Military forces are a group or groups of people that are given power to defend something (mostly a country). They are armed, so they are called the armed forces. The military protects its country by defending it from the armed forces of enemies, if there is a war. The military can also be ordered by the government of the country to attack another country. The word "military" comes from Latin miles, warrior.

There are many jobs people do in a military. Some jobs are for fighting and some are for other work to support the military. Some things people do in the military include the use of weapons,driving and operating vehicles,and repairing weapons. Other people in the military learn how to fly specialized aircraft, be a pilot on ships, or repair engines. People in the military usually wear clothes called a uniform. In some places, especially where there may be combat, a uniform often has a camouflage pattern which is designed to make the person hard to see in the forest or desert.

There are two ways to join the military. In many countries, people join the military because they want to. In other countries, there are laws that say some people have to be in the military,even if they do not want to be. This is called the draft or conscription. It usually depends on age and physical fitness. Old military people or former military people are called "veterans". Some are members of a military reserve force.

The military of a country is usually divided into different branches or organizations that do different kinds of work. These branches usually come in the following order:

 Army (land) – A military force of soldiers who operate mainly on land or in land vehicles such as tanks. They also use helicopters.
 Navy (sea) – A military force that uses ships and boats. Some navies have planes. People in a navy are called sailors
 Air force (air) – A military force that uses mainly aircraft.

 Marines – Military forces that serve on ships, but are also trained to fight on land when needed. Their main job is to attack by landing on enemy beaches. They work closely with a navy, but are not sailors. They may also have their own boats, planes, and helicopters.

 Space force (space) – A military force that uses spacecraft.

Some big countries even have small units which perform special actions which are very difficult. They are called special forces.

There are also mercenaries, soldiers who fight just for pay and have little loyalty to whomever might hire them, and private military contractors (PMC), which are under the command of a company (civilian company). The Medieval Italian condottieri were a historical example of PMCs. A warlord may have a private army, which are often no more trustworthy than common gangsters or criminals.

Joining up and training
In many countries of the world, young men and (in a few countries) women between 17 and 18 and of good health may be forced by the government of their country to join the military and have military training. This is called "conscription". The countries that do not have conscription include Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, France, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Malta, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In some countries, such as Argentina and United States, conscription is legal but has not been used in decades.

When a person wants to join the military as a volunteer, they "enlist". (This means simply that they put their name on a list.) They have to be above a certain age, 17 or 18 in most countries. They have to pass physical fitness tests to show that they are well enough to do the jobs that they will have to do. They must also have good enough hearing, to hear orders, and good enough sight to use a rifle.

New people in the military are often called "recruits". They have training at a special camp, sometimes called "boot camp" or "basic training". During this training, the recruits usually have very little free time. They learn to understand the "orders" or "commands" that are given by the officers to the "troops". (The troops are the military people in a group.) They learn the right ways to obey the orders. They do a lot of exercise to improve their fitness and strength. They learn about weapons, first aid, and their uniforms and "kit" (their equipment). Recruits also learn how to march. (This is the way to walk together, keeping "in step".) Learning to march is sometimes called "drill". By the time soldiers finish "boot camp", they should know enough to be a helpful person in their group. The camp usually finishes with a parade in which the newly trained recruits show off their marching and other skills they have learned in front of important visitors. Once the recruits are fully trained, they are ready to defend (protect) their country from attack, or to go to war if necessary.

Largest armed forces (2002 estimate)

*includes 169,800 Marine Corps
**includes Strategic Deterrent Forces, Paramilitary, National Guard, etc.
***includes 125,000 Revolutionary Guards

Related pages
Military science
Military terminology

Military


David Zábranský (born 3 March 1977, in Prague) is a Czech writer.

Education and career
Zábranský finished Media studies and Law at Charles University in Prague. He practiced law, but only in the NGO sector. He worked for The Counselling Centre For Citizenship/Civil and Human Rights, for Organization for Aid to Refugees or for The League of Human Rights.

The author's first book Slabost pro každou jinou pláž (Any Beach But This) was awarded the Magnesia Litera in the Newcomer of the year category.

He is a volunteer with the Berg Orchestra. Between 2015 and 2017, Zábranský worked as an editor-in-chief at CzechLit, Czech Literature Online. His texts were translated into Spanish, German, Hungarian and other languages.

Works in Czech
(Translations of titles for informational purposes only.)

 Slabost pro každou jinou pláž, 2006 - Any Beach But This - (novel)
 Šternův pokus milovat, 2008 - Stern's Attempt to Love - (novel)
 Kus umělce, 2010 - Piece of an Artist - (novella)
 Hudba! Konečně!, 2011 - Music! Finally! - (radio play)
 Declassé (Lekce pro učitele), 2011 short story - Declessé - (short story)
 Edita Farkaš, 2011 - Edita Farkas - (novella)
 Edita Farkaš*, 2012 - Edita Farkas*- (novella)
 Martin Juhás čili Československo, 2015 - Martin Juhas or Czechoslovakia - (novel)
 Herec a truhlář Majer mluví o stavu své domoviny, 2016 - Actor and Carpenter Majer speaks about the State of his Homeland - (stage play)
 Za Alpami, 2017 - Beyond the Alps - (novel)
 Logoz, 2019 - (novel)

References

External links
 Literary Agency profile
 David Zabransky - 'I'm writing against Kundera, and against myself', Czech Radio article, 26 October 2007.
 CzechLit profile

1977 births
Living people
Czech novelists
Male novelists
Czech male writers
Charles University alumni

David Zábranský


José Pereira de Abreu Júnior (; born 24 May 1946) is a Brazilian actor.

Biography
Born in the city of Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, in the state of São Paulo, at the age of fourteen he moved to the state's capital, São Paulo city, working as a lab assistant and office-boy for a law firm.

In 1967, while studying law at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, he began his theatrical career at the Teatro da Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, with the play Morte e Vida Severina by João Cabral de Melo Neto and Chico Buarque.

A year later, he was starring in movies, but his career came to a quick halt because of his political activism. Abreu was arrested during a meeting of the União Nacional dos Estudantes, belonged to the Ação Popular and gave logistical support to the Vanguarda Armada Revolucionária Palmares, a leftist group that fought against the military regime. He also joined the hippie movement during that time, in contrast with his militaristic actions.

Forced into exile in Europe in 1968, he returned in 1974 to live in Pelotas, state of Rio Grande do Sul, his wife's homeland. They both taught at the federal university in that city, but soon moved to Porto Alegre, where he produced musicals and starred in children's plays. With his wife, he produced the first staging of the musical Os Saltimbancos in that state.

Then, after the success of the movie A Intrusa (The Intruder) (1979), filmed in Uruguaiana, Rio Grande do Sul, he started work as an actor in TV Globo's soap-operas.

In 2006 he partnered with director Luiz Arthur Nunes to create Fala, Zé!, a theatrical monologue in which he critically reflects on his generation, crossing biography and fiction.

In 2011 he played Milton in the soap-opera Insensato Coração; in 2012, the character Nilo in Avenida Brasil; in 2013, the character Ernest in Joia Rara; and in 2015 the villain Gibson Stewart in A Regra do Jogo.

Personal life
He has five children, with three different partners. His first child, Rodrigo, died in an accident in 1992, at age 21. He also has four grandchildren. In early 2013, he declared he is bisexual, then in a few days later he tweeted he is not bi but poly instead.

On March 8, 2019, he was jokingly proclaimed as "president" of the Federative Republic of Brazil in an act of protest at Galeao Airport near Rio.

Career
Abreu performed in over 24 movies and 47 television shows, of which most are soap operas.

Filmography

Television

References

External links

 José de Abreu - blog

1946 births
Living people
Bisexual male actors
People from Santa Rita do Passa Quatro
Brazilian male actors
Brazilian LGBT actors
Brazilian bisexual people

José de Abreu


Jens Elmegård Rasmussen (15 March 1944 – 15 May 2013) was associate professor of Indo-European Studies and head of the Roots of Europe research center at the University of Copenhagen from its initiation in 2008 until his death. He was an expert on Proto-Indo-European and Indo-European languages in general, especially morphophonemics, but he also published articles on the history of Eskimo–Aleut languages and linguistic diachrony. He supported the Indo-Uralic and Eurasiatic hypotheses.

Elmegård Rasmussen was the leading editor of the international scholarly journal Tocharian and Indo-European Studies (TIES) and chief editor of the book series Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European. He was married to the Danish Indo-Europeanist Birgit Anette Olsen.

Selected publications
 1979, Anaptyxis, gemination and syncope in Eskimo: A diachronic study. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Linguistic Circle.
 1989, Studien zur Morphophonemik der Indogermanischen Grundsprache. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft.
 1999, Selected Papers on Indo-European Linguistics. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.

References

1944 births
2013 deaths
Linguists from Denmark
Linguists of Indo-European languages
Historical linguists

Jens Elmegård Rasmussen


A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas (previously titled A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas) is a 2011 American buddy stoner Christmas comedy film directed by Todd Strauss-Schulson and written by Jon Hurwitz and Hayden Schlossberg. The sequel to Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay (2008), it is the third installment in the Harold & Kumar franchise, and stars John Cho, Kal Penn, and Neil Patrick Harris. The film follows estranged friends Harold Lee (Cho) and Kumar Patel (Penn) as they reunite to hunt for a Christmas tree.

Preparations for the film began in May 2009, with Hurwitz, Schlossberg, and Strauss-Schulson signing soon thereafter. Cho, Harris, and Penn returned by June 2010, with the latter departing his role in the U.S. Office of Public Liaison to reprise his role in A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas. Principal photography began later that month and lasted until that August, with filming locations including Detroit, Los Angeles, and New York City. Its marketing campaign used guerilla tactics led by Cho and Penn to promote the film's 3D and animated elements, a new for the franchise.

A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas was theatrically released in the United States on November 4, 2011, by Warner Bros. The film received generally positive critical reception, with praise for the Christmas theme and performances of Cho, Penn, and Harris, but criticism for some of its humor.

Plot
Seven years after escaping from Guantanamo Bay detention camp, and two years after they have last spoken, best friends and roommates Harold Lee and Kumar Patel have gone their separate ways. Harold has given up smoking cannabis, become a successful businessman on Wall Street and married his Latina girlfriend Maria. Kumar, on the other hand, still lives in the messy apartment he once shared with Harold after getting kicked out of medical school due to failing a drug test. Kumar has recently been dumped again by his girlfriend Vanessa, who arrives at Kumar's apartment to inform him that she is pregnant with his child. Maria's father and Harold's father-in-law Mr. Perez decides to stay at Harold and Maria's house for Christmas. Mr. Perez, who does not like Harold, brings his prized Christmas tree that he has been growing for eight years, and gives Harold a short lecture about the tree's importance to his family. Kumar receives a package with Harold's name on it at his apartment and decides to deliver it to Harold. At Harold's house, they discover the item inside to be a large marijuana joint.

Kumar lights the joint, but Harold throws it out of the window, only for it to magically land in the tree - resulting in it being burnt down. Harold learns that Kumar's new friend Adrian is attending a party with a Fraser Fir Christmas tree, and promises to drive him to the party on the condition that he can have the tree. Harold, Kumar, Adrian, and Todd (Harold's new best friend) arrive at the party, where a girl named Mary attempts to seduce Harold, Mary is revealed to be the daughter of Russian mob kingpin Sergei Katsov, who sends two of his men to kill Harold and Kumar, believing that they were trying to rape his daughter after Harold refuses to have sex with Mary. The duo make it out of the building without the Christmas tree and run into their friends, Rosenberg and Goldstein, for the first time in years. Harold and Kumar plan to steal a tree from a church, but end up participating in a Christmas show featuring Neil Patrick Harris, who they thought had died after being shot outside a Texas whorehouse seven years ago. Harris reveals that he did die, but Jesus Christ kicked him out of Heaven. Revealing that he is now telepathic, Harris hooks the pair up with a Christmas tree and a Wafflebot before sending them off.

The two make their way to Harold's house to put up the tree, but end up being kidnapped by two of Katsov's men, and are saved by Wafflebot. After Harold accidentally shoots Santa Claus in the head, Kumar gives him emergency surgery. In exchange for saving his life, Santa agrees to fly them back home in his sleigh, and reveals that he sent the package to reunite the friends. Harold arrives home to encounter Mr. Perez, who is enraged when he discovers his Christmas tree is gone. Harold finally stands up to him, explaining that he may not be the perfect son-in-law, but he is the perfect guy for Maria. Mr. Perez says that he always knew Harold was a nice guy. He just wanted to make sure that he had "cojones" before accepting him into his family. Harold and Kumar rekindle their friendship, Kumar and Vanessa rekindle their romance, and Kumar tells Vanessa that he will re-take the exams to become a doctor and give up weed for the sake of their child; however, Vanessa advises him to break the latter, promising to give him her urine for another drug test. Maria discovers that she is pregnant on Christmas morning and that Santa has left a replacement tree in their lounge. Harold decides to smoke weed again, and he and Kumar share a joint for the first time in years. Santa flies overhead, smoking a bong, wishing everyone a merry Christmas.

Cast

 John Cho as Harold Lee
 Kal Penn as Kumar Patel
 Neil Patrick Harris as a fictionalized version of himself
 Danny Trejo as Carlos Perez, Maria's father
 Danneel Harris as Vanessa Fanning
 Elias Koteas as Sergei Katsov
 Paula Garcés as Maria Perez-Lee
 Thomas Lennon as Todd
 Patton Oswalt as Larry Juston / Mall Santa
 Eddie Kaye Thomas as Andy Rosenberg
 David Krumholtz as Seth Goldstein
 Amir Blumenfeld as Adrian
 Richard Riehle as Santa Claus
 Jordan Hinson as Mary Katsov
 John Hoogenakker as Gustav
 Jake Johnson as Jesus
 Bobby Lee as Kenneth Park
 Yasen Peyankov as Yuri
 Melissa Gaston as Gracie
 RZA as Lamar
 Da'Vone McDonald as Latrell
 Brett Gelman as TV Director
 Dana DeLorenzo as Becca
 David Burtka as a fictionalized version of himself
 Dan Levy as Reporter

Production
In April 2009, Kal Penn accepted a position in the Obama administration as associate director of the White House Office of Public Liaison. When asked if his new job would mean no more Harold and Kumar films, he said, "That's probably true for now." However, A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas was announced on May 7, 2009, for release on December 5, 2010, at the earliest and possibly deferred to the 2011 holiday season. Jon Hurwitz and Hayden Schlossberg returned to write the film while Todd Strauss-Schulson directed and Greg Shapiro returned as producer. Penn left his job with the White House on June 1, 2010, to reprise his role as Kumar in the third Harold & Kumar installment.

Filming took place in Detroit, Los Angeles, and New York City from June to August 2010, with the use of Panavision Genesis HD and Element Technica 3D Rig. The film was released in RealD 3D on November 4, 2011. Animators from Laika created the clay animation scene.

After filming was completed, Penn returned to the White House. Cho and Penn went on a tour to promote the film in different college towns. At each stop they had a bus hand out "munchies".

Reception

Box office
During its first weekend, the film opened at third place behind Puss in Boots and Tower Heist, grossing $13 million, below its prediction of $18 million. At the end of its box office run, the film earned a total of $35.4 million, against a budget of $19 million.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 68%, based on 131 reviews, with a rating average of 6.15/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Still raunchy, still irreverent, and still hit-and-miss, this Harold & Kumar outing also has a Christmas miracle: The audience gets to see the sweeter side of the duo." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 61 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a "B" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, saying "It's not that I was particularly offended; it's that I didn't laugh very much."
Justin Chang of Variety wrote: "This vulgar romp is a generally harmless, heartwarming affair, a cinematic Christmas cookie almost sweet and flaky enough to cover the fact that it's laced with hash, cocaine and assorted bodily fluids, blood included."
Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter called it "A mildly diverting naughty comedy, lacking the pure comic nastiness of Bad Santa or the sheer audacity of Up in Smoke."

Home media
A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on  February 7, 2012. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc in two versions: firstly, Single-Disc Blu-ray and DVD combo  and secondly, Movie-Only Edition. As of February 3, 2015, the film has sold 607,330 video discs, including 447,288 DVDs and 160,042 Blu-ray Discs, giving a gross of $6,649,425 and $4,855,462 respectively, for a total gross of $11,504,887 in North America.

Accolades
Composer William Ross received a nomination for Best Original Score for a Comedy Film at the 2011 International Film Music Critics Association Awards.

See also
 List of Christmas films
 Santa Claus in film

References

External links

2011 films
2011 3D films
2010s buddy comedy films
American buddy comedy films
American Christmas films
American films with live action and animation
American films about cannabis
American sequel films
2010s English-language films
Films about drugs
Films about race and ethnicity
Films set in New Jersey
Films set in New York City
Films set in 2011
Films shot in Michigan
Mandate Pictures films
New Line Cinema films
Warner Bros. films
American pregnancy films
Films shot in Detroit
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in New York City
Films directed by Todd Strauss-Schulson
Films scored by William Ross
2010s Christmas films
2010s Christmas comedy films
Stoner films
2011 directorial debut films
Comedy films about Asian Americans
Films about Korean Americans
2011 comedy films
Santa Claus in film
2010s American films
Films about Indian Americans

A Very Harold & Kumar Christmas


The Religious Zionists of America (Hebrew official name: Religious Zionists of America/Mizrachi-Hapoel Hamizrachi, also known as Mizrachi, is an American-based organization that is the official body for those, mostly Modern Orthodox Jews who identify with Religious Zionism and support the goals of the general Mizrachi movement in America, Europe and Israel.

Mizrachi (a Hebrew abbreviation of merkaz ruchani – "spiritual center") was founded by Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reines in 1902 to serve as an umbrella organization for the Religious Zionist movement. In 1914, at a national conference in Cincinnati, Rabbi Meir Berlin (Bar-Ilan) oversaw the establishment of the American branch of the World Movement. The movement is inspired by the slogans of Mizrachi, "The Land of Israel, for the People of Israel, According to the Torah of Israel," and Hapoel Hamizrachi, "Torah Va'Avodah" (Torah and Labor).

Most rabbis affiliated with Modern Orthodoxy's Rabbinical Council of America (RCA), who are mostly alumni of Yeshiva University's (YU) Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS) are active members and leaders in the RZA so that there is a strong correlation of leadership between YU, the RCA, Mizrachi in general, and the RZA.

In honor of the 70th anniversary of the founding of the State of Israel, RZA partnered with World Mizrachi to bring 70 scholars to 70 communities in the United States. Named "70 for 70" this program had a significant impact on communities across the United States and reintroduced thousands of people to the RZA.

The RZA works on common Zionist agendas with similar non-Orthodox and non-religious organizations, such as the Zionist Organization of America, the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations, the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, B'nai B'rith, United Jewish Appeal, the Jewish National Fund and others.

The presidium of the RZA is Dr. Ernest Agatstein, Martin Oliner and Rabbi Leonard A. Matanky, and the chairman of the board is Rabbi Solomon Ryback. RZA's executive vice president that serves as chief executive for day-to-day operations is Rabbi Ari Rockoff.

See also
Bnei Akiva
Mizrachi (political party)
Mizrachi (Religious Zionism)
Hapoel HaMizrachi
Modern Orthodox Judaism
National Religious Party
Religious Zionism

References

External links
Official RZA website
Site of World Mizrachi Movement
Religious Zionists of America records; I-400; American Jewish Historical Society, New York, NY, and Boston, MA.

American Zionist Movement
Religious Zionist organizations
Zionist organizations in the United States

Religious Zionists of America


Abadin Tadia Tjoessoep (3 July 1626 – 23 May 1699), more commonly known as Sheikh Yusuf or Sheik Joseph, was an Indonesian Muslim of noble descent. He was also known as Muhammad Yusuf al-Maqassari. In 1693 he was exiled to the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, which resulted in his establishing Islam in the Cape.

Early and middle life (Nusantara)
Yusuf was born as nephew of the Sultan Alauddin of Gowa, in today Makassar, Indonesia. In 1644 he embarked on the Hajj to Mecca and spent several years in Arabia learning under various pious scholars. During this period the Dutch and British East India Companies were fighting for control of the region due to its lucrative trade in spices and gold. When Yusuf left Arabia in 1664, Makassar had been captured by the Dutch, and he was unable to return home. Instead, he headed for Bantam on the island of Java, where he was welcomed by Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa. Ageng gave Yusuf the hand of one of his daughters in marriage, and made him his chief religious judge and personal advisor. Yusuf stayed in Bantam for 16 years until 1680, when Ageng's son, Pangeran Hajji, rose against his father, possibly at the urgings of the Dutch East India Company. Ageng rallied his forces, including Yusuf, and in 1683 besieged Hajji in his fortress at Soerdesoeang. Ageng was defeated but managed to escape capture, along with an entourage of about 5,000, among them the 57-year-old Yusuf. Ageng was captured later that year but Yusuf managed to escape a second time and continued the resistance.

Exile to the Cape and establishment of Islam

In 1684 Yusuf was persuaded to surrender on the promise of a pardon, but the Dutch reneged on their promise and instead imprisoned him at the castle of Batavia. Suspecting that he would attempt escape, the Dutch transferred him to Ceylon in September that year, before exiling him to the Cape on 27 June 1693 on the ship Voetboeg. Yusuf, along with 49 followers including two wives, two concubines and twelve children, were received in the Cape on 2 April 1694 by governor Simon van der Stel. They were housed on the farm Zandvliet, far outside of Cape Town, in an attempt to minimise his influence on the DEIC's slaves. The plan failed however; Yusuf's settlement soon became a sanctuary for slaves and it was here that the first cohesive Islamic community in South Africa was established. From here the message of Islam was disseminated to the slave community of Cape Town.

Sheikh Yusuf died at Zandvliet on 23 May 1699. Thereafter the area surrounding Zandvliet farm had been renamed Macassar after his place of birth. He was buried on the hills of Faure, overlooking Macassar.

Legacy and honours
As honour to Sheikh Yusuf, a shrine had been erected over his grave and to this day Muslims in the area visit it to pay their respects.

Sheikh Yusuf was declared a National Hero of Indonesia on 7 August 1995. He was also posthumously awarded the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo in Gold on 27 September 2005, for his contribution to the struggle against colonialism.

Order of Mendi for Bravery (2005)

See also
 List of Sufis
 Islam in Indonesia
 Islam in South Africa

Sources

References

Indonesian Muslims
South African Muslims
Yusuf
1626 births
1699 deaths
Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo
Order of Mendi for Bravery
17th-century Indonesian people
17th-century South African people
Sunni Sufis
Khalwati order

Sheikh Yusuf


Emily Stewart Lakdawalla (born February 8, 1975) is an American planetary geologist and former Senior Editor of The Planetary Society, contributing as both a science writer and a blogger. She has also worked as a teacher and as an environmental consultant. She has performed research work in geology, Mars topography, and science communication and education. Lakdawalla is a science advocate on various social media platforms, interacting with space professionals and enthusiasts on Facebook, Google+ and Twitter. She has appeared on such media outlets as NPR, BBC and BBC America.

Education
In 1996, Lakdawalla was awarded her Bachelor of Arts degree in geology from Amherst College. In 2000 she received her Master of Science degree in planetary geology from Brown University.

Career
After completing her studies at Amherst, Lakdawalla spent two years, from 1996 through 1998, teaching fifth and sixth grade science at Lake Forest Country Day School in Lake Forest, Illinois.

In 1997, inspired by a space simulation project using images returning from the Galileo mission of two of Jupiter's moons, Io and Europa, Lakdawalla decided to undertake independent research in structural geology.

Research
At Amherst, Lakdawalla worked to study deformed metasedimentary rocks of northeastern Washington. Working at Brown concurrently, she performed analyses of radar images received from Magellan, while also processing topographic data taken of the Baltis Vallis region on Venus, in order to model its geological history.

Lakdawalla has published research on the topography of a putative stratovolcano on Mars, recorded by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter. She has also worked with an international team to analyze returned Mars rover data, and to evaluate Devon Island as a test site for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) developed for use on Mars.

Lakdawalla's work with Pamela Gay, et al., on the immersion of audiences in interactive educational astronomy content, has been cited by further research into social media content classification and delivery of content types through social media.

Lakdawalla has also engaged in advocacy for citizen science research projects, especially those involving space exploration, such as CosmoQuest and Zooniverse.

The Planetary Society
In 2001, Lakdawalla joined The Planetary Society as a deputy project manager of the Society's Red Rover Goes to Mars project, an educational and public outreach program on the Mars Exploration Rover mission funded by The Lego Group. In 2002, in support of training exercises for Mars rover operations, she administered an international competition, which selected secondary school students for training and travel to Pasadena, California for participation in these exercises. In early 2005, this competition and selection was performed again for actual Mars Exploration Rover mission operations.

During a research operation on Devon Island (located in the Canadian high Arctic), which was funded by The Planetary Society, where a team worked to test the location as a potential analogue for unmanned aerial vehicles to be deployed on Mars, Lakdawalla began writing for the Society's online publications. For several years, she wrote web news articles, as well as making contributions to the society's print publications, including The Planetary Report, where she assumed chief editorial responsibilities in September 2018. Lackdawalla left the Planetary Society in September of 2020

Writing
Lakdawalla is a contributing editor to Sky & Telescope magazine, for which she has written articles about Mars, the Moon, outer planets, spacecraft imaging, and Kuiper belt objects. She has written a book about the design and engineering of the Curiosity rover mission, published in 2018, and is working on a second book, about the scientific discoveries of Curiosity, to be published in 2019.

Starting in September 2013, Lakdawalla has penned the monthly "In the Press" column for Nature Geoscience.

Media appearances
Lakdawalla is a regular contributor to the weekly Planetary Radio podcast.

Following Bill Nye's installation as The Planetary Society's Executive Director, Lakdawalla has appeared on television, in webcasts, on Google+ Hangouts, and on Snapshots from Space, viewable from The Planetary Society's YouTube channel.

Lakdawalla has been a host for CosmoQuest's Science Hour, interviewing guests, including Bill Nye, about the future of planetary exploration.

In an interview with Brad Allen, Lakdawalla discussed the path that led to a career in science communication, the state of human space exploration and current space exploration missions, such as the Mars Science Laboratory.

In a December 2013 interview with Universe Today, Lakdawalla discussed candidate locations for life in the Solar System based on geological activity and presence of water. In addition to Europa, Lakdawalla cited Enceladus (a moon of Saturn), due to its active salty geysers: "Those geysers are salty – it's a salt water ocean, so we basically have a world that is conveniently venting its ocean out into space. You don't even have to land – you can just fly right through that plume and check to see what kinds of cool chemistry is happening there. So yeah, I think Enceladus would be a really cool place to explore for life."

Lakdawalla has been interviewed on topics such as China's Jade Rabbit moon rover on NPR's All Things Considered.

Lakdawalla has appeared on BBC America and BBC World News.

Awards and honors
In 2011, Lakdawalla received the Jonathan Eberhart Planetary Sciences Journalism Award from the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society for her reporting on the Phoebe ring of Saturn.

Asteroid 274860 Emilylakdawalla, discovered by German astronomers Matthias Busch and Rainer Kresken at the ESA Optical Ground Station in 2009, was named in her honor. The official  was published by the Minor Planet Center on July 12, 2014 ().

Personal life
Lakdawalla resides in Los Angeles with her husband, economist Darius Lakdawalla. The couple originally met when attending Amherst together as undergraduates in the early 1990s. They have two daughters.

See also
 Darius Lakdawalla
 Neil deGrasse Tyson
 Phil Plait

References

Bibliography

External links

1975 births
Living people
Planetary scientists
Women planetary scientists
American women astronomers
American science writers
Science bloggers
Amherst College alumni
Brown University alumni
American women bloggers
American bloggers
Women science writers
Sky & Telescope people
American women non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers

Emily Lakdawalla


The Tanggu Truce, sometimes called the , was a ceasefire that was signed between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan in Tanggu District, Tianjin, on May 31, 1933. It formally ended the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, which had begun in 1931.

Background
After the Mukden Incident of September 18, 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria and, by February 1932, it had captured the entire region. The last emperor of the Qing dynasty, Puyi, who was living in exile in the Foreign Concessions in Tianjin, was convinced by the Japanese to accept the throne of the new Empire of Manchukuo, which remained under the control of the Imperial Japanese Army.

In January 1933, to secure Manchukuo's southern borders, a joint Japanese and Manchukuo force invaded Rehe. After conquering that province by March, it drove the remaining Chinese armies in the northeast beyond the Great Wall into Hebei Province.

From the start of hostilities, China had appealed to its neighbors and the international community but received no effective support. When China called an emergency meeting of the League of Nations, a committee was established to investigate the affair. The Lytton Commission's report ultimately condemned Japan's actions but offered no plan for intervention. In response, the Japanese simply withdrew from the League on March 27, 1933.

The Japanese army was under explicit instructions from Japanese Emperor Hirohito, who wanted a quick end to the China conflict and for Japan not to venture beyond the Great Wall. Japan's negotiating position was very strong, as the Chinese Nationalists were under severe pressure from the simultaneous full-scale civil war against the Chinese communists.

Negotiations
On May 22, 1933, Chinese and Japanese representatives met to negotiate the end of the conflict. The Japanese demands were severe: a demilitarized zone extending 100 km south of the Great Wall from Beijing to Tianjin was to be created, with the Great Wall itself under Japanese control. No regular Kuomintang military units were to be allowed in the demilitarized zone, but the Japanese were allowed to use reconnaissance aircraft or ground patrols to ensure that the agreement was maintained. Public order within the zone was to be maintained by a lightly armed Demilitarized Zone Peace Preservation Corps.

Two secret clauses excluded any of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies from the Peace Preservation Corps and provided for any disputes that could not be resolved by the Peace Preservation Corps to be settled by agreement between the Japanese and the Chinese governments.

Harried by their civil war with the communists and unable to win international support, Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese government agreed to virtually all of Japan's demands.

Furthermore, most of the new demilitarized zone was within the remaining territory of a discredited Manchurian warlord, Zhang Xueliang.

Aftermath

The Tanggu Truce de facto resulted in the recognition of Manchukuo by the Kuomintang government and its acknowledgement of the loss of Rehe. It provided for a temporary end to the combat between China and Japan, and relations between both countries briefly improved. On May 17, 1935, the Japanese legation in China was raised to the status of embassy, and on June 10, 1935, the He-Umezu Agreement was concluded. The Tanggu Truce gave Chiang Kai-shek time to consolidate his forces and to concentrate his efforts against the Chinese Communist Party albeit at the expense of North China.

However, Chinese public opinion was hostile to terms that were so favorable to Japan and so humiliating to China. Although the truce provided for a demilitarized buffer zone, Japanese territorial ambitions towards China remained, and the truce proved to be only a temporary respite until hostilities erupted again in 1937 by the Second Sino-Japanese War.

See also
 Japanese imperialism
 Unequal treaties

Citations

General sources

External links
 "JAPAN-CHINA: Breathing Spell"—Time magazine, June 12, 1933

1933 in China
1933 in Japan
History of Manchuria
Interwar-period treaties
Peace treaties of China
Peace treaties of Japan
Second Sino-Japanese War
Treaties concluded in 1933
Treaties entered into force in 1933
Treaties of the Empire of Japan
Treaties of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
Unequal treaties

Tanggu Truce


Our Lady of the Rocks is one of the two islets off the coast of Perast in the Bay of Kotor, Montenegro (the other being Sveti Đorđe island). It is an artificial island created by bulwark of rocks and by sinking old and seized ships loaded with rocks. The Catholic Church of Our Lady of the Rocks (Montenegrin: Gospa od Škrpjela) is the largest building on the islet, and has a museum attached to it. There is also a small gift shop close to the church and a navigation light at the western end of the islet.

According to legend, the islet was made over the centuries by local seamen who kept an ancient oath after finding the icon of Madonna and Child on the rock in the sea on 22 July 1452. Upon returning from each successful voyage, they laid a rock in the Bay. Over time, the islet gradually emerged from the sea. The custom of throwing rocks into the sea is alive even nowadays. Every year on the sunset of 22 July, an event called fašinada in the local dialect, when local residents take their boats and throw rocks into the sea, widening the surface of the island, takes place.

The church was renovated in 1722. The church contains 68 paintings by Tripo Kokolja, a famous 17th-century baroque artist from Perast. His most important painting, ten meters long, is The Death of the Virgin. There are also paintings by Italian artists, and an icon (circa 1452) of Our Lady of the Rocks, by Lovro Dobričević of Kotor. The church also houses a collection of silver votive tablets and a famous votive tapestry embroidered by Jacinta Kunić-Mijović from Perast. It took her 25 years to finish it while waiting for her darling to return from a long journey, and eventually, she became blind. She used golden and silver fibres but what makes this tapestry so famous is the fact that she also embroidered her own hair in it.

Gallery

See also

 Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor
 Catholic Church in Montenegro

References

External links

Roman Catholic churches in Montenegro
Islands of Montenegro
Islands of the Adriatic Sea
Perast
Tourist attractions in Kotor
Artificial islands

Our Lady of the Rocks


"Sunshine tax" or "Paradise tax" is an ironic term used in the United States and Canada to describe the phenomenon that salaries are often lower than the national average, and costs of living higher than the national average, in places that have a desirably temperate climate.

The term can also be used to mean anything that has the effect of making costs higher in areas like the Sunbelt. In 2007, the San Diego Union-Tribune calculated the cost of the California sunshine tax at $1.1 billion just for the additional cost of gasoline in the state.

In Hawaii, the same concept is called a "paradise tax". It arises because incomes are lower and the cost of living is higher in Hawaii than on the mainland.<ref>Smith, James R. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qmSemH3lggwC&pg=PA7& Living and Retiring in Hawaii: The 50th State in the 21st Century]</ref> It is not an actual tax, but rather a perceived persistent difference between costs among locations. It is also described as "the price you pay for paradise" or "the cost of living in paradise." Randall W. Roth, in a book entitled The Price of Paradise'', listed a number of possible causes, including shipping costs, land availability, and differences in regulation.

The phenomenon arises because many people are willing to accept lower earnings and higher costs of living to live in a place like Hawaii, California, Florida, Colorado, British Columbia, or other places with an attractive climate."As most people know, everything seems to cost more in California. The houses are more expensive, the gas and groceries cost more and don't ask about the cost of daycare. This added cost of living has inspired its own term – the sunshine tax. It is the added cost to live in one of the best climates on earth, where the sun shines almost every day."

References

Economic geography
Economic problems
Income distribution

Sunshine tax


The Foxtrot, or Slow foxtrot, is an English ballroom dance which developed from American band music. It is now one of the international standard ballroom dances. All ballroom dance competitions controlled by the World Dance Council include the Foxtrot.

History
All the standard ballroom dances had their origins abroad, but were adapted and modified by English dancers into their modern style. The Waltz came from Germany around 1810. The Tango came from Argentina. The Foxtrot and Quickstep were greatly influenced by American music.

Influences from America

The Boston
An American dance called the Boston arrived in England about 1903. This had fairly slow, gliding steps. It is a characteristic of the Foxtrot that in the basic steps, unlike the other dances, the feet slide past each other rather than coming together. The Boston seems to have been the first dance to move the feet in this way. The Boston also was the first ballroom dance to be done with feet parallel (rather than turned out, as in ballet).
"The Boston, surely, was the first true example of the smooth flow and natural walking movement of this form".p165
The Boston, like much else, was finished off by the First World War. Crowded dance floors in wartime left no room for it, and new musical imports arrived from America.

Ragtime
Ragtime and jazz came to Europe, and were great sensations. Both the music, and the many 'craze' dances contributed. After the war the big bands of Paul Whiteman took centre stage. He played 'arranger's jazz', meaning, the band played from charts rather than by ear. Whiteman's bands were hugely successful (there were several).

The craze dances
"The decade between 1910 and 1920", said one writer, "was the period in which America went dance mad".p369 "From 1912 through 1914", said another, "over one hundred new dances found their way in and out of our fashionable ballrooms".p76
These are a few examples: The Shimmy, The Grind, The Turkey Trot, The Bunny Hug, The Texas Tommy, The Cakewalk... Almost all these dances originated in the black community in the United States, and some moved over into white society.p95

The English touch
During the 1920s, English professional dancers and dance teachers set out to find ways of dancing to the new music. In their opinion, what was needed was separate dances for different tempos. So what happened was that the Foxtrot, which had started off as a mid-tempo dance influenced by ragtime, gradually split into two dances, a Slow foxtrot and a quick foxtrot. The difference in tempo allowed the dances to become, in time, different in style as well as music. The Quickstep (as it was soon called) was influenced by the Charleston, and the Slow foxtrot by ideas from the Boston. The syncopation which is still common in the quickstep is an example of ragtime influence on modern dancing.

The name
Where did the name 'foxtrot' come from? It is often said that Foxtrot took its name from its inventor, the vaudeville actor Harry Fox; however the exact origins are not clear. The dance was premiered in 1914, quickly catching the eye of the talented husband and wife duo Vernon and Irene Castle, who lent the dance its signature grace and style.

W.C. Handy's Memphis Blues was said to be the inspiration for the Foxtrot. The Castles' music director would play the Memphis Blues during breaks from the fast paced Castle Walk and One-step. The Castles were intrigued by the rhythm. They introduced the 'Bunny Hug' in a magazine article. They went abroad and in mid-ocean sent a wireless to the magazine to change the Bunny Hug to the 'Foxtrot'.p226

Figures
For the International or English style foxtrot

Basic Figures
 Three Step
 Feather Step
 Natural Turn
 Reverse Turn
 Closed Impetus

Standard Figures
 Natural Weave
 Basic Weave
 Closed Telemark
 Open Telemark
 Hover Feather
 Hover Telemark
 Hover Cross
 Open Impetus
 Wave

References

Other websites
Slow Foxtrot: Basic steps demonstrated by a top-class pair. The dancers are Marcus and Karen Hilton, nine times Professional World Ballroom Dance champions.

Ballroom dances

Foxtrot


Zorbeez is a chamois cloth which is claimed by manufacturer Vertical Branding to be capable of absorbing over 20 fluid oz (600 mL) of liquid. It was claimed that the initial sales of the product were pleasing by the CEO of Vertical Branding Nancy Duitch. It has been proven to work by the KCBD, when it was compared with a paper towel, and a cloth towel. It prevailed against the two other products.

The product was popularized by American pitchman Billy Mays, who advertised the product in 2009.

References

Technical fabrics

Zorbeez


Colin Will (born 1942) is a Scottish poet and publisher. His themes reflect a love of people and the natural world, often in language derived from his scientific background.

Will was formerly librarian at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh from 1988-1998, after which he occupied several positions in senior management. He chaired the Board of the Scottish Poetry Library and was President of the Scottish Library Association in 2000. He also chaired the Board of StAnza: Scotland's International Poetry Festival, from 2006 to 2009, and was re-elected Chair for a further term in 2014. He was awarded a Hawthornden Fellowship in 2013.

Published works
 Thirteen ways of looking at the Highlands and more, Diehard, 1996
 Landings : poems from Normandy, Calder Wood Press, 1998
 The flowers of Scotland, Calder Wood Press, 1998
 Roundabout Livingston : local poems, Calder Wood Press, 1998
 Painted fruits : poems, Calder Wood Press, 1998
 Seven senses, Diehard, 2000
 Sushi & chips, Diehard, 2006
 The floorshow at the Mad Yak Café, Red Squirrel Press, 2010
 The propriety of weeding, Red Squirrel Press, 2012
 The year's six season : poems, Calder Wood Press, 2013

References

Scottish poets
Scottish publishers (people)
Scottish librarians
1942 births
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)

Colin Will


Viscount Bledisloe, of Lydney in the County of Gloucestershire, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1935 for the Conservative politician Charles Bathurst, 1st Baron Bledisloe, upon his retirement as Governor-General of New Zealand. He had already been created Baron Bledisloe, of Lydney in the County of Gloucestershire, in 1918, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Bathurst was the great-grandson and namesake of the early-19th-century politician Charles Bathurst. The latter was the son of Charles Bragge and Anne Bathurst, granddaughter of Sir Benjamin Bathurst, younger brother of Allen Bathurst, 1st Earl Bathurst. In 1804, Charles Bathurst assumed the surname of Bathurst in lieu of Bragge. The first Viscount's grandson, third Viscount, was one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that were allowed to remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sat as a crossbencher until his death. He was also a member of the Lords Constitution Committee.   the titles are held by his son, the fourth Viscount, who succeeded in 2009.

The family seat is Lydney Park, near Lydney, Gloucestershire.

Viscounts Bledisloe (1935)
Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe (1867–1958)
Benjamin Ludlow Bathurst, 2nd Viscount Bledisloe (1899–1979)
Christopher Hiley Ludlow Bathurst, 3rd Viscount Bledisloe (1934–2009)
Rupert Edward Ludlow Bathurst, 4th Viscount Bledisloe (b. 1964)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Hon. Benjamin Bathurst (b. 2004).

See also
 Earl Bathurst

References

External links

 Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (eds) Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage New York: St Martin's Press, 1990
 Charles Mosley, Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 107th edition (London 2003)
 http://www.thepeerage.com/p14421.htm#i144207
 https://web.archive.org/web/20080309065134/http://www.parliament.uk/directories/house_of_lords_information_office/deceased_members.cfm

Viscountcies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Bathurst family
Noble titles created in 1935
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Viscount Bledisloe


Hyangchal (, literally "vernacular letters", "local letters", or "corresponded sound") is an archaic writing system of Korea and was used to transcribe the Korean language in Chinese characters. Using the hyangchal system, Chinese characters were given a Korean reading based on the syllable associated with the character. The hyangchal writing system is often classified as a subgroup of the Idu script.

The first mention of hyangchal is the monk Kyun Ye's biography during the Goryeo period. Hyangchal is best known as the method Koreans used to write hyangga poetry. Twenty-five such poems still exist and show that vernacular poetry used native Korean words and Korean word order, and each syllable was "transcribed with a single graph". The writing system covered nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, particles, suffixes, and auxiliary verbs. The practice of hyangchal continued during the Goryeo era, where it was used to record native Korean poetry as well.

See also
 Idu script
 Hanja

References

Korean writing system

Hyangchal


The 8th Cavalry Brigade was a cavalry brigade of the British Army in World War I.  It was formed in Belgium in 1914 and served on the Western Front as part of the 3rd Cavalry Division.  It left the 3rd Cavalry Division on 14 March 1918.

World War I

Formation
The 3rd Cavalry Division began forming at Ludgershall, Wiltshire in September 1914 with just two cavalry brigades (the 6th and the 7th).  To bring the division up to the standard strength of three brigades, the 8th Cavalry Brigade was formed in Belgium on 20 November 1914.  With the addition of its third brigade, 3rd Cavalry Division obtained a third Cavalry Field Ambulance (8th, from England on 23 December) and a third Mobile Veterinary Section (20th, from England on 9 March 1915).

The Brigade was initially formed with the 10th Royal Hussars from 6th Cavalry Brigade and the Royal Horse Guards from 7th Cavalry Brigade on 20 November.  The third regiment, the 1/1st Essex Yeomanry, did not join from the Eastern Mounted Brigade in England until 11 December.  A signal troop joined on formation and G Battery, Royal Horse Artillery (six 13 pounders) joined from V Brigade, RHA of 8th Infantry Division on 25 November.  On 29 February 1916, a Machine Gun Squadron was formed from the machine gun sections of the brigade's constituent regiments.

Chronicle
The brigade served with the 3rd Cavalry Division on the Western Front until March 1918.  It joined the division too late to take part in any of the 1914 actions, but in 1915 the division saw action in the Second Battle of Ypres (Battle of Frezenberg Ridge, 11–13 May) and the Battle of Loos (26–28 September).  1916 saw no notable actions, but in 1917 the division took part in the Battle of Arras (First Battle of the Scarpe, 9–12 April).  At other times, the brigade formed a dismounted unit and served in the trenches (as a regiment under the command of the brigadier).

In March 1918, the 4th (formerly 1st Indian) and 5th (formerly 2nd Indian) Cavalry Divisions were broken up in France.  The Indian elements were sent to Egypt where they formed part of the new 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions which played a major part in the successful conclusion of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.  The British and Canadian units remained in France and most of them were transferred to the 3rd Cavalry Division causing it to be extensively reorganized.

The yeomanry regiments were concentrated in the 8th Cavalry Brigade; it left the 3rd Cavalry Division on 14 March 1918, the day after the Canadian Cavalry Brigade joined from 5th Cavalry Division.  It appears to have been dissolved at this point as the constituent regiments (the Essex, Leicestershire and North Somerset Yeomanry) were slated to be converted to cyclist units, G Battery, RHA was posted to XVII Brigade, RHA, and 8th MG Squadron joined 7th Cavalry Brigade.

Units

Commanders
The 8th Cavalry Brigade had the following commanders:

See also

British Army during World War I
British Cavalry Corps order of battle 1914
British cavalry during the First World War

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Cavalry brigades of the British Army
Military units and formations established in 1914
Military units and formations disestablished in 1918

8th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)


Anfield Cemetery, or the City of Liverpool Cemetery, is located in Anfield, a district of Liverpool, Merseyside, England.  It lies to the northeast of Stanley Park, and is bounded by Walton Lane (A580 road) to the west, Priory Road to the south, a railway line to the north, and the gardens of houses on Ince Avenue to the east.  The cemetery grounds are included in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens at Grade II*.

History
By the middle of the 19th century the burial grounds in town centres had become dangerously overcrowded, and a series of Burial Acts were passed to regulate their further use.  In 1854 Liverpool Corporation prohibited any further burials in the city centre graveyards.  The first cemetery to be built as a result of this was Toxteth Park Cemetery in 1855–56, but this was to serve a district of Liverpool rather than its centre.  In 1860 a competition was held to design a cemetery in Anfield.

Although this was won by Thomas D. Barry, the commission was awarded to William Gay.  However, he resigned the following year and the layout of cemetery was designed by Edward Kemp.  Building started in 1861.  The cost of the cemetery, including the purchase of the land, was over £150,000 (equivalent to £ in ).

The first burial took place in 1863, and the building of the cemetery was completed the following year.  The buildings in the cemetery, including the three chapels, and the entrances and entrance lodges. were designed by the Liverpool architects Lucy and Littler.

In the southern part of the site a crematorium was built in 1894–96.  This was erected by the Liverpool Crematorium company, and designed by James Rhind.  In 1951 a columbarium was built to the southeast of the crematorium.

Two of the original chapels and one of the lodges have been demolished.

Description
The site is roughly diamond-shaped, lying on a northwest–southeast axis, and occupying an area of about 57 hectares.  It is bounded mainly by a sandstone wall, and by a short length of fencing.  There are four entrances, the main entrance being at the corner of Walton Lane and Priory Road.  There are other separate entrances on Walton Lane and on Priory Road, and a fourth entrance at the northeast corner, which is known as the Cherry Lane entrance, and is entered by a bridge under the railway line.  A further, separate, entrance, leads to the crematorium.  Within the cemetery, an east–west axial path runs between the main entrance and the Cherry Lane entrance, which is crossed by a north–south axial path between the other entrances.  At the crossing point is a sunken rectangular area with apsidal ends.  To the south of this is the remaining chapel, and to the east are two buildings known as the North and South Catacombs.

Listed buildings

Associated with the cemetery are twelve buildings that are designated by English Heritage as Grade II listed buildings.  All are constructed in sandstone.  The main entrance consists of two carriageways with gate piers between and flanking them.  The central gate pier is enlarged to form an octagonal clock tower with Gothic features, including a gabled top and pinnacles.  The carriageways contain iron gates.  Flanking the carriageways are pedestrian entrances, above which are iron canopies.  There is a lodge to the north and another to the south of the main entrance.  The north lodge is in one storey with an attic.  It has an L-shaped plan with a porch in the angle.  To the right of this is a canted bay window, above which is a window containing the coat of arms of the city.  The south lodge also has a single storey with an attic, and contains windows with pointed arches and transoms.  In the centre is a gabled porch with a pointed arched entrance, above which is a dormer.  The Cherry Lane entrance incorporates a bridge under the railway.  It has a central carriageway, which is flanked by footways.  Its features include castellated portals each of which has a tourelle, coats of arms of the city, and fine gates.  The entrances on Walton Lane and Priory Road are similar to each other.  They consist of four gate piers with moulded bases, which are surmounted by pyramidal finials.  Between the piers are ornamental wrought iron gates.  To the south of the Priory Road entrance is another lodge, also in a single storey with an attic, which is similar to the lodge to the south of the main entrance.  In Priory Road is the former registrar's office.  This has an irregular plan, and is in two storeys and five bays.  It contains bay windows, the other windows being mullioned and transomed.

Inside the cemetery is the one remaining chapel, which originally served the Nonconformists. This is constructed in stone with a slate roof, in Early English style.  It consists of a nave with an apse, and north and south aisles, each of which ends in a porch.  Above the north porch is a steeple, which contains two-light louvred bell openings with gargoyles and pinnacles, and is surmounted by a spire with lucarnes.  Flanking the site of the former Anglican chapel are two entrances to former catacombs.  From these, coffins were carried by hydraulic lifts down to a crypt about  beneath the ground.  The crypt contains four passages, which are lined on each side by recesses for the coffins.  Above ground are buttressed arcades in nine bays with corbelled parapets and gargoyles.  The entrances to the catacombs are now blocked.

The crematorium is in Perpendicular style, and has a T-shaped plan.  Its tower, a disguised chimney, includes louvred bell openings, gargoyles, and an embattled parapet.

Because of the state of the one remaining chapel, now unused, and the poor condition of the catacombs, the site has been placed on the Heritage at Risk Register of English Heritage.

Memorials and burials

The only listed memorial is to Alexander McLennan, who died in 1893, and his wife. It is in granite, and is in the form of an Egyptian pylon.  Notable monuments identified by Pollard and Pevsner in the Buildings of England series are a memorial in the form of a Celtic cross to John Highmett, who died in 1890, a granite sarcophagus to Robert Daglish, who died in 1904, and a pinnacled Gothic canopy to William Bottomley Bairstow, who died in 1868.

In the central sunken area is a memorial to those who died serving in the First World War and are buried here. This consists of a Stone of Remembrance by Sir Edwin Lutyens, and a Cross of Sacrifice by Sir Reginald Blomfield.  Elsewhere is a memorial to the citizens of Liverpool who died in the Liverpool Blitz in 1941. This stands by a communal grave of 554 people, 373 of whom are unidentified.  The Commonwealth War Graves Commission record 997 Commonwealth service personnel buried or commemorated here who were casualties of the two world wars, and screen walls inscribed with their names, and the crematorium has a memorial to 47 others from the Second World War who were cremated here. There are also 67 foreign national war graves, chiefly Dutch and Norwegian seamen, as well as a Second World War soldier of the Soviet Russian Army.

Buried in the cemetery are the artist William G. Herdman (1805–1882), the boxer Jem Mace (died 1910), and T. J. Hughes, founder of a chain of shops bearing his name.  Also buried in the cemetery are four recipients of the Victoria Cross: Patrick Mylott (1820–1878) and John Kirk (1827–1865), both of whom served in the Indian Mutiny, Joseph Prosser (1828–1867) who served in the Crimean War, and Donald Dickson Farmer (1877–1956) who served in the Second Boer War. Other notable burials or cremations include the cotton merchant James Maybrick (1838–1889), the footballer Joe Fagan (1921–2001), the singer Michael Holliday (1924–1963), and the musician Rory Storm (1938–1972). In the cemetery are the graves of the newspaper proprietor Michael James Whitty (1793–1873), and William Herbert Wallace (1878–1933), who was convicted, then acquitted, of murdering his wife.

References
Notes

Citations

Sources

External links

 Friends of Anfield Cemetery and Crematoria
 Parks and Gardens UK
 Anfield Cemetery Memorial Inscriptions

1863 establishments in England
Buildings and structures completed in 1863
Grade II listed buildings in Liverpool
Cemeteries in Liverpool
Grade II* listed parks and gardens in Merseyside
Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England

Anfield Cemetery


William Wheelwright (March 18, 1798 – September 26, 1873) was a businessman who played an essential role in the development of steamboat and train transportation in Chile and other parts of South America. In 1838, with help from the Chilean government, he founded the Pacific Steam Navigation Company which commenced operations on October 15, 1840 and provided commercial sea access to cities such as Valparaíso and El Callao.

Wheelwright also owned the Central Argentine Railway, a company established in 1863 that built and operated railway lines in the east-central region of Argentina.

Biography
William Wheelwright, son of Ebenezer and Anna (Coombs) Wheelwright, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on March 16, 1798. Wheelwright lived in a house on High Street and attended public school until he was about twelve years of age, when he was sent to Andover Academy, where he completed his education.

Wheelwright's father was a shipmaster in early life, William soon manifested a desire to pursue the same vocation. He shipped as cabin boy on board a vessel bound to the West Indies and during the next two or three years he rose rapidly to the rank of captain in 1817, when he was only nineteen years of age.

In 1823, he was in command of the ship Rising Empire, owned by William Bartlett, when the vessel was wrecked off the coast of South America, near the mouth of the Río de La Plata. The captain and crew reached shore in safety after twenty-four hours' exposure in an open boat. One man was lost.

On his arrival at Buenos Aires, Wheelwright obtained a position as supercargo of a vessel about to sail for Valparaiso. The voyage took four or five months to complete using the route around Cape Horn. Interested in studying the business opportunities on the west coast of South America, he traveled to Guayaquil, the seaport of Ecuador, where he decided to remain. In 1825, he was appointed United States consul at that port. Three years later, he left his business in the hands of his partner and returned to his home in Newburyport via the Isthmus of Panama. He had been absent six years.

He married Martha Gerrish of Newburyport on February 10, 1829, and returned with her to Guayaquil. Wheelwright discovered that nearly all his property had been lost during his absence, through the negligence and mismanagement of his partner. He decided to return to Valparaiso, and bought a small vessel, which he named Fourth of July, which he put to work transporting specie and bullion from port to port along the coast.

Steamship line
In 1835, he commenced the great task of establishing a line of steamers between the republics of Peru and Chile and Europe. He went to England in 1837 to raise funds, and in 1838 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was formed with a capital of £250,000. Two steamers, each of seven hundred tons register, were built in 1840 and ordered to proceed through the straits of Magellan to the ports of Valparaiso and Callao.

After the arrival of these steamers on the Pacific coast Wheelwright discovered the difficulty of procuring coal and the impossibility of providing for unexpected repairs.  These obstacles were surmounted, and steam communication was established with Europe.

Railroads

Wheelwright built the first South American railroad from Caldera to Copiapó, and extended it nearly 40 miles into the interior of Chile.

In 1841, he became interested in a plan to unite Valparaiso and Buenos Aires by rail over the mountain range that separates Chile from Argentina. The survey work was completed in 1859; but the Chilean government considered the difficulties too great to be successfully overcome, and the enterprise was abandoned.

Wheelwright later moved to Argentina, where he built the Central Argentine Railway that joined the cities of Córdoba and Rosario. The company had been established in London, signing a contract with the Ministry of Interior, Guillermo Rawson, in 1863.

The contract included a term stating the company (CAR) had the exclusive rights to construct a railway to the Andes. Nevertheless, the CAR never built the line due to the high costs. The company was also granted a minimum profit (that was considerably higher than incomes earned by European railway companies).

Wheelwright died in London in September 1873. A small town in Santa Fe Province of Argentina was named after him, Wheelwright, Santa Fe.

References

  Out of copyright.

External links

 Newburyport Vital Records and History
 The Life and Industrial Labors of William Wheelwright in South America by Juan Bautista Alberdi, published 1877, 213 pages.
 South America: A Popular Illustrated History of the Struggle for Independence by the Andean Republics and Cuba by Hezekiah Butterworth, published 1898, 266 pages. Chapter 15 William Wheelwright and the Industrial Heroes, page 154.
 Observations on the Isthmus of Panama  by William Wheelwright, published 1844, 31 pages.

1798 births
American expatriates in Argentina
American expatriates in Chile
People from Merrimac, Massachusetts
People from Newburyport, Massachusetts
1873 deaths

William Wheelwright


The Bell 202 modem was an early (1976) modem standard developed by the Bell System. It specifies audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) to encode and transfer data at a rate of 1200 bits per second (bit/s), half-duplex. It has separate sets of circuits for 1200 bit/s and 300 bit/s rates.   These signalling protocols, also used in third-party modems, are referred to generically as Bell 202 modulation, and any device employing it as Bell-202-compatible.

 Bell 202 AFSK uses a 1200 Hz tone for mark (typically a binary 1) and 2200 Hz for space (typically a binary 0).

In North America, Bell 202 AFSK modulation is used to transmit Caller ID information over POTS lines in the public telephone network. It is also employed in some commercial settings.

In addition, Bell 202 is the basis for the most commonly used physical layer for the HART Communication Protocol - a communication protocol widely used in the process industries.

Surplus Bell 202 modems were used by amateur radio operators to construct the first packet radio stations, despite its low signalling speed. A modified Bell 202 AFSK modulation, a common physical layer for AX.25, remains the standard for amateur VHF operation in most areas. Notably, Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS) transmissions are encoded this way on VHF. On HF, APRS uses Bell 103 modulation.

The Bell 202 standard was adopted around 1980 as the communications standard for subsea oil and gas production control systems,  pioneered by the then FSSL (Ferranti Subsea Systems Ltd.) Controls, a spin-out company from the former TRW - Ferranti joint venture in the UK. This modulation standard was retained until around 2000, when it was superseded by faster FSK and PSK modulation methods, although it is still utilised for extension of existing control systems that are already configured for this technique.

The 202 standard permitted useful techniques such as multi-dropping of slave modems to allow multiple nodes to be connected to the host via a single modem channel. Other techniques have included superposition of signal on power conductors, and distances in excess of 80 km were achieved in subsea applications using these techniques. This has been enhanced through the use of Manchester encoding over the FSK link, to provide simple Modulo-2 RZ (return to zero) bit error detection and suppression improvement over these long distances.

Related technology
The ITU-T V.23 communications standard defines a similar modulation scheme.

See also
 Caller ID
HART Communication Protocol (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) - a communication protocol used in the process industries.

References

 BELL202 Specification Interface

Modems

Bell 202 modem


The following is a list of FIM Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Champions from 1949, in order of class and year.

Summary
Grand Prix motorcycle racing is the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, which has been divided into four classes: MotoGP, Moto2, Moto3, and MotoE. Classes that have been discontinued include Formula 750, 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc, 80cc, 50cc and Sidecar. The Grand Prix Road-Racing World Championship was established in 1949 by the sport's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM), and is the oldest motorsport World Championship.

There were five classes when the championship started in 1949; 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc and sidecar (600cc). The 50cc class was introduced in 1962. Due to escalating costs that resulted in a number of manufacturers leaving the championship, the FIM limited the 50cc bikes to a single cylinder, the 125cc and 250cc bikes were limited to two cylinders and the 350cc and 500cc bikes were limited to four cylinders. The 350cc class was discontinued in 1982, two years later the 50cc class was replaced with an 80cc class, which was discontinued in 1989. The sidecar class left the series to form its own championship after 1996.  In 2002, 990cc bikes replaced the 500c bikes and the class was renamed as MotoGP. 660cc bikes replaced the 250cc bikes in 2010, with the class rebranded as Moto2. Starting 2012, the Moto3 class (250cc one cylinder) replaced the 125cc class.

The 750 FIM Prize became a world championship from 1977 onwards after a favourable vote from the FIM general council.

Sidecars had 600 cc engines in the first two years, after which they were replaced by 500cc engines.  In 1979 the FIM created a prototype sidecar class named B2B, as opposed to the traditional B2A.  Prototypes were banned in 1980, but from 1981 onwards prototypes were allowed again, this time without having a separate class.

MotoE was introduced in  as a "World Cup" until  and thus statistics from that time span is not included here. MotoE gained World Championship status in .

The Riders' World Championship is awarded to the most successful rider over a season, as determined by a points system based on Grand Prix results. The constructors listed in this table are the bike that the world champions rode during that winning season and are not necessarily the winner of the constructors' world championship in that season. For sidecar champions, the passenger name is in italics.

List

See also
 List of Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Constructors' Champions
 List of Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Teams' Champions
 Sidecar World Championship

References

External links
The Official MotoGP Website

World Champions
Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Championship riders
Motorcycle

List of Grand Prix motorcycle racing World Riders' Champions by year


Kleemann A/S is an after-market tuning company for Mercedes-Benz sports cars, sedans, and SUVs headquartered in Farum, Denmark. Recently, they have begun producing performance supercharging systems for Audi, BMW, and Porsche.

Kleemann's slogan is "Comfort Power," referring to its low-boost, high-output engines that create substantially more power than standard Mercedes models. Kleemann vehicles also include structural and mechanical integrity improvements often lacking in tuned sports cars. Its corporate logo is an abstract arrow which some corporate representatives refer to as the Kleemann carrot.

Any vehicle on the Mercedes lineup can be tuned in a number of ways from SLK roadsters to G-Class Wagons. Customers can specify custom seats, floormats, and interior fabrics as well as carbon fiber body kits, carbon front and rear splitters, and carbon interior panelling. Customers can order simple ECU upgrades that change transmission shift times and valve timing, or they can more aggressively have the engine bored and supercharged, install camshafts and high-flow headers. Kleemann also manufactures its own racing wheels, racing LSDs, racing suspension components, and multi-piston brakes. Kleemann can even install Lamborghini-style vertical doors on their modified vehicles.

History
Kleemann was founded in 1985 near Copenhagen. Initially it was a two-man operation, but took on a third partner in 1994. Kleemann began marketing its supercharger performance systems in 1988.

Records
In 2002 Danish race driver Jason Watt drove 338 km/h (210 mph) in a 607 hp (446 kW) Kleemann E 55K (W210 model) making it the world's fastest four-door car. Less than a year later a Kleemann tuned ML 55K clocked a remarkable 282 km/h (175 mph) on the Nardò Ring in southern Italy making it the world's fastest SUV. However, both records have since been broken by Brabus in Bottrop, Germany.

Innovations
Kleemann is credited with being the first company to combine a supercharger, intake manifold, and an intercooler into one single unit atop the engine block known as the Kleemann Kompressor. This is markedly different from the "Kompressors" or superchargers found on Mercedes-AMG vehicles, although AMG has since begun manufacturing only twin-turbo engines. Kleemann also utilizes twin-screw superchargers instead of roots type superchargers of conventionally belt-driven boost systems.

Vehicles
Kleemann E 55K
Kleemann ML 55K
Kleemann CL 60
Kleemann E5KCC
Kleemann SLK 55k S8

References

External links
Kleemann Main Page

Mercedes-Benz
Auto parts suppliers of Denmark
Automotive motorsports and performance companies
Auto tuning companies
Danish brands

Kleemann


Eppertshausen is a municipality in the Darmstadt-Dieburg Rural District in the state of Hesse, Germany.

Geography

Eppertshausen is located in the Rhine-Main area 15 km northeast of Darmstadt. The whole area of the village is 13.11 km2 large and it lies 130 – 190 m above sea level. It is a plain area with a few hills.

About 35 to 20 million years ago in the age of tertiary the whole region was lying under sea level. At that time it was covered by an ocean which was warm and not very deep. Lots of sediments sank to its bottom. Then the region rose again and the water left, leaving soil which is mostly sandy and poor.

The neighbours of Eppertshausen are:
 Rödermark and Rodgau (North) (all Offenbach Rural District)
 Babenhausen (East)
 Münster (South)
 Messel (West)

Eppertshausen has 5,829 inhabitants (2008).

The climate of the town is mild. There is less rain than in other parts of Germany.

Some local people are speaking a regional type (dialect) of the German language with a certain tone and special words. It is a Hessian dialect (German: Hessisch) spoken in the south of Hesse. This language type is related to other dialects in the south of Germany. In former times mostly every place had its own special dialect, sometimes hard to understand for people of other parts of Germany. Today the dialect speakers are a minority and  the majority of them does not speak the real dialect. They rather speak a kind of regular German with a certain pronunciation.

History

Eppertshausen is an early place where people lived. In the time of the 7th to the 9th century new places to live got name endings like -hausen.

In 836 the name of Eppertshausen was written down in a document for the first time. It was owned by the monastery of the nearby city of Seligenstadt.

Formerly the people in Eppertshausen were mostly farmers and craftsmen but not tradesmen. Every family had land to grow their food. When the property was handed to the next generation it was divided within the children. Therefore, most families had only small farms and were poor. With the industrial revolution the Rhine-Main area got lots of factories and developed to a center for metal working, leather manufacturing and chemical processing. Many men became workmen and found a job in the factories and earned money. This increased living conditions partly.

Twinned cities

  Chaource, France
  Codigoro, Italy

References

Other websites

 Official website of Eppertshausen

Municipalities in Hesse

Eppertshausen


Lady Susan is an early epistolary novel (novel in letters) by Jane Austen. It tells the story of an unscrupulous coquette (flirtatious woman) widow who does not care about the feelings of other men. She wrote it when she was writing her first version of Sense and Sensibility (which was at that time called Elinor and Marianne), and which was also at first, like Lady Susan, written in letter form. She was at this time 20 years old.

Style
The epistolary novel had been popular in the 18th century, but it was not the best style of writing for Jane Austen's talents (which is why all her major novels were written in the third-person narrative style). She admired Richardson very much (all of his books are written in letters, like Pamela (novel) and Clarissa (novel)), and she also admired Frances Burney's style, but none of their styles came naturally to her. She pointed out at the end of Lady Susan: "This correspondence (letter-writing), by a meeting between some of the parties (people) and a separation between the others could not, to the great detriment of the Post Office...be continued longer."

In those days, girls spent some time each day especially to write letters, so a story through letters is much more realistic than it would be today. People like Frances Burney wrote letters that were witty and full of information, so that her diaries and letters were later published. The letters of William Cowper, too, are famous. Jane Austen's letters, however, are private letters about family matters, such as sick babies, partners at balls, beef, and raspberry bushes.

Plot Summary
Lady Susan Vernon is a beautiful and charming(someone who can please and attract someone else)recent widow. She visits her brother-in-law and sister-in-law,Charles and Catherine Vernon, with little prior notice at Churchill, their house. Catherine is not happy, as Lady Susan, a long time ago, had tried to prevent her marriage to Charles.  Catherine's unwanted guest has also been described to her as "the most accomplished(very skilled in something) coquette(a flirtatious woman) in England".

Catherine's brother Reginald arrives a week later, and despite Catherine's strong warnings about Lady Susan's character, soon falls in love with her. Lady Susan toys with(to think about something not very seriously)the younger man's affections for her own enjoyment. Later, because she thinks it makes her sister-in-law, Catherine worried. She writes to her confidante(someone who you trust with your secrets), Mrs. Johnson. Mrs. Johnson recommends Lady Susan to marry Reginald, but Lady Susan considers him to be not as good as Mr. Manwaring, whom she flirts with.

Frederica, Lady Susan's 16-year-old daughter, tries to run away from school when she learns of her mother's plan to marry her off to a rich but dull man, she does not like. The man is Sir James Martin. She then also becomes a guest at Churchill. Catherine comes to like her, and finds out that her character is unlike her mother's. As time goes by, she detects Frederica's growing attachment to the oblivious(not aware of about what is happening around someone) Reginald.

Later, Sir James Martin shows up uninvited(arriving somewhere without being asked to), which makes Frederica unhappy. Lady Susan is annoyed by this. When Frederica begs Reginald for support. She had been forbidden by Lady Susan to ask Charles and Catherine. This causes a disagreement between Reginald and Lady Susan, but the Lady Susan soon repairs the relationship.

Lady Susan decides to return to London and marry her daughter off to Sir James. Reginald follows, still in love with her and intent on marrying her, but he encounters Mrs. Manwaring at the home of Mr. Johnson and finally learns Lady Susan's true character. Lady Susan ends up marrying Sir James herself, and allows Frederica to live with Charles and Catherine at Churchill, where Reginald De Courcy could like her too.

Books by Jane Austen
1790s books

Lady Susan


In ecology, edge effects are changes in population or community structures that occur at the border of two or more places of living. As the edge effects get bigger, there is greater biodiversity in the habitat at the border.

Types
 Permanent – the border location doesn't change with natural features.
 Gotten – some natural disasters (e.g., fire or flood) or human activities, subject borders to straight changes over time.
 Narrow – one habitat ends and another begins immidiately (e.g., an agricultural field).
 Wide (ecotone) – a large distance separates the borders of two clearly defined habitats based on their physical conditions, and in between there exists a large transition region.
 Complex – the border is chaotic.
 Holes – the border has gaps where other habitats exist.

Height can create borders between patches as well.

Biodiversity
Some plants and animals can be active on habitat borders because of environmental conditions. Larger patches allow more individuals and biodiversity becomes bigger. When the plants get more light, there are more types and different sizes. After it is possible to live for herbivorous insects, then birds some bigger animals.

There are three important factors:
 Abiotic effect (changes in the environment);
 Direct biological effects (the diversity of species reduces because of physical conditions near the edge);
Indirect biological effects (changes in species interactions).

Human effects
Human activity creates edges through development and agriculture. Often, the changes are harmful to the size of the habitat and to species. Examples of human impacts:

 Using of invasives/exotics;
 A number of fires;
 Pets acting as predators;
 Pollutions;
 Loss of foraging habitats;
 Habitat fragmentation.

References

Related pages
Rock pool

Ecology

Edge effects (ecology)


Sulfate-reducing microorganisms (SRM) or sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP) are a group composed of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and sulfate-reducing archaea (SRA), both of which can perform anaerobic respiration utilizing sulfate () as terminal electron acceptor, reducing it to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Therefore, these sulfidogenic microorganisms "breathe" sulfate rather than molecular oxygen (O2), which is the terminal electron acceptor reduced to water (H2O) in aerobic respiration.

Most sulfate-reducing microorganisms can also reduce some other oxidized inorganic sulfur compounds, such as sulfite (), dithionite (), thiosulfate (), trithionate (), tetrathionate (), elemental sulfur (S8), and polysulfides (). Other than sulfate reduction, some sulfate-reducing microorganisms are also capable of other reactions like disproportionation of sulfur compounds. Depending on the context, "sulfate-reducing microorganisms" can be used in a broader sense (including all species that can reduce any of these sulfur compounds) or in a narrower sense (including only species that reduce sulfate, and excluding strict thiosulfate and sulfur reducers, for example).

Sulfate-reducing microorganisms can be traced back to 3.5 billion years ago and are considered to be among the oldest forms of microbes, having contributed to the sulfur cycle soon after life emerged on Earth.

Many organisms reduce small amounts of sulfates in order to synthesize sulfur-containing cell components; this is known as assimilatory sulfate reduction. By contrast, the sulfate-reducing microorganisms considered here reduce sulfate in large amounts to obtain energy and expel the resulting sulfide as waste; this is known as dissimilatory sulfate reduction. They use sulfate as the terminal electron acceptor of their electron transport chain. Most of them are anaerobes; however, there are examples of sulfate-reducing microorganisms that are tolerant of oxygen, and some of them can even perform aerobic respiration. No growth is observed when oxygen is used as the electron acceptor.
In addition, there are sulfate-reducing microorganisms that can also reduce other electron acceptors, such as fumarate, nitrate (), nitrite (), ferric iron (Fe3+), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).

In terms of electron donor, this group contains both organotrophs and lithotrophs. The organotrophs oxidize organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, organic acids (such as formate, lactate, acetate, propionate, and butyrate), alcohols (methanol and ethanol), aliphatic hydrocarbons (including methane), and aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene). The lithotrophs oxidize molecular hydrogen (H2), for which they compete with methanogens and acetogens in anaerobic conditions. Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms can directly use metallic iron (Fe0, also known as zerovalent iron, or ZVI) as an electron donor, oxidizing it to ferrous iron (Fe2+).

Ecological importance and markers
Sulfate occurs widely in seawater, sediment, and water rich in decaying organic material. Sulfate is also found in more extreme environments such as hydrothermal vents, acid mine drainage sites, oil fields, and the deep subsurface, including the world's oldest isolated ground water. Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are common in anaerobic environments where they aid in the degradation of organic materials. In these anaerobic environments, fermenting bacteria extract energy from large organic molecules; the resulting smaller compounds such as organic acids and alcohols are further oxidized by acetogens and methanogens and the competing sulfate-reducing microorganisms.

The toxic hydrogen sulfide is a waste product of sulfate-reducing microorganisms; its rotten egg odor is often a marker for the presence of sulfate-reducing microorganisms in nature.  Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are responsible for the sulfurous odors of salt marshes and mud flats. Much of the hydrogen sulfide will react with metal ions in the water to produce metal sulfides. These metal sulfides, such as ferrous sulfide (FeS), are insoluble and often black or brown, leading to the dark color of sludge.

During the Permian–Triassic extinction event (250 million years ago) a severe anoxic event seems to have occurred where these forms of bacteria became the dominant force in oceanic ecosystems, producing copious amounts of hydrogen sulfide.

Sulfate-reducing bacteria also generate neurotoxic methylmercury as a byproduct of their metabolism, through methylation of inorganic mercury present in their surroundings. They are known to be the dominant source of this bioaccumulative form of mercury in aquatic systems.

Uses
Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms can reduce hydrocarbons, and they have been used to clean up contaminated soils. Their use has also been proposed for other kinds of contaminations.

Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are considered a possible way to deal with acid mine waters that are produced by other microorganisms.

Problems caused by sulfate-reducing microorganisms
In engineering, sulfate-reducing microorganisms can create problems when metal structures are exposed to sulfate-containing water: Interaction of water and metal creates a layer of molecular hydrogen on the metal surface; sulfate-reducing microorganisms then oxidize the hydrogen while creating hydrogen sulfide, which contributes to corrosion.

Hydrogen sulfide from sulfate-reducing microorganisms also plays a role in the biogenic sulfide corrosion of concrete. It also occurs in sour crude oil.

Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms play a role in the anaerobic oxidation of methane:

CH4 + SO42- → HCO3- + HS− + H2O

An important fraction of the methane formed by methanogens below the seabed is oxidized by sulfate-reducing microorganisms in the transition zone separating the methanogenesis from the sulfate reduction activity in the sediments. This process is also considered a major sink for sulfate in marine sediments.

In hydraulic fracturing, fluids are used to frack shale formations to recover methane (shale gas) and hydrocarbons. Biocide compounds are often added to water to inhibit the microbial activity of sulfate-reducing microorganisms, in order to but not limited to, avoid anaerobic methane oxidation and the generation of hydrogen sulfide, ultimately resulting in minimizing potential production loss.

Biochemistry

Before sulfate can be used as an electron acceptor, it must be activated. This is done by the enzyme ATP-sulfurylase, which uses ATP and sulfate to create adenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (APS). APS is subsequently reduced to sulfite and AMP. Sulfite is then further reduced to sulfide, while AMP is turned into ADP using another molecule of ATP. The overall process, thus, involves an investment of two molecules of the energy carrier ATP, which must to be regained from the reduction.

The enzyme dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase, dsrAB (EC 220.127.116.11), that catalyzes the last step of dissimilatory sulfate reduction, is the functional gene most used as a molecular marker to detect the presence of sulfate-reducing microorganisms.

Phylogeny
The sulfate-reducing microorganisms have been treated as a phenotypic group, together with the other sulfur-reducing bacteria, for identification purposes.  They are found in several different phylogenetic lines. As of 2009, 60 genera containing 220 species of sulfate-reducing bacteria are known.

Among the Thermodesulfobacteriota the orders of sulfate-reducing bacteria include Desulfobacterales, Desulfovibrionales, and Syntrophobacterales. This accounts for the largest group of sulfate-reducing bacteria, about 23 genera.

The second largest group of sulfate-reducing bacteria is found among the Bacillota, including the genera Desulfotomaculum, Desulfosporomusa, and Desulfosporosinus.

In the Nitrospirota phylum we find sulfate-reducing Thermodesulfovibrio species.

Two more groups that include thermophilic sulfate-reducing bacteria are given their own phyla, the Thermodesulfobacteriota and Thermodesulfobium.

There are also three known genera of sulfate-reducing archaea: Archaeoglobus, Thermocladium and Caldivirga. They are found in hydrothermal vents, oil deposits, and hot springs.

In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfate-reducing microorganisms living  below the surface. The sulfate reducers discovered in Kidd Mine are lithotrophs, obtaining their energy by oxidizing minerals such as pyrite rather than organic compounds. Kidd Mine is also the site of the oldest known water on Earth.

See also

 Anaerobic respiration
 Deep biosphere
 Extremophile
 Microbial metabolism
 Microorganism
 Quinone-interacting membrane-bound oxidoreductase
 Sulfur cycle

References

External links
 'Follow the Water': Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2.4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory, Garnet S. Lollar, Oliver Warr, Jon Telling, Magdalena R. Osburn & Barbara Sherwood Lollar, Received 15 Jan 2019, Accepted 01 Jul 2019, Published online: 18 Jul 2019.
 Deep fracture fluids isolated in the crust since the Precambrian era,    G. Holland, B. Sherwood Lollar, L. Li, G. Lacrampe-Couloume, G. F. Slater & C. J. Ballentine, Nature volume 497, pages 357–360 (16 May 2013)
 Sulfur mass-independent fractionation in subsurface fracture waters indicates a long-standing sulfur cycle in Precambrian rocks, by    L. Li, B. A. Wing, T. H. Bui, J. M. McDermott, G. F. Slater, S. Wei, G. Lacrampe-Couloume & B. Sherwood Lollar October 27, 2016. Nature Communications volume 7, Article number: 13252 (2016.)
 Earth's mysterious 'deep biosphere' may harbor millions of undiscovered species, By Brandon Specktor, Live Science, December 11, 2018, published online at nbcnews.com.

Bacteria
Martinus Beijerinck
Extremophiles
Environmental microbiology
Ecology
Geomicrobiology
Microbial growth and nutrition

Sulfate-reducing microorganism


Erchinoald (also Erkinoald and, in French, Erchenout) succeeded Aega as the mayor of the palace of Neustria in 641 and succeeded Flaochad in Burgundy in 642 and remained such until his death in 658.

Family
According to Fredegar, he was a relative (consanguineus) of Dagobert I's mother. Chaume cites the Notitia de Fundatione Monasterii Glanderiensis to suggest that Erchinoald was son of the Gallo Roman senator Ansbertus, and that Erchinoald's son, Leudesius, was therefore a descendant of the Gallo-Roman families of the Syagrii and Ferrèoli  Erchinoald's relationship with Merovingian King Dagobert has been proposed to have been through his mother Gerberga, daughter of Burgundian dux Ricomeres (fl. 575) and Bertrude, her putative sister, and mother of King Dagobert. According to Alban Butler, Erchinoald was brother to Adalbard of Ostrevent and Sigefrid, count of Ponthieu. Herchenfrida (Erchinfreda), mother of St. Desiderius of Cahors will have also been of this family as is further evidenced inter alia by that Gallo-Roman saint's close ties to King Dagobert, and a brother named "Syagrius".

Erchinoald introduced Balthild, an Anglo-Saxon slave, most probably of a high-ranking Anglo Saxon family from East Anglia (later canonised), to Clovis II, king of Neustria.  The king's marriage to the pious Balthild reinforced Erchinoald's position at court. It has been suggested given the rarity of the name element "Erchin" (Genuine or truly) among the Franks and Saxons that Queen Emma of Kent, thought to be from Frankia, and the wife of Eadbald of Kent was of this family and perhaps Erchinoald's daughter. Eadbald and Emma had a son Eorconbert b. ca. 618 so Emma was probably born before 600 and was not a daughter but a sister or less likely a cousin of Erchinoald.  This was a period of considerable Frankish influence in Kent and East Anglia and as one of the most powerful men in Frankia located at his estate at Peronne not far from the English channel when he was not at court, it was Erchinoald who wielded this influence during his lifetime.  Erchinoald supported efforts of successors of the Augustinian mission to England.  One notable manner in which he both exerted influence and aided the mission was his involvement in and support of convents within his sphere of influence in Neustria (for example Faremoutiers) into which some of the princesses of Kent,  such as Eorcongota and East Anglia such as Aethelburg and Saethryth, in most cases his relations, retired and were made abbess.

Erchinoald himself married Leutsinde.  Through her he had a son, Leudesius, who became the mayor of the palace of Neustria in 675.

Erchinoald died in 658 and was succeeded by Ebroin, chosen by the Frankish nobles. Although his son, Leudesius, and much of his family were destroyed in the conflict between the factions of Leudegar of Autun and Ebroin in 676, the name does resurface in the 7th century in Frankia suggesting he may have had some descendants who survived; Chaume has posited a sister who was ancestor to a number of powerful families during the Carolingian era such as the Guerinids, the counts of Gatinais, and the Guidonids.

|-

Notes

Chaume, Maurice ' 'Les origines du Duche de Bourgogne' '. Darmstadt: Scientia Verlag Aalen, 1977.
 Le Jan, Regne "Convents, Violence and Competition for Power in Francia." in Theuws, Frans;  De Jong, Mayke; van Rhijn, Carine ' 'Topographies of power in the Early Middle Ages' '. Leeiden: Koninkslijke Brill NV, 2001.

Sources
Bede, ' 'Ecclesiastical History of the English People' '. London: Penguin Classics, 1990.

658 deaths
Mayors of the Palace
Year of birth unknown

Erchinoald