A citation or source citation is a reference to a published work (for example, a book, article, image, etc.,) that is used when creating a written work. It shows readers where specific pieces of information came from and where readers can locate it for themselves. It acknowledges or gives credit to the author who actually created the content being used in a paper. The opposite of a citation is plagiarism, or not giving credit to others for their ideas, concepts, or images. Plagiarism, especially in academia, is considered taking the work of others and presenting it as one's own. The penalties for plagiarism can be severe. Source citations also give a work credibility. In other words, it shows the information is simply not made up.

What to cite
In general, different academic situations will have different rules for what to cite and how to cite it. Some use footnotes while others may require in-text (also called inline) source citations.(←This is an inline source citation) Some may require a bibliography which lists all works that were used. In some cases, it may only be necessary to provide a list of "works cited." It is important to know in advance what protocols must be used and what citation style (see below) is preferred.

 Quotations Anything taken word-for-word from a source must be shown in quotation marks (" "). The quotation must have a source citation showing where the quoted text came from.

For example: "Quality or junk? How do you want your research described by others?"

 Paraphrase To paraphrase is to take someone's words or ideas and put them in the words of the person writing the paper. Anything paraphrased should be source cited. A paraphrase is usually about the same number of words as the original but does not use quotation marks.

Example (original text): "And there is only one fault so obvious, so fundamental, that it instantly brands a piece of work as the product of an amateur or careless researcher: poor source citations". Paraphrased: Poor quality source citations usually indicate that a piece of work is either careless research or the work of an amateur.

 Summarize A summary is a short version of another work in the writer's own words. A summary is usually shorter than the original. When summarizing someone else's work, a source citation is necessary.

Example (original text): "When you don't know when to cite, you end up plagiarizing which is just a big word for stealing and that's mean. And when you plagiarize, you also get an "F" and people think, "Dude, that kid is one dumb bunny." Let's avoid that, shall we?" Summarized: When you do not understand source citations, it is easy to plagiarize someone else's work. So you do not get an "F" for your work, the following are the basic rules.

 Facts and ideas Using facts and information to support an argument generally requires a source citation. Facts do not always need to be source cited, especially if they are commonly known (e.g. water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit). Ideas, however, should always be cited.

What is not necessary to cite
You do not need to cite anything that is common knowledge. These are things that would be known by nearly everyone. Examples of common knowledge are:
 Facts that are widely available in many sources. For example: Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States.
 Things that are easy to observe or see. For example: Many people use cell phones today.
 Common sayings. For example: To make a long story short...

But when in doubt, cite it.

What a source citation includes
A source citation typically includes several key pieces of information including:
 The name of the author or authors.
 The name of the book, article, or publication.
 The date the work was published.
 When it was accessed, if it was found online.
 The URL, if it is an online webpage.
 The place of publication.
 The name of the publisher.
 The page number or numbers. For example, p. 1, 21, 33 (means the information is on these pages) or pp. 55–60 (meaning the information is found on pages 55 through 60).

Citation styles
The main citation styles that are used include:

 APA style (American Psychological Association) is the style is the most commonly used style in the social sciences. The guideline is found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition.

Example (bibliographic style): (Smith, 2004, p. 39) Here "Smith" is the author of a work fully listed in the bibliography. The page number is 39.

 MLA Style (Modern Language Association) is the style used for writing and formatting research papers in the liberal arts and the humanities. One of the references for this style is the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Eighth Edition.

Example (author-date style): Smith, William. The Last of the Inupiat Eskimos. Alaska Northwest Books, 1997. p 39. Note the use of periods separating parts of the citation)

 Chicago Manual of Style is the style often used in printed and electronic journals, magazines, and newspapers. It offers two types of citation systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date. The notes and bibliography style is used most often in literature, history and the arts. The author-date system is traditionally used in Physics, natural science, and social sciences.

Example (author-date style): William Smith, The Last of the Inupiat Eskimos (Portland, OR: Alaska Northwest Books, 1997), p. 39 (Chicago style allows author last name, first name or first name last name)

References
(The following are inline source citations)

Other websites
 When to Cite Your Sources; YouTube
 Citation Generator
 Citation Machine

Writing

Citation


A pyre, also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure used for burning a body. The word pyre comes from the Greek word for fire. Pyres are built outdoors. They are usually made from wood. The body is placed on top of the pyre or under it. Then the pyre is set on fire. Pyres are still used for funerals in some parts of the world. They are also used for other types of ceremonies. In those ceremonies, there is a big fire, but a body is not burned. Historically, pyres have also been used to kill people by burning them alive.

Pyres used for funerals
The Hindu, Sikh, and Buddhist religions still use pyres for the cremation of dead people. This form of funeral is thousands of years old. However, it is no longer legal in many countries. The ancient Greeks and ancient Romans used funeral pyres. The Vikings also used them. Viking funeral pyres were usually built on boats floating in the sea.

Other uses for pyres
People sometimes use pyres to make a big fire or bonfire but they do not burn a real body. These types of pyres are used for celebrations or to remember a person or a special event. Pyres are often used in Guy Fawkes Night celebrations in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries. In Denmark and Germany people light pyres to celebrate the summer solstice (the longest day of the year). People light pyres in Switzerland to celebrate their National Day.

Farmers sometimes use pyres to destroy the bodies of dead animals. They especially use them when the animals have died of a disease. This helps prevent the spread of the disease to other animals.

In the past, pyres were sometimes used to execute people. The people were burned while they were still alive. Often the person was tied to a stake (a very big stick) on top of the pyre. This type of execution was known as "burning at the stake". Joan of Arc died in this way.

Pictures

References

Other websites

 Ancient Roman funeral pyres

Death customs
Fire
Burial monuments and structures

Pyre


This is a list of buns. A bun is a small, sometimes sweet, bread, or bread roll. Though they come in many shapes and sizes, they are most commonly hand-sized or smaller, with a round top and flat bottom.

Buns
A
 Anpan – A bun that is filled, usually with red bean paste, or with white beans, sesame, or chestnut
B

 Bakpao – Indonesian term for steamed bun. The bun is usually filled with ground pork, but can instead be filled with other ingredients, such as mung bean paste, ground peanuts, or vegetables.
 Bánh bao – Vietnamese meaning "Enveloping Cake", which is a ball-shaped bun containing pork or chicken meat, onions, eggs, mushrooms and vegetables, in the Vietnamese cuisine
 Baozi – A type of steamed, filled bun or bread-like item made with baker's yeast in various Chinese cuisines, as there is much variation as to the fillings and the preparations
 Bath bun – A rich and round sweet roll that has a lump of sugar baked in the bottom and more crushed sugar sprinkled on top after baking
 Beef bun – A type of Hong Kong pastry; one of the most standard pastries in Hong Kong and can also be found in most Chinatown bakery shops; has a ground beef filling, sometimes including pieces of onions
 Belgian bun – A sweet bun containing sultanas and usually topped with fondant icing and half a glace cherry
 Blaa – A dough-like, white bread bun (roll) speciality particularly associated with Waterford, Ireland; historically, the blaa is also believed to have been made in Kilkenny and Wexford
 Boston bun – A large spiced bun with a thick layer of coconut icing, prevalent in Australia and New Zealand
 Bread roll – A short, oblong, or round bun served usually before or with meals, often with butter.
 Bun kebab – A spicy Pakistani patty which is shallow-fried, onions, and chutney or raita in a hot dog bun
 Buñuelo — A fried dough ball popular in Latin America, Greece, Guam, Turkey, Israel and Morocco. It will usually have a filling or a topping.
 Butterkaka – A bun similar to cinnamon rolls, but where several buns are compressed together and baked in a cake pan like sticky buns.

C

 Cha siu bao – A Cantonese barbecue-pork-filled bun (baozi); filled with barbecue-flavored cha siu pork
 Cheese bun – A variety of small, baked, cheese-flavored rolls, a popular snack and breakfast food in Bolivia, Brazil (especially in the state of Minas Gerais), Paraguay, Colombia and northern Argentina
 Chelsea bun – A currant bun that is first created in the 18th century at the Chelsea Bun House in Chelsea, London, an establishment favoured by Hanoverian royalty which was demolished in 1839
 Cinnamon bun – A sweet roll served commonly in Northern Europe and North America; its main ingredients are dough, cinnamon, sugar, and butter, which provide a robust and sweet flavor
 Cocktail bun – A Hong Kong-style sweet bun with a filling of shredded coconut; one of several iconic types of baked goods originating from Hong Kong
 Colston bun – A bun named after Edward Colston; made in the city of Bristol, England; composed of a yeast dough flavored with dried fruit, candied peel and sweet spices
 Cream bun – A bun that varies all around the world; typically they are made with an enriched dough bread roll that is baked and cooled, then split and filled with cream
 Currant bun – A sweet bun that contains currants or raisins; towards the end of the seventeenth century the Reverend Samuel Wigley founded the Currant Bun Company in Southampton, Hampshire, UK
 Curry bread – Some Japanese curry is wrapped in a piece of dough, which is coated in flaky bread crumbs, and usually deep fried or baked.
D

 Da Bao – An extra large version of the Chinese steamed bun. When translated, the name literally means big bun.
 Dampfnudel – A white bread roll or sweet roll eaten as a meal or as a dessert in Germany and in France (Alsace); a typical dish in southern Germany
F
 Finger Bun – A hot dog sized fruit bun with flavoured icing originating in Australia.
 Fruit bun – A sweet roll made with fruit, fruit peel, spices and sometimes nuts; a tradition in Britain and former British colonies including Jamaica, Australia, Singapore, and India
H

 Ham and egg bun – A Hong Kong bun or bread that contains a sheet of egg and ham
 Hamburger bun – A round bun designed to encase a hamburger; invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921
Hawaiian buns aka Portuguese sweet bread – A sweet bread roll which was brought to Hawaii by Portuguese immigrants and is now known as Hawaiian Bread.
 Heißwecke – A traditional type of currant bun that goes back, within the German-speaking region of Europe, at least to the Late Middle Ages
 Honey bun – A sweet roll of American origin, somewhat similar to the cinnamon bun, that is popular in the southeast United States
 Hoppang – A variant of jjinppang (Korean steamed bun)
 Hot cross bun – A sweet, spiced bun usually made with fruit but with other varieties such as apple-cinnamon or maple syrup and blueberries and marked with a cross on the top, traditionally eaten on Good Friday in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada, but now popular all year round
 Hot dog bun – A long, soft bun shaped specifically to contain a hot dog or frankfurter
I
 Iced bun – A bread roll that is made to a sweet recipe with an icing sugar glaze covering the top
J
 Jjinppang – A Korean steamed bun with red bean paste filling
K
 Krachel – Moroccan buns, see Qrashel
L

 London bun – square shaped or rectangle bun made of rich yeast dough flavored with either currants or caraway seeds and topped with white sugar icing
 Longevity peach – A type of lotus seed bun that is white with a red dyed tip with a crease along the side, mimicking the shape of a peach.
 Lotus seed bun – A Chinese sweet bun found in China, prepared by steaming a yeast-leavened dough that contains lotus seed paste
M
 Manchet – A yeast bread of very good quality, or a small flat circular loaf of the same; small enough to be held in the hand.
 Mandarin roll – A steamed bun originating from China; cooked by steaming; a food staple of Chinese cuisine which is similar to white bread in western cuisine
 Mantou – A steamed bread or bun originating in China; typically eaten as a staple in northern parts of China where wheat, rather than rice, is grown
 Melonpan – A sweet bun from Japan, also popular in Taiwan, China and Latin America; made from an enriched dough covered in a thin layer of crisp cookie dough
 Momo – A type of South Asian dumpling, popular across the Indian subcontinent and the Himalayan regions of broader South Asia.
N
 Nikuman – A bun made from flour dough, and filled with cooked ground pork or other ingredients; a kind of  also known in English as pork buns
 Nigerian buns
P

 Pampushka – A small savory or sweet yeast-raised bun or doughnut typical for Ukrainian cuisine.
 Pan de muerto – Spanish for "Bread of the Dead"; also called ; a sweet roll traditionally baked in Mexico during the weeks leading up to the Día de los Muertos,  celebrated on November 1 and 2; a sweetened soft bread shaped like a bun, often decorated with bone-like pieces
 Pão de queijo – A Brazilian cheese bread, small, baked cheese roll, a popular snack and breakfast food in Brazil.
 Peanut butter bun – A Hong Kong sweet bun also found in Chinatown bakery shops; it has layers of peanut butter filling, sometimes with light sprinkles of sugar mixed in for extra flavor
 Pets de sœurs – A French Canadian sweet bun, similar in construction to a cinnamon bun.
 Pebete – An Argentine soft oval bun made of wheat flour with a thin brown crust, rather like a fatter hot dog roll
 Penny bun – A small bread bun or loaf which cost one old penny at the time when there were 240 pence to the pound; it was a common size loaf of bread in England regulated by the Assize of Bread Act of 1266; the size of the loaf could vary depending on the prevailing cost of the flour used in the baking; a version of the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down includes the line "build it up with penny loaves"
 Piggy bun – A Hong Kong pastry that is essentially the equivalent of the French baguette; found in Hong Kong bakeries and Cha chaan teng; in Hong Kong, it is often cut in half and served with butter and condensed milk
 Pineapple bun – A sweet bun predominantly popular in Hong Kong and Macau, though they are not uncommon in Chinatowns worldwide; although it is known as "pineapple bun", the traditional version contains no pineapple
 Pork chop bun – famous and popular snack in Macau, the "piggy bun" is crisp outside and soft inside; a freshly fried pork chop is filled into it

Q
 Qrashel – Moroccan buns or bread rolls made of sesame and anise seeds.

R
 Rum roll – historic Washington, D.C. specialty, similar to a cinnamon bun with rum flavored icing

S

 Saffron bun – A rich, spiced, yeast-leavened sweet bun, flavored with saffron and cinnamon or nutmeg, and contains currants, similar to a teacake
 Sally Lunn bun – An enriched yeast bread associated with the city of Bath in the West Country of England
 Sausage bun – Hong Kong pastry, essentially the equivalent of pigs in a blanket; found in Hong Kong as well as in many bakeries in Chinatowns in western countries
 Semla – A traditional sweet roll made in various forms in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden and Norway; associated with Lent and especially Shrove Monday and Shrove Tuesday; the oldest version of the semla was a plain bread bun, eaten in a bowl of warm milk; in Swedish this is known as hetvägg
 Shengjian mantou – A type of small, pan-fried baozi which is a specialty of Shanghai and usually filled with pork and gelatin that melts into soup/liquid when cooked.
 Siopao – Hokkien term for bāozi (包 子), literally meaning "steamed buns"; it has been incorporated into Filipino cuisine as well as Thai cuisine where it is called salapao ()
 Spiced bun – A sweet bun to which spices are added; common examples are the hot cross bun and the Jamaican spiced bun
 Sufganiyah – A deep-fried bun, filled with jam or custard, and then topped with powdered sugar. Typically eaten in Israel during Hanukkah.
 Sticky bun – A dessert or breakfast sweet roll that generally consists of rolled pieces of leavened dough, sometimes containing brown sugar or cinnamon, which are then compressed together to form a flat loaf corresponding to the size of the baking pan; they have been consumed since the Middle Ages, at which time cinnamon became more prominent
T

 Teacake – A fruited sweet bun usually served toasted and buttered.
 Tingmo –  A steamed bread in Tibetan cuisine.[1] It is sometimes described as a steamed bun[2] that is similar to Chinese flower rolls. It does not contain any kind of filling.
 Tuna bun – A Hong Kong-style fish bun that contains tuna paste; commonly found in Hong Kong

W
 Wang Mandu – A savory steamed bun filled with vegetables and meat. Literally means,"king dumpling" or "big dumpling".

X
 Xiaolongbao – A steamed bun from the Jiangnan region of China; fillings vary by region and usually include some meat and/or a gelatin-gelled aspic that becomes a soup when steamed

Z
 Zeeuwse bolus – A spiral shaped bun covered in dark brown sugar, lemon zest and cinnamon.

See also

 List of baked goods
 List of bread rolls
 List of British breads
 List of foods

References

Quick breads
Sweet breads
Yeast breads
Buns

List of buns


The 1991 DFB-Supercup Final decided the winner of the 1991 edition of the DFB-Supercup, a football competition contested by the winners of the previous season's West German league and cup winners, along with the East German league and cup champions.

The match was played at the Niedersachsenstadion in Hanover, and contested by both West German teams, league champions 1. FC Kaiserslautern and cup winners Werder Bremen. Kaiserslautern won the match 3–1 for their first title.

Teams

Route to the final
Both league champions of West and East Germany met in the first semi-final, before the cup winners met a day later to qualify for the final.

Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (N: neutral; A: away).

Match

Details

See also
 1990–91 Bundesliga
 1990–91 DFB-Pokal

References

1991 Final
1. FC Kaiserslautern matches
SV Werder Bremen matches
1991–92 in German football cups

1991 DFB-Supercup final


The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in Westminster which houses the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. The High Court also sits on circuit and in other major cities. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a large grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic Revival style built in the 1870s and opened by Queen Victoria in 1882. It is one of the largest courts in Europe. It is a Grade I listed building.

It is located on Strand within the City of Westminster, near the boundary with the City of London (Temple Bar). It is surrounded by the four Inns of Court, St Clement Danes church, The Australian High Commission, King's College London and the London School of Economics. The nearest London Underground stations are Chancery Lane and Temple. The Central Criminal Court, widely known as the Old Bailey after its street, is about  to the east—a Crown Court centre with no direct connection with the Royal Courts of Justice.

History

For centuries these courts were located in Westminster Hall; however, in the 19th century, justices decided the courts needed a purpose-built structure. Much of the preparatory legal work was completed by Edwin Wilkins Field including promotion of the Courts of Justice Building Act 1865 and the Courts of Justice Concentration (Site) Act 1865. A statue of Field stands in the building. Parliament paid £1,453,000 for the  site upon which 450 houses had to be demolished.

The search for a design for the Law Courts was by way of a competition, a then-common approach to selecting a design and an architect. The competition ran from 1866 to 1867 and the twelve architects competing for the contract each submitted designs for the site. In 1868 it was finally decided that George Edmund Street was the winner. Building was started in 1873 by Messrs Bull & Sons of Southampton. Its masons led a serious strike at an early stage which threatened to extend to the other trades and caused a temporary stoppage of the works. In consequence, foreign workmen were brought in – mostly Germans. This aroused bitter hostility on the part of the men on strike, and the newcomers had to be housed and fed within the building. However, these disputes were eventually settled and the building took eight years to complete; it was officially opened by Queen Victoria on 4 December 1882.

Street died before the building was opened, overcome by the work. The building was paid for by cash accumulated in court from the estates of the intestate to the sum of £700,000. Oak work and fittings in the court cost a further £70,000 and with decoration and furnishing the total cost for the building came to under £1 million.

The building was extended to the designs of Sir Henry Tanner to create the West Green building completed in 1912. The Queen's Building followed in 1968 and the Thomas More Courts were completed in January 1990.

The building was used as a "Nightingale Court" for criminal trials during the Covid-19 pandemic in 2021.

Architecture

The design involves a symmetrical main frontage of facing The Strand; the central section, which is stepped back, features an arched doorway leading to the Great Hall; it has a five-part window in a carved surround on the first floor and a gable containing a rose window above. At the top of the gable is a sculpture of Jesus with a flèche behind. There are also statues of Moses, Solomon and Alfred the Great, the four statues symbolising the pillars of English legal tradition. There are towers containing lancet windows on either side of the central section with side wings beyond. At the eastern end of the Strand frontage is a tall clock tower topped by a pyramidal roof, finial and flagpole; it contains a clock and five bells (weighing a total of 8¼ tons) by Gillett, Bland & Co..

Internally, courts are arranged off the Great Hall which runs north–south; there is a courtyard to the east with offices for courtroom staff arranged round the courtyard. The Great Hall contains a bust of Queen Victoria by the sculptor, Alfred Gilbert.

Architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner has described the building as "an object lesson in free composition, with none of the symmetry of the classics, yet not undisciplined where symmetry is abandoned". David Brownlee has claimed that it was influenced by the reformist political movement and the High Victorian architectural movement and has described it as a "regular mongrel affair" while Turnor described it as the "last great secular building of the Gothic Revival".

The Government Art Collection contains a painting by Henry Tanworth Wells depicting Queen Victoria opening the building in 1882.

See also
 Courts of England and Wales
Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast
Parliament House, Edinburgh

References

Sources

Further reading

 Sir John Summerson, Victorian Architecture (1970) pp 77–107

External links

 Daily Cause List – Daily list of cases
 360 degree image of the Royal Courts of Justice

1882 establishments in England
Government buildings completed in 1882
Court buildings in London
National government buildings in London
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade I listed law buildings
G. E. Street buildings
Gothic Revival architecture in London
19th-century architecture in the United Kingdom
Strand, London

Royal Courts of Justice


The earliest known English poem is a hymn on the creation. Bede says this was by Cædmon (flourished 658–680). He was, according to legend, an illiterate herdsman who produced poetry at a monastery at Whitby. This is probably the earliest written Anglo-Saxon poetry we have.

Much of the poetry of the period is difficult to date, or even to arrange chronologically. Estimates for the date of the great epic Beowulf range from AD 608 through to AD 1000, and there has never been agreement.

It is possible to identify some key moments. The Dream of the Rood was written before about AD 700, when parts were carved in runes on the Ruthwell Cross.  Some poems on historical events, such as The Battle of Brunanburh (937) and The Battle of Maldon (991), seem to have been written shortly after the events, so they can be dated reasonably precisely.

Anglo-Saxon poetry is known by the manuscripts in which it survives.  The most important manuscripts are from the late 10th and early 11th centuries. They are known as the Cædmon manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Beowulf manuscript.

Beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others show that it was not unique in its time.  Other genres include much religious verse, from devotional works to biblical paraphrase.

With one notable exception (the so-called Rhyming Poem), Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliteration for its structure. Any rhyme included is just ornamental.

References

Poetry
English literature

Old English poetry


RespireRx Pharmaceuticals Inc. (formerly Cortex Pharmaceuticals, Inc.) () is a pharmaceutical company based in Glen Rock, New Jersey specializing in positive allosteric modulators of the AMPA receptor known as Ampakines.

History
In February 2005, Cortex received U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval to begin Phase II clinical trials for CX717 for use as a treatment for Alzheimer's, ADHD and Sleep disorders.In 2006, The FDA halted clinical trials for CX717 because they feared the drug was toxic. They later allowed testing to continue but at doses too low to have any effect.In July 2007, The FDA gave Cortex permission to continue with clinical trials for CX717, as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease.In September 2007, Cortex filed with the FDA to test CX717 as a treatment for ADHD.In October 2007, Dr. Pierre Tran became Chief Medical Officer at Cortex after the FDA refused to let the company proceed with Phase II clinical trials for CX717 as a treatment for ADHD.In March 2008, German regulators approved clinical studies for using CX717 to prevent breathing problems caused by opiate pain-killers. In May 2008, President and CEO Dr. Roger Stoll announced that he was resigning and would be replaced by Mark Varney.

On June 13, 2018, RespireRx Pharmaceuticals Inc. entered into a letter of intent with Noramco Inc., a producer of controlled substances bulk APIs for the pharmaceutical industry, pursuant to which the parties have entered into a 90-day period, during which they will negotiate a definitive agreement regarding the RespireRx's development of dronabinol, a synthetic cannabinoid, also known as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol or Δ9-THC.

References

External links
RespireRx Pharmaceuticals Inc. official website

Companies traded over-the-counter in the United States
Pharmaceutical companies based in New Jersey

RespireRx


Yahya Khan, jon ki Pakistan ke President rahaa, ke janam Panjab, India me bhais rahaa. (1917 - maut:10/8/1980).

Please refer to English wikipedia for list of Pakistani Presidents, Politicians and members of parliament. (English wikipedia pe jao agar apko Pakistan ke politicians, presidents aur MLA ke list ko dekhna hai)

1917 janam
1980 maut
Pakistan ke log
Presidents

Yahya Khan


Carme Pinós (born 1954) is a Spanish architect.

Biography
Pinós graduated Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona (ETSAB) in Barcelona in 1979 and returned to the school in 1981 to study Urbanism. From 1982 on she formed a partnership with her husband, Enric Miralles, which ended in 1991. During this period the projects developed include the Igualada Cemetery Park, the Archery Range Buildings for the 1992 Summer Olympic Games and the La Llauna School in Badalona. The work of Pinós-Miralles received awards on several occasions, including the FAD prize for the La Llauna School and the Igualada Cemetery Park, as well as the City of Barcelona Prize for the 1992 Olympic Archery Range Buildings.

In 1991 Pinós set up her own studio and transferred the supervision and construction of several projects initiated in her previous office. Amongst them was the Community Centre and Auditorium in Hostalets de Balanya, La Mina Community Centre and the Boarding School in Morella. Since then she has combined her activity as an architect with teaching, working as a guest professor, amongst others, at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1994–1995), the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (1996–1997), the Columbia University in New York (1999), the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale of Lausanne (2001–2002), the ETSAB in Barcelona (2002), the Università Degli Studi di Sassari in Alghero (2002–2004), the Harvard University Graduate School of Design (2003) and at the Accademia di Archittetura di Mendrisio in Switzerland (2005–2006).

Notable projects during her career include the Pedestrian Bridge in Petrer (Alicante), the Juan Aparicio Waterfront in Torrevieja (Alicante), the La Serra High School in Mollerussa, the Ses Estacions Park and the Espanya Square in Palma de Mallorca, the Cube Tower in Guadalajara, Jalisco (Mexico), and the Primary School in Castelldefels (Barcelona). More recent projects include the Novoli housing complex in Florence, the Catalan Government Headquarters in Tortosa, a high school in Sant Carles de la Ràpita and an office building in Igualada. Pinós designed the Gardunya Square in Barcelona, as well as two adjacent buildings, a housing building and the Massana Fine Arts School.

Pinós's work has been exhibited at several galleries, museums and universities, including the  Kunstakademie in Stuttgart (1995), the Architektur-Hochschule in Aachen (1995), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1994), the AAM Gallery in Rome (1996), the Urania Gallery in Barcelona (1996),  the Eight Plan Gallery in New York, the Contemporary Art Museum of Puerto Rico (1997),  the COAM Foundation of Madrid (1997) and the Colleges of Architects of Ibiza (1996), Valencia and Galicia (1997) and the Spanish Pavilion in the Venice Architecture Biennale (2006). Since 2006 the model of the Cube Tower is part of the permanent collection of the MOMA.

Work

In partnership with Enric Miralles
 1984 to 1986 La Llauna Factory School, Badalona
 1985 Canopy for the Plaza Mayor, Parets de Vallés
 1985 to 1994 Igualada Cemetery, Igualada
 1986 to 1992 Hostalets de Balenya Civic Centre, Barcelona
 1986 to 1993 Boarding school in Morella
 1987 to 1993 La Mina Civic Centre, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona
 1988 to 1992 House, Bellaterra, Barcelona
 1989/91 Olympic archery range for the 1992 Summer Olympics, Valle de Hebrón, Barcelona.
 1988 to 1992 Sportcentre in Huesca
 1990/91 Centre for rhythmic gymnastics, Alicante
 1990 to 1992 pagoda for the Paseo Icario, Olympic village, Barcelona
 1992 Corbetes Avda, Icaria, Barcelona

With Estudio Carme Pinos
 1999 Urban Park and Bridge (Spanish:Pasarela a Petrer), Petrer, Alicante
 1999 Juan Aparicio Waterfront Torrevieja, Alicante
 2001 La Serra High School, Mollerussa, Lleida
 2002 Parc de Ses Estacions, Palma
 2004 Torre Cube, Guadalajara, México
 2005 Sports centre, Egues
 2006 Primary School, Castelldefels, Spain
 2013 Vienna University of Economics and Business, building Departement 4
2014 CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
2017 Escola Massana, Art and Design Center, Barcelona, Spain

Awards
1987 FAD Prize for Interiorism - La Llauna School in Badalona
1991 Italstad for Europe Prize, Europe Biennial of Architecture - Cemetery Park of Igualada
1992 City of Barcelona Prize, Barcelona Town Council - Olympic Archery Range buildings, Barcelona
1992 FAD Prize for Architecture, Barcelona - Cemetery Park of Igualada
1995 Spanish Architecture Award for the boarding school in Morella
1999 Dragados Prize - Cemetery Park of Igualada
2001 College of Valencian Architects Prize for Exterior Spaces - Juan Aparicio waterfront in Torrevieja
2002 Decade Prize 1992–2002. Oscar Tusquets Blanca Foundation - Paseo Icària roofing, Barcelona
2004 XIII Prize "Vila de Pedreguer" to Urban and Architectural Merit, Pedreguer Council - Life Work Award
2005 ArqCatMón (Catalan Architecture in the World), College of Architects of Catalunya - Cube Tower, Mexico
2007 First Prize of the IX Biennal of Spanish Architecture. College of Spanish Architects - Cube Tower, Mexico
2016 Richard Neutra Award for Professional Excellence from the Cal Poly Pomona Department of Architecture
2016 Berkeley-Rupp Architecture Professorship and Prize from the UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design
2017 International Award Woman in Architecture, ARVHA, Paris. Association for Research on the City and Habitat

References

Bibliography
DOCUMENTOS DE ARQUITECTURA núm. 60, Colegio de Arquitectos de Almería, 2006.
CARME PINÓS, AN ARCHITECTURE OF OVERLAY of Ana María Torres, Monacelli Press, 2004, New York.
CARME PINÓS, SOME PROJECTS (SINCE 1991) Ed. Actar,1998, Barcelona.
THE ARCHITECTURE OF ENRIC MIRALLES AND CARME PINÓS, Sites Lumen Books, 1990, New York.
International archive of women in architecture
Carme Pinós EDLP

El Croquis 30+49 / 50 Omnibus Volume. Enric Miralles / Carme Pinos: obra construita / built works 1983–1994. Madrid: El Croquis, 1995.
2006 RAIA national conference - biography

External links
Estudio Carme Pinos

1954 births
Living people
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty
Columbia University faculty
Harvard University staff
Architects from Catalonia
Spanish women architects
20th-century Spanish architects
21st-century Spanish architects
Polytechnic University of Catalonia alumni
20th-century Spanish women

Carme Pinós


Jack Ascherl (born February 12, 1937) is an American former politician in the state of Florida.

Ascherl was born in Daytona Beach. An alumnus of Florida State University, he is a Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) and Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC). He served in the Florida House of Representatives from 1986 to 1996 for district 28. He was speaker pro tempore of the House from 1995 to 1996. He is a member of the Democratic Party.

References

|-

Living people
1937 births
Democratic Party members of the Florida House of Representatives

Jack Ascherl


Harris v Nickerson (1873) LR 8 QB 286 is an English law case concerning the requirements of offer and acceptance in the formation of a contract. The case established that an advertisement that goods will be put up for auction does not constitute an offer to any person that the goods will actually be put up, and that the advertiser is therefore free to withdraw the goods from the auction at any time prior to the auction. All three judges concurred but issued separate judgments.

Facts
The Defendant placed an advertisement in London papers that certain items, including brewing equipment and office furniture, would be placed up for auction over three days in Bury St. Edmunds. The Plaintiff obtained a commission to buy the office furniture and expended time and expense to travel to Bury St. Edmunds to bid for the office furniture. On the third day, the lots for the office furniture were withdrawn. The Plaintiff sued for loss of time and expense. The judge at first instance found in favour of the Plaintiff. Leave was given to appeal to the High Court.

The Plaintiff submitted that the advertisement constituted a contract between themselves and the Defendant that the latter would sell the furniture according to the conditions stated in the advertisement, and that accordingly the withdrawal of the furniture was a breach of contract. The Defendant submitted the advertisement of a sale did not constitute a contract that any particular lot or class of lots would actually be put up for sale.

Judgment
The court held unanimously that the advertisement did not constitute an offer, but rather was a mere declaration of intent. Blackburn, J. founded his judgment on public policy grounds, calling it a "startling proposition" that "any one who advertises a sale by publishing an advertisement is now responsible to everybody who attends the sale for his cab hire or travelling expenses". Quain and Archibald, JJ. also drew public policy arguments, emphasising that there existed no authority on which to base a decision that the Defendant is liable to indemnify all those who attended his auction. The court upheld the appeal.

See also
Contract
Offer and acceptance
Auction
Payne v Cave 3 TR 148
Warlow v Harrison 1 E&E 295, 309, 28 LJ 18, auction without reserve
Mainprice v Westley 6 B&S 420; 34 LJ (QB) 229
Williams v Carwardine 4 B&Ad 621
Spencer v Harding Law Rep 5 CP 561
Barry v Davies

References

English agreement case law
1873 in case law
Lord Blackburn cases
1873 in British law
High Court of Justice cases
Auction case law

Harris v Nickerson


The Manchu language is a Tungustic language and it was the native language of the Manchu people before and during the Qing dynasty. The Manchus are the ethnic minority in China that overthrew the Ming dynasty in 1644 and took over the country. When they ruled, they formed the Qing dynasty. Manchu uses a version of the Mongolian script that was changed to better suit the language. For the first 200 years, it was the official language in the courts, although commoners still spoke Chinese. However, during the mid-1800s, it became more common for the Manchu nobles to speak Chinese as their first language. As a matter of fact, China's last emperor, Aisin Gioro Puyi, knew very little Manchu and spoke Chinese as his first language. Nonetheless, Manchu was still written alongside Chinese in official documents until the end of Imperial China. Even though China today has 10 million Manchus, only 20 people speak Manchu today. This makes Manchu a critically endangered language. Almost all Manchus today speak Mandarin Chinese as their first language.

References

Languages of China

Manchu language


Symbolic synagogue and place for prayer in Babyn Yar («Place for thinking») - is an art object of the Babi Yar Holocaust Memorial Center, built on the territory of the National Historical Memorial Preserve "Babyn Yar" as a part of preparations to commemorate the 80th anniversary of the first massacres in Babyn Yar.

«Place for thinking» is constructed as a symbolic synagogue and is situated in Babyn Yar, next to the Menorah monument. The object is set to be opened with a praying ceremony in April 2021 timed to the Holocaust Remembrance Day (Yom HaShoah). The project was created by a world-renowned architect Manuel Hertz, assistant professor of architectural, urban, and territorial design at the University of Basel. He also designed a New Synagogue in Mainz, Germany.

The project was initiated by the Babi Yar Holocaust Memorial Center together with the chief rabbis of Kyiv and Ukraine, Yaakov Dov Bleich (A Union of the Judaical and Religious Organisations of Ukraine) and Moshe Reuven Azman (The All-Ukrainian Jewish Congress).

The initiative was also supported by the Metropolitan Epiphanius of Kyiv and All Ukraine, the head of the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches and Religious Organizations and the primate of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU).

Concept
The art object «Place for thinking» is created as a symbolic memorial synagogue, opening and closing like a book with a special mechanism developed by the team of Ukrainian engineers.''I was inspired by an idea that a synagogue can be a book which we all come to read together and end up in a universe of stories uncovering the history. The point is that it is going to be constructed on the holy ground. This will be not only the commemoration of the dead but also a look into the future for the living.'' — Manuel HertzWhen closed, the building is a flat, vertical structure which is to be opened manually. It, thus, unfolds into a three-dimensional synagogue space. The process of its opening is a collective ritual performed by the members of the congregation.

Construction
The art object is erected without a foundation, on a wooden platform on the small site right after the Menorah Monument, the place where Jews traditionally gather to commemorate their relatives, who have died in Babyn Yar.

The construction of the «Place for thinking» as a symbolic memorial synagogue is executed on the basis of the permission No. 108/6.11.1 from 22.01.2021 issued by the Ministry of Culture and Information Policy of Ukraine.

It is made almost completely out of century-old oak wood, sourced from all over Ukraine.

Inside, the place is decorated with symbols and texts of prayers similar to the early synagogues of the Western Ukraine which were destroyed by the Nazis in the Second World War. The ceiling is painted with a myriad of symbols referencing the interior of the historic synagogues of Ukraine from the 17th and 18th centuries.

References

External links

Jewish art
Holocaust museums
Babi Yar

Place for thinking


Ciproxifan is an extremely potent histamine H3 inverse agonist/antagonist.

The histamine H3 receptor is an inhibitory autoreceptor located on histaminergic nerve terminals, and is believed to be involved in modulating the release of histamine in the brain. Histamine has an excitatory effect in the brain via H1 receptors in the cerebral cortex, and so drugs such as ciproxifan which block the H3 receptor and consequently allow more histamine to be released have an alertness-promoting effect.

Ciproxifan produces wakefulness and attentiveness in animal studies, and produced cognitive enhancing effects without prominent stimulant effects at relatively low levels of receptor occupancy, and pronounced wakefulness at higher doses. It has therefore been proposed as a potential treatment for sleep disorders such as narcolepsy and to improve vigilance in old age, particularly in the treatment of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease. It also potentiated the effects of antipsychotic drugs, and has been suggested as an adjuvant treatment for schizophrenia.

References

Nootropics
H3 receptor antagonists
Imidazoles
Piceol ethers
Cyclopropanes

Ciproxifan


Ribeirinho, stage name of Francisco Carlos Lopes Ribeiro (Lisbon, 21 September 1911 – Lisbon, 7 February 1984) was a Portuguese actor and director.

He started his career in theatre in 1929, and kept the connection all his life, both as an actor and as a manager. However, he is best known today for his comic roles in several films of the 1930s and 1940s, namely O Pai Tirano (The Tyrant Father, 1941) and O Pátio das Cantigas (Songs' Yard or Courtyard of Songs, 1942), which he also directed.

Son of Manuel Henrique Correia da Silva Ribeiro and wife Ester da Nazaré Lopes, he was the younger brother of António Lopes Ribeiro, one of the most famous directors of the Golden Age of Portuguese cinema, who directed him in several films.

He married actress Maria Adelaide da Silva Lalande (Castelo Branco, Salgueiro do Campo, 7 November 1913 - Lisbon, 21 March 1968), daughter of José Inocêncio Lalande (born Castelo Branco, Salgueiro do Campo) and Virgínia Carma da Silva (born Vila Franca de Xira, Vila Franca de Xira), and had an only daughter, Maria Manuel Lalande Lopes Ribeiro. His wife had a natural daughter by Clotário Luís Ribeiro Supico Pinto (1909–1986, son of Liberato Damião Ribeiro Pinto and Maria Augusta Supico).

Portuguese male film actors
Portuguese film directors
People from Lisbon
1911 births
1984 deaths
20th-century Portuguese male actors

Ribeirinho


Valentin Valentinovich Ivanov (; born 4 July 1961) is a Russian former international football referee and player. The son of two Olympic champions of 1956, Valentin Ivanov and Lidiya Ivanova, he lives in Moscow where he works as a physical education teacher.

As a player, he reached the final of the Soviet Cup in 1983.

He speaks Russian and English and became an international referee on 1 January 1997.  The first international game he refereed was Luxembourg–Poland in 1999. Before his qualification he served as an assistant referee and officiated 3 games in the 1994 World Cup.

He refereed the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup, UEFA Euro 2004, and 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship.

In 2005, he officiated the World Cup qualifiers between Wales and England, and Sweden and Iceland. Both England and Sweden qualified, and were drawn in the same group in the World Cup proper. He was also selected to referee the UEFA Champions League semifinal match between Villarreal and Arsenal in 2005–06 season.

In Euro 2004, he officiated in 3 games, issuing 15 yellows and 1 red.

2006 World Cup

The 2006 FIFA World Cup was Ivanov's last major international tournament, as he reached the mandatory retirement age of 45 for FIFA referees on 4 July. In a second-round match between Portugal and the Netherlands, Ivanov issued 16 yellow cards and four red cards. The 16 cautions had matched the World Cup record set in 2002 by Spanish referee Antonio López Nieto until the 2022 quarterfinal match between The Netherlands and Argentina, when Spanish referee Antonio Mateu Lahoz surpassed the record with 18 yellow cards. The four dismissals (all on the respective players' second yellow cards) set a new World Cup record. Costinha and Deco were sent off for Portugal, while it was Khalid Boulahrouz and Giovanni van Bronckhorst for the Dutch. The Netherlands were cautioned seven times, with two players given red cards following the second yellow. Portugal saw 9 yellow cards (World Cup record for one team), and two dismissals following the second yellow as well. FIFA president Sepp Blatter later suggested that Ivanov should have given himself a yellow card for his poor performance during the match, jokingly saying that Ivanov looked "like a walking yellow card" due to his yellow jersey.  Sepp Blatter regretted these words and promised to officially apologise, although he never did so.

Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, the president of the German Football Association also defended Ivanov, saying that Ivanov was just enforcing the rules. He noted that the match did not lack a sense of discretion on the part of the referee, but rather the teams did not follow the rules of the game. He also pointed out that FIFA gave the order to the referees to adhere to the rules firmly as far as tackling, holding jerseys and time wasting are concerned, and that this was made perfectly clear to all the teams.

References

External links
 Profile on ratetheref.net
 Interview with the newspaper Izvestiya, 27 June 2006.

1961 births
Living people
Footballers from Moscow
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football forwards
Russian football referees
2006 FIFA World Cup referees
Soviet men's footballers
FC Torpedo Moscow players
PFC Dynamo Stavropol players
UEFA Euro 2004 referees
FC Dynamo Bryansk players

Valentin Ivanov (footballer, born 1961)


Teolindo Antonio Acosta Lázaro (July 23, 1937 — August 2, 2004) was a Venezuelan professional baseball player. Listed at 5' 7", 168 lb., he
batted and threw left handed.

Acosta was a distinguished batter in his homeland. As a result, many people called him, in friendly way,  as El Loquito que Inventó el Hit (the tiny crazy who invented the hit).

His skills were shown in his motherland with the Aguilas del Zulia, Cardenales de Lara, Industriales de Valencia, Licoreros de Pampero, Llaneros de Acarigua and Tigres de Araguaof the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. Besides, Acosta played nine seasons in the Mexican League for the Leones de Yucatán, Pericos de Puebla, Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo and Cardenales de Villahermosa, now known as Olmecas de Tabasco .

Along his prolific career of 23 years, Acosta won five batting crowns, two of them in his motherland and the rest of them in México.

Professional career

Early years
Acosta broke into minor league baseball with the Class-D Dothan Cardinals of the Alabama–Florida League in 1958, batting .313 with 76 RBI and a league-leading 36 stolen bases in 124 games. For whatever reason, the parent Cincinnati Reds assigned him to Dothan for a second season in 1959, and he responded by bopping out a .337 average and again led the circuit with 46 steals. Sufficiently impressed, the Reds moved Acosta up to the Billings Mustangs of the Class C Pioneer League the next season, where he topped the loop with a .369 average (the first of his five pro batting crowns) and 45 swipes. He leapfrogged over B ball in 1961 to play for Class A Columbia Reds of the South Atlantic League, and once more was best in the league in batting (.343) and steals (40), marking his fourth consecutive stolen base titles.

Venezuelan Winter League (1956–1979)
Teolindo Acosta belong to a selected list of baseball players in Venezuela, who are in the top of several offensive departments; Acosta is the third in the list of most games played (1130); third in plate appearances (4324); he is fourth in Run scored (604); also he is third in hits (1289); additionally, is in the second place in Triples (56) and fourth in stolen bases (121).  Along his long career of twenty three years in the Venezuelan winter league, Acosta won two batting titles. In between, he spent part of the 1959–1960 season with the Gavilanes and Rapiños clubs of the rival Occidental League.

Mexico League (1968–1976)
Acosta was one of the top batters in Mexican baseball for nine seasons between 1968 and 1976, winning three batting titles in a six-year span.  Never a power hitter, the 5'6" 158-pound outfielder was a contact hitter who rarely struck out and sprayed the ball all over the field, similar in fashion to Rod Carew.

He cooled off a bit over the next few seasons, batting between .269 and 294 from 1962 through 1966, and after only hitting .238 for Buffalo of the International League over 49 games in 1967, he moved south to Mexico for the 1968 campaign with Puebla.

Acosta found his footing in the Mexican League, bettering .320 his first eight seasons. He hit .325 for the Pericos in 1968, followed by a Liga batting crown with a .354 average in 1969. Despite that, he moved on to Yucatán in 1970. After hitting .337 that season (including one game in which he went 6-for-6 with six runs), he was the top hitter in Mexico in 1971 with a career-high .392 BA and followed up with a solid .346 season in 1972.  Acosta returned to Puebla during his .375 campaign in 1973, and won his fifth and final batting championship in 1974 with a .366 showing. After hitting .320 for Villahermosa in 1975, he wrapped up his career as a 39-year-old with Nuevo Laredo in 1976 by batting .276, his only sub-.300 season in nine Mexican League campaigns.

The left-handed Acosta carried a lifetime .328 average in 19 seasons of professional baseball, collecting 2,724 hits with 64 homers and 389 stolen bases. He did even better in Mexico, knocking out a .345 batting average (sixth-best lifetime in the Liga) with 132 stolen bases.  He led all of professional baseball in batting in 1971 and 1974. Despite these figures, he is not a member of Mexican baseball's Salon de la Fama.

Career statistics
Note: Some statistics are incomplete because there are no records available.
Bold denotes category leader.

Batting

The Sunset of Warrior
Acosta, basically was sharing his time as active baseball player between México and Venezuela, and after 23 seasons, he decided to hung up his spikes in 1979 while he was playing with Cardenales de Lara in the Venezuelan winter league. Acosta retired with a lifetime .298 average, and five batting crowns in his pocket, two batting titles he won in Venezuela and the rest of them in México.

After retiring from winter ball in 1979, Acosta settled down in Valencia where died from heart problems on August 2, 2004, at 67.

Honors and Acknowledgments
In 2006 Acosta received the honor of induction into the Venezuelan Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.

Sources

 Treto Cisneros, Pedro (2002). The Mexican League/La Liga Mexicana: Comprehensive Player Statistics, 1937–2001. McFarland & Company.
 Mexican Baseball Stars by John Phillips
 Nuñez, José Antero (1994). Serie del Caribe de la Habana a Puerto la Cruz. JAN Editor.
 Gutiérrez, Daniel; Alvarez, Efraim; Gutiérrez (h), Daniel (1997). La Enciclopedia del Béisbol en Venezuela.
 Gutiérrez, Daniel; Alvarez, Efraim; Gutiérrez (h), Daniel (2006). La Enciclopedia del Béisbol en Venezuela. LVBP, Caracas.

External links
 Teolindo Acosta player information from museodebeisbol.org
 Venezuelan Professional Baseball League statistics

1937 births
2004 deaths
Águilas del Zulia players
Baseball outfielders
Billings Mustangs players
Cardenales de Lara players
Columbia Reds players
Dothan Cardinals players
Gavilanes de Maracaibo players
Industriales de Valencia players
Leones de Yucatán players
Licoreros de Pampero players
Llaneros de Acarigua players
Mexican League baseball players
Pericos de Puebla players
Rapiños de Occidente players
Baseball players from Maracaibo
Tecolotes de Nuevo Laredo players
Tigres de Aragua players
Venezuelan expatriate baseball players in Mexico

Teolindo Acosta


Daniele Moyal-Sharrock is a philosopher, critic, and teacher. In 2007 she was appointed a professor of philosophy at University of Hertfordshire. She specialises in the works of Austrian-British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Biography
Moyal-Sharrock has written extensively about Wittgenstein's works post Philosophical Investigations, an era for which she has coined the term 'the third Wittgenstein'. She is also credited, along with Annalisa Coliva and Duncan Pritchard, with developing a new type of epistemology, 'hinge epistemology', which was developed from her efforts to share the insights within Wittgenstein's On Certainty.

She has completed a book-length study of On Certainty: Understanding Wittgenstein's On Certainty (Palgrave 2004/2007); and her other titles include Perspicuous Presentations: Essays on Wittgenstein's Philosophical Psychology; Hinge Epistemology (with A. Coliva); and F. R. Leavis: critic, teacher, philosopher. A further selection of her writings can be found in 'Certainty in Action: Wittgenstein on language, mind and epistemology' (Bloomsbury, 2021). She has provided the French translation of On Certainty (Gallimard, 2006), and is also the editor, of Reading Wittgenstein's On Certainty (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) with William Brenner, and the editor of The Third Wittgenstein: The Post-Investigations Works (Ashgate, 2004).

Her published work encompasses topics including Wittgenstein, epistemology, and the philosophy of literature, and she is currently working with Constantine Sandis on writing a book entitled Born Trans: Gender Inside Out.  She has also interrogated the works of F.R. Leavis, Cora Diamond, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Bernard Harrison and Kendall Walton.

Her publications explore Wittgenstein's contribution to the philosophy of language; epistemology; logic; ethics; religion; philosophy of psychology; culture; and aesthetics;, demonstrating how Wittgenstein's influence can extend beyond the discipline of philosophy but also to closely related fields such as psychology; linguistics; anthropology; sociology; education sciences; and cognitive science. She has also contributed to the discourse on the role of Wittgenstein's pioneering Enactivism in a stronger comprehension of the mind, action, language, and memory, showing how Wittgenstein facilitates a departure from looking at intelligence through a brain-centred lens and focusing on a person-centred approach to behaviour that focuses on ways of acting. She helps to debunk the reductive discourse of a quietist Wittgenstein which is in part responsible for a depreciation of interest by mainstream philosophy in him, instead helping to demonstrate the ways in which he can be considered an interventionist philosopher both within the field philosophy and for the neighbouring scientific disciplines.

Moyal-Sharrock has been president of the British Wittgenstein Society since 2007, and since 2012 has held the position of executive committee member of The Leavis Society.

Selected publications
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2003, Logic in Action: Wittgenstein's Logical Pragmatism and the Impotence of Scepticism, In: Philosophical Investigations, Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 125-148
Moyal-Sharrock, D., & Brenner, W. H., 2007, Readings of Wittgenstein's On Certainty, 2nd ed., London: Palgrave Macmillan
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2007, Unravelling Certainty, Readings of Wittgenstein's On Certainty, Moyal-Sharrock, D. & Brenner, W. (eds.), London: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 76-99
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2009, Wittgenstein and the memory debate, In: New Ideas in Psychology, Vol. 27,  No. 2, p. 213-227
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2013, Wittgenstein's Razor: The Cutting Edge of Enactivism, In: American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 50, No 3, p. 263-279
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2015, Wittgenstein's Forms of Life, Patterns of Life and Ways of Living, In: Nordic Wittsgenstein Studies, October, p. 21-42
Moyal-Sharrock, D., 2016, The Animal in Epistemology: Wittgenstein's Enactivist Solution to the Problem of Regress, In: International Journal for the Study of Skepticism, Vol. 6, No. 2-3, p. 97-119 23

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Academics of the University of Hertfordshire
British philosophers
Wittgensteinian philosophers

Daniele Moyal-Sharrock


Essen-Werden is a railway station in the city of Essen in western Germany. It serves the southern city borough Werden and is situated on the bank of the river Ruhr at the junction of the Ruhr Valley Railway and the line to Essen.

The station was opened in 1872 as part of the Düsseldorf-Werden-Kupferdreh line of the Bergisch-Märkische Eisenbahn. In 1877, a line to Essen opened. Passenger services on the line to Kupferdreh closed on 29 May 1965.

The station today sees regular service by Rhein-Ruhr S-Bahn trains on the S6 line since 1974. Trains currently run in 20-minute intervals.

References

S6 (Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn)
Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn stations
Werden
Railway stations in Germany opened in 1872

Essen-Werden station


The 2011 Ivy League Baseball Championship Series took place at Bill Clarke Field in Princeton, New Jersey, on May 7 and 8, 2011.  The series matched the regular season champions of each of the league's two divisions.  , the winner of the series, claimed the Ivy League's automatic berth in the 2011 NCAA Division I baseball tournament.  It was Princeton's seventh title, extending their lead for most championships.  It was also their first championship series win since 2006, when they won their fifth in the previous seven years.

Dartmouth has appeared in the Ivy League Championship Series every year since 2008, winning in 2009 and 2010.

Results

References

Ivy League Baseball Championship Series
Tournament


The Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad  operated from 1905 to 1983 between its namesake cities of Detroit, Michigan, and Ironton, Ohio, via Toledo. At the end of 1970, it operated 478 miles of road on 762 miles of track; that year it carried 1,244 million ton-miles of revenue freight.

Early history

In 1901, the merger of the Detroit and Lima Northern Railway and the Ohio Southern Railway formed the Detroit Southern Railroad. This company was purchased at foreclosure on May 1, 1905, by Harry B. Hollins & Company of New York, which reincorporated it in the state of Michigan under the name of the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway.

The president of the Detroit Southern, Samuel Hunt, was to remain as president of the reorganized road but died suddenly on May 15, 1905. George Miller Cumming, a New York City lawyer who was formerly first vice-president of the Erie Railroad Company and the former chairman of the board of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton Railroad, was elected president in June and served for one month. F. A. Durban was elected president in July but resigned in November, and was replaced by Eugene Zimmerman. Cumming and Durban continued to serve as officers under Zimmerman's presidency.

The name was changed to Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad on March 1, 1914.

Though the company went bankrupt in 1908, it remained solvent until it was purchased by Henry Ford in 1920. Ford recognized the strategic importance of the line to his automobile business;  the line connected Dearborn, Michigan, to all of the major east–west rail lines in the Midwest. This gave Ford direct control over shipments of raw materials and finished goods to and from his factories in Dearborn.

Under Ford's management, the line thrived.  In the words of a later historian, "the line was transformed from a streak of rust into an extremely efficient and profitable operation, the likes of which has or will seldom be seen in this country."  Ford double-tracked the Detroit area main lines, and made a deal with the workers that they would take better care of the equipment in exchange for unusually high wages.  Moreover, Ford funded the purchase of new equipment.  For the daily Detroit-Bainbridge, Ohio train, the DT&I purchased a pair of "doodlebugs"; for the intensive Detroit-area freight service, the line electrified as far as Flat Rock yard.  Ford hoped to electrify the entire line, and thence to an interchange with the Virginian, but electrified at 22 kV 25 Hz AC, the wrong voltage for interoperable equipment (the Virginian electrified at 11 kV AC).  The concrete catenary masts of the electric years survived for decades after de-electrification, as it was deemed too expensive to demolish them; some remain today.

In 1929, Ford sold the line to a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad after becoming disgusted with what he considered interference and over-regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission.  In 1930, the railroad de-electrified in favor of standard equipment.

Ann Arbor Railroad
In June 1905, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton Railway took control of the Ann Arbor Railroad (AA), which they purchased from Rudolph Kleybolte & Co. The acquisition connected Toledo with Frankfort, Michigan, and essentially doubled the DT&I system. But the 1908 bankruptcy forced the DT&I to divest its acquisition.

In 1963, the DT&I, by then a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad, once again gained control of the AA. The Ann Arbor lines became part of Conrail in April 1976, and were facing abandonment. In October 1977, they were purchased by the state of Michigan, which intended to preserve rail service over its tracks. In 1977 Michigan Interstate was designated operator of the entire line from Toledo to Frankfurt. A series of disputes arose during the early 1980s and multiple railroads were designated by the tracks owners, the State of Michigan, to operate the line. The line from Toledo to just south of Osmer (a passing siding north of Ann Arbor) was sold to the trustee for the estate purchased the remaining portion of the Michigan Interstate from Toledo, Ohio to Ann Arbor, Michigan in September 1985. The line north of Osmer remains under the ownership of the State of Michigan, except where the tracks have been removed. For a period in the 1980s three different companies operated the Ann Arbor tracks. Michigan Interstate operated from Toledo to Osmer. Tuscola and Saginaw Bay from Osmer north to Alma, and the Michigan Northern operated north of Alma. The collapse of the Michigan Northern resulted in the Tuscola and Saginaw Bay taking all operations north of Osmer. The Tuscola and Saginaw Bay later re-branded itself as the Great Lakes Central, the current operator of all remaining lines north of Osmer. The Michigan Interstate trackage was sold in 1988 to the Ann Arbor Acquisition Corporation, who later sold the line to WATCO, the current operator the segment from Toledo to Osmer.

The Pennsylvania years
The line operated as an independent subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1929 until 1970.  In 1955, the line replaced its steam locomotives with diesel locomotives. The DT&I relied exclusively on diesel locomotives built by General Motors Electro-Motive Division.

The later years

In 1968, the DT&I's parent company, the Pennsylvania Railroad, merged with its longtime rival, the New York Central Railroad, to become the Penn Central, which declared bankruptcy two years later and sold off the DT&I to private investors. In 1980, the DT&I was acquired by the Grand Trunk Western Railroad (GTW). Under the GTW, the DT&I locomotives were painted in the red and blue livery of the GTW, but retained the DT&I logo. In December 1983, the DT&I was completely assimilated into the GTW.

End of service on southern portion

In April 1982, a collapse in Royersville Tunnel (the only tunnel on the old DT&I) prompted GTW to shut down the line between Jackson and Ironton. The tunnel had suffered collapses many times in the past but limited remaining business south of Jackson and the operational problems of the tunnel led to GTW's decision. At the same time, GTW bypassed the steep and treacherous Summithill section between Bainbridge and Waverly by rerouting trains onto Chessie System trackage from Washington Court House, Ohio to Waverly, then back onto the former DT&I to Jackson. In 1984 all operations south of Washington Court House were suspended, the Jackson Shops closed, and the track dismantled.

A short section of the DT&I main west out of Jackson is still in place serving as a connection from industries to the only remaining line into Jackson. A short section of the DT&I north from the junction with the B&O Southwestern near Greenfield is still in place to serve local industry. Portions of the line between Greenfield and Washington Court House were purchased by Washington Court House with the intention of creating a rail-trail, but they were unable to acquire enough conjoined sections to build a trail.

Central and northern portions

GTW continued to operate the northern and central portions of the former DT&I as part of their network for many years. The DT&I trackage from Springfield to Lurray (near Washington Court House) was sold by GTW to the West Central Ohio Port Authority (formerly Clark County - Fayette County Port Authority) January 18, 1991. This section was then operated in conjunction with the former section of the B&O Toledo Division from Lurray to Washington Court House by the Indiana and Ohio Railway, a division of Railtex. In 1997, GTW sold the former DT&I from Dundee (Diann) Michigan to Springfield, Ohio to the Indiana and Ohio Railway. Included in the sale was trackage rights from Dundee to Flat Rock, MI over the old DT&I. Railtex was merged into RailAmerica, which was then purchased by Genesee & Wyoming. G&W operates the former DT&I from Dundee (Diann) Michigan to Washington Court House, still as part of their Indiana and Ohio Railway.

Cities and towns along the Detroit, Toledo and Ironton

The following is a list of the major cities and towns along the DT&I:

Michigan
Detroit
Dearborn
Allen Park
Taylor
Ecorse
Flat Rock
Wyandotte
Woodhaven
Ohio
Toledo
Lima
Springfield
Washington Court House
Greenfield
Waverly
Jackson
Ironton

DT&I trains also served Cincinnati, Ohio via Pennsylvania Railroad trackage.

References

Sources
Abandoned DT&I tunnel entrance north of Ironton (from Flickr.com)
Inside the abandoned DT&I tunnel north of Ironton (from Flickr.com)
Additional photos of Royersville Tunnel before and after abandonment of the line between Washington Court House and Ironton...plus additional photos (from Waverly Info.com)
Additional photos of the abandoned DT&I south of Washington C.H. (from Abandoned Line.net)

External links

 Detroit, Toledo & Ironton historical site
 DT&I images at George Elwood's Fallen Flags site
 The DT&I Modelers Page

Video
 You Tube clip of All Aboard-Detroit Toledo and Ironton Vol.1
 "Chasing the DT&I" You Tube video of southbound DT&I freight train between Ottawa and Columbus Grove, Ohio along Chessie Systerm (B&O) trackage on State Route 65.
 Computer animation You Tube video "DT&I Ironton Action."

Defunct Michigan railroads
Defunct Ohio railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Ford Motor Company
Canadian National Railway subsidiaries
Transportation in Toledo, Ohio
Predecessors of the Canadian National Railway
Railway companies established in 1914
Railway companies disestablished in 1983
Companies affiliated with the Pennsylvania Railroad

Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad


In cryptography, the Rip van Winkle cipher is a provably secure cipher with a finite key, assuming the attacker has only finite storage.

The cipher requires a broadcaster (perhaps a numbers station) publicly transmitting a series of random numbers.

The sender encrypts a plaintext message by XORing it with the random numbers, then holding it some length of time T.
At the end of that time, the sender finally transmits the encrypted message.

The receiver holds the random numbers the same length of time T.
As soon as the receiver gets the encrypted message, he XORs it with the random numbers he remembers were transmitted T ago, to recover the original plaintext message.

The delay T represents the "key" and must be securely communicated only once.

Ueli Maurer says the original Rip van Winkle cipher is completely impractical, but it motivated a new approach to provable security.

Sources

J.L. Massey and I. Ingemarsson. The Rip van Winkle cipher - a simple and provably computationally secure cipher with a finite key. In Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Information Theory (Abstracts), page 146, 1985.

Cryptographic algorithms

Rip van Winkle cipher


Michael Mansfield  (born 12 October 1941) is an English barrister and head of chambers at Nexus Chambers. He was recently described as "The king of human rights work" by The Legal 500 and as a leading Silk in civil liberties and human rights (including actions against the police).

A British republican, vegetarian, socialist and self-described "radical lawyer", he has participated in prominent and controversial court cases and inquests involving accused IRA bombers, the Birmingham Six, Bloody Sunday massacre, the Hillsborough disaster and the deaths of Jean Charles de Menezes and Princess Diana and the McLibel case.

Early life
Mansfield grew up in north Finchley, North London, and attended Holmewood Preparatory School (Woodside Park) before going to Highgate School and the University of Keele, where he graduated with a BA (Hons) in history and philosophy, and was Secretary of Keele's Students' Union.

Career
Mansfield was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1967, became Queen's Counsel in 1989 and was elected as a Bencher of Gray's Inn in 2007.

He is currently the president of the Haldane Society of Socialist Lawyers, and is a professor of law at City University. Mansfield is an after-dinner and keynote speaker.

Notable cases

As well as representing those wrongly convicted of the IRA's Guildford and Birmingham pub bombings, Mansfield has represented: the Angry Brigade; Dolours and Marian Price; Brian Keenan; the Orgreave miners; Mahmood Hussein Mattan, Ruth Ellis and James Hanratty (in posthumous appeals); those involved in the Israeli Embassy bombing; Frank Crichlow, owner of the Mangrove restaurant; Stephen Lawrence's family; Michael Barrymore at the Stuart Lubbock inquest; Barry George both at the inquest into the death of Jill Dando and George's wrongful conviction; the gangster Kenneth Noye; the Bloody Sunday families; Arthur Scargill; Angela Cannings; Fatmir Limaj, a Kosovo-Albanian leader prosecuted in the Hague; Mohamed al-Fayed in the inquest into the deaths of his son Dodi al-Fayed and Diana, Princess of Wales; the families of Jean Charles de Menezes and Mark Duggan; the Tottenham Three and the Cardiff Five. In March 2019 Mansfield was engaged by the family of footballer Emiliano Sala to represent their interests in the dispute over his death.

Mansfield has been referred to as a "champagne socialist" though he has said that 95 per cent of his work comes from legal aid.

Lockerbie bombing
Warning against over-reliance upon forensic science to secure convictions, Mansfield in the BBC Scotland Frontline Scotland TV programme "Silence over Lockerbie", broadcast on 14 October 1997, said he wanted to make just one point:
Forensic science is not immutable. They're not written in tablets of stone, and the biggest mistake that anyone can make—public, expert or anyone else alike—is to believe that forensic science is somehow beyond reproach: it is not! The biggest miscarriages of justice in the United Kingdom, many of them emanate from cases in which forensic science has been shown to be wrong. And the moment a forensic scientist or anyone else says: 'I am sure this marries up with that' I get worried.

Personal life
Mansfield has been married three times. He was married for 19 years to Melian Bordes, with whom he had five children (Jonathan, Anna, Louise, Leo and Kieran), and for 30 years to the artist/filmmaker Yvette Vanson, from whom he separated in 2014 and with whom he had a son (Fred). He has been with his current wife, Yvette Greenway, a well-known snooker player, since 2015. His daughter, Anna, took her own life in May 2015.

Political views
In November 2019, along with other public figures, Mansfield signed a letter supporting Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn, describing him as "a beacon of hope in the struggle against emergent far-right nationalism, xenophobia and racism in much of the democratic world", and endorsed Corbyn in the 2019 UK general election.

In December 2019, along with 42 other leading cultural figures, he signed a letter endorsing the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership in the 2019 general election. The letter stated that "Labour's election manifesto under Corbyn's leadership offers a transformative plan that prioritises the needs of people and the planet over private profit and the vested interests of a few."

Charity work
Mansfield is a patron of the animal rights organisation Viva! (Vegetarians International Voice for Animals) and refers to animal production as "genocide". He is also patron of Hastings Advice and Representation Centre, a charity providing free welfare benefit advice and representation for local people in Hastings, East Sussex and the surrounding area. He is a co-founder and trustee of the charity Silence of Suicide (SOS).

He is an environmental and animal rights activist and has recently stated that meat may become banned in the future, and there should be a law made to criminalise ecocide, or destruction of the environment as a result of intensive animal agriculture.

See also
Hans Köchler's Lockerbie trial observer mission
Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial
University of Cambridge Chancellor election, 2011

References

Further reading
 Michael Mansfield, Presumed Guilty: British Legal System Exposed. 1993.
 Who's Who, 2006
 Michael Mansfield, Memoirs of a Radical Lawyer. London, Bloomsbury. 2009.

External links
 Nexus, the Chambers of Michael Mansfield QC Michael Mansfield's Chambers

1941 births
Living people
People from Finchley
People educated at Highgate School
Alumni of Keele University
English lawyers
Members of Gray's Inn
English barristers
British King's Counsel
British republicans
English animal rights activists
English environmentalists
English human rights activists
English legal professionals
English legal writers
English socialists
Human rights lawyers

Michael Mansfield


Hermann von Tappeiner (18 November 1847 in Meran – 12 January 1927 in Munich) was an Austrian pharmacologist. He was the son of anthropologist Franz Tappeiner (1816–1902).

He studied at the universities of Innsbruck, Göttingen, Leipzig, Heidelberg and Tübingen, receiving his doctorate in 1872. As a student, his influences included Carl Ludwig and Gustav von Hüfner at Leipzig, and Robert Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg. In 1877 he obtained his habilitation at the University of Munich. Two years later, he began teaching classes in physiology and dietetics at the veterinary school in Munich, and in 1884 became an associate professor of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology at the university. In 1893 he was named a full professor of pharmacology at the University of Munich, where he was also head of the institute of experimental pharmacology.

In 1904 he coined the term "photodynamic reaction". He is credited as being the first to perform photodynamic therapy (PDT) in humans — beginning in 1903, with dermatologist Albert Jesionek, he conducted experiments via the topical application of photosensitive dye to various skin diseases, followed by exposure to a light source (sunlight or an arc lamp). Also, he eventually came to understand the necessary role that atmospheric oxygen played in the photodynamic process.

Selected works
 Anleitung zu chemisch-diagnostischen Untersuchungen am Krankenbette (1885, 5th edition 1892); translated into English in 1898 as "Introduction to chemical methods of clinical diagnosis".
 Lehrbuch der Arzneimittellehre und Arzneiverordnungslehre unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen und österreichischen Pharmakopoe (1890, 15th edition 1922) – Textbook of materia medica and the medical regulation doctrine: with special consideration of German and Austrian pharmacopoeia.
 Die sensibilisierende Wirkung fluorescierender Substanzen; gesammelte Untersuchungen über die photodynamische Erscheinung (1907, with Albert Jodlbauer) – Sensitized fluorescent substances; collected research on the photodynamic phenomenon.

References

1847 births
1927 deaths
People from Merano
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
German pharmacologists
19th-century German chemists
Heidelberg University alumni
20th-century German chemists

Hermann von Tappeiner


The Fountain of Armés (), alternatively called the Fountain of the Moors (), is a 1st-century fountain built by Lucius Iulius Maelo Caudicus, an Olisipo flamen, to honour the Roman Emperor Augustus, in the village of Armés, civil parish of Terrugem in Sintra.

History
It is suggested that the tank and fountain were constructed in the 1st century A.D.

Recent analysis by Cardim Ribeiro suggests that the inscription was altered in relation to its original position, in order to facilitate access to the tank. Even today, the fountain continues to be used.

Architecture
Located in an urban environment, the fountain is located three metres below the actual level of the ground, decorating the southern wall section and covered by a slab of concrete, and accessible from a staircase.

The rectangular fountain, 213 centimetres by 231 centimetres in height, is formed from various slabs of granite in a square form with overhang inscribed in Latin. The Latin inscription reads: "L. I V L I V S. M A E L O. C A V D I C. F L A M. D I V I. A V G D S F", translated as "Lucius Iulius Maelo Caudicus, flamen of the Divine Augustus, made this (monument) at his own expense".

The part of the left lateral wall is a thicker, broader and irregular slab, seemingly primitive in origin. The ends of the lateral walls have been warn from over use. A subterranean conduit, which ends in a circular hole near the right edge of the posterior wall, 85 centimetres from the bottom, brings water to the tank. It has been modernized to include a manual pump to force water to the tank.

References
Notes

Sources

External links

Fountain Armes
Buildings and structures in Sintra
Armes
Buildings and structures in Lisbon District

Fountain of Armés


Volkswagen First Act is a guitar created by first act in partnership with Volkswagen.

Guitar included with Volkswagen cars
Volkswagen initiated a campaign in 2006 in which the company gave away special edition First Act guitars along with a special series car. The stereos in these Volkswagen could be used as an amplifier for the guitar. An accompanying ad campaign featured guitarists Slash, John Mayer, and Nigel Tufnel of Spinal Tap playing First Act guitars through the sound systems of Volkswagen automobiles.

1 – Custom First Act GarageMaster guitar. White with color-coordinated pick guard to match the car (blue, white pearl, black, red). Plate on back of headstock has car's VIN.
1 – Nice VW/First Act embroidered heavy-duty padded nylon gig bag
1 – Super-cool VW/First Act embroidered heavy-duty seat belt material guitar strap with leather ends
1 – Indispensable 20′ Instrument cable. 1/4 TS to 1/8 TRS3 – Neat VW/First Act logo charcoal celluloid guitar picks-medium thickness

Specs
Body type 	Solid body, double cutaway
Material 	Poplar
Color 	        White/black, White/Blue, White/Red, White/Pearl
Neck 	        Satin finished maple
Fretboard 	Rosewood
Fret count 	22
Scale length 	25 1/2 in.
Nut width 	1 11/16 in.
Pickup configuration 	2 Alnico V humbuckers
Tuning keys 	Die cast, 3×3
Weight 	7lbs.
Overall Length 	38 in.
Width 	12 3/4 in.
Electronics 	Volume control, tone control, 9-volt amp-modeling circuit, master volume control, distortion/clean switch, high boost/cut switch, preamp on/off switch, three-way pickup selector toggle switch

Volkswagen
Guitars
Advertising

Volkswagen First Act


Farmer In The Sky is a 1950 science fiction novel by American writer Robert A. Heinlein about a teenaged boy who emigrates with his family to Jupiter's moon Ganymede, which is in the process of being terraformed. Among Heinlein's juveniles, a condensed version of the novel was published in serial form in Boys' Life magazine (August, September, October, November 1950), under the title "Satellite Scout". The novel was awarded a Retro Hugo in 2001.

Passing references by the lead character to the song "The Green Hills of Earth" and to its author, Rhysling, have caused some to consider it part of Heinlein's Future History series.

Plot summary

In the future, food is carefully rationed on an overcrowded Earth. Teenager William (Bill) Lermer lives with his widowed father, George. George decides to emigrate to the farming colony on Ganymede, one of Jupiter's moons.  After marrying Molly Kenyon, George embarks with Bill and Molly's daughter Peggy on the 'torchship' Mayflower. On the journey, Bill saves his bunkmates from asphyxiation by improvising a patch when a meteor punctures their compartment. During the trip, all the children attend class; also, to combat the boredom of the long trip, the Boy Scouts among the passengers form troops.

When they arrive on Ganymede, an unpleasant surprise awaits the newcomers. The arriving group is much larger than the colony can easily absorb. The soil has to be built from scratch by pulverizing boulders and lava flows, then seeding the resulting dust with carefully formulated organic material, and the rock crushers are in short supply. While some whine about the injustice of it all, Bill accepts an invitation to live with his prospective neighbors, a prosperous farmer and his large, hard-working family, to learn the needed skills, while his father signs on as an engineer in the town of Leda. Peggy, unable to adjust to the low pressure atmosphere, has to stay in a bubble in the hospital. When the Lermers are finally reunited on their own homestead, they build their house with a pressurized room for Peggy.

One day, a rare alignment of all of Jupiter's major moons causes a devastating moonquake. Peggy is seriously injured when her room suffers an explosive decompression. Furthermore, the machinery that maintains Ganymede's "heat trap" fails and the temperature starts dropping rapidly. George quickly realizes what has happened and gets his family to the safety of the town. Others do not grasp their peril soon enough and either stay in their homes or start for town too late; two-thirds of the colonists perish, either from the quake or by freezing. The Lermers consider returning to Earth, but after Peggy dies, they decide to stay and rebuild. The colony gradually recovers.

An expedition sets out to survey more of Ganymede. Bill goes along as the cook. While exploring, he and his friend Hank discover artifacts of an alien civilization, including a working land vehicle that has legs, like a large metal centipede. This proves fortuitous when Bill's appendix bursts. Forced to adhere to a schedule, a shuttle picks up the rest of the group and leaves without the missing pair. Hank figures out how to drive the alien vehicle and transports Bill to the next landing site. Bill is then taken to the hospital for a life-saving operation.

Upon awakening from the operation, Bill contemplates a discussion he had with George about his future: whether to return to Earth for school or stay. He sneaks outside and looks up at the sky. When a nurse finds him and scolds him to return where he belongs, he replies, "I am where I belong. And I'm going to stay!"

Reception

Groff Conklin wrote that although Farmer in the Sky was "conceived as a novel for 'adolescents' ... this book is also one of the best of the month's output in science fiction for adults ... an adventure story with an unusual amount of realism in its telling. It is not childish". Boucher and McComas named Farmer "just about the only mature science fiction novel of the year [1950]", describing it as "a magnificently detailed study of the technological and human problems of interplanetary colonization." Damon Knight found the novel "a typical Heinlein story ... typically brilliant, thorough and readable." P. Schuyler Miller recommended the novel unreservedly, saying that Heinlein's "minute attention to detail ... has never been more fascinatingly shown."

Surveying Heinlein's juvenile novels, Jack Williamson noted that Farmer in the Sky  "has harsh realism for a juvenile." He described it as "a novel of education" where the protagonist "tell[s] his own story in a relaxed conversational style."

Major themes
The book takes up consciously many of the themes of the 19th century American frontier and homesteading - but without the moral stain of dispossessing the Native Americans. In particular, a character who grows the first apple tree on Ganymede and offers seeds to other colonists comes to be known as "Johnny Appleseed" (and saves his family from freezing by burning his precious tree).

Scientific details

The "heat trap", which allows humans to live on Ganymede, is a man-made implementation of the greenhouse effect, although its mechanism is never explained. This effect could be achieved in reality by releasing large quantities of super greenhouse gases, which would not require a constant power supply, and would therefore be unaffected by a disaster such as that described in the book.

Decades after publication it was discovered that the magnetosphere of Jupiter encloses Ganymede and the other Galilean moons in an analog of Earth's Van Allen radiation belt, subjecting their surfaces to an intense rain of ionizing radiation. The Galileo flyby in 1995 discovered that Ganymede has a magnetosphere, but the shielding effect is weak; it is believed that the surface radiation intensity would still be lethal within months.

The alignment of Jupiter's four major moons as described in the book can never happen in reality. The three inner Galilean satellites are in a resonance with one another such that whenever two of them are aligned, the third will always be non-aligned and quite often situated on the opposite side of Jupiter.

The book describes Ganymede as having about 1/3 Earth gravity but in reality it is only about 1/7.

Heinlein also postulated that the surface of Ganymede was volcanic rock like the Moon.  Subsequent discoveries have shown that Ganymede's crust is actually almost 90 percent ice or frost, covering a subsurface ocean.

The novel refers to the "Space Patrol", the interplanetary peace-keeping organization described in Space Cadet.

Because it was originally written to be serialized in the Boy Scout magazine Boys' Life, Bill Lermer's participation in the Scouts is pervasive, mentioned at least once per chapter.

References

External links

Satellite Scout parts one, two, three, and four on Google Books

1950 American novels
Novels by Robert A. Heinlein
American science fiction novels
Scouting in popular culture
Fiction set on Ganymede (moon)
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Boys' Life
1950 science fiction novels
Children's science fiction novels
Space Western novels
Overpopulation fiction

Farmer in the Sky


Victor Louis Ménage (15 April 1920 – 11 June 2015) was a British historian, Turkologist, with a particular focus on the early Ottoman Empire and an editor of the Encyclopaedia of Islam.

Ménage described his experience of childhood poverty in Chislehurst, Kent from where study offered escape. A grant gained him a place at Eltham College (1930–1938). Encouraged by his teachers, he went on to Clare College, Cambridge University, to study Classics (1938–1940).

Although an opponent of war in 1940 World War II, he was enlisted into the military where he joined the ambulance service. At the end of the war, he was stationed in Ethiopia. After leaving the army, he accepted a teaching position in Addis Ababa. He later described this time as stimulating and pioneering. He transferred to the British Council at the end of the decade, when he met his future wife, Johannan.

Ménage produced several books and articles on Ottoman history over years working in research. In addition to teaching as professor of Turkish history at the University of London, he also edited and contributed chapters to the second edition of the  Encyclopaedia of Islam .

Victor Louis Ménage died on 11 June 2015 in Sussex, England.

References

1920 births
2015 deaths
British historians
Scholars of Ottoman history
British expatriates in Ethiopia
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
British military personnel of World War II

Victor Louis Ménage