Frontier Communications Parent, Inc. is an American telecommunications company. Known as Citizens Utilities Company until 2000, Citizens Communications Company until 2008, and Frontier Communications Corporation until 2020, as a communications provider with a fiber-optic network and cloud-based services, Frontier offers broadband internet, digital television, and computer technical support to residential and business customers in 25 states. In some areas it also offers home phone services.

Incorporated in 1935 and based in Norwalk, Connecticut, the company began focusing solely on telecommunications in 1999, selling its natural gas assets and utility operations. The company subsequently acquired companies such as Frontier Communications of Rochester as well as assets from Verizon Communications and AT&T. After filing for bankruptcy in 2020 and emerging from restructuring in 2021,  Frontier went public again on May 4, 2021 on the NASDAQ. The company had around 3 million broadband subscribers and 485,000 video subscribers in 2021, and currently has a fiber optic network of 5.2 million locations.

History

1935-1993
Originally based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Citizens Utilities Company was formed from remnants of Wilbur B. Foshay's Public Utilities Consolidated Corporation in 1935. As the post-war years started, the company caught the interest of a New York investor. Richard Rosenthal was hired as president of the company in 1945, and by 1946, at thirty years old was the youngest company president in the industry.  From the 1950s through the 1970s the company expanded nationally. In 1969 it purchased the Kauai Electric Company, marking its then largest acquisition, at which point it operated 27 subsidiaries in five industries in around a dozen states. While continuing to serve as CEO, Rosenthal was elected chairman in 1970. Ishier Jacobson succeeded Rosenthal as CEO in 1981 after first serving as president and COO, with Rosenthal also retiring as chairman in 1989. A year later Jacobson retired as CEO and president as well. After aggressively expanding the business and focusing on service quality, board member Leonard Tow was named chairman and CEO in 1990. Daryl Ferguson became Citizens' president later that year.

Citizens acquired Louisiana General Services, the largest natural gas distribution company in Louisiana, in 1990. The following year Citizens acquired the gas operations of Southern Union Company in Arizona. It also created Centennial Cellular in 1991 by merging its Citizens Cellular subsidiary with Century Cellular, retaining a 32% ownership stake in the new company. Citizens sold AAlert Paging Company in 1993 after acquiring it in 1986. Under chairman and CEO Leonard Tow, Citizens Utilities agreed to acquire 500,000 rural access lines from GTE in 1993. The transfers of lines and subsidiaries occurred separately in different states as different regulatory approvals were received. 190,000 lines in Idaho, Tennessee, West Virginia and Utah were officially transferred in late 1993, then merging with Citizens subsidiaries such as the Citizens Telecommunications Company of West Virginia. Coghest Frontier of DGF City East/West & Contel of the West lines became part of Citizens Telecommunications of Utah, GTE Northwest lines became part of Citizens Telecommunications Company of Idaho, and GTE South lines were merged with Citizens Telecommunications Company of Tennessee.

1994-1998
In June 1994, Citizens added 270,000 lines in New York   from Contel of New York into Citizens Telecommunications Company of New York. Citizens acquired 38,000 more lines that November, with former Contel of the West lines becoming part of Citizens Telecommunications Company of the White Mountains in Arizona, and GTE lines in Montana became Citizens Telecommunications Company of Montana. 5,000 more GTE access lines in January 1995 were merged into Citizens Telecommunications Company of California.

Citizens announced in 1994 that it would acquire 117,000 telephone lines and cable franchises in eight states from Alltel for $292 million. The first acquisitions, of two Alltel operating companies, were completed on June 30, 1995. One was merged into Citizens' existing company in Oregon, while Mountain State Telephone in West Virginia was renamed Citizens Mountain State Telephone, and later became Citizens Telecommunications. Some of the Alltel lines were officially transferred to Citizens Telecommunications Company of the Volunteer State in Tennessee in September 1995, and Citizens acquired Alltel's Navajo Communications that year as well, which operates lines for the Navajo community. Citizens acquired Alltel lines in Pennsylvania, California, and Nevada in 1996, with Alltel Nevada renamed Citizens Telecommunications Company of Nevada.

With major subsidiaries such as Electric Lightwave, Citizens had expanded into 18 states by the start of 1995, with services including telecommunications, natural gas, electric, water, and wastewater treatment. Citizens acquired Ogden Telephone in 1997.

1999-2007

Citizens Utilities Company announced plans in 1999 to sell its utilities assets and become solely a telecommunications company. In 1999, Citizens announced that it planned to acquire 245,562 GTE lines in Arizona, California, Nebraska and Minnesota. Later in December 1999, GTE agreed to sell another 106,850 phone lines in Illinois to Citizens for $303 million. Separate from GTE, in 1999 Citizens agreed to acquire 530,000 rural access lines from US West, a Baby Bell company, for $1.65 billion. US West's owner Qwest terminated the sale two years later after stating that Citizens refused to complete the transaction. Citizens' water and wastewater operations were sold for $835 million in October 1999, electric utility operations for $535 million in February 2000, and Louisiana natural gas assets to Atmos Energy in April 2000 for $375 million.

The company was known as Citizens Utilities Company until the summer of 2000, when it was renamed Citizens Communications Company. Citizens then sold its Colorado gas utilities to Kinder Morgan in 2001 for about $11 million. In July 2001, Citizens Communications acquired assets and the Frontier name from Global Crossing North America in Bermuda for $3.65 billion. Global Crossing had previously acquired the Frontier name when it had purchased Frontier Corporation two years prior. The Global Crossing deal included subsidiaries such as the competitive local exchange carrier Frontier Communications of Rochester, Frontier's incumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC) companies in New York state, and Frontier Subsidiary Telco and Telco's subsidiary Frontier Communications of America.

Citizens Communications Company sold its remaining water and wastewater operations to American Water Works in 2002. Also that year it sold its Kauai Electric Company for $215 million and its Gas Company of Hawaii for $115 million, at which point Citizens had generated a total of $1.9 billion from selling off its utilities. In 2003 it sold its Arizona electric and gas utilities to UNS Energy, and in 2004 it sold its Vermont electric distribution division to Vermont Electric Cooperative and its Vermont transmission system to the Vermont Electric Power Company. Citizens acquired Commonwealth Telephone, a Pennsylvania telephone company, in 2006.

2008-2013
Citizens Communications changed its corporate name to Frontier Communications Corporation on July 31, 2008, with the company's stock symbol on the New York Stock Exchange changed from "CZN" to "FTR".  In June 2010, Frontier Communications sued Google over Google Voice, alleging the product infringed on its own invention to link multiple phone lines to a single number.

In July 2010, Frontier purchased FiOS internet and television infrastructure from Verizon in the Fort Wayne, Indiana area, as well as Verizon properties in 14 states for $8.6 billion. The overall deal encapsulated Verizon's phone, cable TV, and internet service businesses in much of the western United States, with Verizon's cell phone business omitted. With customers in 27 states as a result, the acquisitions tripled Frontier's customer base from 2.3 to 7 million. The 2010 Verizon takeover primarily included former rural GTE exchanges. Frontier also acquired the former Bell System unit Verizon West Virginia, which it merged with its existing subsidiary Citizens Telecommunications Company of West Virginia. Frontier was required not to raise rates in some regions, with broadband access to be increased to 85% of subscribers in all of its territories by 2013. At the time, 92% of Frontier's existing customers had broadband access compared to 65% in newly acquired areas.

Frontier kept the name "FiOS" for the fiber systems and licenses it acquired from Verizon until a 2010 rebranding. Acquiring its first television service through the Verizon acquisition, Frontier's integration of the pre-existing television services proved rocky. Eight months after the acquisition, Frontier began pulling out of cable TV and offering free subscriptions to DirecTV instead, stating it had underestimated how competitive the field was. While Frontier had initially claimed it had no plans to change FiOS TV prices until 2012,  it substantially raised the rates in February 2011 citing rising programming costs, by 50% in some regions. It also instituted a $500 installation fee for new television subscribers and began removing itself from TV franchise agreements in some cities in Oregon.  After a significant drop in Fiber TV subscribers, in 2011 Frontier retracted the rate increases except in Indiana. On December 16, 2011, Frontier moved from the NYSE to the NASDAQ stock exchange, trading under the same "FTR" symbol. Frontier Communications Parent, Inc. was added to S&P 400.

2014-2021

On October 24, 2014, Frontier acquired AT&T's operations in Connecticut, including wireline, DSL, U-verse video, and satellite TV businesses for $2 billion, merging various subsidiaries such as Southern New England Telephone and SNET America into Frontier Communications of Connecticut. In 2015, Frontier moved its headquarters from Stamford, Connecticut to Norwalk, Connecticut. Also in 2015, Frontier settled a class action lawsuit alleging slower than advertised DSL speeds in West Virginia. Without admitting wrongdoing, Frontier agreed to invest $150 million on infrastructure in the region and provide discounted rates for affected clients until faster speeds were implemented, which occurred in 2017. Aiming to replace the old copper system with fiber optic technology, Frontier invested another $100 million into its West Virginia network in 2023. On April 1, 2016, Verizon sold its TV, internet, and landline phone business in Florida, Texas, and California to Frontier for $10.5 billion, in a deal that doubled Frontier's size. Maggie Wilderotter served as CEO and chairperson from November 2004 to April 2015, when she was succeeded by Daniel J. McCarthy as CEO.

In February 2018, Frontier had experienced an 8% annual revenue decline, outpacing attempts to cut costs. With revenue also declining in 2019 to about $8.1 billion across 29 states, Bloomberg News reported in January 2020 that Frontier was "asking creditors to help craft a turnaround deal" that potentially included filing for bankruptcy. Succeeding Daniel J. McCarthy, Bernie Han became CEO that month. Frontier Communications filed for bankruptcy on April 14, 2020. With the restructuring plan expected to reduce debt by around $10 billion, it wiped out profits for shareholders who had already lost 90% that year. Frontier management "promised to protect the jobs of its 18,000 employees, and to keep senior lenders and trade creditors whole". As part of the restructuring plan, on May 1, 2020, Frontier sold its Northwest operations in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington to WaveDivision Capital and Searchlight Capital Partners for $1.352 billion, with the acquired operations renamed Ziply Fiber. As Frontier emerged from restructuring in March 2021, it described a new focus on converting its copper-based telecom network into fiber optic cable. With John Stratton announced as executive chairman of the re-organized company in early 2021, Nick Jeffery became CEO and president effective March 4, 2021. Frontier at the time had 3,069,000 broadband subscribers and 485,000 video subscribers. Jeffery named a new board and executives, including Scott Beasley as CFO and Veronica Bloodworth of AT&T as chief network officer, and stated the company would focus on modernizing, "building fiber as fast as we can," and improving customer service.

2021-present
After changing its name to Frontier Communications Parent in April 2021, Frontier went public again on May 4, 2021 at $30.00 a share, with FYBR as its trading symbol on NASDAQ. Frontier added fiber connections to 600,000 locations in 2021, which brought its total number of connected homes to 4 million. At the start of 2022 it outlined plans to reach 10 million by 2025. In May 2022, Frontier settled with the Federal Trade Commission over allegedly not delivering promised internet speeds in California, with Frontier agreeing to pay the state $8.5 million. The company published its first environmental social governance (ESG) report in 2022. After consistently low rankings in relation to customer satisfaction, CNET reported in 2022 that Frontier's satisfaction ratings had moderately improved, remaining below industry average but surpassing the scores of competitors such as CenturyLink, Mediacom, and Optimum.

Ending 2022 with a fiber network of 5.2 million locations, in early 2023 it was reported that Frontier was on track to spend $800 million on expanding its fiber optic network through 2025, with the goal of having 90% of its customers connected to fiber optic cable before 2026. In January 2023, Frontier launched 5 gigabit speeds for its entire fiber network, and according to Fast Company was the first nationwide internet service provider to do so. Frontier as of 2023 was active in 25 states, and remained focused on expanding fiber internet services and multi-gigabit speeds under its "Building Gigabit America" strategy. Nick Jeffery remained president.

Services
Frontier offers broadband internet, digital television service, and computer technical support to residential and business customers. In some locations there are also home phone services offered. Frontier launched a cloud-based unified-communications-as-a-service (UCaaS) option for businesses in 2018. Although the company stopped marketing TV with traditional linear video ads to new customers in 2021, some customers continue to be offered the service through legacy contracts.

Internet plans

Its broadband services include Frontier Fiber, a fiberoptic service, and Frontier Internet, its copper-dependent DSL service. All of Frontier's internet plans come with unlimited data and typically don't require a contract, with discounts available through the Affordable Connectivity Program. The company offers discounted access to the streaming service YouTube TV with integrated billing. For its internet services, Frontier has four plans ranging from 500 megabit to 5 gigabit download speeds, all of which have symmetrical upload speeds. The DSL service Frontier Internet has one plan offered with "varying" speeds depending on the residence's proximity to a local transmitting station. Frontier provides free Eero routers to customers. Although routers are now free, Frontier had previously charged an automatic $10 router rental fee.

Frontier's Fiber Frontier fiber optic service has met with a largely positive reception in the press, although performance of the DSL service has been described as variable depending on region. PC Magazine's annual survey of ISP customer satisfaction in 2019 again listed Frontier's DSL service at or near the bottom in terms of "Overall Satisfaction", a sentiment reflected in outlets such as Consumer Affairs in 2016. David Anders of CNET named Frontier Fiber 500 as the "best internet deal overall" offered by an American ISP for May 2023, specifically praising the service's fast speeds, TV bundle, unlimited data, free wifi router, lack of term agreements, and suitability for online gaming. Anders, however, described Frontier's copper DSL service as "hit or miss" due to speeds being dependent on regional infrastructure. Anders did praise Frontier Internet's unlimited data for being a relatively rare feature for an ISP to offer in rural regions.

Regions
Frontier offers services in 25 states, including Alabama, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The company previously served primarily rural areas and smaller communities, but now also serves several large metropolitan markets. Fiber service was available in regions of 15 states as of 2023, while some regions had DSL options without fiber, other regions lacked DSL internet.

Sponsorships
When Frontier Field opened in Rochester, New York in 1996, Frontier signed a 20-year naming rights deal, which was re-optioned in 2015. Frontier sponsored the Frontier @ the Glen, a NASCAR Cup race at Watkins Glen International and in 2011 also purchased the naming rights to the Frontier Ice Arena in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho. Frontier was the title sponsor of the Connecticut Sun WNBA basketball team in 2015, as well as the title sponsor of the 2017 American Athletic Conference's Men's and Women's basketball championships.

See also
 List of United States telephone companies
 List of companies based in Norwalk, Connecticut

References

External links

Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2020
Internet service providers of the United States
Telecommunications companies of the United States
Telecommunications companies established in 1935
1935 establishments in Minnesota
Companies based in Norwalk, Connecticut
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
American companies established in 1935

Frontier Communications


The Robert Charles riots of July 24–27, 1900 in New Orleans, Louisiana were sparked after Afro-American laborer Robert Charles fatally shot a white police officer during an altercation and escaped arrest. A large manhunt for him ensued, and a white mob started rioting, attacking blacks throughout the city. The manhunt for Charles began on Monday, July 23, 1900, and ended when Charles was killed on Friday, July 27, shot by a special police volunteer. The mob shot him hundreds more times, and beat the body.

White rioting continued, with several blacks killed after Charles had died. A total of 28 people were killed in the riots, including Charles. More than 50 people were wounded in the riots, including at least 11 who had to be hospitalized. Blacks made up most of the fatalities and casualties.

Robert Charles (b. circa 1865) had come to New Orleans from Mississippi. He was a self-educated activist for civil rights. He believed in self-defense for the Afro-American community and encouraged Afro Americans to move to Liberia to escape racial discrimination and violence.

Background

White supremacy

Louisiana was a slave society before the American Civil War, with hundreds of enslaved people working on each of numerous large cotton and sugar cane plantations, and many others in smaller groups, including in port cities such as New Orleans. Some also worked on the steamboats that traveled the rivers. At the start of the 20th century, the population of New Orleans was recorded in 1900 at 208,946 'white' and 77,714 'negro' by the Twelfth Census of the United States. Among the latter were many mixed-race people, most of whose ancestors had formerly had a distinct status as free people of color before the Civil War, particularly during the years of French and Spanish control. They are also known as Creoles of color.

The white-dominated legislature, primarily Democrats, had passed a new state constitution in 1898 with provisions that disenfranchised most African Americans by making voter registration more difficult, through poll taxes, literacy tests and similar measures. After that, the Democratic-dominated legislature passed eight Jim Crow laws by 1900. These included a law establishing racial segregation for public facilities, including interstate railroad cars, which were nominally under federal law. Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) was a Louisiana test case of segregation on interstate railroad cars, which was appealed to the US Supreme Court. Opponents argued that federal laws and constitutional rights should apply on interstate transportation, but the Court ruled the state could establish "separate but equal" facilities. In practice, however, the "separate" facilities were seldom equal.

These laws aggravated racial relations. Historian William Ivy Hair has written, "Signs of increasing animosity between the races were to be seen almost daily in New Orleans during June and July 1900. Both the police and press received an unprecedented number of complaints."

New Orleans newspapers contributed to racial tensions, as they were "becoming more stridently racist in their editorial columns and treatment of the news." The confrontational journalistic practices of Henry J. Hearsay and the States newspaper caused racial rifts in New Orleans. Hearsay, a former major in the Confederate Army, said in one article that "if [negroes] listen to the screeds of agitators in the North...the result will be a race war, and race war means extermination...Then the negro problem of Louisiana at least will be solved–and that by extermination."

Racial attitudes
In southern Louisiana, African Americans had been allowed much more freedom than in other areas, largely owing to the racial demographics in New Orleans particularly and its history. During the colonial period, New Orleans had developed three racial groups, as was typical of other French and Latin colonies: white, free persons of color (mixed race or gens de couleur libre), and enslaved black people. Robert Charles was classified as mixed-race (mulatto in the terms of the time) and his ancestors may have been free before the Civil War. In colonial French society, free people of color had more rights and often gained education, property and more skilled jobs and professions. After the United States takeover in the Louisiana Purchase, and particularly after Reconstruction, the increasingly numerous whites from United States southern Protestant culture worked to impose the Southern binary system of classifying everyone as black or white. Mixed-race people still formed a class elite in New Orleans.

By the 1900s the line of segregation separating whites and blacks (people of African descent) had been imposed in New Orleans culture, including the segregation by color on New Orleans' streetcars.

Events

Altercations
At approximately 11 p.m. on July 23, 1900, three white police officers, Sergeant Jules C. Aucoin, August T. Mora, and Joseph D. Cantrelle, investigated reports of "two suspicious looking negroes" sitting on a porch in a predominantly white neighborhood. They found Robert Charles and his roommate, 19-year-old Leonard Pierce, at the scene. The policemen questioned the two men, demanding to know what they "were doing and how long they had been there." One of the two men replied that they were "waiting for a friend." Charles stood up, which the police took as an aggressive move. Mora grabbed him and the two struggled. Mora hit Charles with his billy club. Mora and Charles pulled guns and exchanged shots. Reports vary on who drew first; both men received non-lethal gunshot wounds to the legs. Charles fled to his residence, leaving a trail of blood. Pierce, also armed, was covered by a police officer when Charles ran.

Charles had returned to his residence by early the next morning, when police were trying to find him. Captain Day and a patrol wagon approached Charles's residence on the 2000 block of Fourth Street at approximately 3 a.m. on the morning of July 24, 1900. When the police tried to apprehend Charles, he fired upon them with a .38-caliber Winchester rifle, fatally hitting Day in the heart. Charles fatally shot another policeman Peter Lamb in the head. The remaining policemen took refuge in a nearby room and Charles escaped. The police started a manhunt.

Manhunt and riot

On July 24 a crowd of whites gathered on Fourth Street where the policemen had been killed. There were shouts for lynching Charles, but the crowds dispersed when they were falsely told Charles had been located and jailed.  On July 25, Acting Mayor William L. Mehle (Mayor Paul Capdevielle was out of town) announced a $250 reward for the arrest of Charles, while issuing a proclamation urging peace. In contrast, New Orleans newspapers, particularly the Times-Democrat, blamed the black community for Charles' crimes and called for action.

In the following days, several riots occurred as mobs of armed whites roamed the streets. On the night of the July 25 they killed three blacks and wounded six more so severely that they had to be hospitalized. Five whites were also hospitalized, and more than 50 people suffered lesser injuries. Charles had taken refuge at 1208 Saratoga Street, where he remained safe from the police until Friday, July 27.  Upon receiving a tip about the whereabouts of Charles from an informant, police searched the house. As the officers neared Charles' hiding place beneath the stairs, Charles opened fire, killing two of the officers [Sgt Gabe Porteus and Corporal John Lally]. Other officers, upon hearing the gunshots, quickly brought in reinforcements to both surround Charles and to protect the black residents from white mob violence. Historian William Ivy Hair described the scene:

The Mayor, knowing the mood of the city and fearing that some massive butchery of the black population might take place, called upon the state militia units, which had been mobilized since Thursday, to go to the scene with—and he made a special point of this—their two Gatling guns. Capdevielle declared that if things got completely out of hand, the Gatling guns should be fired into the white mob.

Throughout the day, the police fired on the house, where Charles returned fire from the second-story windows. By 5pm, Charles had killed or fatally wounded five law officers, and wounded nineteen other persons.

A fire captain and other volunteers snuck into the first floor beneath Charles and ignited a mattress. The smoke from the mattress forced Charles out of the house. As he tried to escape, he was shot by Charles A. Noiret, a medical student and member of the special police (a militia group of volunteer citizens). The policemen continued to shoot Charles. When they dragged his body outside, a mob of bystanders beat his body.

Aftermath

After learning of Charles' death, mobs of white people renewed their attacks on black residents. Police had difficulty taking Charles' body to the morgue as angry white mobs tried to mutilate his corpse. The mob killed several African Americans and burned down the Thomy Lafon schoolhouse, known as "the best Negro schoolhouse in Louisiana," and a second black school. By the next morning, the special police and state militia had quelled the rioting and brought the city under control. Several days later, Lewis Forstall murdered Fred Clark for tipping off police to Charles' whereabouts. In total, Charles killed seven people over the course of the week, four of whom were policemen. The exact number of black casualties at the hands of the white mobs is unknown, but most sources report more than a dozen black people killed and over fifty wounded.

The events in New Orleans received national coverage and had ramifications beyond the state. Lillian Jewett, a young white member of the Anti-Lynching League, was fundraising at a Boston, Massachusetts meeting hours after Charles' death to raise money for the injured in New Orleans. The Louisiana Times Picayune reported "Insane Ravings at a Boston Meeting". A group of wealthy young white men from New Orleans had formed the Green Turtles the previous year. This group required an "oath of allegiance to white supremacy and the Democratic Party." Because of this group's subsequent threats on Jewett's life, she would not travel further South than Richmond, Virginia.

After the Robert Charles riots, whites intensified and increased the reach of racial segregation in the state. In 1908 the state legislature passed a miscegenation law, prohibiting interracial marriage or domestic partnerships. These were seldom enforced in cases of white men having relations with black women. Such legislation at the time was associated with the progressive movement, and was also influenced by European ideas on eugenics. Many states passed miscegenation laws in those years. In 1920, New Orleans established racial segregation in jails. The Catholic Church established a segregated parish in downtown New Orleans, the Congregation of Corpus Christi. Racial violence and hate crimes increased in frequency.

New Orleans jazz pianist Jelly Roll Morton recounted the 1900 riot in his 1938 oral history recorded for the Library of Congress.

Lynchings were still high at the turn of the century, reflecting white efforts to suppress black voting and maintain white supremacy. The agricultural economy was not doing well, adding to economic and social tensions.

See also
 List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States

Citations

References

 William R. Merriam. "Twelfth Census of the United States" (1900) Pp. 725
 William Ivy Hair. Carnival of Fury: Robert Charles and the New Orleans Race Riot of 1900, Louisiana State University Press (1976)

Further reading

 Ida B. Wells-Barnett Mob Rule in New Orleans: Robert Charles and His Fight to Death. (1900) Project Gutenberg.
 Michael McGerr. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America (2003) Oxford University Press.

 Robert P. Robertson. The Tragedy of Robert Charles (2009), Booksurge
 Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), partial preview online

External links

L'abeille de la Nouvelle-Orleans - Jul 25, 1900, in French, showing portraits of officers Day and Lamb, and of Charles

1900 riots
1900 in Louisiana
Mass murder in 1900
African-American history in New Orleans
Riots and civil disorder in Louisiana
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
Racially motivated violence in the United States
White American riots in the United States
Mass murder in Louisiana
Crimes in New Orleans
July 1900 events
20th century in New Orleans
History of racism in Louisiana

Robert Charles riots


The Bulletin is a monthly community newspaper serving the neighborhoods of Bloomfield, Friendship, Garfield, Lawrenceville, and East Liberty in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

It provides commentary on local community issues, with particular emphasis on economic redevelopment and anti-crime initiatives. The newspaper was founded in 1975 and is managed and owned by the Bloomfield-Garfield Corporation, an organization that works on projects to help improve the mentioned neighborhoods. Along with reports from professional staff writers, local community leaders also publish articles alerting readers of local events, issues, or activities. The Bulletin also contains advertisements and a calendar of local activities.

External links
 http://bgcbulletin.blogspot.com/
 https://bloomfield-garfield.org/the-bulletin/

Newspapers published in Pittsburgh
Newspapers established in 1975
1975 establishments in Pennsylvania

The Bulletin (Pittsburgh)


Beburos is an angel mentioned in the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra whose name was revealed to Esdras as one of the nine angels who will govern "at the end of the world." The nine angels mentioned are Michael, Gabriel, Uriel,  Raphael, Gabuthelon,  Aker, Arphugitonos, Beburos, and Zebuleon. Beburos is not considered an archangel and is a non-canonical figure.

See also
 List of angels in theology

References

Individual angels
Angels in Christianity

Beburos


Activin A receptor, type I (ACVR1) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ACVR1 gene; also known as ALK-2 (activin receptor-like kinase-2).  ACVR1 has been linked to the 2q23-24 region of the genome. This protein is important in the bone morphogenic protein (BMP) pathway which is responsible for the development and repair of the skeletal system. While knock-out models with this gene are in progress, the ACVR1 gene has been connected to fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a very rare progressive genetic disease characterized by heterotopic ossification of muscles, tendons and ligaments. It is a bone morphogenetic protein receptor, type 1.

Function

Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I ( I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling; and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. This gene encodes activin A type I receptor which signals a particular transcriptional response in concert with activin type II receptors.

Signaling

ACVR1 transduces signals of BMPs. BMPs bind either ACVR2A/ACVR2B or a BMPR2 and then form a complex with ACVR1. These go on to recruit the R-SMADs SMAD1, SMAD2, SMAD3 or SMAD6.

Clinical significance

Gain-of-function mutations in the gene ACVR1/ALK2 is responsible for the genetic disease fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. The typical FOP patient has the amino acid arginine substituted for the amino acid histidine at position 206 in this protein. This causes a change in the critical glycine-serine activation domain of the protein which will cause the protein to bind its inhibitory ligand (FKBP12) less tightly, and thus over-activate the BMP/SMAD pathway. The result of this over-activation is that endothelial cells transform to mesenchymal stem cells and then to bone. Atypical mutations involving other residues work similarly - causing the protein to be stuck in its active conformation despite no BMP being present.

Mutations in the ACVR1 gene have also been linked to cancer, especially diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG).

References

External links

GS domain
TS domain
S/T domain
Human proteins
EC 2.7.11

ACVR1


A rijksmonument (, ) is a national heritage site of the Netherlands, listed by the agency Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed (RCE) acting for the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.

At the end of February 2015, the Netherlands had 61,822 listed national heritage sites, of which approximately 1,500 are listed as archaeological sites.

History and criteria

Until 2012, a place had to be over 50 years old to be eligible for designation. This criterion expired on 1 January 2012.

The current legislation governing the monuments is the Monumentenwet van 1988 ("Monument Law of 1988").

The organization responsible for caring for the monuments, which used to be called Monumentenzorg, was recently renamed, and is now called Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed. In June 2009, the Court of The Hague decided that individual purchasers of buildings that were listed as rijksmonuments would be exempt from paying transfer tax, effective from 1 May 2009. Previously this exemption had only applied to legal entities.

Some examples

Many Dutch tourist attractions are rijksmonuments, such as castles or windmills.  Some notable windmills are De Schoolmeester, Westzaan, a smock mill in North Holland, the only wind powered paper mill in the world, listed as rijksmonument number 40013; De Wieker Meule, De Wijk, in Drenthe province, built in 1829 and restored to working order, listed as rijksmonument number 39657; and Mellemolen, a hollow post mill in Friesland, also restored to working order, listed as rijksmonument number 35937.
Among the rijksmonuments are also many churches. Most rijksmonuments are residential buildings, such as houses and villas.

Other monuments in the Netherlands

 A provincial monument (provinciaal monument) is a monument designated by a province. In the Netherlands there are only two provinces that assign monuments, North Holland and Drenthe. The designation allows the provinces to protect the monuments and are a base for the regulation of subsidy for restoring the monuments.
 A municipal monument (gemeentelijk monument) is a monuments designated by a municipality. A municipal monument is not of national importance but it is important for the region or city/village.
 An archeological monument.
 Protected city or landscape views.

See also
 List of Rijksmonuments
 List of heritage registers
 Top 100 Dutch heritage sites

References

External links

  Monumentenregister, official database of heritage sites
  Monumenten.nl

Historic sites in the Netherlands
Dutch words and phrases

Rijksmonument


The Blue Moon Diner, originally the Miss Toy Town Diner, is a historic diner in Gardner, Massachusetts. Built in 1949, it is well-preserved example of a late-model barrel-roofed diner manufactured by the Worcester Lunch Car Company. It has been located at its present location since 1954. The diner was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.

Description and history
The Blue Moon Diner is located on the east side of Gardner's Main Street, on the southern edge of the central business district.  The diner is set on a concrete foundation, and is oriented perpendicular to the road, with its parking area to the south.  A wood frame addition to the east provides space for the kitchen and additional table space.  The diner itself is seven bays long and three wide, and has a barrel roof, now covered in shingles.  The main entrance is one of the diner's original entrances, at the western (street-facing) end, sheltered by a canopy; the eastern entry to the diner now provides access to the addition.  The exterior of the diner is finished in porcelain enamel panels with integral polychrome graphics, and the entry doors are stainless steel.  The interior features a marble counter, fourteen counter stools, and booths lining the southern wall.  The booths are wooden, with tables that have laminated tops.  Tile work on the interior is predominantly blue and cream, with accents in black and white.

The diner was built by the Worcester Lunch Car Company in 1949, and was originally located in Winchendon, where it was known as the Miss Toy Town Diner.  It was moved to Gardner in 1954.  The diner, which has seen a succession of owners, was restored in 1984, and is the only diner in Gardner.

The diner was used as a scene in the movie School Ties featuring Brendan Fraser.  In the movie the name of the diner was changed to Skip's Diner.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Worcester County, Massachusetts

References

External links

 Blue Moon Diner

Restaurants on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Diners on the National Register of Historic Places
Diners in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Gardner, Massachusetts
Tourist attractions in Worcester County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Worcester County, Massachusetts

Blue Moon Diner


Aldo Ferrer (April 15, 1927 – March 8, 2016) was an Argentine economist. He was one of the leading proponents of economic nationalism in Argentina.

Early career
Aldo Ferrer was born in Buenos Aires in 1927, and enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires School of Economics, where he received a Doctorate in 1953. He served as adviser to the UN Secretariat as a doctoral student under Professor Raúl Prebisch, and his dissertation, The State and Economic Development, earned him early repute as a defender of industrial protectionism.

Politics
Ferrer was named economic policy attaché to the Argentine Embassy in London in 1956 and in 1957 co-founded the Argentine Association of Political Economy. Following the progressive UCRI's victory at the polls in 1958, the new Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires, Oscar Alende, named Ferrer Minister of the Economy, from which Ferrer promoted increased spending in infrastructure and needed flood control works, for example.

His turn as chief economist for Argentina's largest province (home to over a third of the population) gave Ferrer national stature, though it also left him out of the halls of power after the UCRI's standard-bearer, President Arturo Frondizi, was forced to resign by conservative opponents in 1962.

Academics
Ferrer returned to academics as Professor of Economics at the University of La Plata and at the University of Buenos Aires. In this capacity, he created a new, fourth edition of the well-known textbook, The Argentine Economy (translated into English at the University of California, Berkeley in 1967). Appointed a committee-member in U.S. President John F. Kennedy's Alliance for Progress, he was also invited as a founding member of the Latin American Social Science Council (CLACSO), an NGO created in 1967 in a consultative capacity to UNESCO.

Minister of Economy
Growing instability in Argentina led to the removal of General Juan Carlos Onganía as president in June 1970. His replacement, General Roberto M. Levingston, had become a supporter of the Alliance for Progress during his turn in the Frondizi administration as head of Army Intelligence and while stationed in the Argentine Embassy in Washington, DC.  Careful to placate conservatives, he appointed an "inflation hawk," Carlos Moyano Llerena, as Minister of the Economy; but, instead relied on the head of the new Ministry of Production, Aldo Ferrer, as his chief economic policy maker. Announcing new subsidies for industry, requirements for a higher domestic component in autos and other large consumer durables and the creation of a national small-business lender (BANADE), Ferrer secured increased collective bargaining rights for Argentine labor (the bast-paid and most-unionized in Latin America at the time) and became a household word in Argentina with his ads encouraging consumers to Compre Nacional! ("Buy Domestic").

Having entered a mild recession following a boom in 1968–69, growth reaccelerated in late 1970 and early 1971, despite the worst drought since 1952. Ferrer presented President Levingston a five-year plan in September in the hope of giving his new program a permanence seldom seem in Argentine policy and it earned him appointment as full Minister of the Economy in October, as well as the support of former President Arturo Frondizi and of economist Rogelio Julio Frigerio, a pro-development businessman close to Frondizi.  Levingston's political designs, the most controversial of which was to be the replacement of Argentina's myriad political parties with four Presidentially-sanctioned alliances, led to his replacement in March 1971. Ferrer was initially retained by the new president, Alejandro Lanusse. Ferrer's efforts to discourage speculative practices entrenched in Argentine farming such as hoarding and underproduction drew opposition from the powerful beef and grain lobbies, however, and the latter responded by forming an advocacy group, the United Farmland Movement (MCU); these pressure groups helped lead to the Economy Minister's dismissal in late May.

Later career
Ferrer returned to academics and to his work with CLACSO, writing an economic history, The Postwar (1982), and Living Within Our Means (1983), an appeal for alternatives to dependence on foreign investment. Following a financial collapse, Argentina's last dictatorship called for elections in 1983. The winner, Raúl Alfonsín of the centrist Radical Civic Union (UCR), appointed Ferrer President of the Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires, the public, second-largest bank in Argentina. Limited by a shortfall in confidence in the Argentine banking system (whose deposits were dwarfed by Argentine deposits abroad) and growing differences with Alfonsín's conservative economists, Ferrer resigned in 1987.

Contributing regularly to the Economy section of Clarín, Argentina's most important news daily, he became an increasingly renowned opponent of globalization, capturing what he saw as its contradictions in A History of Globalization in 1996, and criticizing its dependence on slave labor in From Columbus to the Internet: Globalization in Latin America (2000). He organized like-minded economists in his new NGO, Grupo Fénix the same year.

The May 2003 election of Peronist Néstor Kirchner following the worst economic debacle in Argentina since 1930 left free market and pro-globalization economists without the friends in Argentine government they had enjoyed for over a decade, leading to increasing state intervention in the Argentine economy. Among the results was the 2004 establishment of Enarsa, a public energy company commissioned to increase oil and gas production and to alleviate future electricity shortages such as the one Argentina suffered in April of that year. He was appointed to the company's Board of Directors in March 2006.

Ferrer was named editor-in-chief of Buenos Aires Económico, a local business and current affairs daily, in 2008, and in December 2010, was appointed Ambassador to France by President Cristina Kirchner. Popular with embassy staff and the sizable community of Argentines in France alike, Ferrer's tenure became known for its gala diplomacy and frequent colloquia of economists. Citing health concerns and a desire to be closer to his daughters in Argentina, he resigned from the post in April 2013 and returned to academia. He died on March 8, 2016.

References

External links
Plan Fénix
Buenos Aires Económico

1927 births
2016 deaths
Argentine people of Catalan descent
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Argentine economists
Academic staff of the National University of La Plata
Academic staff of the University of Buenos Aires
Argentine Ministers of Finance
Ambassadors of Argentina to France

Aldo Ferrer


Over the millennia of its development, Hinduism has adopted several iconic symbols, forming part of  Hindu iconography, that are imbued with spiritual meaning based on either the scriptures or cultural traditions. The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and denomination of the followers. Over time some of the symbols, for instance the Swastika has come to have wider association while others like Om are recognized as unique representations of Hinduism. Other aspects of Hindu iconography are covered by the terms murti, for icons and mudra for gestures and positions of the hands and body.

Hindu sacraments

Hindu sacraments are physical pieces of that help objects or markings that are considered sacred and used as a sign of devotion by the followers of Hinduism. These are often objects associated with a puja (prayer) or religious ceremony.

Murti
Murtis (Sanskrit: मूर्ति) are sacred works of art, primarily in the form of statues and paintings, which serve as representations of divinity, for use during religious devotion.  Murtis are a huge part of contemporary mainstream Hindu culture and often hold significant sentimental value in many Hindu homes. Many believe that murtis are vessels that capture the essence of gods, which helps the devotees focus and concentrate during prayers. Although there are many Hindu gods, the most common murtis are depictions of Ganesha, Hanuman, Shiva, and Lakshmi. Each deity appeals to certain aspects of human life, for example Lakshmi is the goddess of fortune and the embodiment of love, while Hanuman is worshiped for strength and loyalty.

Tilaka
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead or other parts of the body as a sign of  spiritual devotion. Hindus may wear a tilaka regularly or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the tilaka is often an indicator of devotion to a certain deity. For example, the U-shaped urdhva pundra usually denotes devotion to Vishnu, while Shiva devotees often wear it in the form of three horizontal lines. It may be made of saffron, vermilion, turmeric, clay, or simply ash.

To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married Hindu women commonly wear a decorative vermilion dot or bindu, or bindī on the forehead. This is analogous to a wedding ring worn in western countries. In southern India, the mark is called pottu (or bottu). The exact shape, size and location of the bindi or pottu shows regional variation; for instance, in northern India the bindi is often worn just below the hairline, while in southern India it is more common to wear it between the eyebrows. In east India, especially in West Bengal, traditionally larger bindis are worn as mark of  devotion towards goddess Durga.

Vibhuti
Vibhuti (☰) is the holy ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. Ash is considered a sign of purity due to its powdery white color. It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal vibhuti lines of Shiva and the U-shaped urdhva pundra of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva). In addition, sacred ash signifies that the body's origin is from dust and ash, acting a marker of impermanence and a reminder of the illusory nature (maya) of existence.

Rudraksha

Rudraksha (📿) are seeds of the rudraksha tree that represent the tears of Shiva (also known as Rudra). They are often threaded into a necklace and used as a rosary to accompany prayer and meditation.

Universal symbols
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are a quintessential part of its culture, and are most representative of its general ethos:

Om

Om (or Aum, ॐ) is the sacred sound symbol that represents the universe; the ultimate reality (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. Aum is often said to represent God in the three aspects of  Brahman (A), Vishnu (U) and Shiva (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence.  The written syllable ॐ called omkara serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hinduism. The pronunciation of Aum moves through all possible human linguistic vowel sounds and is different from the pronunciation of Om. Both are often symbolically equated, although they are sonically distinct.

Swastika
Swastika is a symbol connoting general auspiciousness. It may represent purity of soul, truth, and stability or, alternatively, Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism dates back to ancient times, however the earliest records of swastikas were imprinted on pottery from central Mesopotamia and at Susa in western Iran in 4000 B.C.

Sri Chakra Yantra
The Sri Chakra Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as Sri Yantra) is a mandala formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are oriented upright, representing Shiva or the masculine principle.  Five of these triangles are inverted triangles representing Shakti, the feminine principle. Together, the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation, and together express Advaita Vedanta or non-duality. All other yantras are said to be derivatives of this supreme yantra.

Symbols associated with individual deities

Several symbols (animals, flora, instruments, weapons, or even color) in Hindu iconography are associated with particular devas, and vice versa. In certain cases the deities themselves are personifications of natural forces, for instance Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Surya (Sun) and Prithvi (Earth). In other instances, the associations arise from specific incidents or characteristics related in Hindu theology. The iconography serve to identify the particular deity in their pictorial or sculptural representations. The symbolism also often links the deities with a particular natural or human attribute, or profession.

It is important to understand the symbolism, in order to appreciate the allegorical references in not only Hindu scriptures (for instance, Puranic tales), but also in both ancient and modern secular works of authors from the Indian subcontinent. The art and science of designing temples includes the study of sculpture and the ornamentation of religious significance as described in sacred texts (shilpa shaastra aagamas). In Ancient India twelve years of theoretical and practical training used to be given to the student by an able experienced teacher.

Shiva Lingam

The Shiva Lingam represents the deity Shiva, and is used as an icon of strength and fertility due to its sexual symbolism. Shivalinga (Sivalinga) is the most important and a popular symbolic representation of Shiva in Hinduism. It represents Shiva in his aspects of the creator, protector, and the destroyer in Shaiva traditions

Meaning
The word 'Shivalinga' is a combination of the words 'Shiva' (auspiciousness) and linga (sign or symbol). Thus 'Shivalinga' is a representation of Shiva in His all-auspicious aspect. Linga has been translated as phallus, which refers to his aspect of the masculine principle. 'Linga' also means the place of dissolution of the disintegrated universe.

Types
Based on the mobility of the object of worship, Shivalingas are broadly divided into two categories – 'Cala' and 'Acala'

Cala Shivalinga
These are made of stone, crystal, metals, clay, rice, dough, etc. These can be moved from one place to another.

Acala Shivalingas

The sacred texts describe many types of the lingas based on variations in the proportion

Shivalingas are installed in temples and are fixed to ground or a base. They are usually made of stones or metals. The sacred texts suggest that the shiva linga must have three parts. A bottom most 1/3rd part that is in the earth - Brahma bhagam (represents Brahma, the Creator of the World) it is rectangular in cross section.
A middle 1/3rd part is called Vishnu bhagam or Vishnu Bhaga (it represents Vishnu, the Protector and sustainer of the world; it is octagonal in cross section. Both the Brahma bhagam and Vishnu bhagam are embedded in peetham (the ornamental pedestal). A visible 1/3rd Shiva Pooja bhagam or Pooja bhaga (also known as Rudra bhagam or Rudra bhaga) which is top most part which is worshiped. It is circular in cross section and cylindrical in shape. It represents Rudra (Shiva), the destroyer of the world. It is known as Pooja bhagam because this part is worshipped. Brahmasutras: These are certain essential lines present on the Rudra  bhagam (Rudra  bhaga). Without them a Shivlinga is unfit to be worshipped. The Shiva linga is at the level of ground and easily accessible to the worshipers irrespective of their caste, social or economic status.

Lotus

The lotus is associated with the creation theology as well as the gods Vishnu, Brahma, and Lakshmi. It is the symbol of beauty and fertility. "In the Bhagavad Gita, a human is adjured to be like the lotus; they should work without attachment, dedicating their actions to God, untouched by sin like water on a lotus leaf, like a beautiful flower standing high above the mud and water."

Veena
The musical instrument Veena is associated with the Hindu goddess Saraswati and the sage Narada. Its origin lies in south India as it was used in Carnatic classical music. Furthermore its a symbol of arts and learning.

Conch

A Hindu pundit (priest) blowing the conch during puja.

The conch shell is a major Hindu article of prayer, used as a trumpeting announcement of all sorts. The God of Preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life as it has come out of life-giving waters. In the story of Dhruva the divine conch plays a special part. The warriors of ancient India would blow conch shells to announce battle, such as is famously represented in the beginning of the war of Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata, a famous Hindu epic. The conch shell is also a deep part of Hindu symbolic and religious tradition. Today most Hindus use the conch as a part of their religious practices, blowing it during worship at specific points, accompanied by ceremonial bells. Shankha also symbolizes the sound that created the universe and stands for knowledge.

Chakra
The Chakra or disc-like weapon of Vishnu is often found mounted on the top of Vaishnava temples or incorporated into architectural designs. Images depicting Vishnu's four-armed Narayana form almost always include the Chakra in one of his hands. It is a general symbol for protection. Chakra is also known to symbolize the need to follow dharma and to condemn adharma.

Multiple heads and arms

An array of Hindu, Buddhist, and some Jain deities are often depicted with multiple heads, arms, and other body parts, creating what one author refers to as a "multiplicity convention" in religious iconography. Such multiple body parts represent the divine omnipresence and immanence (ability to be in many places at once and simultaneously exist in all places at once), and thereby the ability to influence many things at once. The specific meanings attributed to the multiple body parts of an image are symbolic, not literal in context. In such depictions, the visual effect of an array of multiple arms is to create a kinetic energy showing that ability. Several Hindu deities are depicted in their Panchamukha (five-faced) aspect, as well as their Chaturbhuja (four-armed) aspect.

Vāhana

Vāhana or vehicle, sometimes called a mount, is an animal or mythical entity closely associated with a particular deity in Hindu theology. Sometimes the deity is iconographically depicted riding and/or mounted on the vahana; other times, the vahana is depicted at the deity's side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute.

Vishnu
Vishnu is the Protector-God, also the God of Destruction. Of the three gods of the Hindu Triad, Vishnu, being the Preserver, appears most human. The Rig Vedic Vishnu is conceived as the sun in three stages - rising, zenith and setting. The Vedic Vishnu strides through the heavens in three steps. This is Vishnu's great deed and constitutes his great glory. With these three steps Vishnu, a solar deity, courses through the three divisions of the universe, "the god being manifest in a threefold form, as Agni on earth, Indra or Vayu in the atmosphere and Surya in the sky". He is said to have taken these three steps for the preservation and benefit of mortals. The zenith is appropriately called Vishnu's place. His third step cannot be seen with human eyes. It is here that Indra dwells.

Table of symbols

Gopura
It is the tower that was built on the wall of entrance. It was many storied building, up to one storied to sixteen storied. It contains many portico like kudaivarai, prasthra, karnakuta, sala, panchara, kudu. It can be seen mainly in south Indian temples with Dravidian architecture.

See also
 Anthropology of religion
 Ashtamangala
 Icon

References
Notes

Sources
 Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series)  (Set).
 Kaasyapa shilpa shaastra: part-2- department of endowments - andhra pradesh - India.
 Bhaarathiya mahashilpamu: in 16 parts - swarna subramanya kavi - 1971 TTD Govt of Andhra pradesh supported publication.

Further reading
 Rao, T. A. Gopinatha (1998). Elements of Hindu Iconography (in 4 Parts), New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
 Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The book of Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and Their Meaning. Binkey Kok Publications, Havelte, The Netherlands. .
 Dr G Gnanananda, "Pratima Lakshana - complete information on the characteristics of gods like Ganesh, Skanda, Aiyappa and Brahma for carving idols:, Bangalore.
 Dr G Gnanananda, "Adranareeshvara Sampradayika shilpa (2019) : Iconography and traditional sculptural qualities, characteristic and methodologies are explained in detail" Sanskriti Sahithya Pratisthana, Bangalore Publications.

External links

The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Recognizing the Gods
Hindu Symbols

Indian sculpture
Indian art
Indian iconography

Hindu iconography


Johannes Valentinus Andreae (17 August 1586 – 27 June 1654), a.k.a. Johannes Valentinus Andreä or Johann Valentin Andreae, was a German theologian, who claimed to be the author of an ancient text known as the Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459 (published in 1616, Strasbourg; in English Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz in 1459).  This became one of the three founding works of Rosicrucianism, which was both a legend and a fashionable cultural phenomenon across Europe in this period.

Andreae was a prominent member of the Protestant utopian movement which began in Germany and spread across northern Europe and into Britain under the mentorship of Samuel Hartlib and John Amos Comenius.  The focus of this movement was the need for education and the encouragement of sciences as the key to national prosperity.  But like many vaguely-religious Renaissance movements at this time, the scientific ideas being promoted were often tinged with hermeticism, occultism and neo-Platonic concepts.  The threats of heresy charges posed by rigid religious authorities (Protestant and Catholic) and a scholastic intellectual climate often forced these activists to hide behind fictional secret societies and write anonymously in support of their ideas, while claiming access to "secret ancient wisdom".

Life
Andreae was born at Herrenberg, Württemberg, the son of Johannes Andreae (1554–1601), the superintendent of Herrenberg and later the abbot of Königsbronn. His mother Maria Moser went to Tübingen as a widow and was court apothecary 1607–1617. The young Andreae studied theology and natural sciences 1604–1606. He befriended Christoph Besold who encouraged Andreae's interest in esotericism. Ca. 1605 he wrote the first version of "The Chemical Wedding of Christian Rosekreutz". He was refused the final examination and church service, probably for attaching a pasquill (offensive, libelous note) to the chancellor Enzlin's door, on the occasion of his marriage. After that, he taught young nobles and hiked with his students through Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy. He visited Dillingen, a bastion of the Jesuits, whom he regarded as the Antichrist. In 1608 he returned to Tübingen. He came to know Tobias Hess, a Paracelsian physician with an interest in apocalyptic prophecy. From 1610 till 1612 Andreae traveled.

In 1612 he resumed his theological studies in Tübingen. After the final examination in 1614, he became deacon in Vaihingen an der Enz, and in 1620 priest in Calw. Here he reformed the school and social institutions, and established institutions for charity and other aids. To this end, he initiated the Christliche Gottliebende Gesellschaft ("Christian God-loving Society"). In 1628 he planned a "Unio Christiana". He obtained funds and brought effective help for the reconstruction of Calw, which was destroyed in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) by the imperial troops and visited by pestilence. In 1639, he became preacher at the court and councillor of the consistory (Konsistorialrat) in Stuttgart, where he advocated a fundamental church reform. He became also a spiritual adviser to a royal princess of Württemberg.

Among other things, he promoted the Tübinger Stift, a hall of residence and teaching which was a seminary owned and supported by the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg, in South West Germany. The Stift was founded as an Augustinian monastery in the Middle Ages, but after the Reformation (in 1536), Duke Ulrich turned the Stift into a seminary which served to prepare Protestant pastors for Württemberg.  A prominent student of the Stift during this period was Johannes Kepler.

In 1646, Andreae was made a member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft ("Fruitbearing Society"), where he got the company-nickname der Mürbe ("the soft"). In 1650, he assumed direction of the monasterial school Bebenhausen. and in 1654, he became abbot of the evangelical monasterial school of Adelberg. He died in Stuttgart.

Rosicrucianism
His role in the origin of the Rosicrucian legend is controversial. In his autobiography he claimed that the Chymische Hochzeit ("Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz") was one of his works—as a "ludibrium", possibly meaning "lampoon". He said in old age that he wrote this fake document in his youth (circa 1605). In his later works, alchemy is treated as a subject of ridicule and is placed with music, art, theatre and astrology in the category of the 'less serious' sciences.

Andreae was a pious, orthodox Lutheran theologian who probably had nothing at all to do with the two great manifestoes of this so-called "secret" society—the Fama fraternitatis or the Confessio fraternitatis. His lifelong commitment appears to have been to found a Societas Christiana or utopian learned brotherhood of those dedicated to a spiritual life, in the hope that they would initiate a second Reformation.

His writings and efforts provided a potent stimulus to Protestant intellectuals at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and he appears to have inspired the foundation of the Unio Christiana which was established in Nuremberg during 1628 by a few patricians and churchmen under the impetus of Johannes Saubert the Elder. This utopian society was later revived in Stuttgart in the early 1660s and another utopian brotherhood known as Antilia (a communal society reminiscent of the monastery) developed in the Baltic during the Thirty Years' War. The founders were inspired by both Baconian belief in experimental science and by Andreae's tracts. They later attempted to establish a colony on a small island in the Gulf of Riga, and considered immigrating to Virginia.

Priory of Sion
During the 1960s, as part of a hoax claiming the existence of a medieval secret society, a set of documents of dubious authenticity, the Dossiers Secrets, was discovered in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF). One of the documents included an alleged list of "Grand Masters of the Priory of Sion", and Andreae was listed as the seventeenth Grand Master.

Works
Compendium Mathematicum (1614)
Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz Anno 1459 ("The chymical Wedding of Christian Rosencreutz"), published anonymously (1616)
Menippus (1617)
Invitatio Fraternitatis Christi (1617–1618)
Peregrini in patria errores (1618)
Reipublicae Christianopolitanae descriptio ("Description of the Republic of Christianopolis", "Beschreibung des Staates Christenstadt") (1619)
Turris Babel (1619)
De curiositatis pernicie syntagma (1620)

See also
Esoteric Christianity
Kabbalah
Lectorium Rosicrucianum – Antonin Gadal – Catharose de Petri – Jan van Rijckenborgh
Rosicrucianism
Rosicrucian Fellowship – Max Heindel
Rosicrucian Manifestos – Fama Fraternitatis – Confessio Fraternitatis – The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz – Parabola Allegory

References
 Donald R. Dickson, "Johann Valentin Andreae's Utopian Brotherhoods," Renaissance Quarterly, 49, 4 (1996): 760–802.
 Donald R. Dickson, The Tessera of Antilla: Utopian Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in the Early Seventeenth Century, Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1998.
Roland Edighoffer, "Hermeticism in Early Rosicrucianism," in Gnosis and Hermeticism: From Antiquity to Modern Times, edited by Roelof van den Broek and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, State University of New York Press, 1998.
Christopher McIntosh, The Rosicrucians: The History, Mythology, and Rituals of an Esoteric Order, 3rd revised edition, Samuel Weiser, York Beach, Maine, 1997.
John Warwick Montgomery, Cross and Crucible: Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654). Phoenix of the Theologians, 2 Vols. Martinus Nijhoff, the Hague, 1974.
John Warwick Montgomery, "The World-View of Johann Valentin Andreae," in Das Erbe des Christian Rosencreutz. Johann Valentin Andreae 1586–1986 und die Manifeste der Rosenkreuzerbruderschaft 1614–1616, Amsterdam: In de Pelikaan, 1988, pp. 152–169.
Edward H. Thompson, "Introduction", in Johannes Valentin Andreae, Christianopolis, translated by Edward H. Thompson, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
Frances A. Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972.

External links
The Correspondence of Johann Valentin Andreae in EMLO
 Biography

1586 births
1654 deaths
Christian Kabbalists
German Lutheran theologians
People from Herrenberg
Rosicrucianism
Rosicrucians
German male non-fiction writers
17th-century German theologians
17th-century German writers
17th-century German male writers
17th-century writers in Latin

Johannes Valentinus Andreae


John Rudolph Niernsee (May 27, 1814 – June 7, 1885) was an American architect. He served as the head architect for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B. & O.).  Rudolph also largely contributed to the design and construction of the South Carolina State House located in Columbia, South Carolina. Along with his partner, James Crawford Neilson, Rudolph established the standard for professional design and construction of public works projects within Baltimore and across different states in the United States.

Early life
He was born as Johann Rudolph Niernsee in Vienna, capital city of the old Austrian Empire and immigrated to the United States in 1837, at age 22.

Career
He apprenticed to Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, (1806–1878), engineer and manager at the B. & O. and other railroads, (and son of another well-known architect, his father Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1764–1820). In 1847, with James Crawford Neilson, (1816–1900), he formed the Niernsee & Neilson architectural firm that largely served the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, (B. & O.).

He is credited with having mentored Ephraim Francis Baldwin, (1837–1916), another well-known Maryland and Baltimore architect (and formed the similarly locally-famous firm Baldwin & Pennington with Josias Pennington, [1854–1929]), who also designed buildings and stations for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B. & O.).

During the American Civil War (1861-1865), Niernsee served in the Confederate States Army as a Major.

Selected works
Works by Niernsee or by the firm (with attribution) are:
Grace Episcopal (later called Grace and St. Peter's Church) Park Avenue & West Monument Street, 1850–52 designed with Nielsen
Emmanuel Episcopal Cathedral at Eager St, 1857, designed with Nielsen
The Green Mount Cemetery hilltop chapel, on Greenmount Avenue, Baltimore, Maryland, which he designed with Nielsen, is a Gothic Revival work.
Baltimore's Johns Hopkins Hospital  at 500 Broadway, and the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum.

 1855–56: St. John the Evangelist Roman Catholic Church (by Niernsee & Neilson), Baltimore. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1982.
1855: Saint Paul's Church, 102 North Union Street, Petersburg, Virginia (Niernsee & Neilson), NRHP-listed.
c. 1855, Villa Anneslie (mansion), 529 Dunkirk Road, Towson, Maryland (Niernsee, John Rudolph), NRHP-listed.
1856-1865, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Camden Street Station, 301 West Camden Street, Baltimore, Maryland (Niernsee & Neilson)
 1868: Aigburth Vale (mansion) in Towson (by Niernsee & Neilson), listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1999.
 1870: Churchville Presbyterian Church (Italianate clock tower by Niernsee & Neilson), Churchville, Maryland, listed on the NRHP in 1986.
 ca. 1870: Clifton Mansion (renovation of earlier mansion of Col. Henry Thompson) for new owner Johns Hopkins (1795-1873), at Clifton Park (by Niernsee & Neilson), listed on the NRHP in 2007.
The Greek Revival South Carolina State House, in Columbia, is another National Historic Landmark building which Niernsee designed, c. 1851, although full implementation was delayed.  From 1888 to 1891, a time when much of the interior work was completed, it was in fact Niernsee's son, Frank McHenry Niernsee, who served as architect.  NRHP-listed.<-- Grace Church, Baltimore Sun Paper March 12, 1852 pg1—unclear fragment -->
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops in Martinsburg, West Virginia, which he designed with engineer Albert Fink, were declared a National Historic Landmark in 2003.

Not in date order:
Church of the Most Holy Trinity, 720 Telfair Street, Augusta, Georgia (Niernsee, John Rudolph), NRHP-listed
St. Mary's Catholic Church (1858) located in the Edgefield Historic District, located along both sides of U.S. Route 25 through the town of Edgefield, South Carolina (Niernsee,John R.), NRHP-listed.
Emmanuel Church, U.S. Route 301, Port Conway, Virginia. (Niernsee & Neilson), NRHP-listed/
Martin's Brandon Church, Virginia Highways 10 and 1201, Burrowsville. (Niernsee & Neilson), NRHP-listed.
Mount Vernon Place United Methodist Church and Asbury House, 2–10 East Mount Vernon Place/East Monument Street (at North Charles Street/Washington Place-North), Baltimore, (Niernsee & Neilson), NRHP-listed.

Personal life
Niernsee was buried at St. Peter's Catholic Church in Columbia, South Carolina.

References

External links
 John Rudolph Niernsee, at Maryland ArtSource

Johns Hopkins Hospital
Architects from Baltimore
1814 births
1885 deaths
Artists from Vienna
Emigrants from the Austrian Empire to the United States
People of Maryland in the American Civil War
19th-century American architects
American railway architects

John Rudolph Niernsee


Jóhannes Ásbjörnsson (born 28 November 1979), nicknamed Jói, is an Icelandic TV and radio show host.

TV career
Ásbjörnsson was born in Reykjavik.  In 1999, he started a radio morning show with his collaborator of nine years, which became the most popular morning show in Iceland. In 2001, he started the TV show 70 minutes, which was modelled on their former radio show and ran for five consecutive years. Jóhannes and Simmi hired Sveppi and Auddi to the 70 minutes show, who have been on the air in Iceland since then.

In 2003 Jóhannes and Simmi D started hosting Idol Stjörnuleit on the Stöð 2 station, which ran for three consecutive years and became the most popular TV program in Icelandic TV history.

Today Jóhannes and Simmi host the morning program on Saturday mornings at Bylgjan 98.9, an Icelandic radio station.

Notes

1979 births
Living people
Johannes Asbjornsson
Johannes Asbjornsson
Johannes Asbjornsson

Jóhannes Ásbjörnsson


Warsaw Autumn () is the largest international Polish festival of contemporary music. For many years, it was the only festival of its type in Central and Eastern Europe. It was established in 1956 by two composers, Tadeusz Baird and Kazimierz Serocki, and officially established by the Head Board of the Polish Composers' Union.  It is an annual event, normally taking place in the second half of September and lasts for 8 days.

History
The first festival took place in 10–20 October 1956. In 1957 and 1982 there was no festival.

The first years of the festival, reaching back to the late 1950s, was a period of particular magnificence. From the beginning of its existence the festival's program foundations were clear. The festival's leading aim was (and is) to present new music from Poland and around the world. Adrian Thomas notes that the music performed at Warsaw Autumn between 1958 and 1961 "clearly charts the process of informing Polish audiences and composers of what was happening in the West. At the same time, the amount of Polish repertoire increased from 25% in 1958 to 30% in 1961.

The Polish Composers' Union still plays a large role in the organisation of the festival, and the director of the festival is currently Jerzy Kornowicz.

Repertoire

The Warsaw Autumn featured many Polish and World premieres by both non-Polish as well as Polish composers. The following list includes some of the pieces that were performed .

1956
Witold Lutosławski, Concerto for Orchestra (1963 UNESCO 1st Prize)

1958
Tadeusz Baird, Four Essays (World Premiere) (1959 UNESCO 1st Prize (shared with Lutosławski))
Henryk Górecki, Epitaph (World Premiere)
Witold Lutosławski, Musique funèbre / Funeral Music (1959 UNESCO 1st Prize (shared with Baird))

1959
Henryk Górecki, Symphony No. 1 (World Premiere) (1961 UNESCO Youth Biennale 1st Prize)

1960
Henryk Górecki, Scontri (World Premiere)

1961
Tadeusz Baird, Love Poems (World Premiere)
Henryk Górecki, Three Diagrams (World Premiere)
Witold Lutosławski, Jeux vénitiens / Venetian Games (World Premiere) (1962 UNESCO 1st Prize)
Krzysztof Penderecki, Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima (World Premiere) (1961 UNESCO Winner)

2014
 Neo Temporis Group (Ensemble Nostri Temporis and NeoQuartet)

See also
List of experimental music festivals
Kontrasty

References

Source

External links
 Official site

Music festivals in Poland
Events in Warsaw
20th-century classical music
20th century in music
Modernism (music)
Recurring events established in 1956
1956 establishments in Poland
Contemporary classical music festivals
Experimental music festivals
Music festivals established in 1956
Classical music festivals in Poland
Autumn events in Poland

Warsaw Autumn


Personal care items are toiletry items. These are products used by people to look after their bodies, and to improve their appearance.  They are usually sold in chemist shops and supermarkets. Many celebrities use beauty products.

Products
Personal care includes products as diverse as  cleansing pads, bandages, colognes, cotton swabs, cotton pads, deodorant, eye liner, facial tissue, hair clippers, lip gloss, lipstick, lotion, makeup,  nail files, pomade, perfumes, razors, shaving cream, moisturizer, talcum powder, toilet paper, toothpaste, and wet wipes.

See also

 Social care

Care
Cosmetics

Personal care


Harry Rapf (16 October 1880, in New York City – 6 February 1949, in Los Angeles), was an American film producer.

Biography
Born to a Jewish family, Rapf began his career in 1917, and during a 20-year career became a well-known producer of films for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He created the comedy team of Karl Dane and George K. Arthur in the late 1920s. Rapf was also one of the founding members of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

He had two sons: screenwriter and professor of film studies Maurice Rapf and film/television producer and screenwriter Matthew Rapf.

Producer
Harry Rapf began his career in the late 1910s, investing in motion-picture productions and earning a "Harry Rapf presents" credit. He then became a producer for the Lewis J. Selznick studio, and then the fledgling Warner Bros. studio where he made Rin Tin Tin adventures.

In 1924 Rapf joined Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer as a production manager, where he was assigned to monitor the production schedule of Erich von Stroheim's enormous project Greed. He became a staff producer, making popular silent features.

By the end of the decade, Harry Rapf had launched a very successful series of low-budget silent comedies starring Karl Dane and George K. Arthur. With sound films creating a revolution within the industry, and with other MGM producers already committed to dramatic projects, it fell to Harry Rapf to film a plotless, experimental musical comedy that would feature specialties from MGM's vast roster of players. The Hollywood Revue of 1929 was a gamble in its day -- no story, no dramatics, no structure, just a pastiche of sketches and musical numbers depending almost entirely on sheer star power: John Gilbert, Norma Shearer, Buster Keaton, Joan Crawford, Bessie Love, Marion Davies, Laurel and Hardy, Marie Dressler, Cliff Edwards, and Dane & Arthur. The film became a tremendous success and prompted other studios to attempt their own revues.

Inspired, Rapf began work on a follow-up, The Hollywood Revue of 1930, which was restructured and renamed The March of Time. Several elaborate musical pageants were filmed in Technicolor, and the film was set for release in September 1930. Unfortunately for Rapf, the marketplace had since become surfeited with movie musicals, and MGM abandoned the project. Rapf kept trying to find ways to salvage the scenes already filmed, and many of them were ultimately inserted into the studio's two-reel Technicolor musical shorts of 1933-34. Rapf's final attempt at the format, The Hollywood Revue of 1933, was announced as an all-star attraction but went through many changes of writers, directors, and cast members until it finally emerged as Hollywood Party (1934), starring Jimmy Durante and Lupe Vélez, with guest appearances by Laurel and Hardy, The Three Stooges, and Mickey Mouse. The expensive, chaotic production was such a patchwork that the technical credits were withheld until after the end title, and none of the eight directors claimed screen credit.

As a result of this disaster (posting a half-million-dollar loss during the Depression), Harry Rapf was transferred to the MGM shorts department, where the Robert Benchley reel How to Sleep won an Academy Award and helped to restore Rapf's standing. He was then entrusted with MGM's less important features, as he had been during his days with Dane & Arthur, and continued making low- to moderately budgeted features until his death in 1949.

He was entombed at Home of Peace Cemetery in East Los Angeles, California.

Filmography

References

External links

1880 births
1949 deaths
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences founders
Film producers from New York (state)
American Jews
Film directors from New York City

Harry Rapf


Art and Architecture Journal (A&AJ) was a printed quarterly art magazine published between 1980 and 2009. Edited by Jeremy Hunt it was re-launched with issue 61 in February 2005.

AAJPress is the successor to the Art and Architecture Journal currently presented as an online blog, providing information and communication on public art commissions, projects, collaboration and architecture based in the United Kingdom.

AAJPress includes: commemorative and memorial public art – environmental and land art - sculpture parks and gardens – architecture and urban design - urban regeneration - corporate collections - art in health - interior design – crafts and applied art - education and training - 20th century history and theory - critical debate and dialogue - temporary projects, performance and installations - festivals and biennales -political and community issues - experimental areas of film, digital media and sound - literature, dance and music as public art.

External links

 Atoll Collaborative: A&AJ articles

1980 establishments in the United Kingdom
2009 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Architecture magazines
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom
English-language magazines
Magazines established in 1980
Magazines disestablished in 2009
Quarterly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Visual arts magazines published in the United Kingdom

Art and Architecture Journal


Teodor Teofil Matecki (25 April 1810 – 15 May 1886) was a Polish physician, social activist and member of Poznań Society of Friends of Learning.  He died in his home town of Poznań.

Early life
Matecki was born in Poznań and educated at the Mary Magdalene High School which was the oldest secondary school in Poznań, founded at the beginning of 14th century. Nevertheless, he decided to quit school in order to take part in the November Uprising. He was awarded for his bravery afterwards but the Prussian authorities punished him for the participation in the uprising by sentencing him to three months in prison. He achieved a secondary school certificate in 1833 in Wrocław and started his medicine studies at the university therein. He received the degree of doctor of medicine in 1837 and then he fulfilled his residency in Berlin. He went to live in Poznań the following year.

Career
He linked his work as a doctor with social, national and political activities. He tried to follow Karol Marcinkowski by helping the destitute. Meanwhile, he collaborated with an underground movement that was preparing an uprising in Greater Poland. His main task included storing medicaments. He was captured in 1846 and sent to prisons in Poznań, Sonnenburg, Hausvogtei and Moabit. He was sentenced to 6 years in prison and a fine but the revolution that took place in 1848 set him free. He established hospitals in Śrem, Września and Miłosław (where insurgents were treated). In 1848-1849 Matecki played a significant role in fighting epidemic of cholera. He also engaged himself in helping the wounded later on, especially during the January Uprising over a dozen years later.

After the year 1848 he was active as a doctor and popularizer of science. He belonged to a number of scientific associations. He was author of numerous articles concerning medicine as well as chemistry, physics, mathematics and astronomy.

Personal life
He was married to Apolonia née Szuman from 1840.

References

 Witold Jakóbczyk, Przetrwać na Wartą 1815-1914, Dzieje narodu i państwa polskiego, vol. III-55, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1989

1810 births
1886 deaths
Physicians from Poznań
19th-century Polish physicians
November Uprising participants
People from the Grand Duchy of Posen
Polish political prisoners in the Prussian partition
Polish social activists of the Prussian partition

Teodor Teofil Matecki