Fallen angels are angels who were expelled from heaven. The literal term "fallen angel" does not appear in any Abrahamic religious texts, but is used to describe angels cast out of heaven or angels who sinned. Such angels often tempt humans to sin.

The idea of fallen angels is derived from the Book of Enoch, a Jewish pseudepigraphic apocalyptic religious text, or the assumption that the "sons of God" () mentioned in Genesis 6:1–4 are angels. In the period immediately preceding the composition of the New Testament, some sects of Judaism identified these same "sons of God" as fallen angels. During the late Second Temple period the biblical giants were sometimes considered the monstrous offspring of fallen angels and human women. In such accounts, God sends the Great Deluge to purge the world of these creatures; their bodies are destroyed, yet their peculiar souls survive, thereafter roaming the earth as demons. Rabbinic Judaism and Christian authorities after the third century rejected the Enochian writings and the notion of an illicit union between angels and women producing giants. Christian theology indicates the sins of fallen angels occur before the beginning of human history. Accordingly, fallen angels became identified with those led by Lucifer in rebellion against God, also equated with demons.

Evidence for the belief in fallen angels among Muslims can be traced back to reports attributed to some of the companions of Muhammad, such as Ibn Abbas (619–687) and Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud (594–653). On the other hand, some Islamic scholars opposed the belief in fallen angels by stressing the piety of angels supported by verses of Quran, such as 16:49 and 66:6, although none of these verses declare angels as immune from sin. One of the first opponents of the concept of fallen angels was the early and influential Islamic ascetic Hasan of Basra (642–728). To support the doctrine of infallible angels, he pointed at verses which stressed the piety of angels, while simultaneously reinterpreting verses which might imply acknowledgement of fallen angels. For that reason, he read the term mala'ikah (angels) in reference to Harut and Marut, two possible fallen angels mentioned in 2:102, as malikayn (kings) instead of malā'ikah (angels), depicting them as ordinary men and advocated the belief that Iblis was a jinn and had never been an angel before. The precise degree of angelic fallibility is not clear even among scholars who accepted fallen angels; according to a common assertion, impeccability applies only to the messengers among angels or as long as they remain angels.

Academic scholars have discussed whether or not the Quranic jinn are identical to the biblical fallen angels. Although the different types of spirits in the Quran are sometimes hard to distinguish, the jinn in Islamic traditions seem to differ in their major characteristics from fallen angels. In classical Islamic traditions, the jinn are often thought of as a race of Pre-Adamites, who dwelt on earth. However, their ethereal bodies, as in the Christian conception of fallen angels, would allow them to ascend to heaven to obtain knowledge, thus passing secret information to soothsayers (a notion also corresponding with the Greek Daimon). The Quran also refers to the idea of jinn trying to climb up to heaven. As Patricia Crone points out, one of the characteristics of fallen angels is that they fall from heaven, not that they try to get back to it.

Second Temple period
The concept of fallen angels derives mostly from works dated to the Second Temple period between 530 BC and 70 AD: in the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees and the Qumran Book of Giants; and perhaps in Genesis 6:1–4. A reference to heavenly beings called "Watchers" originates in Daniel 4, in which there are three mentions, twice in the singular (v. 13, 23), once in the plural (v. 17), of "watchers, holy ones". The Ancient Greek word for watchers is  (, plural of ), literally translated as "wakeful". Some scholars consider it most likely that the Jewish tradition of fallen angels predates, even in written form, the composition of Gen 6:1–4. In the Book of Enoch, these Watchers "fell" after they became "enamored" with human women. The Second Book of Enoch (Slavonic Enoch) refers to the same beings of the (First) Book of Enoch, now called Grigori in the Greek transcription. Compared to the other Books of Enoch, fallen angels play a less significant role in 3 Enoch. 3 Enoch mentions only three fallen angels called Azazel, Azza and Uzza. Similar to The first Book of Enoch, they taught sorcery on earth, causing corruption. Unlike the first Book of Enoch, there is no mention of the reason for their fall and, according to 3 Enoch 4.6, they also later appear in heaven objecting to the presence of Enoch.

1 Enoch

According to 1 Enoch 7.2, the Watchers become "enamoured" with human women and have intercourse with them. The offspring of these unions, and the knowledge they were giving, corrupt human beings and the earth (1 Enoch 10.11–12). Eminent among these angels are Samyaza and Azazel. Like many other fallen angels mentioned in 1 Enoch 8.1–9, Azazel introduces men to "forbidden arts", and it is Azazel who is rebuked by Enoch himself for illicit instruction, as stated in 1 Enoch 13.1. According to 1 Enoch 10.6, God sends the archangel Raphael to chain Azazel in the desert Dudael as punishment. Further, Azazel is blamed for the corruption of earth:

An etiological interpretation of 1 Enoch deals with the origin of evil. By shifting the origin of mankind's sin and their misdeeds to illicit angel instruction, evil is attributed to something supernatural from without. This motif, in 1 Enoch, differs from that of later Jewish and Christian theology; in the latter evil is something from within. According to a paradigmatic interpretation, 1 Enoch might deal with illicit marriages between priests and women. As evident from Leviticus 21:1–15, priests were prohibited to marry impure women. Accordingly, the fallen angels in 1 Enoch are the priests counterpart, who defile themselves by marriage. Just like the angels are expelled from heaven, the priests are excluded from their service at the altar. Unlike most other apocalyptic writings, 1 Enoch reflects a growing dissatisfaction with the priestly establishments in Jerusalem in 3rd century BC. The paradigmatic interpretation parallels the Adamic myth in regard of the origin of evil: In both cases, transcending ones own limitations inherent in their own nature, causes their fall. This contrasts the etiological interpretation, which implies another power besides God, in heaven. The latter solution therefore poorly fits into monotheistic thought. Otherwise, the introduction to illicit knowledge might reflect a rejection of foreign Hellenistic culture. Accordingly, the fallen angels represent creatures of Greek mythology, which introduced forbidden arts, used by Hellenistic kings and generals, resulting in oppression of Jews.

2 Enoch
The concept of fallen angels is also in the Second Book of Enoch. It tells about Enoch's ascent through the layers of heaven. During his journey, he encounters fallen angels imprisoned in the 2nd heaven. At first, he decides to pray for them, but refuses to do so, since he himself as merely human, would not be worthy to pray for angels. In the 5th heaven however, he meets other rebellious angels, here called Grigori, remaining in grief, not joining the heavenly hosts in song. Enoch tries to cheer them up by telling about his prayers for their fellow angels and thereupon they join the heavenly liturgy.

Strikingly, the text refers to the leader of the Grigori as Satanail and not as Azael or Shemyaza, as in the other Books of Enoch. But the Grigori are identified with the Watchers of 1 Enoch.

The narration of the Grigori in 2 Enoch 18:1–7, who went down on to earth, married women and "befouled the earth with their deeds", resulting in their confinement under the earth, shows that the author of 2 Enoch knew about the stories in 1 Enoch. The longer recension of 2 Enoch, chapter 29 refers to angels who were "thrown out from the height" when their leader tried to become equal in rank with the Lord's power (2 Enoch 29:1–4), an idea probably taken from Ancient Canaanite religion about Attar, trying to rule the throne of Baal. The equation of an angel called Satanail with a deity trying to usurp the throne of a higher deity, was also adapted by later Christian in regard to the fall of Satan.

Jubilees

The Book of Jubilees, an ancient Jewish religious work, accepted as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Beta Israel, refers to the Watchers, who are among the angels created on the first day. However, unlike the (first) Book of Enoch, the Watchers are commanded by God to descend to earth and to instruct humanity. It is only after they copulate with human women that they transgress the laws of God. These illicit unions result in demonic offspring, who battle each other until they die, while the Watchers are bound in the depths of the earth as punishment. In Jubilees 10:1, another angel called Mastema appears as the leader of the evil spirits. He asks God to spare some of the demons, so he might use their aid to lead humankind into sin. Afterwards, he becomes their leader:

Both the (first) Book of Enoch and the Book of Jubilees include the motif of angels introducing evil to humans. However, unlike the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees does not hold that evil was caused by the fall of angels in the first place, although their introduction to sin is affirmed. Further, while the fallen angels in the Book of Enoch are acting against God's will, the fallen angels and demons in the Book of Jubilees seem to have no power independent from God but only act within his power.

Rabbinic Judaism

Early Rabbinic literature
Although the concept of fallen angels developed from Judaism during the Second Temple period, rabbis from the second century onward turned against the Enochian writings, probably in order to prevent fellow Jews from worship and veneration of angels. Thus, while many angels were individualized and sometimes venerated during the Second Temple period, the status of angels was degraded to a class of creatures on the same level of humans, thereby emphasizing the omnipresence of God. The 2nd-century rabbi Shimon bar Yochai cursed everyone who explained the term sons of God as angels. He stated sons of God were actually sons of judges or sons of nobles. Evil was no longer attributed to heavenly forces, now it was dealt as an "evil inclination" (yetzer hara) within humans. In some Midrashic works, the "evil inclination" is attributed to Samael, who is in charge of several satans in order to test humanity. Nevertheless, these angels are still subordinate to God; the reacceptance of rebel angels in Midrashic discourse was posterior and probably influenced by the role of fallen angels in Islamic and Christian lore.

Babylonian Talmud
However, there are several hints spread throughout the Babylonian Talmud witnessing to the sages' familiarity with the myth of the fallen angels. First, it transmits the word "Azazel", the name of one of the angelic leaders. In most cases (Yoma 37a, 62a-b, 67b, and Hullin 11b) it is used as a mere toponym, a name of a cliff from which the scapegoat was supposed to be thrown down. Once, in Yoma 67b the sages disclose that the place is called "Azazel" because it atones for the deeds of "Uzza and Azael", the malicious angels known from the 3 Book of Enoch (3 Enoch 5) for teaching sorcery to the generation of Enosh. Second, Niddah 61a explains that Og, the Rephaite warlord of gigantic height and strength (Deuteronomy 3:11) is the grandson of Shamhazai, the fallen angelic leader known from the 1 Book of Enoch (1 En 6:1-8; 8:1-3), Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis 6:4, and the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q201 3:6; 4Q202 2:5, and 4Q530 2:3-23). Third, according to Eruvin 18b after witnessing Cain's murder Adam decides to abstain from cohabitation with Eve in order not to sire any more potentially wicked offspring. This decision proves to be only partially successful because he experiences ejaculations that led to the formation of demons. The text does not explain who the mother of these creatures is, but according to the version of this tradition transmitted in midrash Genesis Rabbah 20:11 the first couple was seduced by evil spirits and gave birth to even more demons. Fourth, according to Sanhedrin 109a the architects of the Tower of Babel are turned into demons and from the contextual works, both Rabbinic (e.g., Genesis Rabbah 31:12, Deuteronomy Rabbah 184) and Christian (e.g., Praeparatio Evangelica 9.17.2-3, 9.8.12), it is clear that these artisans could be interpreted as giants. From this perspective, the metamorphosis of the builders of Babel into demons parallels the motif of the giants' cadavers transformed into evil spirits (e.g., 1 Enoch 15:8-12 and Testament of Solomon 70-71). Hence, it could be concluded that the Talmudic rabbis knew at least some elements of the myth of the fallen angels but modified it so as to differentiate from among other religious and cultural traditions of the era.

Post-Talmudic works
The idea of rebel angels in Judaism reappears in the Aggadic-Midrashic work Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, which shows not one, but two falls of angels. The first one is attributed to Samael, who refuses to worship Adam and objects to God favoring Adam over the angels, ultimately descending onto Adam and Eve to tempt them into sin. This seems rooted in the motif of the fall of Iblis in the Quran and the fall of Satan in the Cave of Treasures. The second fall echoes the Enochian narratives. Again, the "sons of God" mentioned in Gen 6:1–4 are depicted as angels. During their fall, their "strength and stature became like the sons of man" and again, they give existence to the giants by intercourse with human women.

Kabbalah
Although not strictly speaking fallen, evil angels reappear in Kabbalah. Some of them are named after angels taken from the Enochian writings, such as Samael. According to the Zohar, just as angels can be created by virtue, evil angels are an incarnation of human vices, which derive from the Qliphoth, the representation of impure forces.

However, the Zohar also recalls a narration of two angels in a fallen state, called Aza and Azael. These angels are cast down from the heaven after mistrusting Adam for his inclination towards sin. Once on Earth, they complete the Enochian narrative by teaching magic to humans and producing offspring with them, as well as consorting with Lilith (hailed as "the sinner"). In the narrative, the Zohar affirms but simultaneously prohibits magical practices. As a punishment, God puts the angels in chains, but they still copulate with the demoness Naamah, who gives birth to demons, evil spirits and witches.

Christianity

Bible
Luke 10:18 refers to "Satan falling from heaven" and Matthew 25:41 mentions "the Devil and his angels", who will be thrown into hell. All Synoptic Gospels identify Satan as the leader of demons. Paul the Apostle ( or 67) states in 1 Corinthians 6:3 that there are angels who will be judged, implying the existence of wicked angels. 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 1:6 refer paraenetically to angels who have sinned against God and await punishment on Judgement Day. The Book of Revelation, chapter 12, speaks of Satan as a great red dragon whose "tail swept a third part of the stars of heaven and cast them to the earth". In verses 7–9, Satan is defeated in the War in Heaven against Michael and his angels: "the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world—he was thrown down to the earth and his angels were thrown down with him". Nowhere within the New Testament writings are fallen angels identified with demons, but by combining the references to Satan, demons and angels, early Christian exegetes equated fallen angels with demons, for which Satan was regarded as the leader.

The First Epistle to the Corinthians in 11:10, according to the early Church Father Tertullian, references fallen angels; Tertullian taught that protection from the lust of the fallen angels was the reason for Saint Paul's directive to Christian women to wear a headcovering (veil). Tertullian referenced a woman who was touched on the neck by a fallen angel "who found her to be a temptation".

Origen and other Christian writers linked the fallen morning star of Isaiah 14:12 of the Old Testament to Jesus' statement in Luke 10:18 that he "saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven", as well as a passage about the fall of Satan in Revelation 12:8–9. The Latin word lucifer, as introduced in the late 4th-century AD Vulgate, gave rise to the name for a fallen angel.

Christian tradition has associated Satan not only with the image of the morning star in Isaiah 14:12, but also with the denouncing in Ezekiel 28:11–19 of the king of Tyre, who is spoken of as having been a "cherub". The Church Fathers saw these two passages as in some ways parallel, an interpretation also testified in apocryphal and pseudepigraphic works. However, "no modern evangelical commentary on Isaiah or Ezekiel sees Isaiah 14 or Ezekiel 28 as providing information about the fall of Satan".

Early Christianity
During the period immediately before the rise of Christianity, the intercourse between the Watchers and human women was often seen as the first fall of the angels. Christianity stuck to the Enochian writings at least until the third century. Many Church Fathers such as Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria and Lactantius accepted the association of the angelic descent myth to the sons of God passage in Genesis 6:1–4. However, some ascetics, such as Origen (), rejected this interpretation. According to the Church Fathers who rejected the doctrine by Origen, these angels were guilty of having transgressed the limits of their nature and of desiring to leave their heavenly abode to experience sensual experiences. Irenaeus referred to fallen angels as apostates, who will be punished by an everlasting fire. Justin Martyr () identified pagan deities as fallen angels or their demonic offspring in disguise. Justin also held them responsible for Christian persecution during the first centuries. Tertullian and Origen also referred to fallen angels as teachers of astrology.

The Babylonian king, who is described as a fallen "morning star" in Isaiah 14:1–17, was probably the first time identified with a fallen angel by Origen. This description was interpreted typologically both as an angel and a human king. The image of the fallen morning star or angel was thereby applied to Satan by early Christian writers, following the equation of Lucifer to Satan in the pre-Christian century.

Catholicism

The subject of fallen angels is covered in a number of catechisms, including Rev. George Hay's in which he answers the question What was the sin by which they fell?: "It was pride, arising from the great beauty and sublime graces which God had bestowed upon them. For, seeing themselves such glorious beings, they fell in love with themselves, and, forgetting the God that made them, wished to be on an equality with their Creator." The consequence of this fall being that, "they were immediately deprived of all their supernatural graces and heavenly beauty: they were changed from glorious angels into hideous devils; they were banished out of heaven, and condemned to the torments of hell, which was prepared to receive them."

In terms of the history of fallen angel theology it is thought to be rooted in Enochian literature, which Christians began to reject by the third century. The sons of God came to be identified merely with righteous men, more precisely with descendants of Seth who had been seduced by women descended from Cain. The cause of evil was shifted from the superior powers of angels, to humans themselves, and to the very beginning of history; the expulsion of Satan and his angels on the one hand and the original sin of humans on the other hand. However, the Book of Watchers, which identified the sons of God with fallen angels, was not rejected by Syriac Christians or the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Augustine of Hippo's work Civitas Dei (5th century) became the major opinion of Western demonology and for the Catholic Church. He rejected the Enochian writings and stated that the sole origin of fallen angels was the rebellion of Satan. As a result, fallen angels came to be equated with demons and depicted as non-sexual spiritual entities. The exact nature of their spiritual bodies became another topic of dispute during the Middle Ages. Augustine based his descriptions of demons on his perception of the Greek Daimon. The Daimon was thought to be a spiritual being, composed of ethereal matter, a notion also used for fallen angels by Augustine. However, these angels received their ethereal body only after their fall. Later scholars tried to explain the details of their spiritual nature, asserting that the ethereal body is a mixture of fire and air, but that they are still composed of material elements. Others denied any physical relation to material elements, depicting the fallen angels as purely spiritual entities. But even those who believed the fallen angels had ethereal bodies did not believe that they could produce any offspring.

Augustine, in his Civitas Dei describes two cities (Civitates) distinct from each other and opposed to each other like light and darkness. The earthly city is caused by the act of rebellion of the fallen angels and is inhabited by wicked men and demons (fallen angels) led by Satan. On the other hand, the heavenly city is inhabited by righteous men and the angels led by God. Although, his ontological division into two different kingdoms shows resemblance of Manichean dualism, Augustine differs in regard of the origin and power of evil. In Augustine works, evil originates from free will. Augustine always emphasized the sovereignty of God over the fallen angels. Accordingly, the inhabitants of the earthly city can only operate within their God-given framework. The rebellion of angels is also a result of the God-given freedom of choice. The obedient angels are endowed with grace, giving them a deeper understanding of God's nature and the order of the cosmos. Illuminated by God-given grace, they became incapable of feeling any desire for sin. The other angels, however, are not blessed with grace, thus they remain capable of sin. After these angels decide to sin, they fall from heaven and become demons. In Augustine's view of angels, they cannot be guilty of carnal desires since they lack flesh, but they can be guilty of sins that are rooted in spirit and intellect such as pride and envy. However, after they have made their decision to rebel against God, they cannot turn back. The Catechism of the Catholic Church does not take "the fall of the angels" literally, but as a radical and irrevocable rejection of God and his reign by some angels who, though created as good beings, freely chose evil, their sin being unforgivable because of the irrevocable character of their choice, not because of any defect in infinite divine mercy. Present-day Catholicism rejects Apocatastasis, the reconciliation with God suggested by the Church Father Origen.

Orthodox Christianity

Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Like Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox Christianity shares the basic belief in fallen angels as spiritual beings who rebel against God. Unlike Catholicism, however, there is no established doctrine about the exact nature of fallen angels, but Eastern Orthodox Christianity unanimously agrees that the power of fallen angels is always inferior to God. Therefore, belief in fallen angels can always be assimilated with local lore, as long it does not break basic principles and is in line with the Bible. Historically, some theologians even tend to suggest that fallen angels could be rehabilitated in the world to come. Fallen angels, just like angels, play a significant role in the spiritual life of believers. As in Catholicism, fallen angels tempt and incite people into sin, but mental illness is also linked to fallen angels. Those who have reached an advanced degree of spirituality are even thought to be able to envision them. Rituals and sacraments performed by Eastern Orthodoxy are thought to weaken such demonic influences.

Ethiopian Church
Unlike most other Churches, the Ethiopian Church accepts 1 Enoch and the Book of Jubilees as canonical. As a result, the Church believes that human sin does not originate in Adam's transgression alone, but also from Satan and other fallen angels. Together with demons, they continue to cause sin and corruption on earth.

Neutral angels
In Christian folklore tales about encounters between men and spirits, the spirits were often explained as fallen angels. They would have been cast out of heaven, damned to roam the world as demons, but were not so evil that they were sentenced to hell, like Lucifer and his devils. Yet they were still not as good to remain in heaven. Therefore, they would live between heaven and hell among humans in liminal spaces.

Caesarius of Heisterbach's () asserted that not all fallen angels are equally bad. Some fallen angels would be banished for not actively defending God against Lucifer, but since they did not side with the devils, would not be sentenced to hell. They remain loyal to God on earth, do good deeds, and bearing some resemblences to saints, as seen in the Dialogus Miraculorum, in which a knight is guided by a fallen angel to lead him back on the path of piety. In another tale, a neutral fallen angel became an assistant of a noble knight. However, when the knight learned that his best assistant was actually a demon, he dismissed him. When the knight wants to pay the demon for his service, the demon asserted that the knight should spend the money on a new bell for the church, instead.

According to The Brendan Voyage, during the Medieval Age, Brendan meets a group of angels referred to as "wandering spirits". On holy days, they were embodied as white birds, symbols usually used for purity and the holy spirit. In later versions, such as the 15th Century Dutch and German variant, the fallen angels are much more depicted as akin to grotesque demons. Although they would not have supported Lucifer in his evil schemes, they would have been passive and not fighting for good, thus turned into animal-like creatures cast out of heaven.

Such earthly fallen angels were used as a possible origin of fairies in Irish and Scandinavian folk-tales. Depending on the place they fell, they will remain as spirits of the specific element, but are usually benevolent and harmless. If such fairies were identified with the Biblical fallen angels, their salvation after Judgement Day was usually denied, since the fallen angels could not return to heaven. Later Protestant thinkers increasingly dismissed belief in fairies and neutral angels as part of either fairy-tales or a delusion cast by Satan.

Protestantism

Like Catholicism, Protestantism continues with the concept of fallen angels as spiritual entities unrelated to flesh, but it rejects the angelology established by Catholicism. Martin Luther's (1483–1546) sermons of the angels merely recount the exploits of the fallen angels, and does not deal with an angelic hierarchy. Satan and his fallen angels are responsible for some misfortune in the world, but Luther always believed that the power of the good angels exceeds those of the fallen ones. The Italian Protestant theologian Girolamo Zanchi (15161590) offered further explanations for the reason behind the fall of the angels. According to Zanchi, the angels rebelled when the incarnation of Christ was revealed to them in incomplete form. While Mainline Protestants are much less concerned with the cause of angelic fall, arguing that it is neither useful nor necessary to know, other Protestant churches do have fallen angels as more of a focus.

Theodicy
Theodicy, the question of how evil can exist simultaneously with the existence of an all-powerful and all-good God, may utilize the concept of fallen angels to explain natural evil. Accordingly, the angels would have great power, and by exercising havoc over the earth, they cause suffering and misery, manifesting in natural disasters. Accordingly, natural evil can be traced back to free-will (in that case of super-human agents). However, this implies that fallen angels have supernatural powers to influence the world, powers left unproven, thus falling into a devil of the gaps.

Islam

The concept of fallen angels is debated in Islam. Opposition to the possibility of erring angels can be attested as early as Hasan of Basra. On the other hand Abu Hanifa (d. 767), founder of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, distinguished between obedient angels, disobedient angels and unbelievers among the angels, who in turn differ from the jinn and devils. Al-Taftazani (1322 AD –1390 AD) argued that angels might slip into error and are rebuked, like Harut and Marut, but could not become unbelievers, like Iblis. Contemporary Muslim scholars have argued, even if fallen angels are considered, they are conceptually different from the fallen angels in Christianity, since they remain at the service of God and do not become God's enemies.

The Quran mentions the fall of Iblis in several Surahs. Surah Al-Anbiya states that angels claiming divine honors were to be punished with hell. Further, Surah 2:102 implies that a pair of fallen angels introduces magic to humanity. However, the latter angels did not accompany Iblis. Fallen angels work in entirely different ways in the Quran and Tafsir. According to the Isma'ilism work Umm al-Kitab, Azazil boasts about himself being superior to God until he is thrown into lower celestial spheres and ends up on earth. Iblis is often described as being chained in the lowest pit of hell (Sijjin) by various scholars, including Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1150–1210) and commands, according to Al-Tha'alibis (961–1038) Qisas Al-Anbiya, his host of rebel angels (shayāṭīn) and the fiercest jinn (ifrit) from there. In a Shia narrative from Ja'far al-Sadiq (700 or 702–765), Idris (Enoch) meets an angel, which the wrath of God falls upon, and his wings and hair are cut off; after Idris prays for him to God, his wings and hair are restored. In return they become friends and at his request the angel takes Idris to the heavens to meet the angel of death. In Shia traditions, a cherub called Futrus was cast out from heaven and fell to the earth in the form a snake.

Some recent non-Islamic scholars suggest Uzair, who is according to Surah 9:30 called a son of God by Jews, originally referred to a fallen angel. While exegetes almost unanimously identified Uzair as Ezra, there is no historical evidence that the Jews called him son of God. Thus, the Quran may refer not to the earthly Ezra, but to the heavenly Ezra, identifying him with the heavenly Enoch, who in turn became identified with the angel Metatron (also called lesser YHWH) in merkabah mysticism.

Iblis
The Quran repeatedly tells about the fall of Iblis. According to Quran 2:30, the angels object to God's intention to create a human, because they will cause corruption and shed blood, echoing the account of 1 Enoch and the Book of Jubilees. This happens after the angels observe men causing unrighteousness. However, after God demonstrates the superiority of Adam's knowledge in comparison to the angels, He orders them to prostrate themselves. Only Iblis refuses to follow the instruction. When God asks for the reason behind Iblis' refusal, he boasts about himself being superior to Adam, because he is made of fire. Thereupon God expels him from heaven. In the early Meccan period, Iblis appears as a degraded angel. But since he is called a jinni in Surah 18:50, some scholars argue that Iblis is actually not an angel, but an entity apart, stating he is only allowed to join the company of angels as a reward for his previous righteousness. Therefore, they reject the concept of fallen angels and emphasize the nobility of angels by quoting certain Quranic verses like 66:6 and 16:49, distinguishing between infallible angels and jinn capable of sin. However, the notion of jinni cannot clearly exclude Iblis from being an angel. According to Ibn Abbas, angels who guard the jinan (here: heavens) are called Jinni, just as humans who were from Mecca are called Mecci, but they are not related to the jinn-race. Other scholars assert that a jinn is everything hidden from human eye, both angels and other invisible creatures, thus including Iblis to a group of angels. In Surah 15:36, God grants Iblis' request to prove the unworthiness of humans. Surah 38:82 also confirms that Iblis' intrigues to lead humans astray are permitted by God's power. However, as mentioned in Surah 17:65, Iblis' attempts to mislead God's servants are destined to fail. The Quranic episode of Iblis parallels another wicked angel in the earlier Books of Jubilees: Like Iblis, Mastema requests God's permission to tempt humanity, and both are limited in their power, that is, not able to deceive God's servants. However, the motif of Iblis' disobedience derives not from the Watcher mythology, but can be traced back to the Cave of Treasures, a work that probably holds the standard explanation in Proto-orthodox Christianity for the angelic fall of Satan. According to this explanation, Satan refuses to prostrate himself before Adam, because he is "fire and spirit" and thereupon Satan is banished from heaven. Unlike the majority opinion in later Christianity, the idea that Iblis tries to usurp the throne of God is alien to Islam and due to its strict monotheism unthinkable.

Harut and Marut
Harut and Marut are a pair of angels mentioned in Surah 2:102 teaching magic. Although the reason behind their stay on earth is not mentioned in the Quran, the following narration became canonized in Islamic tradition. The Quran exegete Tabari attributed this story to Ibn Masud and Ibn Abbas and is also attested by Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Briefly summarized, the angels complain about the mischievousness of mankind and make a request to destroy them. Consequently, God offers a test to determine whether or not the angels would do better than humans for long: the angels are endowed with human-like urges and Satan has power over them. The angels choose two (or in some accounts three) among themselves. However, on Earth, these angels entertain and act upon sexual desires and become guilty of idol worship, whereupon they even kill an innocent witness of their actions. For their deeds, they are not allowed to ascend to heaven again. Probably the names Harut and Marut are of Zoroastrian origin and derived from two Amesha Spentas called Haurvatat and Ameretat. Although the Quran gave these fallen angels Iranian names,  recognized them as from the Book of Watchers. In accordance with 3 Enoch, al-Kalbi (737 AD – 819 AD) named three angels descending to earth, and he even gave them their Enochian names. He explained that one of them returned to heaven and the other two changed their names to Harut and Marut. However, like in the story of Iblis, the story of Harut and Marut does not contain any trace of angelic revolt. Rather, the stories about fallen angels are related to a rivalry between humans and angels. As the Quran affirms, Harut and Marut are sent by God and, unlike the Watchers, they only instruct humans to witchcraft by God's permission, just as Iblis can just tempt humans by God's permission.

Literature

In the Divine Comedy (1308–1320) by Dante Alighieri, fallen angels guard the City of Dis surrounding the lower circles of hell. They mark a transition: While in previous circles, the sinners are condemned for sins they just could not resist, later on, the circles of hell are filled with sinners who deliberately rebel against God, such as fallen angels or Christian heretics.

In John Milton's 17th-century epic poem Paradise Lost, both obedient and fallen angels play an important role. They appear as rational individuals: their personality is similar to that of humans. The fallen angels are named after entities from both Christian and Pagan mythology, such as Moloch, Chemosh, Dagon, Belial, Beelzebub and Satan himself. Following the canonical Christian narrative, Satan convinces other angels to live free from the laws of God, thereupon they are cast out of heaven. The epic poem starts with the fallen angels in hell. The first portrayal of God in the book is given by fallen angels, who describe him as a questionable tyrant and blame him for their fall. Outcast from heaven, the fallen angels establish their own kingdom in the depths of hell, with a capital called Pandæmonium. Unlike most earlier Christian representations of hell, it is not the primary place for God to torture the sinners, but the fallen angels' own kingdom. The fallen angels even build a palace, play music and freely debate. Nevertheless, without divine guidance, the fallen angels themselves turn hell into a place of suffering.

The idea of fallen angels plays a significant role in the various poems of Alfred de Vigny. In Le Déluge (1823), the son of an angel and a mortal woman learns from the stars about the great deluge. He seeks refuge with his beloved on Mount Ararat, hoping that his angelic father will save them. But since he does not appear, they are caught by the flood. Éloa (1824) is about a female angel created by the tears of Jesus. She hears about a male angel, expelled from heaven, whereupon she seeks to comfort him, but goes to perdition as a consequence.

See also

 List of angels in theology
 Meta-historical fall
 Archon
 İye
 Nephilim

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

 Catholic Encyclopedia: Angels, see section "The Evil Angels"
 Jewish Encyclopedia: Fall of Angels

Book of Jubilees
Christian terminology
Second Temple period

Fallen angel


Chandos Herald (fl. 1360s-1380s) for Chandos le héraut is the name used to refer to the author of a poem about the life of The Black Prince in Anglo-Norman language. He is so-called because he was the herald of the English warlord John Chandos, the Black Prince's closest friend.

The poem's language indicates that Chandos Herald came from Hainaut. The poem was written sometime between 1376 and 1387. It details many of the Prince's exploits in the Hundred Years' War, including the Castilian civil war, the battle of Crecy, and the battle of Poitiers (though these last two only briefly). This has led to the suggestion that the poem was originally intended to laud the prince's exploits in Spain, but after his death was extended to cover his whole career.

After the death of John Chandos in 1370, the Herald entered royal service, and was made the King of Arms of England by Richard II at his coronation in 1377.

Notes

External links

French chroniclers
Heraldists
14th-century French writers
French male non-fiction writers

Chandos Herald


Sun Zhaoxue () is a former Chinese state-owned enterprise executive and former CEO of China Gold, the largest gold mining company in China. He was arrested to face corruption charges in 2015.

He has been described by the Financial Times as a visionary for efforts in lobbying within Chinese policy circles to elevate gold to a strategic status similar to oil.  He published an article in 2012 in Qiushi, a political theory publication circulated among Chinese policymakers, laying out a plan for a greater role for gold in the political economy of China.  His plan called for a greater accumulation of gold reserves to underpin the development of the renminbi into an international currency.  To bring in the gold, Sun called for investment in Chinese mining companies, participation by consumers in buying gold, and overseas acquisitions of gold mines.

Sun later became chief executive of Chinalco. On September 15, 2014, Sun Zhaoxue was placed under investigation by the Party's internal disciplinary body for "serious violations of laws and regulations". On December 23, 2014, Sun Zhaoxue was expelled from the Communist Party.

On December 27, 2016, Sun was sentenced to 16 years in prison.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Chinese chief executives
Living people
People from Yuncheng
Expelled members of the Chinese Communist Party
Chinese white-collar criminals
Businesspeople from Shanxi
21st-century Chinese businesspeople

Sun Zhaoxue


Ocoee Dam Number 1 is a hydroelectric dam on the Ocoee River in Polk County in the U.S. state of Tennessee.  The dam impounds the  Parksville Reservoir (often called Ocoee Lake or Parksville Lake), and is the farthest downstream of four dams on the Toccoa/Ocoee River owned and operated by the Tennessee Valley Authority.  Completed in 1911, Ocoee No. 1 was one of the first hydroelectric projects in Tennessee.

Location
Ocoee No. 1 is located approximately  upstream from the mouth of the Ocoee, in an area where the river emerges from its winding trek through the Appalachian Mountains and enters the Tennessee Valley.  The community of Parksville is located on the north side of the dam, and the city of Chattanooga is roughly  to the west.  The Ocoee Scenic Byway— part of U.S. Route 64— passes just north of the dam.  Parksville Lake extends for several miles eastward up the Ocoee and several miles southward up Baker Creek, which once emptied into the Ocoee just upstream from the dam.  Ocoee Dam No. 2 is located just over  upstream from Ocoee No. 1.

Capacity
Ocoee No. 1 is  high and  long, and has a generating capacity of 24,000 kilowatts, up from an original 19,200 kilowatts after being refurbished in 1989-1991.  The dam's concrete gravity arched spillway has a maximum discharge of .  Parksville Lake has  of shoreline and the lake's water levels fluctuate by just  per year.

History

The rapid growth of industry in Chattanooga in the late 19th century and early 20th century brought an increasing demand for electricity, and the rapid-flowing Ocoee River— which slices through a gorge in the mountains  east of the city— was considered a prime candidate for hydroelectric power by the region's early electric companies.  In 1910, the C.M. Clark Company, an electrical transportation holding firm, formed the Eastern Tennessee Power Company to build two hydroelectric dams on the Ocoee, and market their electricity output primarily to Chattanooga.  Work on Ocoee Dam No. 1 began later that year, and was completed in late December 1911.  On January 27, 1912, Ocoee Dam No. 1's four units began commercial operation. A fifth unit was added in 1914. The five units provided a total capacity of 18 MW. Power was distributed primarily to Chattanooga, and also to Knoxville, Nashville, and Rome, Georgia, as well as the aluminum industries in Alcoa.
A coal burning station known as the Parksville Steam Plant was built adjacent to the dam in 1916 to provide generation during periods of low water flow. It was last used in 1954.

In 1922, the Eastern Tennessee Power Company and several other entities merged to form the Tennessee Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which overhauled Ocoee No. 1 in the 1930s.  In 1933, the TVA Act created the Tennessee Valley Authority and gave the Authority oversight of the Tennessee River watershed, which includes the Ocoee River.  The head of TEPCO, Jo Conn Guild, was vehemently opposed to the creation of TVA, and with the help of attorney Wendell Willkie, challenged the constitutionality of the TVA Act in federal court.  The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the TVA Act, however, in its 1939 decision Tennessee Electric Power Company v. TVA.  On August 16, 1939, TEPCO was forced to sell its assets to TVA for $78 million (equivalent to $ in ), which included $2.68 million (equivalent to $ in ) for Ocoee Dam No. 1.

References

External links

Parksville Reservoir — official TVA site

1911 establishments in Tennessee
Buildings and structures in Polk County, Tennessee
Dams completed in 1911
Dams in Tennessee
Dams on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee
Energy infrastructure completed in 1911
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee
Dams on the Hiwassee River
Hydroelectric power plants in Tennessee
Tennessee Valley Authority dams
National Register of Historic Places in Polk County, Tennessee

Ocoee Dam No. 1


Guy's Hospital is an NHS hospital in the borough of Southwark in central London. It is part of Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and one of the institutions that comprise the King's Health Partners, an academic health science centre.

It is a large teaching hospital and is, with St Thomas' Hospital and King's College Hospital, the location of King's College London GKT School of Medical Education.

The hospital's Tower Wing (originally known as Guy's Tower) was, when built in 1974, the tallest hospital building in the world, standing at  with 34 floors. The tower was overtaken as the world's tallest healthcare-related building by The Belaire in New York City in 1988. As of June 2019, the Tower Wing, which remains one of the tallest buildings in London, is the world's fifth-tallest hospital building.

History
The hospital dates from 1721, when it was founded by philanthropist Thomas Guy, who had made a fortune as a printer of Bibles and greatly increased it by speculating in the South Sea Bubble. It was originally established as a hospital to treat "incurables" discharged from St Thomas' Hospital. Guy had been a Governor and benefactor of St Thomas' and his fellow Governors supported his intention by granting the south-side of St Thomas' Street for a peppercorn rent for 999 years. Following his death in 1724, Thomas Guy was entombed at the hospital's chapel (also dating from the 18th century), in a tomb featuring a marble sculpture by John Bacon.

The original buildings formed a courtyard facing St Thomas Street, comprising the hall on the east side and the chapel, Matron's House and Surgeon's House on the west side. The original main buildings were built by the King's Master Mason, John Deval, in 1739.

A bequest of £180,000 by William Hunt in 1829, one of the largest charitable bequests in England in historic terms, allowed for a further hundred beds to be accommodated. Hunt's name was given to the southern expansion of the hospital buildings which took place in 1850. Two inner quadrangles were divided by a cloister which was later restyled and dedicated to the hospital's members who fell in the First World War. The east side comprised the care wards and the "counting house" with the governors' Burfoot Court Room. The north-side quadrangle is dominated by a statue of Lord Nuffield (1877–1963) who was the chairman of governors for many years and also a major benefactor.

In 1879-1880 the 'Guy's Hospital dispute' between matron Margaret Burt and hospital medical staff highlighted how doctors sometimes felt that their authority was being challenged by new-style matrons. Florence Nightingale advocated  that these new trained matrons had full control and discipline over their nursing staff. Margaret Burt ultimately resigned, but this was not an isolated episode and other matrons experienced similar issues, such as Eva Luckes.

In 1974, the hospital added the 34-storey Guy's Tower and 29-storey Guy's House: this complex was designed by Watkins Gray. The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, which is dedicated to improving outcomes of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke, Parkinson's disease and spinal cord injury, was opened by the Princess Royal in December 2004.

In October 2005 children's departments moved to the Evelina London Children's Hospital in the grounds next to St Thomas's close to the Palace of Westminster. A new cancer centre, designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, and built by Laing O'Rourke at a cost of £160 million, was completed in April 2016.

Facilities

Medical services at the Guy's site are now concentrated in the buildings to the east of Great Maze Pond: these buildings, which are connected, are known as Tower Wing, Bermondsey Wing, Southwark Wing and Borough Wing. The Cancer Centre is in a separate building just to the south. To the west of the Great Maze Pond is Guy's Campus which forms part of King's College London.

At  high, Guy's Tower (now called the Tower Wing) regained its tallest hospital building in the world status in 2014. It has since been surpassed by the Outpatient Center at the Houston Methodist Hospital, in Houston, USA at .

Notable people who worked or studied at Guy's

 Harold Ackroyd, First World War recipient of the Victoria Cross
 Thomas Addison, discoverer of Addison's disease
 Stephanie Amiel, diabetologist
 John Belchier, surgeon
 William Babington, founder member of the Geological Society
 Benjamin Guy Babington invented the laryngoscope
 Richard Bright, discoverer of Bright's disease
 John Butterfield, Baron Butterfield Professor of Experimental Medicine
 Sydney Cohen, Professor of Chemical Pathology
 Sir Astley Cooper, discoverer of the Cooper's ligaments of the breasts
 Edward Cock, surgeon and nephew of Sir Astley Cooper
 Dame Rachel Crowdy, Principal Commandant of Voluntary Aid Detachments in France and Belgium from 1914 to 1919
 C. S. Forester, English novelist, studied medicine at Guy's but did not graduate
 John Frederick France, ophthalmic surgeon
 Graham Fraser, consultant and pioneer of cochlear implants in the United Kingdom.
 Sir Alfred Downing Fripp, surgeon who was knighted for his part in the reform of the R.A.M.C.
 Abraham Pineo Gesner, surgeon and inventor of kerosene refining
 Sir William Withey Gull, the first to describe myxoedema and coined the term anorexia nervosa
 Edward Headlam Greenhow, physician, sanitarian and  Guy's   and St  Thomas' Hospitals lecturer
 Thomas Michael Greenhow, surgeon and sanitarian
 Georgiana Hill, cookery book writer, worked as a ward sister
 Henry Bendelack Hewetson, ophtalmic and Aural surgeon
 John Braxton Hicks, obstetrician, discoverer of the Braxton Hicks uterine contractions
 John Hilton, anatomist and surgeon
 James Hinton, otologist
 Thomas Hodgkin, discoverer of Hodgkin's lymphoma
 Sir Frederick Hopkins, discoverer of vitamins
 James Jurin, early work on epidemiology of the smallpox vaccine
 John Keats, poet
 Thomas Wilkinson King, anatomical pathologist
 Emily MacManus, Matron
 J. F. O. Mustaffah, first Ghanaian Neurosurgeon
 Humphry Osmond, psychiatrist who worked with psychedelic drugs and coined the term
 Frederick William Pavy, worked with Richard Bright, one of the founders and presidents of the Medical and Chirurgical Society of London
 Sir Edwin Cooper Perry Superintendent; Dean of the Medical School; 1st Warden of the Residential College
 Sir Alfred Poland, the first to describe Poland syndrome
 Philip Henry Pye-Smith, physician
 Patricia Batty Shaw, social worker
 Devi Prasad Shetty, cardiac surgeon and founder of Narayana Hrudayalaya
 Keith Simpson, Home Office Pathologist
 Jean Smellie, paediatrician
 Anthony Trafford, Baron Trafford, Conservative MP, was student and later senior registrar
 Gerard Folliott Vaughan, psychiatrist, who became a politician and minister of state during Margaret Thatcher's government
 Iain West, forensic pathologist
 William James West, discoverer of epileptic spasms; West syndrome was named in his honour
 Sir Samuel Wilks
 Ludwig Wittgenstein, worked anonymously as a hospital porter during World War II
 Alan Menter, International Psoriasis Council, Founder

Arms

See also
 Francis Crick Institute
 Healthcare in London
 King's Health Partners
 List of hospitals in England
 Tall buildings in London

References

External links

 Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust
 Guy's & St Thomas' Foundation
 Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases
 Lists of Guy's Hospital students

1721 establishments in England
Brutalist architecture in London
GKT School of Medical Education
Health in the London Borough of Southwark
Hospital buildings completed in 1974
Hospitals established in the 1720s
NHS hospitals in London
Skyscrapers in the London Borough of Southwark
Teaching hospitals in London
Voluntary hospitals

Guy's Hospital


Michael Loss (born 1954) is a mathematician and mathematical physicist who works as a professor of mathematics at the Georgia Institute of Technology.

Loss obtained his Ph.D. in 1982 from ETH Zurich, with a dissertation on the three-body problem jointly supervised by Walter Hunziker and Israel Michael Sigal.

With Elliott H. Lieb he is the author of the textbook Analysis (Graduate Studies in Mathematics 14. American Mathematical Society, 1997; 2nd ed., 2001).

In 2012, he became one of the inaugural fellows of the American Mathematical Society, and was elected as a Foreign Corresponding Member of the Chilean Academy of Sciences. He is one of the 2015 winners of the Humboldt Prize.

References

External links
Google scholar profile

1954 births
Living people
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
Mathematical physicists
Georgia Tech faculty
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society

Michael Loss


Mohamed Kedir (Amharic: ሞሐመድ ከድር; born September 18, 1954) is a former long-distance runner from Ethiopia, who won the bronze medal in men's 10,000 metres at the 1980 Summer Olympics.

In the 5000 metres final, Kedir still led with 300 metres to go, then Ireland's Eamonn Coghlan passed him. Shortly after that, Kedir moved out to the second lane to let his teammate Miruts Yifter pass him, which Yifter did and sprinted past Coghlan. Moments after moving to the second lane, Kedir fell - apparently because he collided with another Ethiopian runner, Yohannes Mohamed. Having lost his rhythm, Kedir finished in 12th and last place. (See YouTube, 1980 Olympics 5000 metres).Kedir won men's long-distance cross country World Championship in 1982 (see below). His last major international race occurred in Helsinki, Finland, at the 1983 inaugural World Athletics Championships. There he finished ninth at 10,000 metres. (See, for example, the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation YLE's Living Archives / Elävä arkisto, links:  Urheilu / Sports, Yleisurheilu / Athletics, MM-kisat / World Championships, MM-kisat 1983 / World Championships 1983, Suomalaiset lähellä huippua / Finns Near the Top).

International competitions

External links

1954 births
Living people
Ethiopian male long-distance runners
Olympic athletes for Ethiopia
Olympic bronze medalists for Ethiopia
Athletes (track and field) at the 1980 Summer Olympics
World Athletics Cross Country Championships winners
World Athletics Championships athletes for Ethiopia
Medalists at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists in athletics (track and field)
African Games bronze medalists for Ethiopia
African Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1978 All-Africa Games
20th-century Ethiopian people
21st-century Ethiopian people

Mohamed Kedir


The Indus River Delta forms where the Indus River flows into the Arabian Sea, mostly in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan with a small portion in the Kutch Region of India. The delta covers an area of about 41,440 km2 (16,000 square miles), and is approximately  across where it meets the sea. The active part of the delta is . The climate is arid, the region only receives between  of rainfall in a normal year. The delta is home to the largest arid mangrove forests in the world, as well as many birds, fish and the Indus dolphin.

Since the 1940s, the delta has received less water as a result of large-scale irrigation works capturing large amounts of the Indus water before it reaches the delta. The result has been catastrophic for both the environment and the local population. As a result, the 2010 Pakistan floods were considered "good news" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much needed fresh water.

The population of the active part of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003. Most of the population depends on agriculture and fishing. Mangrove forests provide fuel wood. Many former settlements in the delta have been abandoned as result of lack of water in the Indus and the encroaching Arabian Sea.

History

According to some accounts, the Macedonian fleet (of Alexander the Great) anchored itself for some time in the Indus river delta. It was damaged by a tsunami generated by an earthquake off the Makran Coast in 325 BC.

According to Tarikh-i-Hind (also known as the Chach Nama) by 6th century AD there existed a port called Debal in what is now the western part of the Indus delta. Debal also seemed to be the base of pirates from the tribe of Nagamara. These pirates' raids against the Umayyads, and the refusal to redress the issue by the ruling prince, precipitated the Muslim conquest around 710 AD (by Muhammad bin Qasim). Debal remained a port, and the last recorded mention of it was in 1223 AD. By the time Ibn Batuta reached the Indus delta, Debal had been abandoned due to increased shoaling preventing the then-port from accessing the sea.

When the Abbasid caliphate began to disintegrate, the delta came under the control of the increasingly autonomous province centered at Mansura. The eastern part of the delta was even more independent and controlled by the Sumra tribe until 1053 AD, when the region was brought under the control of the Khalji Delhi Sultanate by Alauddin Khalji. The tribe had several capitals, but none are populated today. In 1333 AD, the Samma Dynasty ruled all of the delta, and established their capital first at Samu-i (on the south bank of Keenjhar Lake) and later at Thatta. It was during this dynasty that the "golden age of native rule" (1461-1509 AD) happened in the delta and Sindh, under the rule of Jam Nizamuddin II.

From 1591 to 1592, the Mughal empire waged a campaign to bring lower Sindh under imperial rule, resulting in the delta coming under the province of Multan and ruled by Mirza Ghazi Beg. In 1739, the region, along with many others, was ceded to Nadir Shah. The Kalhora ruled the region until 1783. The power then transferred to the Talpurs until the British East India Company conquered them in 1839. In 1947, the Indus delta, along with rest of Sindh became a part of Pakistan.

Since 1957, the Sindh Forest and Wildlife Department has been tasked with protecting and managing  of mangrove-forested area of the Indus delta. In 1973,  were transferred to Port Qasim. The Sindh Board of Revenue continues to manage  of the area. In December 2010, realizing the importance of mangrove conservation, the Government of Sindh declared all the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta as "Protected Forests", under the Forest Act of 1927. Apart from this action, a Mangrove Conservation Committee, with membership of all the relevant stakeholders has been formed to ensure the sustainable conservation of the Indus Delta Mangroves

Geography
The end estimated coastline of the Indus delta with the Arabian Sea (the maximum length in the direction of the coast) is approximated at , 220 km, and . Because the Indus river has switched its location at various points in history, it has an "active" delta region, and total delta region (all area that was once a part of the delta). The total area is estimated at ,  and . The active area is estimated at , and . The length of the total delta along the axis of Indus is estimated at , whereas the current delta stretches from the Arabian Sea to just south of Thatta (~). There are currently 17 major creeks(Including Sir Creek, Bhitiaro Creek and Kori Creek) and numerous minor creeks.

The delta receives almost all of its water from the Indus river, which has an annual flow of approximately , and is accompanied by 400 million tonnes of silt. Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river Indus. (In fact the World Bank has characterized the works as the "world's largest" and the Indus Basin Irrigation System as the "largest contiguous irrigation system developed over
the past 140 years" anywhere in the world.) This has served to reduce the flow of water and by 1994, the annual flow of water into the delta was , and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated to be . Since 1994, the water flow has decreased as Punjab has been allocated a higher share of the water.

The climate of the delta is described as arid. It receives only  of rain in a normal year. Average temperatures for the delta region range from 21 to 30 °C (70-85 °F) in July, and 10-21 °C (50-70 °F) in January.
During the summer, the delta experiences intense monsoonal winds from the southwest, causing parts of the delta to be covered by sea-water. When this water retreats, it leaves behind salts in the delta's soil. During the winter the winds in the delta come from the northeast.

The summer monsoonal winds also contribute to high wave energy levels. In fact, the delta is subjected to the highest wave action of any river delta in the world. (The amount of wave energy the Indus delta receives in a single day is greater than that received by the  Mississippi River Delta in a year.) Throughout history the delta has survived this wave action because of the large discharge of fresh water to counter the erosional impact of waves. This large amount of wave energy, coupled with lack of silt flowing in from the Indus river (as mentioned above), has resulted in the formation of sand beaches.

The Indus river started to form some 50 million years ago. 25 million years ago, the Indus Plain was lifted.

Biodiversity

Flora
Mangrove forests are one of the most abundant ecological communities of the delta, but they have declined over the years. According to Haq et al., they covered an area of  until the 1980s and could be found along the entire 240 km coastline, in 40% of the tidal zone, and in 10% of the delta fan. Memon reports that the area of mangrove forests was 263,000 hectares in 1977 and  in 1990. Both agree that they were sixth-largest mangrove forests in the world. Previously there had been eight species of mangroves, although only four now remain: Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia marina, Ceriops tagal, and Rhizophora mucronata. Among these Avicennia marina constitutes 99% of the mangrove population. As of 2007, the mangroves of the Indus delta are the largest desert climate mangrove forests in the world. However the Indus Delta saw an increase in number of mangroves after preservation and plantation initiatives. Mangrove forests of Indus delta now cover an area of around 600, 000 hectares. The mangroves are under control of three different organizations, namely:
- Sindh Forest Department (280, 470 Ha)
- Port Qasim Authority (64, 400 Ha)
- Sindh Board of Revenue (255, 130 Ha)

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum is also found growing in the delta.

Threats

The natural flow of water and fertile sediments from Indus river into the delta has been impeded due to the construction of dams along the river. The reduction of freshwater due to the dams also increases salinity, making the waters of the delta unsuitable for the freshwater species. In case of the Indus dolphin, the damming of the river has isolated the delta dolphin population from those dolphins upstream.
The 2010 Pakistan floods were considered "good news" for the ecosystem of the river delta as they brought an excess of much needed fresh water. The Sindh government announced that 8,000 hectares of mangrove forests had been planted, and more plantation was considered (however, the delta has lost 170,000 hectares of mangroves over the past 50 years).

The delta faces pollution both from sea and the Indus river. Chemical run-off into the river threatens many species. Most of this chemical run-off consists of agriculture pesticide and fertilizer.  The delta faces pollution from the Arabian Sea. Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, releases sewage and discharge from industrial units into the Arabian sea, most of which is untreated. Both Port of Karachi and Port Qasim handle significant shipping traffic, resulting in oil discharge, some of which reaches the delta. All of this pollution lowers the river water quality, causes eutrophication, reducing the amount of habitat.

Indus delta has shrunk by 92% since 1833. In light of the threats, Indus Delta was designated a Ramsar site on November 5, 2002. The WWF is working on conservation methods to alleviate the Indus delta's shortage of freshwater.

Population
The population of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003 (the total population of Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves was 1.2 million). Within the river delta, about 140,000 people (16% of the population) depended on the mangrove forests for their livelihood, and 60% depended on the forests for fuels. At least 75% of the population in the active delta depend on the fishing industry. The population suffers from the lack of health facilities and medical staff. Only about a third of the population has access to clean drinking water.

Ethnic groups of lower Sindh can be found in the delta region: Mallaah, Mohano, Soomro, Samma and Jat. All of these groups speak Sindhi and follow Islam.

The delta falls within the districts of Thatta and Badin of the Sindh province. Pakistan's fifth largest city, Hyderabad, lies about 130 miles north of the mouths of the Indus. Towns are found throughout the delta, but there are no large cities on the delta south of Hyderabad. Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, lies west of the delta on the coast of the Arabian Sea.

The 2010 floods displaced nearly 1 million people in southern Sindh, including those living in the delta. In spite of this displacement and other destruction caused in the rest of Pakistan, however, many people in the delta considered the floods as "good news". Villagers reported abundance of fresh water for drinking and agriculture. Fishermen reported increase in catches.

Economy
The economy of the delta consists of agriculture and fishing. As of 2005, more than 140,000 hectares of land were used for agriculture, mostly used to cultivate rice, followed by sugarcane and wheat. Barley, gram, oil seeds, maize, millet, cotton, and jowar are other important crops. Fruits such as coconut, mango, fig, pomegranate, apple, peach,
melon, banana, guava and papaya are also reportedly grown. The delta also used to have large pastures for livestock grazing.

As of 2003, fishing was an important source of revenue. Catches of mangrove dependent fish were valued at $20 million annually, shrimp at $70 million and mud crabs at $3 million.

Migration
As a result of resource degradation, a large exodus of people has taken place from the Indus delta. Altaf Memom estimates that 90,000 have been displaced and about 120 villages have been depopulated. One reason give is the shortage of local bushes and plants that are used for preparing various materials (especially by the Jat villagers). Others have migrated due to lack of potable drinking water. The Pakistan Fisherfolk Forum estimates that 14,400 people from the delta coast, majority of them fishermen, are amongst those that have left.

Kharochan, until the 1970s was a bustling city in the delta. Its port was used to export locally grown silk, rice and wood. However, rising salinity destroyed the local agriculture and the port was lost to the encroaching Arabian sea by 2006.

Sustainable development
In 2009, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) constructed a large water reservoir, of capacity , in Tippin village (at Keti Bandar) and a few  plastic storage tanks (with a capacity of 4,000 litres). It also set up 200-watt solar panels to supply electricity to a school. Finally it installed two 500-watt wind turbines. Electricity was previously unavailable due to high cost of establishing power lines in the difficult-to-access area.

In 2010, Sindh Radiant Organization (in partnership with WWF) installed a solar-powered desalination plant developed by the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in the village of Jat Mohammad. The plant is capable of providing 40 gallons of drinking water every day. While the plant is not enough to meet the needs of the entire village, Pakistan's Ministry of Science and other NGOs have shown interest in replicating it to alleviate water shortages in the delta. Research and Development Foundation, a Pakistani NGO, has also started implementing solar desalination in six villages in Thatta with funding from Oxfam.

The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific has estimated the potential of generating 100KW of electricity by harnessing the power of tidal currents along  of the delta's coastline.

Pakistan-India conflict
Pakistani fishermen in the delta have increasingly faced detention for accidentally straying over into Indian waters while fishing. Fishermen have been forced to fish near the border as a result of destruction of ecosystems elsewhere in the delta. Because the boundaries between India and Pakistan are poorly demarcated in some areas (e.g. Sir Creek), fishermen often don't know when they've crossed the border. NGOs say that under Indian laws, fisherman can face, at most, three months in prison and a $12 fine. However, most are jailed for a year, and their boats are sold at an auction. Indian fishermen crossing into Pakistan face a similar fate.

Satellite view

See also
 Indus River Delta–Arabian Sea mangroves
 Sindhology

References
Citations

Bibliography

External links
Indus River Delta at the World Wildlife Fund

Landforms of Pakistan
Landforms of Sindh
Landforms of Gujarat
Indus basin
Indus River
Ramsar sites in Pakistan
River deltas of Asia

Indus River Delta


Aldo Piga (1928–1994) was an Italian-American composer who worked mainly in New York.

Aldo Piga's work was mainly produced in the 1950s and 1960s in Italy. He started as a song composer and later approached the movie soundtrack field. His participation in the pop music Italian market counts with two participations in the famous contest of Sanremo, one of which was overshadowed in the year of the famous Modugno's song "Volare". He recorded about one hundred film soundtracks. His activity as a composer was strongly influenced by classical music and bebop jazz roots of his early years in the New York music scene. After a promising career as a music writer, he decided to start working as a film producer in the late 1960s. This change led to an end in both his careers as a writer and producer. In the 1990s Piga left Italy to retire in New York where he spent his last days until 1994.

Filmography

As composer

1950s
I mafiosi (1959)
Gli avventurieri dei tropici (1959)
(Seven in the Sun) (USA)
Due selvaggi a corte (1959)

1960s
L'amante del vampiro (1960)
(The Vampire and the Ballerina) (USA)
(The Vampire's Lover) (USA)
Capitani di ventura (1961)
La grande vallata (1961)
Capitaine tempête(1961)
(Captain Tempest) (English)
(La Spada della vendetta) (Italy)
La Corona di fuoco (1961)
(Umberto Biancamano) (Italy)
L'urlo dei bolidi (1961)
(The Roar of the Bolidi) (English)
La notte dell'innominato (1962)
Il trionfo di Robin Hood (1962)
(The Triumph of Robin Hood) (USA)
Due leggi, Le (1962)
Un branco di vigliacchi (1962)
(No Man's Land) (USA)
Letto di sabbia (1962)
Il segno del vendicatore (1962)
Strage dei vampiri, La (1962)
(Curse of the Blood Ghouls) (USA)
Tempo di credere (1962)
L'ultima preda del vampiro (1962)
(Curse of the Vampire) (USA)
(The Playgirls and the Vampire) (USA)
Lo sparviero dei Caraibi (1963)
(Caribbean Hawk) (USA)
Il pirata del diavolo (1963)
(Flag of Death) (UK)
(The Saracens) (USA)
Le tre spade di Zorro (1963)
(Sword of Zorro) (USA)
(Tres espadas del Zorro, Las) (Spain)
Tarzak contro gli uomini leopardo (1964)
(Ape Man of the Jungle) (USA)
Amore facile (1964)
Il ribelle di Castelmonte (1964)
(Sword of Rebellion) (USA)
Il mostro dell'opera (1964)
(The Vampire of the Opera)
Italia di notte n. 1 (1964)
(Italian Sexy Show)
Michelino Cucchiarella (1964)
Zorikan lo sterminatore (1964)
(Zorikan the Barbarian) (USA)
 I tre centurioni
Three Swords for Rome (1964)
Le notti della violenza (1965)
(Night of Violence) (USA)
Cinque tombe per un medium (1965)
(Terror-Creatures from the Grave)
Fango sulla metropoli (1965)
(I criminali della metropoli) (Italy)
A... come assassino (1966)
I tre centurioni (1966)
(Three Swords for Rome) (English)
Rembrandt 7 antwortet nicht... (1966)
Mark Donen agente Zeta 7 (Italy)
(Z-7, operación Rembrandt) (Spain)
(Z7 Operation Rembrandt) (USA)
Assassino senza volto (1968)

As producer
 Three Swords for Rome (1964)
Rembrandt 7 antwortet nicht... (1966) (uncredited producer)
Mark Donen agente Zeta 7 (Italy)
Z-7, operación Rembrandt (Spain)
Z7 Operation Rembrandt (USA)

1994 deaths
Italian male composers
1928 births
20th-century Italian composers
20th-century Italian male musicians

Aldo Piga


The National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX) is a nationwide examination for the licensing of nurses in the United States, Canada, and Australia since 1982, 2015, and 2020, respectively. There are two types: the NCLEX-RN and the NCLEX-PN. After graduating from a school of nursing, one takes the NCLEX exam to receive a nursing license. A nursing license gives an individual the permission to practice nursing, granted by the state where they met the requirements.

NCLEX examinations are developed and owned by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing, Inc. (NCSBN). The NCSBN administers these examinations on behalf of its member boards, which consist of the boards of nursing in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and four U.S. territories, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

To ensure public protection, each board of nursing requires a candidate for licensure to pass the appropriate NCLEX examination: the NCLEX-RN for registered nurses and the NCLEX-PN for vocational or practical nurses. NCLEX examinations are designed to test the knowledge, skills, and abilities essential for the safe and effective practice of nursing at the entry level.

NCLEX examinations are provided in a computerized adaptive testing (CAT) format and are presently administered by Pearson VUE in their network of Pearson Professional Centers (PPC). With computerized exams such as this, the computer selects which question you are asked based on how you answered the previous question. The NCLEX covers a wide range of material. The individual will be scored on their ability to think critically about decisions involving nursing care.

History
After the creation of state boards of nursing in the United States in the early 20th century, each state board of nursing would develop and administer their own exams. After the start of World War II, state boards of nursing came under increasing pressure to expedite licensing and schedule exams more frequently. In response, participants at a 1942 National League of Nursing Education's (NLNE) National Committee on Nursing Tests conference proposed a "pooling of tests" as a solution, wherein each state would prepare and contribute exams in one or more subjects that could serve as a source of test items. The State Board Test Pool Examination (SBTPE) was given in 15 states during its initial testing year of 1944. By 1950, the SBTPE was used in all 48 states, with each jurisdiction establishing its own pass threshold. The American Nurses Association (ANA) took over management of the SBTPE in 1955, which at the time had 600 questions (plus 120 validator questions) divided into 4 sections and was administered over multiple-days. The NCSBN was created in 1978 and took ownership of the SBTPE, and in 1982, replaced the SBTPE with NCLEX. The NCLEX, which was at the time a test administered using paper and pencil, decreased the total number of questions from 720 to 480 (including up to 75 pilot questions, which had no bearing on the final score). The following year, in 1983, NCSBN once more lowered the number of questions to 370 (including as many as 70 pilot questions). As a paper exam, NCLEX was only provided twice a year. The NCLEX-RN was given over two days in February and November; while the NCLEX-PN was given over a single day in April and October.

The NCBSN switched to a computerized adaptive test (CAT) format in 1994, abandoning paper and pencil exams. Questions for the CAT test were selected from a test bank of 1,700–2,000 pretested, statistically analyzed questions that were coded according to topic and degree of difficulty. Other changes included with the new CAT test was the test now took less than a day and was administered throughout the year. In addition to multiple-choice format questions, the NCSBN began including alternative item formats for the NCLEX-RN in October 2003.

In 2015, NCLEX was adopted in Canada, with changes made to address measuring units, drug names, and other terminology differences between the United States and Canada. Additionally, the NCLEX is available in Canadian French for French-speaking Canadians.

The NCSBN developed an updated version of the NCLEX called the "Next Generation NCLEX (NGN)," which went into effect April 1, 2023.

The governing body responsible for making changes to the NCLEX is the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN). They make changes by analyzing current nursing practices. They do this by surveying approximately 12,000 recently licensed nurses about different nursing activities that appear on the NCLEX. The NCSBN analyzes these nursing activities based on how frequently they may occur, how they could impact the patient's safety, and the location of these activities. The NCSBN conducts these analyses every three years and then makes any needed changes to the exam.

Levels of examination

NCLEX-RN
NCLEX-RN (National Council Licensure Examination-Registered Nurse). All boards of nursing in the states and territories of the United States require candidates to pass this exam for licensure as a registered nurse (RN). As of 2015, 10 provincial and territorial RN regulators in Canada have chosen the NCLEX-RN and the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN) as the provider of the Canadian RN entry-to-practice exam.

The NCLEX-RN uses the five-step nursing process.  Each of the questions will fall into one of the five steps: assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

NCLEX-PN
NCLEX-PN (National Council Licensure Examination-Practical Nurse). All US state and territorial boards of nursing require a passing result on the exam for licensure as a licensed practical nurse (LPN) or licensed vocational nurse (LVN).

Exam content
The majority of test items are written at the cognition level of application or higher, but the exam may include items at all cognitive levels. Examples of cognitive level are memorization or recall, knowledge, analysis and application.

NCLEX-PN
The exam's content is based on client needs:
 Safe Effective Care Environment
 Coordination of Care
 Safety and Infection Control
 Health Promotion and Maintenance
 Psychosocial Integrity
 Physiological Integrity
 Basic Care and Comfort
 Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
 Reduction of Risk Potential
 Physiological Adaptation

NCLEX-RN
The exam's content is based on client needs:
 Safe and Effective Care Environment
 Management of Care 17-23%
 Safety and Infection Control 9-15%
 Health Promotion and Maintenance 6-12%
 Psychosocial Integrity 6-12%
 Physiological Integrity
 Basic Care and Comfort 6-12%
 Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies
 Reduction of Risk Potential 9-15%
 Physiological Adaptation 11-17%

Physiological Integrity
The Physiological Integrity category contains the majority of the questions on the exam, about 43-67 percent. This portion of the NCLEX deals with adult medical and surgical care, pediatrics, and gerontology, which is the study of the elderly and the effects of aging. Some of the questions may deal with conditions that nurses treat on a regular basis such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, neurological disorders, renal diseases, and respiratory diseases. In addition, questions on traumatic injuries, immunological disorders, skin disorders and infectious diseases could be asked. There are different topics on the NCLEX pertaining to the pediatric client. These topics may include growth and development, birth abnormalities, child abuse, common infectious diseases of children, and usual childhood traumas such as burn injuries and fractures.

Safe and Effective Care Environment
This category makes up approximately 21-33 percent of the NCLEX questions. Questions in this category cover safety issues in patient care, particularly the administration of medicine to patients, safety measures to prevent further injuries and infections, isolation precautions, safety for pediatric patients, and special safety precautions for patients with psychiatric problems.

This portion of the exam may also include questions pertaining to laboratory tests, test results, and unique nursing procedures that may be associated with test results; ethical and legal nursing problems; nursing management; and issues related to giving patients the best care. NCLEX questions on these topics are randomly spread throughout the exam.

Health Promotion and Maintenance
The Health Promotion and Maintenance category makes up about 12 percent of the NCLEX examination. Questions under this category deal with birth control measures, pregnancy, labor and delivery; care for a newborn infant, growth and development, and diseases that can spread easily like sexually transmitted infections. If a patient is pregnant, it is very important that the nurse be able to act as a teacher or counselor for the patient.  This makes it necessary to understand all components of a patient's pregnancy. Knowledge of a proper diet, development of the fetus, signs and symptoms of pregnancy complications and certain pregnancy related procedures will be helpful for this section of the exam.

Psychosocial Integrity
Like the section on Health Promotion and Maintenance, the Psychosocial Integrity category constitutes approximately 12 percent of  the NCLEX questions. Questions in this category pertain to patients with psychiatric problems and their unique issues. In addition, this material may cover coping mechanisms for different situations. Other situations covered in this section are about psychosocial problems that fall short of psychiatric illness. Questions could cover information on the following disorders:  depression, schizophrenia, organic mental disorders, eating disorders, personality disorders, and anxiety disorders. Also included in this section may be questions about crisis intervention, substance abuse, and therapy through communication.

Format
The NCLEX exam is taken on a computer at a Pearson Professional Center. Pearson Professional Centers are testing centers for certifications and licenses all over the world. There are numerous testing centers in each state of the U.S. and centers can be found in 175 countries. The NCLEX exam consists of multiple-choice questions, questions that require choosing all of the correct answers from a list of options, putting a number of steps in the correct sequence, or identifying a correct area on a picture. Some of these alternative format questions ask information about a chart, graph, or audio clip. The questions can also use pictures as the answer choices instead of words. Each question will appear one at a time on a computer screen.  Questions will not be repeated; however, questions based on a similar situation could be asked.

Each individual will take a different form of the exam. Since each question depends on how the previous question is answered, an individual can be given between 75 and 145 questions. Only 60 out of the first 75 questions on the exam will count. The 15 that do not count are "trial" questions, and these will be used on future examinations. The  "trial" questions are not identified as such, therefore, it is best to answer every question.  If the individual continues to get questions from the same category, it could mean that the NCSBN is testing those types of questions, or it could mean that the individual keeps getting those types of questions incorrect. The computer will continue to randomly generate questions from that category until the individual has met the requirements of the test plan.

Each individual will have a maximum of five hours to complete the exam, but there is no minimum time limit. There is a mandatory 10-minute break about 2½ hours after the start of the exam and another optional break after about 4 hours of testing. It is acceptable to take breaks any time during the exam, however, test-takers will lose the additional break time from the total test time.

A certain number of correctly answered questions is not required to pass the exam. An individual's score will not be compared to other scores to determine if he or she passes. The NCLEX is graded by comparing the responses to a pre-established standard. Those individuals who meet or exceed the standard pass the exam, those who do not fail.

Question types
Most of the questions of the NCLEX exam are worded questions with multiple choice answers. In recent years, however, the NCSBN has added new format questions which do not involve simple multiple-choice selection. Examples of the new formats include identifying and selecting a particular area of a drawn body part, selecting multiple correct answers via check boxes, free response mathematical questions usually involving medication calculations, and ordering the steps of a medical or nursing procedure.

Questions on the NCLEX exam are of three different types or levels: Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3.  Level 1 questions are the most basic questions and make up less than 10 percent of the total questions. Level 1 questions test the individual's knowledge and understanding. These questions require the individual to recall specific facts and information. Level 2 questions require an additional level of thinking in order to answer the question.  In these types of questions, the individual will be required to know specific information and then use it to interpret or analyze the question.  Level 2 questions are analysis and application type questions. Level 3 questions are the most complex type of question on the NCLEX. These questions require the individual to judge, evaluate, and combine information. The individual will have to apply the rules, facts, and processes they know and then make decisions about what is best for the patient's care based on the situation.  What makes level 3 questions difficult is the likely existence of more than one correct answer forcing the individual to decide which answer is the best choice. Level 2 and Level 3 questions make up about 95 percent of the questions on the NCLEX exam. However, it is possible for the exam to have no Level 1 question.

Multiple platforms took are in business to attempt to equip students with the tools to pass the exams, including Kaplan, UWorld, and Kahn with different methodology from sample questions mirroring the actual exam to assist in active and personalized learning.

See also
 Nurse licensure
 Professional licensure in the United States
 HESI exam

References

Further reading

External links
 nclex.com
 National Council of State Boards of Nursing
 NCLEX-RN Detailed Exam Overview

1994 introductions
Nursing in the United States
Nursing education
Professional examinations in healthcare
Nursing regulation
Standardized tests in the United States

National Council Licensure Examination


Anat Biletzki (, born 1952) is a professor of philosophy at Tel Aviv University and Quinnipiac University in Hamden, CT.

Biletzki was born in Jerusalem. She was a member of B'tselem, an Israeli human rights NGO, acting as chairperson from 2001 to 2006, and has served as a B'tselem Board member since 1995.

Biletzki is a member of the executive board of FFIPP-I (Faculty for Israeli-Palestinian Peace International), which describes itself as "a network of Palestinian, Israeli, and International faculty, and students, working in solidarity for a complete end of the occupation and just peace."

Biletzki is unusual in her explicit and controversial criticism of "Jewish Israel" as distinct from Israel as a nation or political bodies within Israel. In a New York Times opinion piece she writes that "[the 2015 minority government bloc] is unambiguous in its Jewish, nationalistic agenda," and that "norms of exclusive Jewish rights and exclusion of Arab citizens" are inherent to Zionism.  As well, Biletzki suggested that controversial statements made by Prime Minister Benjamin Netenyahu in the days before the election, specifically the assertion that a two-state solution would never happen during his tenure, and an expression of anxiety that supposedly large amounts of Israeli Arabs were voting, represent implicit norms of "Zionist, Jewish Israel."

References

External links
"Life in the O.T.: Anat Biletzki" Interview by Eyal Danieli, The Brooklyn Rail (June 2004)

1952 births
Living people
Israeli human rights activists
Women human rights activists
Jewish philosophers
Israeli women philosophers
Tel Aviv University alumni
Academic staff of Tel Aviv University
20th-century Israeli philosophers
21st-century Israeli philosophers
B'Tselem people

Anat Biletzki


Alcaeus and Philiscus (or Alcius and Philiscus; fl. 2nd century BC) were two Epicurean philosophers who were expelled from Rome in either 173 BC or 154 BC.

Athenaeus states that the expulsion occurred during the consulship of Lucius Postumius. This can either refer to the Lucius Postumius who was consul in 173 BC or the Lucius Postumius who was consul in 154 BC. Aelian states that they were expelled "because they had introduced the younger generation to many unnatural pleasures." This may just be a hostile remark which originated from an anti-Epicurean source, but it is also possible that this was the charge laid against them. Roman law in this period permitted the expulsion (relegatio) of any undesired person from Rome by magisterial decree, and it was often used to remove undesirable foreigners from the city. In 161 BC some teachers of rhetoric and philosophy had been expelled from the city. In 155 BC, a celebrated embassy of philosophers, consisting of Carneades (Academic), Diogenes (Stoic) and Critolaus (Peripatetic), had been sent from Athens to Rome where their teachings caused a sensation, and they were forced to leave. If Alcaeus and Philiscus were expelled from the city in 154 BC, then it would have been just one year after this event.

Notes

Epicurean philosophers
2nd-century BC Greek philosophers
Roman-era philosophers in Rome

Alcaeus and Philiscus