This is codified in Chapter 12 of Title 8 of the U.S. Code, in which section 101(a)(22) states that the term "national of the United States" means:

The explanatory comments of this section, when originally written in 1940, provided clarification that all citizens were nationals of the United States but not all nationals were citizens.

Other countries

 Belarus: The Citizenship Act of the Republic of Belarus (2002) states that permanent-residence term requirements may be waived for ethnic Belarusians and descendants of ethnic Belarusians born abroad.
 Croatia: Article 11 of Croatia's law on nationality () defines emigrants (), and provides privileges by excluding them from certain conditions imposed on others. The Croatian diaspora makes use of this to obtain dual nationality or to return to Croatia.
 Estonia: Article 36 (3) of the Constitution of Estonia states that "Every Estonian is entitled to settle in Estonia."
 Ghana: Ghana's right of abode law allows for people of African descent to settle in the country.
 Hungary: In 2010, Hungary passed a law granting nationality and the right of return to descendants of Hungarians living mostly on the former territory of the Hungarian Kingdom and now residing in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Slovakia, which has 500,000 ethnic Magyar citizens (10% of its population) objected vociferously.
 Iraq: see Iraqi nationality law.
 Kazakhstan: see Oralman.
 Lithuania: From the Constitution of Lithuania, Article 32(4): "Every Lithuanian person may settle in Lithuania."
 Poland: From the Constitution of Poland, Article 52(5): "Anyone whose Polish origin has been confirmed in accordance with statute may settle permanently in Poland." (see Polish nationality law.)
 Portugal: On April 12, 2013, the Portuguese parliament approved unanimously an amendment to its nationality laws which would permit the descendants of Jews expelled from Portugal in the 16th century to become Portuguese citizens.
 Romania: Romania extends nationality to all former nationals, as well as to the children and grandchildren of those who have lost their Romanian nationality, regardless of ethnic background.
 South Korea: "Overseas Korean" are eligible for dual nationality.
 Serbia: Article 23 of the 2004 nationality law provides that the descendants of emigrants from Serbia, or ethnic Serbs residing abroad, may take up nationality upon written declaration.

See also
 Immigration law
 Foreign born
 Citizenship
 Citizenship Act (disambiguation)
 History of citizenship
 Dual nationality
 Passport
 Political asylum
 Human migration

References

Nationality law


Woy Woy is a coastal town in the Central Coast region of the New South Wales state of Australia. The town is located on the southern reaches of Brisbane Water and near the mouth of Brisbane Water at the Pacific Ocean, it is a popular holiday destination. Woy Woy is located  north of the state capital Sydney. It is a population centre within the  local government area.

Woy Woy is located in the northern half of the Woy Woy Peninsula, a densely populated estuarine peninsula that also includes the districts of Umina Beach, Ettalong Beach, Booker Bay and Blackwall, in addition to several small sub-districts. The Woy Woy Peninsula is the most populous area of the Central Coast. The historical and commercial core of Woy Woy is located around the railway station at the northern tip of the peninsula while its residential districts merge imperceptibly southwards with Umina and Ettalong. (Woy Woy officially ends at Veron Road and Gallipoli Avenue; and Umina begins beyond this).

History

Origin of name
The double name is a corruption of the indigenous term apparently taken from the local Darkinjung Aboriginal people, and reputedly means 'big lagoon' or 'much water', referring to the deep tidal channel adjacent to the town centre.
It was originally known as Webb's Flat, named for James Webb, the first European settler of the Brisbane Water region in 1823, and was first explored by a party led by Governor Arthur Phillip in 1789.

Small coastal settlement
In 1889, after the construction of the Hawkesbury River railway bridge, holidaymakers began to arrive in Woy Woy. As of this day, it remains a popular holiday destination.

Electrification of the Main Northern railway line running through Woy Woy to Gosford in 1960 prompted rapid residential development in and around Woy Woy in the 1960s and 1970s as its relatively low-priced properties with rail journey times of just over an hour and a half to reach Sydney or Newcastle.

In December 1948, there were private enterprise plans announced to develop 1259 acres of light industrial land, 800 acres of accompanying housing, a railway connection with the existing main line and the conversion of the World War II era airstrip at Ettalong Beach into an airport. If the concept had proceeded all costs would have been covered by the developer, including water, sewerage and other amenities. At the time it was predicted that up to 50,000 jobs would have been developed within 10 to 25 years.

The $24 million Peninsula Leisure Centre opened on 29 October 2005 after significant delays.

After their emigration to Australia, Woy Woy became the hometown of the parents of comedian Spike Milligan, who in turn became a frequent visitor to the town and at one point described it as the "world's only above-ground cemetery".

Heritage listings
Woy Woy has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 Woy Woy Road: Woy Woy Tunnel

Population

According to the 2021 census of Population, there were 11,072 people in Woy Woy.
 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 5.5% of the population.
 75.0% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 4.9%, New Zealand 2.0% and China 1.6%.
 85.1% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin at 1.5%.
 The most common responses for religion were No Religion 39.9%, Catholic 21.5% and Anglican 17.0%.

Schools
Woy Woy has one Catholic school, St John the Baptist Primary School, located in Dulkara Road, Woy Woy. Schooling offered by the Sisters of St. Joseph commenced in Woy Woy in 1922 at the original St John the Baptist Church (Parish hall since 2007) located on the corner of Blackwall and Victoria Roads, Woy Woy. There are also two public primary schools, Woy Woy South and Woy Woy, with the senior campus of Brisbane Water Secondary College also located within Woy Woy.

Business

Woy Woy comprises 34,000 square metres of commercially zoned land of which 60% consists of retail businesses together with a mix of professional services and major supermarkets including Deepwater Plaza and Peninsula Plaza. Woy Woy represents the commercial heart of the Peninsula and vital commuter transport hub. The town centre is enhanced by the Woy Woy waterfront precinct and Woy Woy Channel with ferry links to Davistown and Empire Bay.

The Woy Woy commercial centre is represented by the Peninsula Chamber of Commerce which is an affiliated member of the NSW Business Chamber. Woy Woy is recognised as the commercial hub of the Peninsula accommodating numerous legal practices, medical centres, banks and professionals. It is largely focused around the Woy Woy Rail Station (major transport hub) and bus interchange with a heavy retail concentration at Deepwater Plaza shopping centre on western edge of the commercial centre and Peninsula Plaza adjacent to the heritage listed Woy Woy Library. Small cafés and restaurants have clustered along the Woy Woy waterfront adjacent to the heritage listed Bayview Hotel and Woy Woy Hotel on Brickwharf Road. The traditional main street (Blackwall Road) has struggled in recent years from pressure from the major shopping centres and the resurgence of the thriving Umina Beach town centre.

Culture

An annual Brisbane Water Oyster Festival is held on the first Sunday in November at Ettalong Beach after being relocated from the Woy Woy waterfront in 2005 due to space restrictions. The event outgrew the location with over 20,000 people attending annually. The "Brisbane Water" Oyster Festival was inaugurated in 2000 and is organised by the Peninsula Chamber of Commerce.

The Woy Woy Little Theatre Company perform four plays every year at The Peninsula Theatre, the sister theatre to Laycock Street Theatre in Gosford. Performances are generally based on strict plays rather than devised or improvised theatre forms and have been doing so since 1962.

After their retirement, the parents and younger brother of comedian Spike Milligan (1918–2002) moved to Woy Woy; as a result, Spike spent some time in the town and was occasionally jocularly referred to as "the boy from Woy Woy". Woy Woy was the home to the now defunct festival known as "Spike Fest", which celebrated Milligan's life and works. Milligan famously named Woy Woy "the largest above ground cemetery in the world" when visiting in the 1960s. He made numerous references to Woy Woy in the radio series The Idiot Weekly.

In July 2007, a new cycle bridge near Woy Woy was named the "Spike Milligan Bridge".

Another internationally known resident of Woy Woy was Olive Riley (1899–2008), of the Woy Woy Community Nursing Home, who became recognised as the world's oldest known blogger. From February 2007, aged 107, she started an internet blog and also appeared in a number of YouTube videos. Her last post was made on 26 June 2008, two and a half weeks prior to her death on 12 July, aged 108.

Notable residents
 Megan Anderson (born 1974), International Netball player, grew up in Woy Woy.
 Graham Eadie (born 1953) Australian Rugby League and Manly Warringah Sea Eagles great known as Wombat.
 Minard Fannie Crommelin (1881–1972), postmistress and environmental conservationist, spent 5 years as postmistress in Woy Woy.
 Karise Eden, winner of the first season of TV singing competition The Voice.
 Ray Hall (born 1980), former Australian rules football player.
 Peter Louis (born 1945), rugby league player and coach.
 Spike Milligan (Terence Alan Milligan 1918–2002) Indian-British comedian, writer and actor lived in Woy Woy with his parents for periods of time in the 1960s.
 John Monie  (born 1946), Rugby League coach and player grew up in Woy Woy.
 Mark Gregory Pegg (born 1963), world-renowned medieval historian and author, now based in US.
 Janice Petersen (born 1977), television presenter, grew up in Woy Woy.
 Olive Riley (1899–2008), second oldest online blogger and YouTube user.
 Josh Ross (born 1981), Indigenous track-and-field Olympian, from the age of seven attended Woy Woy Public School.
 Liesl Tesch (born 1969), wheelchair Basketball player, sailor and politician, lives in Woy Woy.
 Simon Townsend (born 1945), journalist, television host and presenter, spent some time in Woy Woy.

Sports
Woy Woy is also home to several sporting teams which compete in Central Coast competitions, including the Roosters (rugby league - competed in Sydney's Jim Beam Cup, but not any more), Sharks (cricket), Woy Woy FC (since 1965) (football), Lions (rugby union) and the Peninsula Swans (Australian rules). Woy Woy is also home to the Woy Woy Tennis Club, one of the oldest Tennis clubs on the Central Coast.

Churches
St Luke's Anglican Church
St John the Baptist Catholic Church
PeninsulaEV Church

Transport

Woy Woy railway station is on the NSW TrainLink network. It is a major commuter hub which moves significant numbers of local workers into Sydney and Newcastle each day. The station is also a major bus interchange with Busways services connecting Woy Woy with other Peninsula centres including Umina Beach and Ettalong Beach. Central Coast Ferries services also operate from the Woy Woy wharf connecting with villages around Brisbane Water including Davistown. Busways also operates 10 Bus Routes through Woy Woy to its surrounding suburbs.

See also
 List of reduplicated Australian place names

References

External links

Geographical and historical information

Suburbs of the Central Coast (New South Wales)
Towns in New South Wales
Central Coast Council (New South Wales)

Woy Woy


The Younger Dryas (around 12,900 to 11,700 years ago) was a cold period. It reversed the gradual climatic warming which started around 20,000 years ago.

At this time there was a sharp fall in temperature over most of the Northern Hemisphere.  This occurred at the end of the Pleistocene epoch and just before the present, warmer, Holocene epoch.

The last glacial maximum (LGM) was about 27,000 to 24,000 years ago. The Younger Dryas was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth's climate. The change was relatively sudden, and it resulted in a decline of temperatures in Greenland by 4 to 10 °C (7.2 to 18 °F) Glaciers and dry conditions spread over much of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. It may have been caused by an influx of fresh, cold water from North America to the Atlantic.

The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change. The effects were complex and variable. In the Southern Hemisphere and some areas of the Northern Hemisphere, such as southeastern North America, a slight warming occurred.

References

Climate change
Neolithic

Younger Dryas