A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would allow them, even just theoretically, to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value. The probability of that harm being realized in a specific incident, combined with the magnitude of potential harm, make up its risk, a term often used synonymously in colloquial speech.

Hazards can be classified in several ways; they can be classified as natural, anthropogenic, technological, or any combination, such as in the case of the natural phenomenon of wildfire becoming more common due to human-made climate change or more harmful due to changes in building practices. A common theme across many forms of hazards in the presence of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal hazards and by the populations that may be affected and the severity of the associated risk. In most cases, a hazard may affect a range of targets and have little or no effect on others.

Identification of hazards assumes that the potential targets are defined, and is the first step in performing a risk assessment.

Characteristics
Hazards may be grouped according to their characteristics.  These factors are related to geophysical events, which are not process specific:
 Areal extent of damage zone
 Intensity of impact at a point
 Duration of impact at a point
 Rate of onset of the event
 Predictability of the event

For example, natural hazards may be defined as "extreme events that originate in the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere or atmosphere" or "a potential threat to humans and their welfare" which include earthquake, landslide, hurricane and tsunamis. Technological and human-made hazards include explosions, the release of toxic materials, episodes of severe contamination, structural collapses, and transportation, construction and manufacturing accidents etc. A distinction can also be made between rapid-onset natural hazards, technological hazards, and social hazards, which are described as being of sudden occurrence and relatively short duration, and the consequences of longer-term environmental degradation such as desertification and drought.

In defining hazard Keith Smith argues that what may be defined as the hazard is only a hazard if there is the presence of humans to make it a hazard and that it is otherwise merely an event of interest. In this sense, the environmental conditions we may consider hostile or hazardous can be seen as neutral in that it is our perception, human location and actions which identify resources and hazards within the range of natural events. In this regard, human sensitivity to environmental hazards is a combination of both physical exposure (natural and/or technological events at a location related to their statistical variability) and human vulnerability (about social and economic tolerance of the same location).

Classification
Hazards can be classified as different types in several ways. One of these ways is by specifying the origin of the hazard. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage.  The stored energy can occur in many forms:  chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical, etc.  Another class of hazard does not involve the release of stored energy, but the presence of hazardous situations. Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres, awkward positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc.

Hazards may also be classified as natural or human-made (anthropogenic). They may also be classified as health or safety hazards and by the populations that may be affected and the severity of the associated risk.

In most cases, a hazard may affect a range of targets and have little or no effect on others. Identification of hazards assumes that the potential targets are defined.

Based on origin

Natural hazards

Natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods, volcanoes and tsunami have threatened people, society, the natural environment, and the built environment, particularly more vulnerable people, throughout history, and in some cases, on a day-to-day basis. According to the Red Cross, each year 130,000 people are killed, 90,000 are injured and 140 million are affected by unique events known as natural disasters.

Geological hazards, meteorological or extreme weather-related hazards, hydrological hazards and biological hazards are some categories of natural hazards.

Smith states that natural hazards are best seen in an ecological framework to distinguish between natural events as natural hazards. He says, "natural hazards, therefore, result from the conflict of geophysical processes with people and they lie at the interface what has been called the natural events system and the human interface system." He says that "this interpretation of natural hazards gives humans a central role. Firstly through location, because it is only when people and their possessions get in the way of natural processes that hazard exists."

A natural hazard can be considered as a geophysical event when it occurs in extremes and a human factor is involved that may present a risk. In this context, we can see that there may be an acceptable variation of magnitude which can vary from the estimated normal or average range with upper and lower limits or thresholds. In these extremes, the natural occurrence may become an event that presents a risk to the environment or people.

Smith says "most social and economic activities are geared to some expectation of the 'average' conditions. As long as the variation of the environmental element remains fairly close to this expected performance, insignificant damage occurs and the element will be perceived as beneficial. However, when the variability exceeds some threshold beyond the normal band of tolerance, the same variable starts to impose a stress on society and become a hazard." Thus, above-average wind speeds resulting in a tropical depression or hurricane according to intensity measures on the Saffir–Simpson scale will provide an extreme natural event that may be considered a hazard.

Anthropogenic hazards

Hazards due to human behaviour and activity are called anthropogenic hazards. These can be grouped into sociological hazards, technological hazards and environmental hazards. Sociological hazards include for example crime, terrorist threats and war.

The social, natural and built environment are not only at risk from geophysical hazards but also from technological hazards including industrial explosions, the release of chemical hazards and major accident hazards (MAHs).

Based on energy source

Biological hazard

Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, originate in biological processes of living organisms and refer to agents that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, the security of property, or the health of the environment. The term and its associated symbol may be used as a warning so that those potentially exposed to the substances will know to take precautions.  The biohazard symbol was developed in 1966 by Charles Baldwin, an environmental-health engineer working for the Dow Chemical Company on the containment products. It is used in the labelling of biological materials that carry a significant health risk, such as viral samples and used hypodermic needles.

Biological hazards include viruses, parasites, bacteria, food, fungi, and foreign toxins. These can sometimes cause diseases in people through infection. For example, naturally occurring bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella are well known pathogens, and a variety of measures have been taken to limit human exposure to these microorganisms through food safety, good personal hygiene, and education. However, the potential for new biological hazards exists through the discovery of new microorganisms and the development of new genetically modified (GM) organisms. The use of new GM organisms is regulated by various governmental agencies. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) controls GM plants that produce or resist pesticides (i.e. Bt corn and Roundup ready crops). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates GM plants that will be used as food or for medicinal purposes.

Biological hazards can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can affect health. Many biological hazards are associated with food, including certain viruses, parasites, fungi, bacteria, and plant and seafood toxins. Pathogenic Campylobacter and Salmonella are common foodborne biological hazards. The hazards from these bacteria can be avoided through risk mitigation steps such as proper handling, storing, and cooking of food. Diseases can be enhanced by human factors such as poor sanitation or by processes such as urbanization.

Chemical hazard

A chemical can be considered a hazard if by its intrinsic properties it can cause harm or danger to humans, property, or the environment. Health hazards associated with chemicals are dependent on the dose or amount of the chemical. For example, iodine in the form of potassium iodate is used to produce iodised salt. When applied at a rate of 20  mg of potassium iodate per 1000 mg of table salt, the chemical is beneficial in preventing goitre, while iodine intakes of 1200–9500  mg in one dose has been known to cause death. Some chemicals have a cumulative biological effect, while others are metabolically eliminated over time. Other chemical hazards may depend on concentration or total quantity for their effects.

A variety of chemical hazards (e.g. DDT, atrazine, etc.) have been identified. However, every year companies produce more new chemicals to fill new needs or to take the place of older, less effective chemicals. Laws, such as the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the Toxic Substances Control Act in the US, require protection of human health and the environment for any new chemical introduced. In the US, the EPA regulates new chemicals that may have environmental impacts (i.e., pesticides or chemicals released during a manufacturing process), while the FDA regulates new chemicals used in foods or as drugs. The potential hazards of these chemicals can be identified by performing a variety of tests before the authorization of usage. The number of tests required and the extent to which the chemicals are tested varies, depending on the desired usage of the chemical. Chemicals designed as new drugs must undergo more rigorous tests than those used as pesticides.

Some harmful chemicals occur naturally in certain geological formations, such as radon gas or arsenic. Other chemicals include products with commercial uses, such as agricultural and industrial chemicals, as well as products developed for home use.  Pesticides, which are normally used to control unwanted insects and plants, may cause a variety of negative effects on non-target organisms. DDT can build up, or bioaccumulate, in birds, resulting in thinner-than-normal eggshells, which can break in the nest. The organochlorine pesticide dieldrin has been linked to Parkinson's disease. Corrosive chemicals like sulfuric acid, which is found in car batteries and research laboratories, can cause severe skin burns. Many other chemicals used in industrial and laboratory settings can cause respiratory, digestive, or nervous system problems if they are inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through the skin. The negative effects of other chemicals, such as alcohol and nicotine, have been well documented.

Ergonomic hazard

Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose a risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system, such as the muscles or ligaments of the lower back, tendons or nerves of the hands/wrists, or bones surrounding the knees.  Ergonomic hazards include things such as awkward or extreme postures, whole-body or hand/arm vibration, poorly designed tools, equipment, or workstations, repetitive motion, and poor lighting.  Ergonomic hazards occur in both occupational and non-occupational settings such as in workshops, building sites, offices, home, school, or public spaces and facilities.

Mechanical hazard

A mechanical hazard is any hazard involving a machine or industrial process. Motor vehicles, aircraft, and air bags pose mechanical hazards. Compressed gases or liquids can also be considered a mechanical hazard.
Hazard identification of new machines and/or industrial processes occurs at various stages in the design of the new machine or process. These hazard identification studies focus mainly on deviations from the intended use or design and the harm that may occur as a result of these deviations. These studies are regulated by various agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Physical hazard

A physical hazard is a naturally occurring process that has the potential to create loss or damage. Physical hazards include earthquakes, floods, fires, and tornadoes. Physical hazards often have both human and natural elements. Flood problems can be affected by the natural elements of climate fluctuations and storm frequency, and by land drainage and building in a flood plain, human elements. Geomagnetic storms can disrupt or damage technological infrastructure, and disorient species with magnetoception. Another physical hazard, X-rays,  naturally occur from solar radiation, but have also been utilized by humans for medical purposes; however, overexposure can lead to cancer, skin burns, and tissue damage.

Psychosocial hazard

Psychological or psychosocial hazards are hazards that affect the psychological well-being of people, including their ability to participate in a work environment among other people. Psychosocial hazards are related to the way work is designed, organized, and managed, as well as the economic and social contexts of work, and are associated with psychiatric, psychological, and/or physical injury or illness. Linked to psychosocial risks are issues such as occupational stress and workplace violence, which are recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and safety.

Based on effects

Health hazards
Hazards that would affect the health of exposed persons, usually having an acute or chronic illness as the consequence. Fatality would not normally be an immediate consequence. Health hazards may cause measurable changes in the body which are generally indicated by the development of signs and symptoms in the exposed persons, or non-measurable, subjective symptoms.

Safety hazards
Hazards that would affect the safety of individuals, usually having an injury or immediate fatality as the consequence of an incident.

Economic hazards
Hazards that would affect property, wealth and the economy.

Environmental hazards
Environmental hazards include long term environmental deterioration such as acidification of soils and build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide to communal and involuntary social hazards such as crime and terrorism to voluntary and personal hazards such as drug abuse and mountain climbing. Environmental hazards usually have defined or common characteristics including their tendency to be rapid onset events meaning they occur with a short warning time, they have a clear source of origin which is easily identified, the impact will be swift and losses suffered quickly during or shortly after the onset of the event, risk of exposure is usually involuntary due to location or proximity of people to the hazard and the "disaster occurs with an intensity and scale that justifies an emergency response".

Disasters

A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural hazard event. The term "disaster" itself is defined as follows: "Disasters are serious disruptions to the functioning of a community that exceed its capacity to cope using its own resources. Disasters can be caused by natural, man-made and technological hazards, as well as various factors that influence the exposure and vulnerability of a community."

The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) explains the relationship between natural disasters and natural hazards as follows: "Natural hazards and natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community. An example of the distinction between a natural hazard and a disaster is that an earthquake is the hazard which caused the 1906 San Francisco earthquake disaster.

Disaster can take various forms, including hurricane, volcano, tsunami, earthquake, drought, famine, plague, disease, rail crash, car crash, tornado, deforestation, flooding, toxic release, and spills (oil, chemicals). These can affect people and the environment on the local regional level, national level or international level (Wisner et al., unknown) where the international community becomes involved with aid donation, governments give money to support affected countries' economies with disaster response and post-disaster reconstruction.

A disaster hazard is an extreme geophysical event that is capable of causing a disaster. 'Extreme' in this case means a substantial variation in either the positive or the negative direction from the normal trend; flood disasters can result from exceptionally high precipitation and river discharge, and drought is caused by exceptionally low values. The fundamental determinants of hazard and the risk of such hazards occurring is timing, location, magnitude and frequency. For example, magnitudes of earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale from 1 to 10, whereby each increment of 1 indicates a tenfold increase in severity. The magnitude-frequency rule states that over a significant period of time many small events and a few large ones will occur. Hurricanes and typhoons on the other hand occur between 5 degrees and 25 degrees north and south of the equator, tending to be seasonal phenomena that are thus largely recurrent in time and predictable in location due to the specific climate variables necessary for their formation.

Status of a hazard
Hazards are sometimes classified into three modes or statuses:
 Dormant—The situation environment is currently affected.  For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or on the hillside that could be affected.
 Armed—People, property, or environment are in potential harm's way.
 Active—A harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred.  Often this is referred to not as an "active hazard" but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster.

Risk

The terms "hazard" and "risk" are often used interchangeably. However, in terms of risk assessment, these are two very distinct terms. A hazard is an agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the environment. Risk is the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to that hazard.

Risk can be defined as the likelihood or probability of a given hazard of a given level causing a particular level of loss of damage. The elements of risk are populations, communities, the built environment, the natural environment, economic activities and services which are under threat of disaster in a given area. The total risk according to UNDRO 1982 is the "sum of predictable deaths, injuries, destruction, damage, disruption, and costs of repair and mitigation caused by a disaster of a particular level in a given area or areas".

David Alexander  distinguishes between risk and vulnerability, saying that "vulnerability refers to the potential for casualty, destruction, damage, disruption or other forms of loss in a particular element: risk combines this with the probable level of loss to be expected from a predictable magnitude of hazard (which can be considered as the manifestation of the agent that produces the loss)." Since hazards have varying degrees of severity, the more intense or severe the hazard, the greater vulnerability there will be since the potential for damage and destruction is increased for the severity of the hazard. Ben Wisner argues that risk or disaster is "a compound function of the natural hazard and the number of people, characterised by their varying degrees of vulnerability to that specific hazard, who occupy the space and time of exposure to the hazard event." (Wisner, et al., 1994).

Another definition of risk is "the probable frequency and probable magnitude of future losses". This definition also focuses on the probability of future loss whereby the degree of vulnerability to hazard represents the level of risk on a particular population or environment. The threats posed by a hazard are:
 Hazards to people – death, injury, disease and stress
 Hazards to goods – property damage and economic loss
 Hazards to environment –loss of flora and fauna, pollution and loss of amenity

Marking of hazards with symbols

Hazard symbols or warning symbols are easily recognizable symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials, locations, or objects. The use of hazard symbols is often regulated by law and directed by standards organizations. Hazard symbols may appear with different colours, backgrounds, borders and supplemental information to specify the type of hazard and the level of threat (for example, toxicity classes).  Warning symbols are used in many places in place of or in addition to written warnings as they are quickly recognized (faster than reading a written warning) and more universally understood, as the same symbol can be recognized as having the same meaning to speakers of different languages.
Navigational hazards are generally marked on nautical charts, and are also often marked by moored buoys, and changes are published in notices to mariners.

See also

References

External links

Hazard


This is a list of settlements in the ceremonial county of Nottinghamshire, England.

A
Alverton,
Annesley,
Annesley Woodhouse,
Arnold,
Askham,
Aslockton,
Aspley,
Attenborough,
Averham,
Awsworth

B
Babbington,
Babworth,
Bagthorpe,
Bakersfield,
Balderton,
Barnby in the Willows,
Barnstone,
Barton in Fabis,
Bassingfield,
Bathley,
Beauvale Newthorpe,
Beckingham,
Beeston,
Besthorpe,
Bestwood Village,
Bevercotes,
Bilborough,
Bilby,
Bilsthorpe,
Bilsthorpe Moor,
Bingham,
Bircotes,
Bleasby,
Blidworth,
Blidworth Bottoms,
Blyth,
Bole,
Bolham,
Bothamsall,
Boughton,
Bracebridge,
Bradmore,
Bramcote,
Bramcote Hills,
Brinkley,
Brinsley,
Brough,
Broxtowe,
Budby,
Bulcote,
Bulwell,
Bunny,
Burton Joyce,
Butler's Hill

C
Calverton,
Car Colston,
Carburton,
Carlton,
Carlton in Lindrick,
Carlton-on-Trent,
Carrington,
Caunton,
Caythorpe,
Chilwell,
Church Laneham,
Church Warsop,
Clarborough,
Clayworth,
Clifton,
Clipston,
Clipstone,
Coates,
Coddington,
Collingham,
Colston Bassett,
Colwick,
Cossall,
Costock,
Costhorpe,
Cotgrave,
Cotham,
Cottam,
Cromwell,
Cropwell Bishop,
Cropwell Butler,
Cuckney,
Cuckney Hill

D
Darlton,
Dorket Head,
Dunkirk,
Dunham

E
Eakring,
East Bridgford,
East Drayton,
East Leake,
East Markham,
East Stoke,
Easthorpe,
Eastwood,
Eaton,
Edingley,
Edwalton,
Edwinstowe,
Egmanton,
Elkesley,
Elston,
Elton on the Hill,
Epperstone,
Everton

F
Farndon,
Farnsfield,
Felley,
Fenton,
Finningley,
Fiskerton,
Flawborough,
Fledborough,
Flintham,
Forest Town

G
Gamston (Bassetlaw),
Gamston (Rushcliffe),
Gateford,
Gedling,
Giltbrook,
Girton,
Gonalston,
Gotham,
Goverton,
Granby,
Grassthorpe,
Greasley,
Gringley-on-the-Hill,
Grove,
Gunthorpe

H
Halam,
Halloughton,
Harby,
Hardwick Village,
Harlequin,
Harworth,
Hassop,
Haughton,
Hawksworth,
Hawton,
Hayton,
Haywood Oaks,
Headon,
Hickling,
High Marnham,
Hockerton,
Hodsock,
Holbeck,
Holbeck Woodhouse,
Holme,
Holme Pierrepont,
Hoveringham,
Hucknall,
Huthwaite,
Hyson Green

J
Jacksdale

K
Kelham,
Kersall,
Keyworth,
Kilton,
Kilvington,
Kimberley,
Kings Clipstone,
Kingston on Soar,
Kinoulton,
Kirkby-in-Ashfield,
Kirkby Woodhouse,
Kirklington,
Kirton,
Knapthorpe,
Kneesall,
Kneeton

L
Lambley,
Laneham,
Langar,
Langford,
Langold,
Laxton,
Leen Valley,
Lenton,
Lenton Abbey,
Lidgett,
Linby,
Lindhurst,
Little Carlton,
Little Green,
Little Gringley,
Littleborough,
Lound,
Low Marnham,
Lowdham

M
Mansfield,
Mansfield Woodhouse,
Manton,
Maplebeck,
Mapperley,
Market Warsop,
Markham Moor,
Mattersey,
Mattersey Thorpe,
Meadows,
Meden Vale,
Milton,
Misson,
Misterton,
Misterton Carr,
Moorgreen,
Moorhouse,
Morton

N
Nether Headon,
Nether Langwith,
Netherfield,
New Balderton,
New Brinsley,
New Ollerton,
Newark-on-Trent,
Newington,
Newstead,
Newthorpe,
Newton,
Normanton,
Normanton on Soar,
Normanton on Trent,
Normanton-on-the-Wolds,
North Carlton
North Clifton,
North Leverton with Habblesthorpe,
North Muskham,
North Wheatley,
Norton,
Norwell,
Norwell Woodhouse,
Nottingham,
Nuthall

O
Old Basford,
Old Clipstone,
Oldcotes,
Ollerton,
Ompton,
Ordsall,
Orston,
Osberton,
Ossington,
Owthorpe,
Oxton

P
Papplewick,
Perlethorpe,
Pleasley,
Pleasley Hill,
Plumtree

R
Radcliffe on Trent,
Radford,
Ragnall,
Rainworth,
Rampton,
Ranby,
Ranskill,
Ratcliffe on Soar,
Ravenshead,
Rayton,
Redhill,
Rempstone,
Retford,
Rhodesia,
Rolleston,
Ruddington,
Rylands

S
Saundby,
Saxondale,
Scaftworth,
Scarrington,
Scofton,
Screveton,
Scrooby,
Selston,
Serlby,
Shelford,
Shelton,
Sherwood,
Shireoaks,
Sibthorpe,
Skegby (Ashfield),
Skegby (Bassetlaw),
Sneinton,
Sookholme,
South Clifton,
South Leverton,
South Muskham,
South Scarle,
South Wheatley,
Southwell,
Spalford,
Spion Kop,
Stanford on Soar,
Stanley,
Stanton Hill,
Stanton-on-the-Wolds,
Stapleford,
Staunton in the Vale,
Staythorpe,
Stoke Bardolph,
Stokeham,
Strelley,
Sturton le Steeple,
Styrrup,
Sutton Bonington,
Sutton-cum-Granby,
Sutton-in-Ashfield,
Sutton on Trent,
Sutton cum Lound,
Swingate,
Syerston

T
Teversal,
Thoresby,
Thorney,
Thoroton,
Thorpe-by-Newark,
Thorpe in the Glebe,
Thrumpton (Bassetlaw),
Thrumpton (Rushcliffe),
Thurgarton,
Tiln,
Tithby,
Tollerton,
Torworth,
Toton,
Treswell,
Trowell,
Tuxford

U
Underwood,
Upper Broughton,
Upton (Bassetlaw),
Upton (Newark and Sherwood)

W
Walesby,
Walkeringham,
Wallingwells,
Warsop Vale,
Watnall,
Wellow,
West Bridgford,
West Drayton,
West Leake,
West Markham,
West Stockwith,
Westhorpe,
Weston,
Westville,
Whaley Thorns,
Whatton-in-the-Vale,
Welham,
White Houses,
Whitemoor,
Wicketwood Hill,
Widmerpool,
Wigsley,
Wigthorpe,
Wilford,
Willoughby on the Wolds,
Winkburn,
Winthorpe,
Wiseton,
Wollaton,
Woodbeck,
Woodborough,
Woodthorpe,
Worksop,
Wysall

Z
Zouch

See also
List of Nottingham suburbs within the city
List of civil parishes in Nottinghamshire
List of settlements in Nottinghamshire by population
 List of places in England

Nottinghamshire
 Places
Places

List of places in Nottinghamshire


Flavius Mar. Petrus Theodorus Valentinus Rusticius Boraides Germanus Iustinus, simply and commonly known as Justin (, ; ), was an Eastern Roman aristocrat and general. A member of the Justinian Dynasty and nephew of Emperor Justinian I (), he was appointed as one of the last Roman consuls in 540, before going on to assume senior military commands in the Balkans and in Lazica. He fought against the Slavs, the Sassanid Persians and supervised the Byzantine Empire's first contacts with the Avars. At the time of Justinian's death, he was seen as a probable successor, but was beaten to the throne by his cousin, Justin II (), who exiled him to Egypt, where he was murdered.

Biography

Early life and campaigns
Justin was born around 525, the eldest son of Germanus and his wife Passara. Germanus was a cousin of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I () and thus a member of the wider Justinian dynasty and cousin to Justinian's successor, Emperor Justin II (). In 540, he was named ordinary consul at a very young age; he is illustrated as beardless in his consular diptych, and is still mentioned as a "young man" by Procopius nine years later. At this point, he already held the title of vir illustris and the honorary office of comes domesticorum. In the same year, he accompanied his father to the East against the Sassanid Persians, but saw no action. In 549, he was instrumental in the revelation of the plot to overthrow Emperor Justinian by the Armenian general Artabanes and his associates. The conspirators intended to assassinate Emperor Justinian and his favourite general Belisarius, and raise Germanus to the Byzantine throne. Notified of their intentions, Justin informed his father, who then told Marcellus, the Count of the Excubitors, leading to the plotters' arrest.

In 550, together with his younger brother Justinian, he joined their father in his expedition against Ostrogoth Italy, but Germanus died suddenly in the autumn of 550, before the army had left the Balkans, where it was assembling. After this, Justinian and Germanus's son-in-law, John, led the army towards Salona (modern Split, Croatia), where the eunuch Narses assumed command in late 551. In early 551, Justin was attached to a force under the eunuch Scholasticus that campaigned against a Slavic raid in the eastern Balkans. The Byzantines were initially defeated near Adrianople but went on to score a victory, after which the Slavs left Byzantine lands. In early 552, Justin and Justinian were placed at the head of another expedition against a Slavic raid against Illyricum, but their forces were too small to confront the raiders directly. Instead, the brothers had to content themselves with harassing them. Shortly after, they were ordered north to assist the Lombards against the Gepids along with Aratius, Suartuas, and Amalafridas, but the Byzantines were detained from advancing too far north by the need to suppress religious strife in the city of Ulpiana.

High command in Lazica and the Danube

In 554, now experienced in military affairs, Justin was sent east to Lazica to join the Byzantine forces under Bessas, Buzes, and Martin. His first encounter with the Persians was unsuccessful. Along with Bessas, Justin and his troops were encamped at the plain of Chytropolia, near the strategically important fortress of Telephis, which was held by Martin. The Persian general Mihr-Mihroe, however, succeeded in dislodging Martin from Telephis. Martin withdrew to join the other two generals at Chytropolia, but there again the Byzantine army, too slow to take up position, was forced to flee in disarray before the advancing Persians, retreating along the Phasis river to the fortified island of Nesos (Νήσος, Greek for "island"). Bessas was dismissed from high command as magister militum per Armeniam after this debacle, and succeeded by Martin with Justin as his second in command. Justin was ignorant of Martin's intention to assassinate their ally, the Lazic king Gubazes II; when he learned of the deed, he was shocked, but did not reprimand Martin because he believed – wrongly – that the murder had been carried out at the orders of Emperor Justinian.

The Byzantines then launched an attack on the Persian fort of Onoguris, but they were forced to abandon it at the unexpectedly quick arrival of Persian relief forces under Nachoragan. In spring 556, Justin was with the rest of the Byzantine forces at Nesos, when Nakhoragan invaded western Lazica, making for the town of Phasis. The Byzantines hastily departed for the town, managing to reach it before the Persian army and then proceeded to successfully defend it during a prolonged siege. Following this success, in early 556 Justin returned to Nesos to guard it together with Buzes, while the rest of the army marched against the Misimians, a tribe that had recently allied itself with the Persians and killed the Byzantine general Soterichus. Justin's only activity during this time was to dispatch one of his officers, Elminzur, to capture Rhodopolis (modern Vartsikhe) with 2,000 cavalry. In the next year, a general truce was agreed, which was finalized into a peace treaty in 562.

Soon after, an imperial investigation into Gubazes's murder brought to light Martin's culpability. His military successes spared his life, but cost him his command; he was replaced as magister militum per Armeniam by Justin in spring 557. It was in this capacity that in late 557 Justin received the first Avar embassy to the Byzantine Empire. The Avars, who had fled their ancestral lands in Central Asia before the rise of the Göktürks, asked for imperial protection and for land to settle on. Justin forwarded them to Constantinople, where they arrived in December. Turned away from the Empire and towards the plains of the Ukraine by Justinian, the Avars defeated enemy after enemy and eventually reached the northeastern bank of the Danube in 561/562. There they again encountered Justin, who had just been transferred to the command of the quaestura exercitus covering the lower Danubian limes (the Limes Moesiae). At this time, the Avars demanded to settle in Byzantine imperial territory in Scythia Minor, whose defences had been devastated by a recent Kotrigur invasion led by Zabergan. Here, Justin played a crucial role and gained great fame, by learning of the Avars' intentions and warning Justinian. Consequently, the Avar embassy to Constantinople was detained while the Byzantine defences were put in order. With Justin continuing to maintain a careful watch over the Danube river, the Avars contented themselves with the annual subsidy paid by Byzantium, and left the Empire in peace for some years to come.

Exile and death
At the time of Emperor Justinian's death in 565, due to his titles and reputation as a commander, as well his army's proximity to the imperial capital, he was the leading contender for the vacant throne, along with his cousin Justin, the curopalates. The latter, however, was already present at Constantinople, and could count on the support of the Byzantine Senate, and especially of Patriarch John Scholasticus and the Count of the Excubitors Tiberius, whom he had helped secure his post. Thus Justin was hastily elevated to the throne on the same day that Justinian died. According to the contemporary historian Evagrius Scholasticus, the two Justins had reached an agreement whereby whoever would be crowned emperor would make the other the "second man" in the empire. When Justin II recalled his cousin to Constantinople, it seemed that this was the reason. The general was warmly received at first, but soon the new emperor began to make accusations against him, dismissed his bodyguard and placed him under house arrest, before sending him to exile in Alexandria, ostensibly as the new augustal prefect of Egypt. There, he was murdered in his sleep, ostensibly because he was plotting to seize the throne, and his head was cut off and brought to Constantinople. In reality, he was too great a threat to the new emperor to be left alive; the Visigoth chronicler John of Biclaro explicitly attributes the murder to Justin II's wife, the Empress Sophia.

References

Sources

520s births
566 deaths
6th-century Byzantine people
6th-century Roman consuls
Assassinated military personnel
Justinian dynasty
Magistri militum
Generals of Justinian I
Imperial Roman consuls
People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
Assassinated Byzantine people
Lazic War
Avar–Byzantine wars
6th-century soldiers

Justin (consul 540)


In American football, the 3–4 defense is a common defensive alignment consisting of three down linemen and four linebackers.  It is called a "base defense" because it will readily switch to other defensive alignments (such as a nickel defense or a dime defense) as circumstances change.  Alternatively, some defenses use a 4–3 defense: four down linemen and three linebackers.

Overview
The 3–4 defense incorporates three defensive linemen – two defensive ends and one nose tackle, who line up opposite the other team's offensive line. Those three players are responsible for engaging the other team's offensive line, allowing the four linebackers to either rush the quarterback or drop back into coverage, depending on the situation.  While the role of the defensive linemen is fairly consistent, the linebackers allow for the flexibility and versatility of the 3–4 scheme, and give defensive coaches nearly limitless options to confuse the other team's players and coaches.  Depending on the situation, any number of linebackers can blitz, fake a blitz, "spy" the quarterback or running back, or cover receivers.  In key situations, a rush linebacker may be sent to cover the flat on the opposite side of the blitzing defensive back; this is called a "zone blitz".

After becoming the predominant defensive alignment in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the 3–4 defense declined in popularity over the next two decades, but experienced a resurgence in the 2000s among both professional and college football teams. As of 2022, NFL teams that regularly incorporate the 3–4 defensive alignment scheme as a base include the Green Bay Packers, Los Angeles Rams, Los Angeles Chargers, Seattle Seahawks, Pittsburgh Steelers, Baltimore Ravens, Atlanta Falcons, New York Giants, Minnesota Vikings, Miami Dolphins, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Denver Broncos, New England Patriots, Tennessee Titans, Jacksonville Jaguars and Arizona Cardinals.

The Philadelphia Eagles ran the 3–4 from 2013 to 2015 but switched back to the 4–3 for the 2016 season. The New England Patriots returned to a 4–3 defensive front at the end of the 2011 season but use more of a hybrid employing some 3–4 looks. The Cleveland Browns used the 3–4 in 2016, but returned to the 4–3 in 2017 under new defensive coordinator Gregg Williams, and kept the formation under new defensive coordinator Steve Wilks.

The New York Jets announced that despite hiring Gregg Williams as their new defensive coordinator they would continue to employ the 3–4 defense in 2019, opting to stay with the scheme that better suits their current roster instead of switching to the defense Williams usually used.

In 2019, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers switched to a 3–4 defense under new defensive coordinator Todd Bowles, who previously ran the 3–4 defense with the New York Jets. Bowles became the Buccaneers' head coach in 2022 following Bruce Arians's retirement.

The Carolina Panthers ran a 3–4 base defense in the 2019 season for the first time since the late 1990s under their first head coach, Dom Capers.

The Arizona Cardinals ran the 3–4 under coordinators Todd Bowles and James Bettcher from 2013 to 2017, but switched to the 4–3 in 2018 under head coach Steve Wilks, who ran the 4–3 as defensive coordinator for Ron Rivera with the Carolina Panthers. In 2019, the Cardinals returned to the 3–4 under new defensive coordinator Vance Joseph, the former Broncos head coach hired by new Arizona coach Kliff Kingsbury.

Soon after being hired as Rams head coach in 2017, Sean McVay named Wade Phillips as the team's defensive coordinator. Phillips switched the Rams to the 3–4, the first time the team had used it since the early 1990s, prior to the franchise's move to St. Louis. Phillips was fired at the conclusion of the 2019 season.

The Kansas City Chiefs switched to a hybrid 4–3 defense in the 2019 season with the hiring of defensive coordinator Steve Spagnuolo.

The Pittsburgh Steelers have used the 3–4 as their base defense since 1982, the season after Hall of Fame defensive tackle Joe Greene and end L. C. Greenwood retired. In fact, the Steelers were the only NFL team to use the 3–4 defense during the 2001 season, but finished the season as the number one defense in the NFL. It is believed that the Steelers' success with the 3–4 defense is the primary reason why many NFL teams have started returning to the formation.

The New York Giants, after a long time running the 4–3 defensive front, returned to a 3–4 in 2018 with the hiring of James Bettcher as their defensive coordinator. Olivier Vernon moved from defensive end to outside linebacker. In 2020, the Giants ran a hybrid defense including elements from both the 4–3 and 3–4 with the hiring of Patrick Graham as the team's defensive coordinator.

In 2018 the Indianapolis Colts, who hired Matt Eberflus as their defensive coordinator from Dallas, returned to the 4–3 front for the first time since 2011. After his hiring as the Bears' head coach, Eberflus returned Chicago to the 4–3 in 2022 after several years running the 3–4.

The Washington Football Team, with the hiring of Ron Rivera as their head coach, switched to the 4–3 defense in 2020.

The San Francisco 49ers, after hiring Robert Saleh as defensive coordinator in 2017, switched to the 4–3 defense after running the 3–4 for a long time. Saleh installed the 4–3 as head coach of the New York Jets in 2021.

In 2021, the Detroit Lions switched to a base 3–4 for the first time since 1994, although the Lions ran a 3–4/4–3 hybrid under previous coach Matt Patricia from 2018–20.

The Las Vegas Raiders switched to the 3–4 in 2022 under defensive coordinator Patrick Graham, hired by new coach Josh McDaniels.

The Minnesota Vikings have not run the 3–4 as their base since 1985. However, new head coach Kevin O'Connell stated that they would do so beginning in the 2022 season.

The Seattle Seahawks will likely switch to the 3–4 in 2022 under defensive coordinator Clint Hurtt.

The Philadelphia Eagles will likely switch full-time to the 3–4 in 2023 under defensive coordinator Sean Desai.

The 3–4 defense was originally devised by Bud Wilkinson at the University of Oklahoma in the 1940s as the 5–2 Oklahoma defense.  The 1972 Miami Dolphins were the first team to win a Super Bowl with the 3–4 defense, going undefeated and using number 53, Bob Matheson, as a down lineman or rushing linebacker. Matheson replaced defensive tackle Bob Heinz, shifting Manny Fernandez to nose guard.

The first NFL team to regularly employ the 3–4 was the 1974 New England Patriots under Chuck Fairbanks, who employed the 5–2 for all but one of his six seasons (1967–72) as head coach of the Oklahoma Sooners (the 1971 Sooners employed the 4–3).

In 1976, Oakland Raiders coach John Madden switched to the 3–4 after injuries decimated the team's defensive line. The Raiders went 13–1 in the regular season and defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl XI.

The Dolphins shifted full-time to the 3–4 under Arnsparger in 1977, with Bob Baumhower anchoring the defense as a perennial All-Pro nose tackle.

When the Raiders defeated the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl XV, it marked the first Super Bowl in which both teams used the 3–4 as their base defense. Also notable several years later, the Big Blue Wrecking Crew, the defensive unit for the 1986 New York Giants who won Super Bowl XXI, was a 3–4 defense and featured all-time great Lawrence Taylor at right outside linebacker and fellow Hall of Famer Harry Carson on the inside. By the mid-1990s, only a few teams used a 3–4 defense, most notably the Buffalo Bills and Pittsburgh Steelers.

Defensive line

The defensive line is made up of a nose tackle (NT) and two defensive ends (DEs). Linemen in 3–4 schemes tend to be larger than their 4–3 counterparts to take up more space and guard more territory along the defensive front. As a consequence, many 3–4 defensive linemen begin their NFL careers as 4–3 defensive tackles, as younger players typically do not possess the size, weight, and strength to play on a 3–4 defensive front. They must be strong at the point of attack and are aligned in most cases head-up on an offensive tackle. First and foremost, they must control run gaps. Size and strength become more of a factor for linemen in 3–4 defenses than in 4–3 defenses because they move primarily within the confines of line play and seldom are in space using athletic ability. Ideally 3–4 DEs should weigh  and be able to beat double teams by getting a push. Albert Breer noted, "In general, ideal front-seven players in the 3–4 are bigger and need to take on and defeat blocks more often in the running game."

The 3–4 nose tackle is considered the most physically demanding position in football. His primary responsibility is to control the "A" gaps, the two openings between the center and guards, This is called 2 gapping. They want to get "Knock back" by reestablishing the line of scrimmage in the opponents backfield and not get pushed back into his linebackers. If a running play comes through one of those gaps, he must make the tackle or control what is called the "jump-through"—the guard or center who is trying to get out to the linebackers. The ideal nose tackle has to be much bigger than 4–3 DTs, weighing around 335 pounds or more. An AFC Personnel director used Ted Washington as an example of an ideal nose tackle: "In his prime, Ted Washington was the ideal guy. He was huge, had long arms, and you couldn't budge him. He could hold off a 320-pound lineman with one hand and make the tackle with the other."

The base position of NT is across from the opposing team's center. This location is usually referred to as zero technique. The two DEs flank the NT and line up off the offensive Tackles. The location off the offensive guard is usually referred to as 4, 5, or 6 Techniques.

Linebackers

In a 3–4 defense, four linebackers (LBs) are positioned behind the defensive line. The linebacker unit is made up of two inside linebackers (ILBs) flanked by two outside linebackers (OLBs). The OLBs often line up closer to the line of scrimmage than the ILBs, but may also be positioned at the same depth or deeper in coverage than the ILBs (though this is somewhat rare).

There are two types of ILBs, the Mike (for strong side) and the Will (for weak side). The Will typically is the more athletic linebacker, who can blitz, drop into coverage, play the run, and "spy" the quarterback. The Mike is typically the stronger and larger of the two linebackers, and is used almost like a fullback on the defense. He takes on and occupies blockers for the Will, allowing the Will to flow to the ball and make tackles.

The 3–4 also has two types of OLBs. The Joker, Jack, Buck, or Elephant is usually the primary pass rusher. Depending on the scheme, the Joker can be on either side of the defensive formation. He must be an excellent pass rusher, and has to be able to beat both stronger right tackles and rangier left tackles off the edge of the formation. The other 3–4 OLB, the Sam, does not have a specific designation. Like a Sam linebacker in a 4–3 scheme, the other 3–4 OLB must be able to cover, blitz, and play the run.

Strengths of the 3–4 include speedy ILBs and OLBs in pursuit of backs in run defense and flexibility to use multiple rushers to confuse the quarterback during passing plays without being forced into man-to-man defense on receivers. Most teams try to disrupt the offense's passing attack by rushing four defenders. In a standard 4–3 alignment, these four rushers are usually the four down linemen. But in a 3–4, the fourth rusher is usually a linebacker, though many teams use a safety to blitz and confuse the coverage, giving them more defensive options in the same 3–4 look. However, since there are four linebackers and four defensive backs, the fourth potential rusher can come from any of eight defensive positions. This is designed to confuse the quarterback's pre-snap defensive read.

A drawback of the 3–4 is that without a fourth lineman to take on the offensive blockers and close the running lanes, both the defensive linemen and the linebackers can be overwhelmed by blocking schemes in the running game. To be effective, 3–4 linebackers need their defensive line to routinely tie up a minimum of four (preferably all five) offensive linemen, freeing the linebackers to make tackles. The 3–4 linebackers must be very athletic and strong enough to shed blocks by fullbacks, tight ends, and offensive linemen to get to the running back. In most cases, 3–4 OLBs lead their teams in quarterback sacks.

Usually, teams that run a 3–4 defense look for college "tweeners"—defensive ends that are too small to play the position in the pros and not quite fluid enough to play outside linebacker in a 4–3 defense—as their 3–4 outside linebacker. The wisdom of this strategy is demonstrated in the career of Harry Carson, who played as a defensive lineman in his college career and then went on to become a Hall of Fame ILB for the New York Giants in the 1970s and '80s. According to NFL coach Wade Phillips, 3–4 linebackers "are a little bit cheaper, and you can find more of them," while "it's harder to find defensive linemen to play a 4–3 and pay for all of them."

Secondary

The 3–4 defense generally uses four defensive backs. Two of these are safeties, and two of them are cornerbacks. A cornerback's responsibilities vary depending on the type of coverage called. Coverage is simply how the defense will be protecting against the pass. The corners will generally line up 3 to 5 yards off the line of scrimmage, generally trying to "Jam" or interrupt the receivers' route within the first 5 yards. A corner will be given one of two ways to defend the pass (with variations that result in more or less the same responsibilities): zone and man-to-man. In zone coverage, the cornerback is responsible for an area on the field. In this case, the corner must always stay downfield of whomever it is covering while still remaining in its zone. Zone is a more relaxed defensive scheme meant to provide more awareness across the defensive secondary while sacrificing tight coverage. As such, the corner in this case would be responsible for making sure nobody gets outside of him, always, or downfield of him, in cases where there is no deep safety help. In man coverage, however, the cornerback is solely responsible for the man across from him, usually the offensive player split farthest out.

The free safety is responsible for reading the offensive plays and covering deep passes. Depending on the defensive call, he may also provide run support. He is positioned 10 to 15 yards behind the line of scrimmage, toward the center of the field. He provides the last line of defense against running backs and receivers who get past the linebackers and cornerbacks. He must be a quick and smart player, capable of making tackles efficiently as well as reading the play and alerting his team of game situations.

The strong safety is usually larger than the free safety and is positioned relatively close to the line of scrimmage. He is often an integral part of the run defense, but is also responsible for defending against a pass; especially against passes to the tight-ends.

One-gap versus two-gap 3–4 systems
The 3–4 has two basic defensive variations: the one-gap and the two-gap. In a two-gap system, the linemen are charged with tying up two blockers. This allows the linebackers to "flow downhill" and make tackles without shedding blocks. The one-gap, on the other hand, distributes the responsibility for gap coverage evenly between the linemen and linebackers. Each player has a few "key reads" after the ball is snapped. For example, the middle linebacker may be covering the strong-side A gap (gap between center and strong-side guard). If he sees the guard move right, then he flows with the guard, moving more or less laterally parallel to the line of scrimmage. If the guard moves left, he attacks downhill (perpendicular to the line of scrimmage) and "shoots his gap." Responsibilities in the one-gap vary depending on the defense.

Very few teams use purely one or two-gap systems in today's NFL. However, the majority of teams, such as the Green Bay Packers and Pittsburgh Steelers primarily use the two-gap 3–4. The Houston Texans and Denver Broncos primarily use the one-gap 3–4. The New York Jets use a versatile, hybrid defense combining one and two-gap looks.

References

External  links
 1988 Washington Redskins 3–4 Defense
 1992 San Francisco 49ers 3–4 Defense
 1997 Carolina Panthers 3–4 Defense
 2005 Baltimore Ravens 3–4 Defense

American football formations

3–4 defense


A personal stereo, or personal cassette player, is a portable audio player using an audiocassette player, battery power and in some cases an AM/FM radio.  This allows the user to listen to music through headphones while walking, jogging or relaxing. Personal stereos typically have a belt clip or a shoulder strap so a user can attach the device to a belt or wear it over their shoulder. Some personal stereos came with a separate battery case.

History
The Sony Walkman was released in 1979, created by Akio Morita, Masaru Ibuka (the co-founders of Sony) and Kozo Ohsone. It became a popular and widely imitated consumer item in the 1980s. In everyday language, "walkman" became a generic term, referring to any personal stereo, regardless of producer or brand. The spread of personal stereo devices contributed to tape cassettes outselling vinyl records for the first time in 1983. The introduction of the personal stereo coincided with the 1980s aerobics vogue, making it very popular to listen to music during workouts. Moreover, the prevalence of portable cassette players correlates with a 30-percent increase of people walking for exercise between 1987 and 1997.

In the 1990s, portable CD players became the most popular personal stereos. In the 2000s, digital players like the iPod became the dominant personal stereos. During this period, cell phones and smartphones also became popular music listening devices.

References

Further reading
 Erlmann, Veit (ed.) Hearing Cultures. Essays on Sound, Listening, and Modernity, New York: Berg Publishers, 2004. Cf. Chapter 9: "Thinking About Sound, Proximity, and Distance in Western Experience: The Case of Odysseus's Walkman" by Michael Bull.

Portable audio players
Products introduced in 1979
Japanese inventions

Personal stereo


Max Havelaar; or, The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company () is an 1860 novel by Multatuli (the pen name of Eduard Douwes Dekker), which played a key role in shaping and modifying Dutch colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. In the novel, the protagonist, Max Havelaar, tries to battle against a corrupt government system in Java, which was then a Dutch colony. The novel's opening line is famous: "Ik ben makelaar in koffie, en woon op de Lauriergracht, Nº 37." ("I am a coffee broker, and live on the Lauriergracht, Nº 37.").

Background

By the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial control of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) had passed from the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to the Dutch government due to the economic failure of the VOC.  In order to increase revenue, the Dutch colonial government implemented a series of policies termed the Cultivation System (Dutch: cultuurstelsel), which mandated Indonesian farmers to grow a quota of commercial crops such as sugar and coffee, instead of growing staple foods such as rice.  At the same time, the colonial government also implemented a tax collection system in which the collecting agents were paid by commission. The combination of these two strategies caused widespread abuse of colonial power, especially on the islands of Java and Sumatra, resulting in abject poverty and widespread starvation of the farmers. The colony was governed with a minimum of soldiers and government officials. The former rulers maintained their absolute power and control over the natives: a quite common strategy used by many colonising countries.

In addition, the Dutch state earned a fortune with the sale of opium to the natives, a practice begun centuries earlier under VOC rule. At that time, opium was the only known effective pain killer, and a considerable percentage of the natives were addicted to it, being kept poor in this way. This was called the "opium-regime". To distinguish between smuggled and legal opium, a simple reagent was added. After discovery the smuggler could count on a severe punishment.

Multatuli wrote Max Havelaar in protest against these colonial policies, but another goal was to seek rehabilitation for his resignation from governmental service. Despite its terse writing style, it raised the awareness of Europeans living in Europe at the time that the wealth that they enjoyed was the result of suffering in other parts of the world. This awareness eventually formed the motivation for the new Ethical Policy by which the Dutch colonial government attempted to "repay" their debt to their colonial subjects by providing education to some classes of natives, generally members of the elite loyal to the colonial government.

Indonesian novelist Pramoedya Ananta Toer argued that by triggering these educational reforms, Max Havelaar was in turn responsible for the nationalist movement that ended Dutch colonialism in Indonesia after 1945, and which was instrumental in the call for decolonization in Africa and elsewhere in the world. Thus, according to Pramoedya, Max Havelaar is "the book that killed colonialism".

In the last chapter the author announces that he will translate the book "into the few languages I know, and into the many languages I can learn." In fact, Max Havelaar has been translated into thirty-four languages. It was first translated into English in 1868. In Indonesia, the novel was cited as an inspiration by Sukarno and other early nationalist leaders, such as the author's Indo (Eurasian) descendant Ernest Douwes Dekker, who had read it in its original Dutch. It was not translated into Indonesian until 1972.

In the novel, the story of Max Havelaar, a Dutch colonial administrator, is told by two diametrically opposed characters: the hypocritical coffee merchant Batavus Droogstoppel, who intends to use Havelaar's manuscripts to write about the coffee trade, and the romantic German apprentice Stern, who takes over when Droogstoppel loses interest in the story. The opening chapter of the book nicely sets the tone of the satirical nature of what is to follow, with Droogstoppel articulating his pompous and mercenary world-view at length. At the very end of the novel Multatuli himself takes the pen and the book culminates in a denunciation of Dutch colonial policies and a plea to king William III of the Netherlands to intervene on behalf of his Indonesian subjects.

Plot

By the 1860, lived a small boy from a farmer's family in Parang Koedjang, Lebak Regency in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia) named Säidjah. He is playing with his kerbau (farming buffalo) in sawah when his father and elder brother is farming with a small group of farmers. Suddenly, a Javan tiger attacks his kerbau, yet his kerbau managed to survive, and even kills the Javan tiger]]. The farmers names his kerbau as "Pantang" (Malay word for "tough"). Not long after that, the group of the Demang (chief district) of Parang Koedjang, Raden Wira Koesoema, came to them on horseback. He warns them to pay tribute to the Regent (Boepati) because the Regent is displeased. But the farmers do not have money to be collected as tribute, so Demang then seized "Pantang" from them. Säidjah's elder brother tries to fight against the Demang, but he is shot dead by a KNIL soldier. His lifeless body is left lying down with nobody caring for the deceased brother. Contrary with Amsterdam in the same year, a Christmas night service is held at the church and the Priest preaches about the wealth and prosperity in Java, the Dutch colony, without knowing there is abuses and oppressions in that colony. That sermon is attended by Max Havelaar, an ex-Assistant Resident of Manado and Lebak who resigned from this official charges and becomes unemployed in Amsterdam. Havelaar then meets Batavus Droogstoppel, his childhood friend who becomes coffee broker and also owning coffee trading company, Last & Co. Havelaar offers Droogstoppel some help, with him writing a book about coffee trading from Havelaar's essays which was collected when he was in service as Assistant Resident. Droogstoppel helps him forcefully and tries to read it. Then, Droogstoppel accidentally reads one of Havelaar's essay called "On the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company" (Dutch title: Op de Koffi-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij). And the Havelaar's story of colonialism injustice and corruption is just began in Lebak by the 1855.

In 1855, Christiaan Ernst Pierre (C.E.P.) Carolus a.k.a. Slotering, the Assistant Resident of Lebak, is poisoned to death by the Regent of Lebak, Raden Adipati Karta Nata Negara, after attending at the night house banquet invitation by the Regent. The reason is unclear, probably because Slotering has secret papers about the Regent's crimes and abuses in Lebak. But the doctor reports his death cause due to lever acute, so that Slotering's death seems to be already known and kept secret by the Resident of Bantam, C.P. Brest van Kempen a.k.a. Slijmering, which has involved in a conspiracy to Slotering's murder with the Regent. But nobody knows about this scandal, including the Gouverneur-Generaal of the Dutch East Indies. The Gouverneur-Generaal is recommended by his aide to install Max Havelaar, the Assistant-Resident of Manado, as the successor of Slotering. His aide is Havelaar's brother-in-law. The Gouverneur-Generaal agrees with his aide's recommendation. Havelaar is inaugurated in Gouverneur-Generaal's palace in Buitenzorg and departs to Lebak in the next day with his controller names Verbrugge. As formally usual, Havelaar is greeted warmly by the Regent and his Demangs. In the next day, he is ceremonially taken oath by Slijmering in the Regency royal house. Everything goes well in the few days after that ceremony, until Djaksa (local police chief) tells him about Slotering's secret papers which has been saved by Djaksa. At first, Havelaar tries to ignore what is happened in the past, yet he keeps to maintain his feudal relationship with the Regent, Raden Adipati, as the highest local ruler in Lebak. Havelaar visits the Regency to make a speech which essentially states that he wants everything goes fine and no violation under during his term of office. The Regent requests an advance of remaining tax extra payments from Assistant Residents. Havelaar grants his request even though there is no budget to that payment. Havelaar's wife names Tine a.k.a. "Pussy" (Dutch: Poesje) feels objected to Havelaar's decision, but Havelaar convinces Poesje that he will pay the Regent from his personal savings. Havelaar believes, if the Regent has no lack of money, the Regent will stop robbing his people. But Havelaar's hope is in vain. He caught the Regent was doing abuse, from a simple thing to the serious violation. He finds some sawahs abandoned because all men in some villages are forcedly working to pull the grass and clean the Regent's houseyard. In another day, he also finds some men is working to build aloen-aloen without paid in preparation for welcoming the Regent's royal guests, the Regent of Bandoeng and Tjändjoer.

One day, Havelaar meets Säidjah and his father walking nearby the sawahs. Havelaar asks him where he was going and why he was not ploughing in sawah. Säidjah's father answered that he is going to barter his heirloom kris dagger with a new kerbau. Havelaar then asks when his kerbau death, before or after his speech to the chiefs of Lebak. Säidjah's father answered dishonestly that his kerbau is just dead. Havelaar thinks it is just normal. But in the few weeks when he makes a visit to Säidjah's village, he finds the Demang of Parang Koedjang with his group was collecting kerbaus. Havelaar suspects the Demang is plundering the kerbaus to be served as the banquet for the Regent's royal guests visit, the Regent of Bandoeng and Tjändjoer. The Demang tries to convince Havelaar that he buys kerbaus from the villagers, not to plunder. Havelaar then interrogates Säidjah's father to confront it with the Demang, and wonders why he sold his kerbau while he were barter his heirloom kris to get a new kerbau. Säidjah's father keeps silent because he is afraid of the Demang. Havelaar becomes upset to realize that the people were more afraid of the Demang than himself as Assistant Resident. He immediately left the village back home to write a report about this situation to the Resident of Bantam. Otherwise, the Demang is angry with the villagers and takes away all the kerbaus. The Demang also burns the only Säidjah and his father's clothes so that they are cold at night. Säidjah's father falls in fever at night and dies. Säidjah with an angry feeling comes before the Djaksa. They visit Havelaar's house together to report what really happens. Säidjah brings his kerbaus head as the evidence of kerbau looting by the Regent. Havelaar prepares to collect witnesses about the allegations of the Regent's criminal act. Havelaar attempts to bring this allegations to the court. But Säidjah refuses it because he doubts the court and feels that every colonial high-rank officials are the same as the Regent. Although Havelaar tries to convince Säidjah, Säidjah insists to run away to Lampong joining with the rebels there.

At the aftermath, Säidjah is dead in Lampong killed by KNIL army in a rebellion battle. Havelaar's indictment to the criminal court is blocked by the Resident, Slijmering. Slijmering warns Havelaar that if Havelaar keeps to blow up this incident, Slijmering threatened to revoke Havelaar from his position as Assistant Resident. When Havelaar finds out that he is not supported by the Resident, Havelaar decides to propose the indictment against the Regent by himself. But the court finally wins the Regent, the judge sentenced the Regent to be innocent and there was not enough evidence that he was guilty. The court even decided that Havelaar is "promoted" to serve as the Assistant Resident of Ngawi. Havelaar sees the justice in colonial is corrupted, and he finally resigns from his position as Assistant Resident. He also tries to discuss this case personally to the Gouverneur-Generaal. He brings Poesje and his son to Buitenzorg, and come to visit the Gouverneur-Generaal's palace. When he arrived there, his brother-in-law, who served as the Gouverneur-Generaal's aide, locks Havelaar in a room and told him to be silent and go home to the Netherlands. At last, Havelaar is full angry with the corruption of the Dutch colonial system, and shouting a wall-picture of the King William III that the King must take responsibility of this immoral corruption in his colonial system.

Film version
A film adaptation of the novel was released in 1976, directed by Fons Rademakers as part of a Dutch-Indonesian partnership. The film Max Havelaar was not allowed to be shown in Indonesia until 1987.

Editions

The edition history of the book "Max Havelaar" began in the 1860s with a publication titled "Max Havelaar, of De koffi-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappy". During his life Dekker published six press-editions of Max Havelaar in the Netherlands, with three different publishers. In addition, Dekker made a significant contribution to the first translation of the book into English. After Dekker's death, the book was reprinted many times. The text and reprints that are found in bookstores today is sometimes based on the 4th edition from 1875, sometimes on the handwritten manuscript (also called the 0th edition), and increasingly on the fifth edition of 1881, the last to be revised by the author.
 17 May 1860: the first edition: publishing house J. de Ruyter in Amsterdam. Three days earlier, on May 14, the book had already been made available. This edition of 1300 copies was on large octavo printed by Munster and sons. There were two parts, of 212 and 185 pages. The books were sold for four guilders, a large amount for the time.

 1860: second edition: J. de Ruyter, Amsterdam. The appearance of the book and typography did not differ from the first edition. The page layout and all lines were identical, so it seemed that it was printed from the same type used for the first edition. The book appeared again in two parts: the first part on 8 November 1860, the second part on 22 November. The exact size of the edition is unknown, but was probably between 700 and 1200 copies. The price for both parts was again four guilders.

 Double edition of the second edition: J. de Ruyter, Amsterdam The printing history of this book is complicated: In 1985 Anne Kets-Vree discovered a secret edition of this book. Appearance and typography of the book are identical and the title page still mentions 'Second Edition'. The book, however, was completely set anew by hand, and printed for the third time. The double printing could be identified with a printer's error in line 5 of the first chapter: "lieve lezers'''" (dear readers) instead of "lieve lezer" (Dear reader):

The reason for this covert edition is unknown, but it is speculated it was done by De Ruyter to avoid having to pay royalties to Dekker. The number of copies is unknown.

 February 1868: English translation: Max Havelaar or the Coffee auctions of the Dutch Trading Company by Multatuli. Translated from the original manuscript by Baron Alphonse Nahuÿs, Edinburgh, Edmonston & Douglas, Price: 12 shillings. From 12 March 1868 the book was on sale in Netherlands. This was the first edition made in cooperation with the author. Nahuys mentioned he used the original manuscript, but this manuscript was still with the editor of the first edition, De Ruyter.

 December 1871 -  20 January 1872: Third edition, Karel Hermanus Schadd, 296 pages, 5000 copies (small octavo 18,5 × 13 cm) price ƒ 2.90 + 100 copies of the luxe edition. price: ƒ 7.50 (large octavo 24 × 17 cm)  In 1870 De Ruyter had sold his copyright for 2000 guilders. The text-source for this edition was the double-edition of the second-edition: The mistake in that edition remains: lieve lezers  Both editions were printed in the same type, only the page size differed. There was a cheaper edition of the book available, but Douwes Dekker had no part in its sales and did not receive any income from it. He also could not correct or modify any of the text. In early 1873, Schadd sold his rights in the book for ƒ 2500 to the firm v/d Heuvell & Van Santen in Leiden.

 4th edition: G.L.Funke, Amsterdam, 19 October 1875, 388 pages, small octavo, 5000 copies. This is the first edition done in cooperation with the author. In it many mistakes and alterations from the first edition could be corrected. Dekker added also numerous comments to the text to explain his intentions.

 5th edition: Uitgevers Maatschappij Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1 November 1881, small octavo, ƒ 1,90 bound in paper ƒ 2,40 for copies in a hard cover. Second (and last) edition in cooperation with the author. Of this edition there have been four variants found, in the type at the press some changes were made, on both sides of the leaf. The papers that had already been printed earlier were not discarded, but were still used. Combining two different leaves makes four combinations possible. Copies of all four combinations have been identified.

 Multatuli, Max Havelaar of De koffiveilingen der Nederlandsche Handelmaatschappy. Critical edition, edited by Annemarie Kets-Vree. Monumenta Literaria Neerlandica VI, 1 and VI, 2. Assen/Maastricht, 1992.

 The manuscript remained untraceable for a long time. During the preparations for the celebration of 50 years Max Havelaar in 1910, a general appeal was made to make available, lend or donate documents, letters and other multatuliana to the association Het Multatuli Museum under construction. A descendant of J. de Ruyter, mr. C.H.E. Reelfs, found the original in his closet, among his stepfather's papers, and donated it to the Multatuli Museum. A copy thereof was published in 2007. The manuscript from 1860 is a newly transcribed version of an earlier draft, with all the corrections by Jacob van Lennep. Van Lennep first reduces the number of chapters in the manuscript to seventeen. The final number of chapters in print is slightly larger, namely twenty. Van Lennep also changed a large number of things during the correction of the type.

See also

NRCs Best Dutch novels

 References

 Sources

 Online text sources

 , trans. by Alphonse Nahuijs, 1868
  (Dutch)
  (Dutch)
 Multatuli, Volledige werken. 25 vols. Van Oorschot, Amsterdam, 1951–1995.
 Multatuli, digital sources on dbnl.nl :digital text source "Work of Multatuli" at dbn.nl
 Multatuli, Max Havelaar of de koffiveilingen der Nederlandsche Handelmaatschappy. Historisch-kritische uitgave, by A. Kets-Vree. 2 vols, Van Gorcum, Assen / Maastricht, 1992.  dbnl.nl digital text source of "Historical-critical edition"
 A.L. Sötemann, De structuur van Max Havelaar. 2 delen. Wolters Noordhoff, Groningen, 1966. dbnl.nl digital text source of "The structure of Max Havelaar"
 E.M. Beekman, Paradijzen van weleer. Koloniale literatuur uit Nederlands–Indië 1600-1950''. Prometheus, Amsterdam, 1998. , dbnl.nl digital text source of "Paradises of former times"

1860 novels
Dutch novels
Literature of the Dutch East Indies
Political novels
Dutch-language novels
Dutch novels adapted into films
Novels set in the 1860s
Novels set in the Netherlands
Novels set in Indonesia
Dutch satirical novels
Dutch political satire
Havelaar, Max
Havelaar, Max
Havelaar, Max
Havelaar, Max
NYRB Classics

Max Havelaar


The Kingston Arts Council (KAC) is the oldest municipal arts council in Ontario, serving the Kingston, Ontario and surrounding region. The KAC administers City of Kingston Arts Fund grants and Nan Yeomans Grant for Artistic Development, advocates on behalf of local artists, produces an annual Arts Guide, and organizes an annual Juried Art Salon in addition to numerous other community arts events and workshops.

History

The Kingston Arts Council was founded in 1961 in response to plans to demolish The Grand Theatre (then known as the Grand Opera House). A group of concerned citizens advocated that the theatre instead become a civic theatre, which was a success (the Grand Theatre reopened in 1964). The Kingston Arts Council adopted its constitution in 1962 and incorporated in 1963. The KAC has since grown to a major arts advocacy, funding and promotion resource in Kingston and the area. It receives operating funds from the Ontario Arts Council.

The Kingston Arts Council made national headlines when artist Margaret Sutherland entered the piece "Emperor Haute Couture" in the 2012 Juried Art Salon. This piece portrayed Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper in the nude and created controversy due to its subject and its display in the Kingston Frontenac Public Library.

References

External links
Official Website of The Grand Theatre
Kingston Arts Council

Culture of Kingston, Ontario
Arts councils of Canada
Arts organizations established in 1961
Organizations based in Kingston, Ontario
1961 establishments in Ontario

Kingston Arts Council