Vischering Castle () in Lüdinghausen, North Rhine-Westphalia is the most typical moated castle in the Münster (region) of Germany. This region has one of the highest German concentrations of castles, palaces and fortifications, Lüdinghausen having three by itself.  The castle consists of outer defensive courtyard, defensive gateways, moat, drawbridge, main building and chapel.  The sandstone walls, the red tile roofs as well as their reflection in the moat provide many harmonious views from the wooded surroundings.

Vischering Castle was built by Bischop Gerhard von der Mark to counter the second castle built by the Von Lüdinghausen family.  It became the seat of the Droste zu Vischering Family.  Droste is the local title for the hereditary noble administrators serving the Bishops of Münster.  The moat is constantly replenished by a side-arm of the River Stever.  The outer defensive courtyard contains the business and farm buildings.  The main building is a horseshoe-shaped three-story structure with heavy outer wall.  Its inner courtyard is closed off by the chapel and a lower defense wall.  A castle keep is missing, having been removed during Renaissance renovations.  Fire destroyed the castle in 1521.  Rebuilding took place on the existing foundation.  Windows and the addition of a large bay made the castle more liveable but diminished its defensive character.  The whole site however retains the character of a feudal age moated castle.  Damage from air attack during World War II was minor.

Vischering Castle houses the Münsterlandmuseum, an exhibit on knighthood for children, as well as a cafe-restaurant.  It serves as a cultural center for Kreis Coesfeld.  Visiting hours are provided in the first link below.  Viewing the outside is possible at all times.  The second link provides a more detailed chronology of the castle in German .

External links
Official Website
Burg Vischering auf burgenwelt.de in German

Museums in North Rhine-Westphalia
History museums in Germany
Water castles in North Rhine-Westphalia
Buildings and structures in Coesfeld (district)
Lüdinghausen

Vischering Castle


William Horace Marshall (August 19, 1924 – June 11, 2003) was an American actor, director and opera singer. He played the title role in the 1972 blaxploitation classic Blacula and its sequel Scream Blacula Scream (1973), and appeared as the King of Cartoons on the 1980s television show Pee-wee's Playhouse and as Dr. Richard Daystrom on the Star Trek television series. He was 6'5" (1.96 m) tall and was known for his bass voice.

Biography

Early life

Marshall was born in Gary, Indiana, to Vereen Marshall, a dentist, and Thelma (née Edwards).

He attended New York University as an art student but transferred to the Actors Studio to study theater. He studied at the American Theatre Wing and with Sanford Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse.

Career
Marshall made his Broadway debut in 1944 in Carmen Jones. In 1950, he understudied Boris Karloff as Captain Hook in the Broadway production of Peter Pan. He played the leading role of De Lawd in the 1951 revival of The Green Pastures, a role he repeated in 1958 in a BBC telecast of the play. He performed in several Shakespearean plays on the stage in the U. S. and Europe, including the title role in at least six productions of Othello. Harold Hobson of the London Sunday Times praised Marshall's portrayal as "the best Othello of our time."

In 1968, Marshall joined the Center Theatre Group at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles to play Othello in a jazz musical version, Catch My Soul, with Jerry Lee Lewis as Iago.

Marshall portrayed Paul Robeson and Frederick Douglass on stage. He researched Douglass's life extensively, and in 1983 produced and played the lead role in Frederick Douglass: Slave and Statesman.

Film and television career
Marshall's career on screen began in the 1952 film Lydia Bailey as a Haitian leader. He followed that with a prominent role as Glycon, comrade and fellow gladiator to Victor Mature in the 1954 film Demetrius and the Gladiators. His demeanor, voice and stature gave him a wide range, though he was ill-suited for the subservient roles that many black actors of his generation were most frequently offered.  He was a leader of the Mau-Mau uprising in Something of Value (1957), and Attorney General Edward Brooke in The Boston Strangler (1968). He probably received the most notice for his role in the vampire film Blacula and its sequel Scream Blacula Scream.

In the early 1950s, Marshall starred briefly in Harlem Detective, a series about black police officers. The show was canceled when Marshall was named as a communist in the anti-communist newsletter Counterattack.

Despite blacklisting because of his supposed communist connections, Marshall continued to appear in both television and films. He appeared on the British spy series Danger Man in episodes titled "Deadline" (1962) and "The Galloping Major" (1964). Marshall played the role of traveling opera singer Thomas Bowers in the 1964 Bonanza episode "Enter Thomas Bowers," and that same year he appeared, with actor Ivan Dixon, as the leader of a newly independent African nation and as a T.H.R.U.S.H. agent in the first-season episode of The Man from U.N.C.L.E. entitled "The Vulcan Affair", also on the 1964 Rawhide episode "Incident at Seven Fingers" where he played a Buffalo Soldier.  In 1968, he appeared as Dr. Richard Daystrom in the Star Trek episode "The Ultimate Computer". In 1969, he had a special guest appearance as the character Amalek in an episode of The Wild Wild West entitled "The Night of the Egyptian Queen". He reprised his Othello persona in 1979 on Steve Allen's "Meeting of the Minds".

He won two local Emmys for producing and performing in a PBS production, As Adam Early in the Morning, a theatre piece originally performed on stage. He also was featured in an episode of The Alfred Hitchcock Hour titled, "The Jar", with actors Pat Buttram and George Lindsey.

Marshall played the King of Cartoons on Pee-wee's Playhouse, replacing actor Gilbert Lewis, during the 1980s.

In 1985, guest starred on Benson as Mr. Reaper (death) season 7, episode 4 "The Stranger"

Later life and death
In addition to acting and producing, Marshall taught acting at various universities including the University of California, Irvine, and the Mafundi Institute, an African-American arts and music institution in the Watts section of Los Angeles. He did similar work at Chicago's ETA Creative Arts Foundation, which in 1992 named Marshall one of its Epic Men of the 20th century.

For 42 years, Marshall was the partner of Sylvia Gussin Jarrico, former wife of blacklisted screenwriter Paul Jarrico. Marshall died on June 11, 2003, from complications arising from Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. He was survived by sons Tariq, Malcolm, and Claude Marshall and daughter Gina Loring. Eulogists at his funeral included Sidney Poitier, Ivan Dixon, Paul Winfield, and Marla Gibbs.

Awards
 Emmy Award for Best Lead Actor in a Drama Series, As Adam Early in the Morning (1974).

Filmography

Lydia Bailey (1952) – King Dick
Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) – Glycon
Something of Value (1957) – Leader – Intellectual in Suit
Sabu and the Magic Ring (1957) – Ubal, the genie
La fille de feu (1958) – Stork
The Big Pride (1961) – Sutlej
Piedra de toque (1963) – African Missionary (uncredited)
The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1964) (Season 2 Episode 17: "The Jar") - Jahdoo
To Trap a Spy (1964) – Sekue Ashumen
The Hell with Heroes (1968) – Al Poland
The Boston Strangler (1968) – Atty. Gen. Edward W. Brooke
Skullduggery (1970) – Attorney General
The Mask of Sheba (1970) – Captain Condor Sekallie
Zig Zag (1970) – Morris Bronson
Honky (1971) – Dr. Craig Smith
Blacula (1972) – Blacula / Mamuwalde
Scream Blacula Scream (1973) – Blacula / Mamuwalde
Abby (1974) – Bishop Garnet Williams
Twilight's Last Gleaming (1977) – William Klinger – Attorney General
The Great Skycopter Rescue (1980) – Mr. Jason
 The Tragedy of Othello (1981) – Othello
Vasectomy: A Delicate Matter (1986) – Dr. Dean
Amazon Women on the Moon (1987) – Pirate Captain (segment "Video Pirates")
Maverick (1994) – Riverboat Poker Player #10
Sorceress (1995) – John Geiger
Dinosaur Valley Girls (1996) – Dr. Benjamin Michaels

References

External links

 In Loving Memory Of William-Marshall

  Via CBS News.

1924 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century African-American male singers
20th-century American male opera singers
African-American male opera singers
African-American male actors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Deaths from dementia in California
Deaths from diabetes
Male actors from Indiana
Actors from Gary, Indiana
University of California, Irvine faculty
New York University alumni
Singers from Indiana
Classical musicians from Indiana

William Marshall (actor)


The Noordsche Compagnie () was a Dutch cartel in the whaling trade, founded by several cities in the Netherlands in 1614 and operating until 1642. Soon after its founding, it became entangled in territorial conflicts with England, Denmark, France, and other groups within the Netherlands.

It was also known as the Groenlandse Compagnie (), but the name is misleading today since the "Greenland" referred to is Svalbard, previously thought to either be identical or connected to the island of Greenland discovered and colonized by the Norse.

History
In 1598, a whale beached at Wijk aan Zee. The animal was sold for 126 guilders and the jaw was transported to Dillenburg and given to Jan van Nassau as a gift.

In 1612, the first mention is made of a commercial expedition to Novaya Zemlya after it was concluded that whaling at the Cape of Good Hope in the southern Atlantic offered little prospects of profit. Willem Cornelisz. van Muyden was one of the first skippers to set sail to the North. In 1613, he was the commander of the Neptunus and the Fortuyn, two ships that were sent to Spitsbergen (modern Svalbard, then considered part of Greenland) to hunt for whales. On board were twelve or thirteen French Basques. The remaining crew of 48 men came from North Holland.

On 27 January 1614, the Noordsche Compagnie was founded for a period of two years on Vlieland. Tymen J. Hinlopen and Jacques Nicquet were amongst the original investors. In 1617, the charter was renewed for another four years and, in 1622, for another twelve.

Whaling was done in the summer months. Ships and crew left the ports of the Dutch Republic in May or June. After a three-week journey they arrived at the coastal waters of Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, or Bear Island. In August, September, or October the ships returned to the Republic. Soon whaling stations were established on Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, the best known of these being Smeerenburg. These stations saved much space in the cargohold of the ships, and also held relieve the stench. For years the Noordsche Compagnie controlled the monopoly for whale oil. For every expedition, participants would invest capital. When the expedition had returned, the profit would immediately be divided amongst the investors.

Organization

The administration of the Noordsche Compagnie was divided into five chambers. These were relatively independent and located in Amsterdam, Hoorn, Enkhuizen, Rotterdam, and Delft. Each city had its own installations on the polar islands. In 1616 the Zeelandic Lampsin family took part in the company. From then on Vlissingen, Middelburg and Veere also had a chamber. In 1634 the charter was renewed for another eight years. In 1636 two Frisian chambers were created: Harlingen and Stavoren.

Trading territories

The trading area of the Noordsche Compagnie stretched from the Davis Strait to Novaya Zemlya, north of Russia. The company did not make any claims to the territory, they were only concerned with their trading-monopoly.

Initially the company made much use of Basque harpooners and navigators. Aside from whales, walrus and seals were also hunted. The polar bear hunt resulted in skins and fur. Whale baleen was used to make picture frames for paintings, walking sticks and knifehilts.

Michiel de Ruyter, the most famous Dutch admiral, served as pilot on a ship of the Noordsche Compagnie from 1633 to 1635. He was probably familiar with the route from the time that he was still a sailor.

The company was dissolved in 1642. The company had started receiving intense competition from Dutch interlopers and Danish whalers. Whaling was privatized, and taken over by the private sector.

The participation of the population of the West Frisian Islands to whaling is evident from the tombstones of the ship-captains buried there, which were made from whale jawbones.

See also
 European chartered companies founded around the 17th century (in French)

References

Bibliography
 Hart, S. (1957) De eerste Nederlandse tocht ter walvisvaart. In: Jaarboek Amstelodamum, p. 27-64. (Dutch)
 J.G. van Dillen (1970) Van Rijkdom en Regenten. Handboek tot de Economische en Sociale Geschiedenis van Nederland tijdens de Republiek, p. 248-55. (Dutch)

External links

 Over Pieter Jacobsz. Geusebroeck (Dutch)
 Missie Jan Mayen (Dutch)
 DE KLEINE VISSERIJ (Dutch)
 Traankokerijen op het Jan Mayeneiland (Dutch)
 Mr. S. Muller Fz. (1874), Geschiedenis der Noordsche Compagnie, Gebr. van der Post, Utrecht (Dutch)

1614 establishments in the Dutch Republic
1642 disestablishments in the Dutch Republic
Chartered companies
Whaling firms
Whaling in the Dutch Republic
Companies established in 1614
Companies of the Dutch Republic

Noordsche Compagnie


The Comal Power Plant was originally a lignite (brown coal) power generating facility, built starting in 1925, in New Braunfels, Comal County, Texas.  It was decommissioned in the 1970s, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.  It has since been converted to The Landmark Lofts apartments. At its peak, the plant supplied about 70,000 kWh.

History
The plant was built near the Comal Canal, which was the main source of water to cool the turbines and generators.  Power was derived from fuel-burning steam generators, it was not a hydroelectric plant.  The Comal Power Plant supplied power to central Texas, as well as several nearby military bases, particularly during World War II when the plant was temporarily under the direction of the United States War Department.

The plant was designed to use lignite, a low energy form of coal that, while relatively inexpensive, required special shipping and processing to use as a fuel source.  Once natural gas was made available in the area around 1927, the plant began a conversion to natural gas as its primary heat source with fuel oil as a secondary source.  This was completed in 1929, and reduced the manpower needed by the plant from a peak of 135 workers to less than half of that number.  During the Great Depression, the plant reduced the work week from six to five days to allow additional workers to be added to the payroll.

In 1925, a small 23.5 ton 0-4-0 steam locomotive was built at Baldwin Locomotive Works for the San Antonio Public Services Company. This locomotive was used for only the two years the plant burned lignite and was subsequently put on display at the power plant after the conversion to gas and was regularly painted silver in an effort preserve it. The locomotive was equipped with a vastly oversized air compressor and five air tanks to operate a rotary car dumper in the plant. In the early 1960s, a group of volunteers who organized as the Texas Transportation Museum were able to get the locomotive donated to their new organization. They moved it to the old tracks around the Pearl Brewery San Antonio, Texas and fired it up there and used it to give train rides to passengers. After decades in storage, the locomotive is today fully preserved and restored and pulls regular train rides on the Longhorn and Western Railroad at the Texas Transportation Museum

Closing
The 1970s energy crisis caused the price of natural gas to climb and its availability to decrease, forcing the plant to switch to fuel oil when its natural gas contract expired at the start of 1973.  The expense of the additional workers needed to maintain the plant when using fuel oil resulted in the closing of the facility on June 16, 1973.  The turbine generators and ancillary equipment were sold or relocated to other plants in the late 1970s and 1980s.  At the end, the remaining equipment was disassembled and sold for scrap.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Comal County, Texas
List of power stations in Texas

References

External links
 Landmark Lofts web site

Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
Neoclassical architecture in Texas
Buildings and structures completed in 1925
Energy infrastructure on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Comal County, Texas
Former coal-fired power stations in Texas
CPS Energy
Apartment buildings in Texas

Comal Power Plant


Justice League Dark: Apokolips War is a 2020 American adult animated superhero film produced by Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Home Video. The film is directed by Matt Peters and Christina Sotta, while Ernie Altbacker and Mairghread Scott wrote the screenplay. It stars an ensemble cast including Matt Ryan, Jerry O'Connell, Taissa Farmiga, Stuart Allan, Tony Todd, Ray Chase, Jason O'Mara, Rosario Dawson, Shemar Moore, Camilla Luddington, Christopher Gorham, Rebecca Romijn, Hynden Walch, Liam McIntyre, John DiMaggio, Sachie Alessio, Roger R. Cross, and Rainn Wilson. In the film, members of the Justice League, Justice League Dark, Teen Titans and Suicide Squad join forces against Darkseid to save Earth.

Based on the comic book storylines "Darkseid War" by Geoff Johns, "Final Crisis" by Grant Morrison, and elements of "Futures End", it is the 40th DC Universe Animated Original Movie as well as the sixteenth and final feature film set in the DC Animated Movie Universe (DCAMU), generally marking the continuity's conclusion. The film was released digitally on May 5, 2020, and in 4K/Blu-ray/DVD on May 19. It received mostly positive reviews from critics and fans alike.

Plot
Following Darkseid's failed attempts at conquering Earth, the Justice League devise a plan to defeat him by infiltrating Apokolips while leaving the Teen Titans to defend Earth. Unbeknownst to them, Darkseid spies on the League through Cyborg. The League is overwhelmed and defeated by Paradooms — hybrid creatures made from Parademons and Doomsday using Superman's Kryptonian DNA—and a majority of the heroes from both the League and the Titans are killed, while those who survive are placed into Darkseid's slavery.

Two years later, Darkseid has placed devices known as "Reapers" which mine the planet's core. Superman, forcibly depowered after Darkseid tattooed his chest with liquid kryptonite, escapes from Apokolips and reunites with Raven, who has been struggling to maintain her father Trigon's imprisonment. They seek John Constantine for a location spell to track Damian Wayne. Although reluctant to help at first, considering himself a coward for fleeing during the initial attack on Darkseid and leaving his lover Zatanna to die, Constantine locates Damian at a League of Assassins outpost. Clark explains to Damian they need him to help free his father Batman from Darkseid's control. Damian reluctantly agrees to join the group.

The group travel to Stryker's Island in Metropolis and meet with Clark's wife Lois Lane who has recruited the Suicide Squad to their cause, now led by Harley Quinn. Clark and Lois reveal their plan to infiltrate LexCorp and use a boom tube to return to Apokolips and kill Darkseid. Meanwhile, the remaining heroes attack the Reapers but are overrun and killed by Paradooms. At the building, Lex Luthor confronts them, revealing he was working with Lois to gain intel on Darkseid. The group splits into two with Clark, Damian, Raven, Constantine, and Etrigan the Demon going to Apokolips and Lois, Luthor, and the Squad remaining at the building to defend the boom tube. Batman informs Darkseid of Luthor's betrayal, and sends Paradooms and the newly converted Furies after the heroes.

Upon arrival, Clark's group is attacked by the Furies, consisting of cybernetic versions of Wonder Woman, Mera, Hawkman, Starfire, and Martian Manhunter. Wonder Woman kills Etrigan, but Constantine manages to break her free using her Lasso of Truth. She decides to stay behind to fend off the other Furies as the group head on. They also rescue Flash from a treadmill powering Apokolips; Constantine learns that Flash had previously altered the timeline in the past in a "flashpoint". Shortly thereafter, Cyborg, who has integrated into the planet's network, confronts them. Constantine frees him from Darkseid's control, which also frees the remaining Furies. Darkseid orders Batman to kill Damian but he hesitates when he is reminded of his parents' death, which breaks him free of Darkseid's control. In a fit of rage, Darkseid tries to kill Batman but Damian intercepts him, dying in Batman's arms. His death overwhelms Raven, her sudden emotional instability freeing Trigon. Constantine offers his body as a vessel for Trigon, but he refuses and takes Clark's body instead, purging the kryptonite from his body, restoring his powers, and killing Constantine. Now possessing Clark, Trigon attacks Darkseid. Zatanna briefly visits Constantine in the afterlife, revealing she used a spell to manipulate him into fleeing back to Earth as part of a contingency plan prepared by Batman. Simultaneously, Raven and Zatanna revive Damian and Constantine.

Back at LexCorp, Paradooms surround Lois's team, prompting them to initiate a self-destruct. Lois transmits a goodbye message to Apokolips with Cyborg's assistance. Her death shocks Clark back to his senses and frees him from Trigon's possession. Constantine and Raven combine their magic to give Trigon a physical body so he can continue fighting Darkseid. Cyborg sacrifices himself to drag Darkseid, Trigon, and the Paradooms into a boom tube with no exit. Trigon prevents Darkseid's escape as Apokolips is dragged into oblivion.

Despite their victory, Batman reveals that the Reapers have drained one-third of Earth's magma, the planet's rotation was compromised, and billions of people will die before the League can potentially find a solution. As a result, Constantine convinces Flash to run back in time and reset the timeline again despite knowing that the world will never be perfect or the same as before, but it will be better than theirs. Flash eventually agrees, and the remaining heroes watch as he makes another flashpoint, resetting the timeline.

Voice cast

Production
The film was first announced in July 2019 at San Diego Comic-Con. Several voice actors from previous DC Animated Movie Universe films reprised their respective roles.

Release
The film was released on digital platforms on May 5, 2020, and on 4K/Blu-ray/DVD on May 19. It features a showcase animated short based on Adam Strange.

Reception

Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of  based on  reviews, with an average rating of . Jesse Schden of IGN said: "This film takes full advantage of the fact that it's the final chapter in a 15-movie arc. Its narrative veers into some very surprising and compelling directions, and somehow it manages to pay off on loose ends from across the DCU".

Revenue
The film earned $5,588,461 from domestic Blu-ray sales.

Future
In spite of Justice League Dark: Apokolips War being confirmed as the last film in the DCAMU, screenwriter Ernie Altbacker teased the possibility of a new project related to that continuity. He said that "the way we ended it... it's really like a tough balancing act: It ends something on a bittersweet yet hopeful note, and I'll just say, people who are saying, 'Oh man, we're not going to get anymore of these!' ...you're not losing something, you're gaining something new..."

The Tomorrowverse is considered to be the successor to the DCAMU and occasionally references events from the latter.

In May 2022, Constantine: The House of Mystery was released. The short film deals with the aftermath of Apokolips War.

Notes

References

External links
 DC page

Bisexuality-related films
2020 animated films
2020s English-language films
2020s American animated films
Apocalyptic films
2020s direct-to-video animated superhero films
2020 direct-to-video films
2020 films
American adult animated films
American superhero films
Animated Justice League films
Animated films about extraterrestrial life
DC Animated Movie Universe
Alien invasions in films
Demons in film
LGBT-related animated superhero films
2020 LGBT-related films
Films scored by Frederik Wiedmann
Films set in 2020
Films set in 2022
Films set on fictional planets
Resurrection in film
Films directed by Matt Peters

Justice League Dark: Apokolips War


The 1965 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15, 1965, in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1965, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1965. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean. A total of ten systems were observed. The most notable storm was Tropical Storm Hazel, which killed six people in Mexico.

Systems

Tropical Storm Victoria

On June 4, a tropical depression formed 585 miles (945 km) southwest of Acapulco, Mexico Early the next day, the depression system intensified into the first tropical storm of the season and was named Victoria. At that time, the storm was at its peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h) which it retained while moving the northwest. Early on June 7, the tropical storm weakened into a tropical depression before dissipating six hours later.  In all, Tropical Storm Victoria stayed at sea.

Tropical Storm Wallie

Early on the morning of June 17, a tropical depression formed 185 miles (300 km/h) west of Puerto Angel, Mexico. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Wallie. Meanwhile, Wallie was at its peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h). Wallie headed northwest and degenerated into an area of low pressure just off the Mexican coast early on June 18. The remnant low made landfall in the near Zihuatanejo, Mexico early on June 18. The low dissipated later that day.

Damage in Mexico from Wallie was described as the worst in eight years. Monetary damages were described was being in the "thousands", however an exact damage total is unknown. No deaths were reported due to the storm.

Tropical Storm Ava

Early on June 29, a tropical storm was identified 535 miles (860 km) south of Cabo San Lucas, Mexico and named Ava. At that time, the storm was at peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h). However, Tropical Storm Ava weakened into a tropical depression within 24 hours. Late on June 30, the depression re-strengthened into a tropical storm and regained peak intensity. At this time, the storm took a track that went north and back south gently. On July 3, Tropical Storm Ava weakened into a tropical depression. Ava dissipated early on July 5. The tropical storm stayed at sea, and no damage was reported.

Tropical Storm Bernice

On June 30, Tropical Storm Bernice formed. At this time, the system was located 275 miles (445 km) south of Puerto Angel, Mexico. For the next few days, the storm moved northeastward, while maintaining peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h). On July 5, Bernice stopped its northeastward motion and began to turn east, Berice dissipating on July 8, without ever impacting any land masses.

Tropical Storm Claudia

During the afternoon of August 7, a tropical depression formed 150 miles southwest of Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. On August 8, the cyclone strengthened into Tropical Storm Claudia. At that time, Claudia was reaching its peak intensity of 50 mph (85 km/h), while also beginning to recurve to the north. The storm remained at peak intensity while re-curving until August 10 when the wind speeds decreased slightly and advisories were discontinued.  The storm never affected land.

Tropical Storm Doreen

Late on August 19, Tropical Storm Doreen was first located with a TIROS satellite image. The next day, a ship, the San Juan Prospector reported winds of 40 knots (45 mph, 70 km/h) and a pressure of 975 mbar (hPa). At this time, Doreen was moving to the northwest as 10 knots. On August 21, Doreen altered its course to the west, but reversed back to its original heading the next day. On August 22, the ship Kyoyu Maru, which was just north of the storm's center reported winds of 60 knots (70 mph, 115 km/h). Over the next few days, the storm gently recurved northward but then slowed down and headed to the southwest. On August 30, Tropical Storm Doreen crossed the Central Pacific where it dissipated the next morning. During the course of the system, 13 ships reported winds related to Doreen,  but no damage was reported.

Hurricane Emily

On August 30, a moderate tropical storm developed. It slowing intensified, becoming the first hurricane of this season at 1200 UTC August 31. Emily began to weaken while moving northward in the Eastern Pacific. On 0000 UTC time September 3, Emily weakened into a tropical depression. It hit Baja California at the same intensity on September 6.  According to one source, Emily was the first potentially hazardous storm in many years to approach Southern California. It approached Southern California while the SEALAB II Project was underway at La Jolla, California. There was concern that waves from Emily would move the Berkone, a support ship for SEALAB, away from the SEALAB site as the project would have to be halted. Rainfall totals reach 1 in (25 mm) in isolated areas.

Tropical Storm Florence

Tropical Storm Florence first formed on September 8 as a tropical depression. After 24 hours, Florence intensified into a tropical storm. At that time, the cyclone peaked with 50 mph (80 km/h) winds. However, on September 11, Florence suddenly weakened. After maintaining its intensity for a while, the depression was declared dissipated.  Florence stayed at sea and no deaths or damage were reported.

Tropical Storm Glenda

Tropical Storm Glenda formed on September 13 and maintained the same intensity of 50 mph(85 km/h) for nine days before advisories were dropped.

Tropical Storm Hazel

Hazel developed from a northward-moving disturbance that originated southeast of Socorro Island. After reaching tropical storm strength on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale, the cyclone turned to the east-northeast – a motion confirmed by a ship report. The storm made landfall near Mazatlán on September 26 and quickly became extratropical.  Thousands more were left homeless. Mazatlán's shrimp fleet, which makes up the base of the city's economy, suffered major damage, while in southern Sinaloa, 55,000 acres of cotton, corn, and sorghum were lost. At least 50 boats were damaged or sunk by the storm. The damage from the storm was estimated at $10 million (1965 USD) and possibly more, making Hazel the costliest tropical cyclone of the season.

Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating

Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) is a measure of the activity of a hurricane season. It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm-force winds every six hours, summing the results, and dividing that total by 104. As a tropical cyclone does not have gale-force winds until it becomes a tropical storm, tropical depressions are not included in these tables. For all storms, ACE is given to three significant figures. The ACE in the east Pacific proper (140°W to North America) is given; the ACE in the central Pacific (the International Date Line to 140°W) is given in brackets.

Storm names
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1965. This is a part of list 2, which was used from 1960 to 1965. Names that were not assigned are marked in gray. The name Hazel was retired and replaced with Heather in 1969.

See also

 Pacific hurricane season
 1965 Atlantic hurricane season
 1965 Pacific typhoon season
 Australian region cyclone seasons: 1964–65 1965–66
 South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1964–65 1965–66
 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1964–65 1965–66

References

Pacific hurricane seasons
Articles which contain graphical timelines

1965 Pacific hurricane season


Parker Hannifin Corporation, originally Parker Appliance Company, usually referred to as just Parker, is an American corporation specializing in motion and control technologies. Its corporate headquarters are in Mayfield Heights, Ohio, in Greater Cleveland (with a Cleveland mailing address).

The company was founded in 1917 and has been publicly traded on the NYSE since December 9, 1964. The firm is one of the largest companies in the world in motion control technologies, including aerospace, climate control, electromechanical, filtration, fluid and gas handling, hydraulics, pneumatics, process control, and sealing and shielding. Parker employs about 55,000 people globally.

In 2022, the company was ranked 253 in the Fortune 500.

History

1917–1950
Arthur L. Parker founded the firm as the Parker Appliance Company in Ohio around 1917 or 1918. In its early years, it built pneumatic brake systems for buses, trucks and trains. In 1919, Parker's truck slid over a cliff, causing the company to lose its entire inventory and forcing the founder to return to his previous job. Nonetheless, he restarted Parker Appliance Company in 1924.

By 1927, the firm had expanded into airplanes. For his flight across the Atlantic Ocean, Charles Lindbergh requested Parker parts be used in the construction of his aircraft the Spirit of St. Louis. The firm contributed the system that linked the aircraft's 16 fuel tanks.

During World War II, Parker experienced a boom in business as the U.S. Air Force's primary supplier of valves and fluid connectors. By 1943, the firm employed 5,000 Cleveland, Ohio, residents. After Arthur Parker's death in 1945 and the end of the war, the company neared bankruptcy due to the sudden drop in demand. Arthur Parker's wife, Helen Parker, assumed control of the company and prevented its liquidation. She hired new management staff and directed the company's focus back to civilian manufacturing.

1950s–1960s
In the early 1950s, the firm's executives set a goal to make Parker, as The New York Times put it, "the General Electric of fluid power", a goal it generally achieved in the coming decades. In 1957, the company purchased Hannifin, a producer of valve and cylinder products, and changed its name to Parker Hannifin. Many more acquisitions followed, with the company reaching 40 acquisitions by the year 1979.

In 1953, Arthur Parker's son Patrick S. Parker began working full-time at the company. He rose to become its president in 1968, and  served as CEO from 1971 to 1983 and as chairman from 1977 to 1999. During and after his tenure, the firm grew dramatically, with revenues rising from $197 million in 1968 to over $7 billion in 2005.

The company debuted on the New York Stock Exchange in 1964, under the ticker symbol PH. In 1966, the company joined the Fortune 500. The company designed parts for the craft used in NASA's first crewed Moon landing in 1969.

1970s–1990s
An economic downturn in 1970 forced the company to expand beyond its focus on hydraulic systems. In the following years it began to expand into the automotive aftermarket, considered a more stable industry. The company also directed itself toward growth in aerospace, acquiring companies that created flight controls and wheel brake equipment for airplanes. By 1979, Parker Hannifin employed 20,000 people in 100 plants, selling 90,000 items for machinery, airplanes, cars and construction equipment to 60,000 customers. The company made some of the equipment inside the mechanical shark in the 1975 movie Jaws.

In 1982, Paul G. Schloemer replaced Patrick Parker as the company's president (although Patrick Parker remained chairman and CEO). That same year, the firm entered the Mexican market. By 2008, Parker Hannifin Mexico would come to operate 11 plants in the country, seven of which made parts exclusively for the U.S. market. In 1988, the company reached $2 billion in sales.

The firm opened its first retail "ParkerStore" in Cleveland in 1993. Within 10 years, the network of stores expanded to 200 locations in the U.S. and more than 400 worldwide. ParkerStores offer a variety of Parker products, including hydraulics, automation, and hose and fitting components, at locations close to industrial product buyers. Parker Hannifin systems helped control the massive replica of the Titanic in the 1997 film of the same name. In 1997, the firm moved its headquarters from Cleveland to a new building in Mayfield Heights, a suburb of Cleveland. In 1999, the company's sales reached approximately $5 billion.

2000s–present
Parker Hannifin acquired Commercial Intertech Corporation, a maker of hydraulic systems, in 2000. With a cost of $366 million, this was at the time Parker Hannifin's biggest acquisition.

In 2001, CEO Don Washkewicz introduced lean startup methods to company operations and has said that over the decade this reduced the time to obtain price quotes by 60% and cut product development lead times by 25%.

In 2002 the company appointed Craig Maxwell as head of engineering; Maxwell brought a focus on innovation as well as rigor; he argued for and was given a $20M annual budget to fund blue sky inventions made by engineers and has given engineers time to pursue them; at the same time his team developed software that allows tracking each of the company's 1700 ongoing R&D projects graded by risk and potential reward, and closely managing their progress. In 2011 he hired Ryan Farris out of Vanderbilt University and licensed patents covering a powered exoskeleton that Farris had worked on at Vanderbilt.  In 2015 the company opened an internal business incubator that Maxwell had proposed when he was first hired.

The company won $2 billion in contracts to build fuel and hydraulic systems for Airbus A350 airliners in 2008 Two years later, its products were used in repairing the Deepwater Horizon oil rig.

Thomas Williams took over the CEO role from Washkewicz in 2015. In 2016, the company completed its largest acquisition to date, buying Clarcor, a filtration systems manufacturer, for $4.3 billion. In 2019, Parker bought Lord Corporation for $3.7 billion.

In August 2021, the company agreed to buy British aerospace and defense company Meggitt for £6.3 billion. In July 2022, after making commitments to the UK government including increasing research and development spending in Britain, the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy approved the takeover without being referred for a full Competition and Markets Authority investigation. The acquisition completed in September 2022.

In May 2022, it was announced Parker Hannifin has sold its aircraft wheel and brake division to the Bloomfield-headquartered aerospace company, Kaman Corporation for US$440 million.

Aerospace
Parker Hannifin's aerospace division, Parker Stratoflex, designs and manufactures aerospace hydraulic equipment. It is a provider of aircraft parts to aircraft manufacturers, including fuel system components and high-temperature bleed air valves. Based in Irvine, California, Parker Aerospace also operates facilities in Arizona and Mexico. The company has had contracts to contribute parts and maintenance for machinery produced by Airbus, Rolls-Royce, Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China as well as other manufacturers.

In 1993, the Federal Aviation Administration contracted Parker Aerospace to develop a new monitoring device, the Multi-Sensor Enroute Flight Inspection System, for flight inspection aircraft.

Notable acquisitions by the division include the Kalamazoo, Michigan-based Abex/NWL division of Pneumo Abex in 1996, and Naples, Florida-based Shaw Aero Devices, in 2007. In 2012, the company partnered with General Electric to form a 50-50 joint venture, Advanced Atomization Technologies, for producing fuel nozzles for commercial aircraft engines.  Exotic Metals Forming in 2019

Boeing 737 accidents and incidents

In 1995, it was discovered that failures in a servo unit supplied by Parker Hannifin to Boeing for use in their 737 aircraft may have contributed to several accidents and incidents, including the crashes of United Airlines Flight 585 and USAir Flight 427.

In 2004, a Los Angeles jury ordered Parker Hannifin to pay US$43 million to the plaintiff families of the 1997 SilkAir Flight 185 crash in Indonesia. Parker Hannifin subsequently appealed the verdict, which resulted in an out-of-court settlement for an undisclosed amount. The Indonesian National Transportation Safety Committee (NTSC) could not determine the cause of the crash due to the near total lack of physical evidence because of the complete destruction; The US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), however disagreed,  and concluded that the crash was caused, possibly intentionally, by the pilot.

The FAA ordered an upgrade of all Boeing 737 rudder control systems by November 12, 2002.  The firm argued that the components they supplied were not at fault, citing that the product has one of the safest records in its class, but the FAA directive went through regardless. In 2016, former NTSB investigator John Cox stated that time has proven the NTSB correct in its findings, that the valve was faulty, because no additional rudder-reversal incidents have occurred since Boeing's redesign.

F-35 fueldraulic line failure
On 18 January 2013, the F-35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II was grounded after the failure of a fueldraulic line in the aircraft's propulsion system that controls the exhaust vectoring system.  This followed an incident two days earlier on 16 January, in which the propulsion system experienced a fueldraulic failure prior to a conventional takeoff.  The precautionary flight suspension was intended to preserve safety while providing time to understand the origin of the failure of the propulsion fueldraulic line. The failure was found to be a manufacturing defect by Parker Hannifin's Stratoflex division.

References

External links

Companies based in Cleveland
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Conglomerate companies of the United States
Cuyahoga County, Ohio
Manufacturing companies based in Cleveland
Manufacturing companies established in 1917
American companies established in 1917
1917 establishments in Ohio
1960s initial public offerings

Parker Hannifin


Edward James "Eddie" Hart (born April 24, 1949) is an American former track and field sprinter, winner of the gold medal in 4 × 100 m relay race at the 1972 Summer Olympics.

Born in Martinez, California, Eddie Hart won the NCAA championships in 100 yd in 1970 as a University of California student.

At the US Olympic Trials in 1972, both Hart and Rey Robinson repeated the world record, running the 100 m in 9.9 seconds, and were favored to win the race at the Olympic Games. But in Munich, they were both eliminated in the 100 m race because their coach, Stan Wright, unknowingly using an outdated Olympic schedule to determine the starting time of their quarterfinal heat, failed to deliver them to the track on time. This failure due to disorganization created much controversy. Hart also ran the anchoring leg in the American 4 × 100 m relay team, which won a gold medal and equalled the United States' own world record of 38.19.

Hart continued to run and in 1989 set the Masters world record in the 100 m that lasted for 14 years.

In 2017 Hart released a book, Disqualified: Eddie Hart, Munich 1972, and the Voices of the Most Tragic Olympics about his Olympic experience.

References

1949 births
Living people
American male sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field
Sportspeople from Martinez, California
Sportspeople from Contra Costa County, California
American masters athletes
Track and field athletes from California
Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics
 American Masters Athlete that competed in Olympics

Eddie Hart (sprinter)


Buochs is a municipality in the canton of Nidwalden in Switzerland.

History
Buochs is first mentioned in 1124 as Boches.  In 1184, it was mentioned as Buoches, then in 1210 as Buches, and in 1229 as Buchs.

Geography

Buochs has an area, (as of the 2004/09 survey) of .  Of this area, about 46.8% is used for agricultural purposes, while 33.5% is forested.   Of the rest of the land, 18.0% is settled (buildings or roads) and 1.7% is unproductive land.  In the 2004/09 survey a total of  or about 9.7% of the total area was covered with buildings, an increase of  over the 1981 amount.  Of the agricultural land,  is used for orchards and vineyards,  is fields and grasslands and  consists of alpine grazing areas.  Since 1981 the amount of agricultural land has decreased by .  Over the same time period the amount of forested land has decreased by .  Rivers and lakes cover  in the municipality.

The municipality is located along the roads between Ennetbürgen, Beckenried and Stans.  It is on the western side of Lake Lucerne between the Engelberger Aa and the Buochserhorn mountain.  It consists of the former linear village of Buochs.

Demographics
Buochs has a population () of .  , 15.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals.  Over the last 5 years (2010-2015) the population has changed at a rate of 2.16%.  The birth rate in the municipality, in 2015, was 11.6, while the death rate was 6.1 per thousand residents.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 19.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) are 63.4% of the population and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 17.0%.  In 2015 there were 2,405 single residents, 2,465 people who were married or in a civil partnership, 217 widows or widowers and 346 divorced residents.

In 2015 there were 2,244 private households in Buochs with an average household size of 2.39 persons. In 2015 about 28.6% of all buildings in the municipality were single family homes, which is less than the percentage in the canton (35.5%) and much less than the percentage nationally (57.4%).  Of the 742 inhabited buildings in the municipality, in 2000, about 29.5% were single family homes and 50.3% were multiple family buildings.  Additionally, about 18.2% of the buildings were built before 1919, while 14.7% were built between 1991 and 2000.  In 2014 the rate of construction of new housing units per 1000 residents was 16.67.  The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 1.21%.

Most of the population () speaks German (90.9%), with Italian being second most common (1.8%) and Serbo-Croatian being third (1.7%).   the gender distribution of the population was 50.8% male and 49.2% female.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Sights
The main sights of Buochs are the church St. Martin, the Loreto chapel in Ennerberg, a monument of Johann Melchior Wyrsch, and the quay.

The urban village of Buochs is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Politics
In the 2015 federal election the only major party which ran a candidate was the SVP which received 83.8% of the vote.  In the federal election, a total of 2,242 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 57.3%.  In the 2011 election the SVP received 43.8%, followed by the FDP with 38.0% and the GPS with 18.2%.

In the 2007 federal election, the most popular party was the FDP which received 89.9% of the vote.  Most of the rest of the votes went to local small right-wing parties (9.4%).

Education
In Buochs about 73% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

Economy
Buochs is classified as a suburban community.

, there were a total of 1,971 people employed in the municipality.  Of these, a total of 130 people worked in 44 businesses in the primary economic sector.  The secondary sector employed 599 workers in 81 separate businesses, of which there were 12 small businesses with a total of 336 employees and larger business with a total of 60 employees.  Finally, the tertiary sector provided 1,242 jobs in 240 businesses, of which three mid sized businesses employed a total of 246 employees.

In 2015 a total of 16.7% of the population received social assistance.  In 2011 the unemployment rate in the municipality was 1%.

In 2015 local hotels had a total of 35,351 overnight stays, of which 90.8% were international visitors.

In 2015 the average cantonal, municipal and church tax rate in the municipality for a couple with two children making  was 3.3% while the rate for a single person making  was 11.6%, both of which are close to the average for the canton.  The canton has a slightly lower than average tax rate for those making  and one of the lowest for those making . In 2013 the average income in the municipality per tax payer was  and the per person average was , which is less than the cantonal average of  and  respectively   It is also less than the national per tax payer average of  and the per person average of .

Sports
The village is home to the football club SC Buochs, who play in the 2. Liga Interregional.

From 15 to 19 July 2009, the ICF Junior Wildwater Worldchampionships took place. It was mainly organized by members of the canoeclub of Nidwalden and the canoeclub of Obwalden. The races were on the Engelberger Aa.

References

Municipalities of Nidwalden
Populated places on Lake Lucerne

Buochs


Giuliano Ciannella (25 October 1943 – 10 January 2008) was an Italian operatic tenor who had a major international career from the mid-1970s through the late 1990s. He was notably a regular performer at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1979 through 1986, the Lyric Opera of Chicago between 1982 and 1988, and at the Vienna State Opera from 1985 up until the end of his career. Ciannella mostly performed roles from the Italian repertory, particularly excelling in the operas of Giuseppe Verdi and Giacomo Puccini.

Biography
Born in Campi Salentina (Lecce), Ciannella initially studied engineering at the University of Bologna until a chance encounter with Mirella Freni led him to his being encouraged towards an opera career. He entered the Bologna Conservatory where he studied under Leone Magiera. After he graduated he continued with further training under Carlo Bergonzi before making his professional opera debut in 1974 at the Teatro Nuovo in Milan as Edgardo in Gaetano Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. That same year he won the Bussetto international singing competition. He made his first appearance at La Scala in 1976 as Cassio in Verdi's Otello. Over the next three years he had several successes at important opera houses in Italy, including the Teatro Carlo Felice, the Teatro Regio di Parma, and La Fenice.

Ciannella joined the roster of principal tenors at the Metropolitan Opera in 1979, making his first appearance with the company as Alfredo in Verdi's La traviata opposite Eugenia Moldoveanu as Violetta in an outdoor concert at Clove Lakes Park, Staten Island on June 13, 1979. His first performance at the actual opera house was on September 24, 1979 as Cassio to Plácido Domingo's Otello and Gilda Cruz-Romo's Desdemona; a performance which was broadcast live on television. Cianella made more than one hundred appearances at the Met over the next nine seasons, with his signature roles at the house being Alfredo, Rodolfo in Puccini's La Bohème and the title role in Verdi's Don Carlo. His other roles with the company included Des Grieux in Puccini's Manon Lescaut, the Italian Singer in Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier, Macduff in Verdi's Macbeth, Manrico in Verdi's Il trovatore, Pinkerton in Puccini's Madama Butterfly, and Rinuccio in Puccini's Gianni Schicchi. He also gave several performances of Verdi's Requiem with the company alongside fellow soloists Johanna Meier, James Morris, and Florence Quivar in 1981. After leaving the Met in 1986, Ciannella returned to the house only one more time during his career for a 1996 production of Puccini's Turandot. His final and 112th performance at the Met was as Prince Calàf to Ruth Falcon's Turandot on June 14, 1996.

Ciannella was also a regular performer with the Lyric Opera of Chicago during the 1980s. He made his debut with the company as  Pinkerton on November 17, 1982 with Elena Mauti Nunziata as Cio–Cio–San, Elena Zilio as Suzuki, and Sesto Bruscantini as Sharpless. His other roles in Chicago included Enzo Grimaldo in La Gioconda, Manrico, and Rodolfo among others. His last performance with the company was as Mario Cavaradossi in Tosca opposite Renata Scotto in the title role on February 5, 1988.

Ciannella also performed roles with many other companies internationally during the 1980s and 1990s. He sang frequently at the Vienna State Opera from 1985 up until the end of his career, performing much of the same repertoire he performed at the Met. He notably gave a lauded portrayal of Riccardo in Verdi's Un ballo in maschera in 1990. Ciannella made his debut at the San Francisco Opera in 1984 as Don José in Carmen. He appeared at the Houston Grand Opera for the first time in 1985 in the title role of Charles Gounod's Faust, and that same year made his debut at the Bavarian State Opera in the title role of Verdi's Don Carlo. In 1986 he performed for the first time at the Royal Opera at Covent Garden as Manrico. He appeared in operas at the Arena di Verona during the summers of 1983, 1985, 1986 and 1988. In 1987 he sang the title role in Verdi's Ernani at the Bregenzer Festspiele. He sang two roles at the Oper der Stadt Köln during his career, Don José (1988) and Des Grieux (1990). His other performances include appearances with the Deutsche Oper Berlin and the Grand Théâtre de Genève among many others.

After retiring from the stage in the late 1990s, Ciannella taught on the voice faculties of the Parma Conservatory and the Ferrara Conservatory. He was still teaching at the time of his death in Ferrara in 2008.

Videography
 The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala, Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4538, 2009

References

External links
Interview with Giuliano Ciannella, December 16, 1982

1943 births
2008 deaths
Academic staff of the Parma Conservatory
Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini alumni
Italian operatic tenors
20th-century Italian male opera singers

Giuliano Ciannella


Poppin' Fresh, more widely known as the Pillsbury Doughboy, is an advertising icon and mascot of the Pillsbury Company, appearing in many of their commercials. Many commercials from 1965 until 2004 (returned in 2009 to 2011 and 2013 in a Geico Commercial) conclude with a human finger poking the Doughboy's stomach.

The Doughboy responds by rubbing his stomach and giggling (Hoo-Hoo!, or earlier on, a slight giggle "hee hee").

Other websites
 Character's official site

Mascots

Pillsbury Doughboy


The Battle of the Chateauguay was an engagement of the War of 1812. On 26 October 1813, a combined British and Canadian force consisting of 1,530 regulars, volunteers, militia and Mohawk warriors from Lower Canada, commanded by Charles de Salaberry, repelled an American force of about 2,600 regulars which was attempting to invade Lower Canada and ultimately attack Montreal.

The Battle of the Chateauguay was one of the two battles (the other being the Battle of Crysler's Farm) which caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort in the autumn of 1813.

Prelude

American plan
Late in 1813, United States Secretary of War John Armstrong devised a plan to capture Montreal, which might have led to the conquest of all Upper Canada. Two divisions were involved. One would descend the St. Lawrence River from Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario, while the other would advance north from Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain. The two divisions would unite in front of the city for the final assault.

The Americans around Lake Champlain were led by Major General Wade Hampton, who had taken command on 4 July 1813. Hampton had several misgivings about the plan. His own troops, encamped at Burlington, Vermont, were raw and badly trained, and his junior officers themselves lacked training and experience. There were insufficient supplies at his forward base at Plattsburgh as the British had controlled the lake since 3 June. On that day, two American sloops pursued British gunboats into the Richelieu River and were forced to surrender after the wind dropped and they were trapped by gunboats and artillery firing from the river banks. The British took over the sloops and used them in a raid against a number of settlements around Lake Champlain. In particular, they captured or destroyed quantities of supplies in and around Plattsburgh. Although the British crews and troops involved in the raid were subsequently returned to other duties, the American naval commander on the lake, Lieutenant Thomas Macdonough, was unable to construct a flotilla of sloops and gunboats to counter the British vessels until August.

Hampton, a wealthy southern plantation owner, despised Major General James Wilkinson who commanded the division from Sackett's Harbor and who had a reputation for corruption and treacherous dealings with Spain. The two men, who were the two senior generals in the United States Army after the effective retirement of Major General Henry Dearborn on 6 July 1813, had been feuding with each other since 1808. Hampton at first refused to accept orders from Wilkinson, until Armstrong (who had himself moved to Sackett's Harbor) arranged that all correspondence regarding the expedition was to pass through the War Department.

Hampton's movements
On 19 September, Hampton moved by water from Burlington to Plattsburgh, escorted by Macdonough's gunboats, and made a reconnaissance in force towards Odelltown on the direct route north from Lake Champlain. He decided that the British forces were too strong in this sector. The garrison of Ile aux Noix, where the British sloops and gunboats were based, numbered about 900 and there were other outposts and light troops in the area. Also, water on this route was short after a summer drought had caused the wells and streams to dry up, though this excuse caused some amusement among Hampton's officers as Hampton was known to be fond of drink. Hampton's force marched west instead to Four Corners, on the Chateauguay River.

As Wilkinson's expedition was not ready, Hampton's force waited at Four Corners until 18 October. Hampton was concerned that the delay was depleting his supplies and giving the British time to muster forces against him. Hearing from Armstrong that Wilkinson's force was "almost" ready to set out, he began advancing down the Chateauguay River. A brigade of 1,400 New York militia refused to cross the frontier into Canada, leaving Hampton with two brigades of regulars numbering about 2,600 in total, 200 mounted troops and 10 field guns. Large numbers of loaded wagons accompanied the force. Hampton's advance was slowed because the bridges across every stream had been destroyed and trees had been felled across the roads (which themselves were little more than tracks).

Canadian counter-moves
The Swiss-born Major-General Louis de Watteville was appointed commander of the Montreal District on 17 September. In response to reports of the American advance, he ordered several units of militia called up. Reinforcements (two battalions of the Royal Marines) were also moving up the St. Lawrence from Quebec. The Governor-General of Canada, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, ordered Lieutenant Colonel George MacDonnell to move from Kingston on Lake Ontario to the front south of Montreal with his 1st Light Battalion of mixed regular and militia companies. Already though, the commander of the outposts, Lieutenant Colonel Charles de Salaberry, had been organising his defences. In addition to his own corps (the Canadian Voltigeurs) and George MacDonnell's 1st Light Battalion, he had called in several units of the Select Embodied Militia and local militia units.

De Salaberry had many informants among the farmers in the area who provided accurate information about the strength of Hampton's force and its movements, while Hampton had very poor intelligence about De Salaberry's force.
The road along which Hampton was advancing followed the north bank of the Chateauguay. Facing a ravine where a creek (the English River) joined the Chateauguay, de Salaberry ordered abatis (obstacles made of felled trees) to be constructed, blocking the road. Behind these he posted the light company of the Canadian Fencibles under Captain Richard Ferguson (50); two companies of the Canadian Voltigeurs under Captain Michel-Louis Juchereau Duchesnay and his brother Captain Jean-Baptiste Juchereau Duchesnay, totalling about 100 men; a company from the 2nd Battalion Sedentary Beauharnois Militia under Captain Longuetin (about 100) and perhaps two dozen Native Americans (Abenaki, Algonquin and Iroquois) nominally commanded by Captain Lamothe.
To guard a ford across the Chateauguay  behind the abatis, de Salaberry posted the light companies of the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of Select Embodied Militia under Captains de Tonnancoeur and Daly, and another company of Beauharnois militia under Captain Brugière (about 160 in total).
In successive reserve positions, stretching a mile and a half along the river from the abatis to the ford and beyond, were another two companies of the Canadian Voltigeurs (about 300); the main body of the 2nd Select Embodied Militia (480), 200 more local "sedentary" militia; and another 150 Kahnawake and Mohawks and other Native Americans commanded by Captains Lorimier and Ducharme, among others.

De Salaberry commanded the front line in person, while the reserves were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel MacDonnell.

All of de Salaberry's forces were raised in Lower Canada. The Canadian Fencibles were raised as regulars, though liable for service in North America only. The Voltigeurs were volunteers and were treated as regulars for most purposes. The Select Embodied Militia contained some volunteers but consisted mainly of men drafted by ballot for a year's full-time service.

De Salaberry had been so confident of victory that he had not informed his superiors of his actions. De Watteville and Sir George Prevost rode forward and "approved" de Salaberry's dispositions, even as the fighting started.

Battle

Hampton knew of the existence of the ford and, late on 25 October, he decided to send 1,500 men of his first brigade (including most, if not all, of his light infantry) under Colonel Robert Purdy, to cross to the south bank of the Chateauguay, circle round the British position and outflank it by capturing the ford at dawn, while the remainder under Brigadier General George Izard attacked from the front. After Purdy set off, Hampton received a letter from Armstrong, dated 16 October, informing him that Armstrong himself was relinquishing overall command of the combined American forces, leaving Wilkinson in charge. Hampton was also ordered to construct winter quarters for 10,000 men on the Saint Lawrence. Hampton interpreted this instruction to mean that there would be no attack on Montreal that year and the entire campaign was pointless. He would probably have retreated immediately, except that Purdy would then have been left isolated.

Purdy's men spent a miserable night marching through swampy woods in pouring rain, becoming quite lost. As dawn broke on 26 October, they located the correct trail, but inexperienced or unwilling guides first led them about mid-morning to a point on the river opposite de Salaberry's forward defences. Some time after noon, Purdy's brigade encountered the detachment de Salaberry had posted to guard the ford. Captain Daly, leading the light company of the 3rd Select Embodied Militia, launched an immediate attack against the Americans, while other Canadian troops engaged them from across the river. The Americans were thrown into confusion and driven back. Captain Daly and Captain Brugière were severely wounded and their men withdrew, but when the Americans tried to pursue they once again came under fire from the north bank of the Chateauguay and were again thrown into disarray.

After Purdy's force had been in action for some time with no obvious signs of American success, Izard's force marched into the ravine facing de Salaberry's defences and deployed into line. Legend has it that at this point, an American officer rode forward to demand the Canadians' surrender. As he had omitted to do so under a flag of truce, he was shot down by de Salaberry himself.

Izard's troops began steady, rolling volleys into the abatis and trees. These conventional tactics, better suited to pitched battles between regular forces in open terrain, were almost entirely ineffective against the Canadians. The defenders replied with accurate individual fire. Lieutenant Pinguet of the Canadian Fencibles later related "All our men fired from thirty-five to forty rounds so well aimed that the prisoners told us next day that every shot seem to pass at about the height of a man's breast or head. Our company was engaged for about three-quarters of an hour before reinforcements came up." Surprisingly few Americans were hit however. On the Canadian right, the light company of the Fencibles were outflanked and fell back, but either on de Salaberry's orders or on their own initiative, MacDonnell and several companies from the reserve were already making their way forward. They did so with bugle calls, cheers and Indian war whoops. De Salaberry is also credited in several accounts with sending buglers into the woods to sound the "Advance" as a ruse de guerre. The unnerved Americans thought themselves outnumbered and about to be outflanked and fell back . Hampton's four guns did not come into action.

Purdy first fell back to the river bank opposite De Salaberry's front line, expecting to find Izard still in action, so that he could ferry his wounded across the river. Instead, he once again found himself under fire from De Salaberry and was forced to retreat through the woods to his starting-place. Once Purdy had extricated himself after another dismal night in the woods, the American army withdrew in good order. De Salaberry did not pursue.

Casualties
De Salaberry reported 5 killed, 16 wounded and 4 missing but 3 of the men who had been returned as "killed" later rejoined the ranks unharmed, giving a revised Canadian loss of 2 killed, 16 wounded and 4 missing. The American losses were officially reported by Hampton's Adjutant-General (Colonel Henry Atkinson) as 23 killed, 33 wounded and 29 missing. De Salaberry reported that 16 American prisoners were taken.

Aftermath
Having reunited his forces, Hampton held a council of war. This unanimously concluded that a renewed advance stood no chance of success. Furthermore, the roads were becoming impassable under the autumn rains, and Hampton's supplies would soon be exhausted. Hampton ordered a withdrawal to Four Corners and sent Colonel Atkinson to Wilkinson with a report of his situation.
Wilkinson's own force had reached a settlement named Hoags, on the Saint Lawrence River a few miles upstream from Ogdensburg, when they received this news. Wilkinson replied with orders for Hampton to advance to Cornwall, bringing sufficient supplies for both his own and Wilkinson's divisions. When he received these orders, Hampton was convinced that they could not be executed and declined to comply, retreating instead to Plattsburgh. Before Hampton's reply could reach Wilkinson, the latter's own force was defeated at the Battle of Crysler's Farm on 11 November. Wilkinson nevertheless used Hampton's refusal to move on Cornwall (which he received by letter on 12 November) as a pretext to abandon his own advance, and the campaign to capture Montreal was called off.

Hampton had already submitted his resignation the day before the battle of Chateauguay, in his reply to Armstrong's letter of 16 October. He was not employed again in the field.

On the British side, the victorious troops at Chateauguay held their existing positions and endured much discomfort for several days before Indians reported that the Americans were retreating, which allowed them to retire to more comfortable billets. The hot-tempered de Salaberry was furious that Major General de Watteville and especially Sir George Prevost had arrived on the field too late to take part in the fighting but in time to submit their own dispatches claiming the victory for themselves. He considered resigning his commission but was later officially thanked by the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. He and Lieutenant Colonel MacDonnell were made Companions of the Bath after the war for their parts in the battle. Sir George Prevost's dispatch, which claimed that 300 Canadians had put 7,500 Americans to flight nevertheless contributed to the battle becoming legendary in Canadian folklore.

Orders of Battle

Legacy

Eight currently active regular battalions of the United States Army (1-3 Inf, 2-3 Inf, 4-3 Inf, 1-5 Inf, 2-5 Inf, 1-6 Inf, 2-6 Inf and 4-6 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of several of American infantry regiments (the old 1st, 4th, 25th and 29th Infantry Regiments) that took part in the Battle of the Chateauguay.

Six regiments of the Canadian Army carry the Battle Honour CHATEAUGUAY to commemorate the history and heritage of units that fought at the Battle. They are: The Royal 22e Régiment, the Canadian Grenadier Guards, the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, Les Voltigeurs de Québec, Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent and Le Régiment de la Chaudière.

The site of the battle was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920.

Mohawk warriors who took part in the battle
A list of Warriors receiving medals entitled: "August 25, 1847 A list of soldier and Native Warriors was provided for the Military General Service Medals for the Battle of Detroit, 11 August 1812, the Battle of Chateauguay on 26 October 1813, the Battle of Crysler Farm, 11 November 1813."

All the warriors from Kanesatake and Kahnawake mentioned who received medals at Chateauguay can be found in the 1786-1800 Kanesatake-Oka and Caughnawaga-Kahnawake parish registers or other census that took place during that period. The transcribed registers from the parish registers repertory are available at National Archives of Quebec in Montreal, and through the censuses mentioned.

Those from Caughnawaga-Kahnawake were:
Ducharme, Dominique (Captain)
Maccomber, Jarvise (Lieutenant)
Anaicha, Saro
Anontara, Saro
Arenhoktha, Saro
Arosin-Arosen, Wishe
Atenhara, Henias (Oka & Caughnawaga)
Honenharakete, Roren
Kanewatiron, Henias
Karakontie, Arenne
Karenhoton, Atonsa
Kariwakeron, Sak
Katstirakeron, Saro
Nikarakwasa, Atonsa
Sakahoronkwas, Triom
Sakoiatiiostha, Sose
Sakoratentha, Sawatis
Saskwenharowane, Saro
Sawennowane, Atona
Skaionwiio, Wishe
Taiakonentakete, Wishe
Tekanasontie, Martin
Tewasarasere, Roiir
Tewaserake, Henias
Thoientakon, Simon
Tiohakwente, Tier (Oka & Caughnawaga)
Tiohatekon, Atonsa
Tseoherisen, Tier
Tsiorakwisin, Rosi

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

The Battle of the Chateauguay at The War of 1812 Website
An Account of the Battle of the Chateauguay by William D. Lighthall, 1889, from Project Gutenberg
Quebec Heritage Web site of the area
Colonel Robert Purdy's account, in The Documentary History of the campaign upon the Niagara frontier. pp.129-133
Index to Parc Canada's website on the Battle of the Chateauguay
Parc Canada's Map and timeline of the Battle

Conflicts in 1813
Battles involving Canada
Battles of the War of 1812 in Quebec
Battles on the St. Lawrence/Lake Ontario frontier
National Historic Sites in Quebec
History of Montérégie
War of 1812 National Historic Sites of Canada
1813 in Lower Canada
October 1813 events
Le Haut-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality

Battle of the Chateauguay


"Graveyard Shift" is a short story by Stephen King, first published in the October 1970 issue of Cavalier magazine and collected in King's 1978 collection Night Shift. It was adapted into a 1990 film of the same name.

Setting
Graveyard Shift is set in a small town in Maine, and the action largely takes place in a textile mill.

Plot summary
A young drifter named Hall has been working at a decrepit textile mill in a small town in Maine when the cruel foreman, Warwick, recruits him and others to assist with a massive cleaning effort. The basement of the old mill has been abandoned for decades, and over the years, a monumental infestation of rats has taken hold.

This rat empire, cut off from the rest of nature, has allowed the animals to evolve into a strange and varied combination of creatures, complete with its own bizarre, self-sustaining ecosystem. There are large, armored rats; albino, weasel-like rats that can climb up walls or burrow through the ground; and bat-like rats that have evolved to pterosaurian sizes. The men eventually come across a sub-basement, locked from the inside. Warwick then enlists Hall to go down and investigate the sub-basement and that he may take whomever he likes. Hall chooses Warwick who, despite trying to prevent them from entering, is forced to press on.

As they make their way through the sub-basement, Hall and Warwick discover that it harbors something more terrifying and hideous than any of them could have dreamed—a cow-sized queen rat with no eyes or legs, whose only purpose is to endlessly breed more rats. Hall sprays Warwick towards the queen with a hose they were using to attack the rats. As the queen devours Warwick, Hall makes his way towards the exit while spraying the rats. However, he is overwhelmed and eaten alive by the hordes of mutated rats. Meanwhile, the other team of workers on the surface wonders what has happened to them and, with no idea what kind of horror awaits them, prepares to descend into the basement.

See also
Stephen King short fiction bibliography

References

External links

Graveyard Shift by Stephen King

1970 short stories
Horror short stories
Short stories adapted into films
Mice and rats in literature
Short stories by Stephen King
Short stories set in Maine
Works originally published in Cavalier (magazine)

Graveyard Shift (short story)


The Age of Enlightenment was an 18th-century cultural movement in Europe. It was most popular in France, where its leaders included philosophers like Voltaire and Denis Diderot. The Encyclopédie was written by Diderot, which helped spread the Enlightenment in the first large encyclopedia that was available to everyone. The Enlightenment grew partly out of the earlier scientific revolution and the ideas of René Descartes.

Ideas
The Enlightenment's most important idea was that all people can reason and think for themselves, so people should not automatically believe authority. People do not even have to believe the teachings of churches or priests. That was a very new idea at the time.

Another important idea was that a society is best when everyone works together to create it. Even people with very little power or money should have the same rights as the rich and powerful to help create the society they live in.  The nobility should no longer have special rights or privileges.

Those were very new ideas at the time. They were also dangerous thoughts for the people in power. Many Enlightenment philosophers were put in prison or were forced to leave their home countries.

Effects
Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States believed in the Enlightenment's ideas. For example, the idea that a government should benefit all of a country's people, not just the people in power, was very important to them. They created the idea of a government "for the people", one of the most important parts of the new United States Constitution and the new American government.

The Enlightenment's ideas were also important to the people who fought in the French Revolution, which started in 1789.

In some countries, kings and queens took some of the Enlightenment's ideas and made changes to their governments, although they kept power for themselves. Such kings and queens were called "enlightened despots."  Examples include Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Gustav III of Sweden.

During the Age of Enlightenment, as more and more people began to value reason, some began to disagree with the idea that God created the world, which caused conflicts and later, war.

Many ideas that are important today were created during the Enlightenment such as the following:
 Freedom, democracy, and reason should be the most important things in a society.
 Everybody in a society should have the same rights, and they should be promised by a contract in every government.
 People should solve problems with rationalism and the scientific method, instead of looking for answers from religion.
 Writers and philosophers should be free to look for the truth even if they disagreed with the ideas of people in power, such as the aristocracy.
 There should be freedom of religion. People should be allowed to choose their religion, and people should accept others who follow different religions.
The Enlightenment's ideas about thinking with reason, having personal freedoms, and not having to follow the Catholic Church were important in creating capitalism and socialism.

Important figures
Important people in the Enlightenment came from many different countries and shared ideas in many different ways. Here are some of the best-known Enlightenment figures, organized by home country:

English
John Locke (1632-1704): An English philosopher, known as the Father of Modern Empiricism and the Father of Liberalism, had ideas that were very important to Thomas Jefferson and the Founding Fathers in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke's interesting ideas about people's rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" were especially important,and appear in the Declaration of Independence.
Thomas Paine (1737–1809): A writer, deist, radical republican, and polemicist who most famously wrote a pamphlet called Common Sense. It stated that England should not be allowed to control the colonies in America.  Paine also wrote The Age of Reason, a criticism of the Bible, and The Rights of Man, which defended the French Revolution.

French
Voltaire (born François-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778): A philosopher, writer, playwright, and deist who opposed the Catholic Church and the French government. His opposition to the Church and the government got him imprisoned and exiled from France. He wrote many different books about philosophy, plays, and histories. His ideas played an important role in the French Revolution. Many people considered the 18th century to be le siècle de Voltaire ("the Century of Voltaire").
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): A Swiss-born French philosopher, writer, and teacher who had some of the most powerful criticisms of the French government of his time. In his book Émile, or On Education, he wrote about many of his opinions on education. He is also a figure of the Counter-Enlightenment.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): A political thinker who famously wrote about the separation of powers. Today, his idea is very common and is part of many constitutions all over the world.
Denis Diderot (1713–1784): A philosopher, art critic, and writer who wrote the Encyclopédie, which included 28 different books. In these books, he wrote about all different kinds of learning.

American
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826): An American statesman, political philosopher, and deist who was a Patriot and fought against Britain during the American Revolution. He helped write the United States Declaration of Independence (1776).
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790): A statesman, author, scientist, and poet who was also a Patriot during the American Revolution and helped write the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution (1787). He was the first person to understand lightning and worked as a civil servant in Philadelphia.

German
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): A Prussian (German) philosopher, writer, and physicist who was one of the most important figures of the German Enlightenment. Between 1781 and 1790, Kant wrote three important books in the history of philosophy: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of Judgement.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716): A Saxon philosopher and mathematician who created calculus and was another leader of the German Enlightenment.
Christian Wolff (1679–1754): A Silesian philosopher who continued Leibniz's work.

Scottish
David Hume (1711–1776): A Scottish historian, philosopher, and economist who had ideas that were important to Immanuel Kant and Adam Smith.
Adam Smith (1723–1790): An economist and philosopher who wrote The Wealth of Nations. In this book, he argued that wealth is not money, but instead comes from capital and labor. He is sometimes thought to have created laissez-faire economic theory. His books brought many changes to the Western world.

Spain
Benito Jeronimo Feijoo (1676–1764): A Galician monk who wrote essays to spread Enlightenment ideas and to show that some myths are false.
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744–1811): An Asturian statesman who wanted land to be used by normal people and not kept by churches or the nobility.

Swedish
Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772): A Swedish natural philosopher and theologian who tried to figure out how the soul works in the body.

References

Other websites
 The Enlightenment -Citizendium

18th century in Europe
Periods and ages in history

Age of Enlightenment


Scarling is an American noise pop band. The members are Jessicka and her husband Christian Hejnal-Addams. They have released two albums.

Overview
Jessicka Fodera started Scarling. in Los Angeles in 1999 after her band Jack Off Jill broke up. Their first single, "Band Aid Covers the Bullethole" was released in 2003. The b-side was a cover of "Creep" by Radiohead. They released their first album Sweet Heart Dealer on February 17, 2004. It was produced by Chris Vrenna. In the summer of 2004 Scarling. performed at Curiosa, a tour organized by Robert Smith.

They released their second album So Long, Scarecrow on October 25, 2005. Scarling. produced the album with Rob Campanella. They their first UK tour in December 2005. In 2006 they released an EP, Staring to the Sun. It has a cover of "Wave of Mutilation" by Pixies on it.

On October 29, 2013 they released a single, "Who Wants to Die for Art"? Their next album will be released in 2014 by The Committee to Keep Music Evil.

References

Other websites
1999 establishments in California
Indie rock bands
American rock bands
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups

Scarling.


Raymond S. Nickerson is an American psychologist and author. He was a senior vice president at BBN Technologies, from which he is retired, He is now research professor at Tufts University in the Psychology Department. He has authored several books and is the founding editor of The Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied.

Topics he has written about include: confirmation bias, null hypothesis significance testing, the exchange paradox the boy or girl paradox and long-term memory

Work
Books:
The Teaching of Thinking (with David N. Perkins & Edward E. Smith) (1985) Erlbaum.
Using Computers: Human Factors in Information Systems (1986) MIT Press.
Reflections on Reasoning (1986) Erlbaum.
Looking Ahead: Human Factors Challenges in a Changing World (1992) Erlbaum.
Psychology and Environmental Change (2003) Erlbaum.
Cognition and Chance: The Psychology of Probabilistic Reasoning (2004) Erlbaum.
Aspects of Rationality: Reflections on What it Means to be Rational and Whether we are (2008) Psychology Press.
Mathematical Reasoning: Patterns, Problems, Conjectures and Proofs (2010) Psychology Press.
Conditional Reasoning: The Unruly Syntactics, Semantics, Thematics, and Pragmatics of "If" (2015) Oxford University Press.

Membership

 Fellow:
 American Association for the Advancement of Science
American Psychological Association
Association for Psychological Science
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Society of Experimental Psychologists

Selected works
 1996. "Hempel's Paradox and Wason's Selection Task: Logical and Psychological Puzzles of Confirmation," Thinking and Reasoning 2, 1-31
 1998. "Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises," Review of General Psychology vol. 2, no. 2, 175-220
 2009, with F. S. Butler & M. Carlin. "Empathy and Knowledge Projection," in Decety & Ickes (Eds.), Social Neuroscience of Empathy (pp. 43–56). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

References

Living people
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Tufts University faculty
21st-century American psychologists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Raymond S. Nickerson


The Skagerrak (, , ) is a strait running between the Jutland peninsula of Denmark, the east coast of Norway and the west coast of Sweden, connecting the North Sea and the Kattegat sea.

The Skagerrak contains some of the busiest shipping routes in the world, with vessels from every corner of the globe. It also supports an intensive fishing industry. The ecosystem is strained and negatively affected by direct human activities. Oslo and Gothenburg are the only large cities in the Skagerrak region.

The strait is likely named after Skagen, a town near the northern cape of Denmark, with 'Rak' meaning 'straight waterway'. The Skagerrak is 240 km long and 80-140 km wide, deepening towards the Norwegian coast. It has an average salinity comparable to other coastal waters, housing a variety of habitats.

Historically, the Skagerrak was the only access to the Baltic Sea until the construction of the Eider Canal in 1784. During both World Wars, the strait held strategic importance for Germany. Presently, it remains one of the busiest straits worldwide.

The Skagerrak serves as a habitat for approximately 2,000 marine species, including a unique variety of Atlantic cod. It also contains sandy and stony reefs and cold-water coral reefs. Environmental institutions have expressed concern about increasing pressure on the ecosystem due to human activities and climate change. Protections are in place, with several marine protected areas in Skagerrak, including Ytre Hvaler National Park in Norway and Kosterhavet National Park in Sweden.

Name
The meaning of Skagerrak is most likely the Skagen Channel/Strait. Skagen is a town near the northern cape of Denmark (The Skaw). In Dutch,  means 'straight waterway', as seen in Dutch hydronyms such as Damrak, Gouderak, Langerak, Tuikwerderrak, and Volkerak), cognate with . The ultimate source of this syllable is the Proto-Indo-European root *reg-, 'straight'. Rak means 'straight' as in 'straight ahead' in modern Norwegian and Swedish. Råk in both modern Norwegian and Swedish refers to a channel or opening of water in an otherwise ice-covered body of water. There is no evidence to suggest a connection with the modern Danish word rak (meaning rabble or riff-raff). It is therefore likely that the Skagerrak was named by Dutch seafarers, as was the adjacent Kattegat.

Geography

The Skagerrak is  long and between  wide. It deepens toward the Norwegian coast, reaching over 700 m at the Norwegian Trench. Some ports along the Skagerrak are Oslo, Larvik and Kristiansand in Norway, Skagen, Hirtshals and Hanstholm in Denmark and Uddevalla, Lysekil and Strömstad in Sweden.

The Skagerrak has an average salinity of 80 practical salinity units, which is very low, close to that of brackish water, but comparable to most other coastal waters. The area available to biomass is about  and includes a wide variety of habitats, from shallow sandy and stony reefs in Sweden and Denmark to the depths of the Norwegian trench.

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Skagerrak as follows:

On the West. A line joining Hanstholm () and the Naze (Lindesnes, ).

On the Southeast. The Northern limit of the Kattegat [A line joining Skagen (The Skaw, North Point of Denmark) and Paternosterskären () and thence Northeastward through the shoals to Tjörn Island].

History

Older names for the combined Skagerrak and Kattegat were the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea; the latter appears in the Knýtlinga saga.

Until the construction of the Eider Canal in 1784 (a predecessor to the Kiel Canal), Skagerrak was the only way in and out of the Baltic Sea. For this reason, the strait has had busy international traffic for centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, the traffic increased and today Skagerrak is among the busiest straits in the world. In 1862, a short cut, the Thyborøn Channel at the Limfjord was constructed in Denmark through Skagerrak from the North Sea by going directly to the Kattegat. The Limfjord supports only minor transports though.

In both world wars, the Skagerrak was strategically very important for Germany. The biggest sea battle of the First World War, the Battle of Jutland, also known as the Battle of the Skagerrak, took place here May 31 to June 1, 1916. In the Second World War, the importance of controlling this waterway, the only sea access to the Baltic, was the motive for the German invasions of Denmark and Norway as well as the construction of the northern parts of the Atlantic Wall. Both of these naval engagements have contributed to the large number of shipwrecks in the Skagerrak.

Traffic and industry

Skagerrak is a busy shipping lane, with c. 7,500 individual vessels (excluding fishing vessels) from all over the world visiting in 2013 alone. Cargo ships are by far the most common vessel in Skagerrak at c. 4,000 individual ships in 2013, followed by tankers, which are nearly half as frequent. When viewed in combination with the Baltic Sea area, ships from 122 different nationalities visited in 2013, with most of these carrying cargo or passengers within Europe, regardless of their flag state.

Nearly all commercial vessels in Skagerrak are tracked by the Automatic Identification System (AIS).

Recreation
Skagerrak is popular for recreational activities in all three countries. There are many summer house residences and several marinas along the coasts.

Biology
The Skagerrak is habitat for approximately 2,000 marine species, many of them adapted to its waters. For example, a variety of Atlantic cod called the Skagerrak cod spawns off the Norwegian coast. The eggs are buoyant and the hatchlings feed on zooplankton. Juveniles sink to the bottom where they have a shorter maturity cycle (2 years). They do not migrate but remain local to Norwegian fjords.

The variety of habitats and the large volume of plankton on the surface support prolific marine life. Energy moves from the top to the bottom according to Vinogradov's ladder of migrations; that is, some species are benthic and others pelagic, but there are graded marine layers within which species move vertically for short distances. In addition, some species are benthopelagic, moving between surface and bottom. The benthic species include Coryphaenoides rupestris, Argentina silus, Etmopterus spinax, Chimaera monstrosa and Glyptocephalus cynoglossus. On the top are Clupea harengus, Scomber scombrus, Sprattus sprattus. Some species that move between are Pandalus borealis, Sabinea sarsi, Etmopterus spinax.

Reefs

Apart from sandy and stony reefs, extensive cold water coral reefs, mostly of Lophelia, are growing in Skagerrak. The Säcken Reef in the Swedish marine protection of Koster Fjord is an ancient cold water coral reef and the only known coral reef in the country. The Tisler Reef in the Norwegian marine protection of Ytre Hvaler National Park is the largest known coral reef in Europe. Lophelia reefs are also present in the Norwegian trench and they are known from the shallow waters of many Norwegian fjords.

Skagerrak also holds a number of rare bubble reefs; biological reefs formed around cold seeps of geological carbohydrate outgassings, usually methane. These rare habitats are mostly known from the Danish waters of Skagerrak west of Hirtshals, but more might be discovered in future surveys. Bubbly reefs are very rare in Europe and supports a very varied ecosystem.

With the centuries-long heavy international seatraffic of Skagerrak, the seabed also holds an abundance of shipwrecks. Wrecks on shallow waters, provides a firm anchoring for several corals and polyps and explored wrecks have been revealed to support Dead Man's Fingers corals, Brittle stars and large wolffish. A 2020 seafloor mapping project around Jammerbugten in Skaggerak, ran by Danish explorer Klaus Thymann, found evidence of much greater biodiversity in a range seafloor habitats previously thought to be sandy with a low density of wildlife. Dead Man's Fingers corals were again among the species documented for the first time in these coastal habitats.

Environmental concerns
Scientists and environmental institutions have expressed concern about the increasing pressure on the ecosystem in Skagerrak. The pressure has already had negative impacts and is caused by cumulative environmental effects, of which direct human activities are only one piece of the puzzle. Climate change and ocean acidification are expected to have increasing impacts on the Skagerrak ecosystem in the future.

Skagerrak and the North Sea receives considerable inputs of hazardous material and radioactive substances. Most is ascribed to long-range transport from other countries, but not all. Marine litter is also a growing problem. Until recently, waste water and sewage pouring into Skagerrak from settlements and industries was not treated at all. In combination with wash out of excessive nutrients from conventional farming, this has often led to large algae blooms.

Protections

There are several marine protections in Skagerrak, including:

Norway
 Ytre Hvaler National Park, established on 26 June 2009
 Raet National Park, established on 16 December 2016

Sweden
 Kosterhavet National Park
 Bratten, a newly designated  Natura 2000 sea area beyond Kosterhavet. Pockmarks and biogenic reefs at depths of .
 Gullmarsfjorden, Sweden's first marine conservation area from 1983.

Denmark
 Grenen and a  sea area immediately north.

In popular culture
Skaagerak is the setting of the popular television show Badehotellet from Denmark.

See also
Danish Straits

References

External links

 The Baltic Sea, Kattegat and Skagerrak () Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI).
 Skagerrak Deep-water Fish Assemblage
 Skagerrak Marine vessel Traffic

Denmark–Sweden border
International straits
Landforms of Västra Götaland County
Norway–Sweden border
Straits of Denmark
Straits of Norway
Straits of Sweden

Skagerrak


was the 16th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Nintoku to be possibly legendary, but probable.  The name Nintoku-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations.

No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign.  The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

Traditional history
According to Nihon Shoki, Nintoku was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and the father of three emperors — Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō .

Events of Nintoku's life
Very little is known about the events of Nintoku's life and reign.  Only limited information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.

Nintoku's reign is marked by Japan's first large-scale engineering projects.

After his death
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Nintoku.

According to the Imperial Household Agency, the emperor's final resting place is in an earthen tumulus (kofun) at Sakai.  Nintoku is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) which is associated with the burial mound.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Nintoku Seamount
 Kofun period

References

Other websites

Emperors of Japan

Emperor Nintoku


Vladimír Zábrodský (7 March 1923 – 20 March 2020) was a Czechoslovak ice hockey player. He played centre. He was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

He won a silver medal at the 1948 Winter Olympics and he was two-time world champion (1947, 1949). He was a member of the International Ice Hockey Federation Hall of Fame, added in 1997.

He played in the Czechoslovak First Ice Hockey League for LTC Praha from 1940 to 1950, Spartak ČKD Sokolovo from 1950 to 1960, and Bohemians ČKD Praha from 1963 to 1965.

Zábrodský died in Prague on 20 March 2020 at the age of 97.

References

Other websites
 Profile
 IIHF Hockey Hall of Fame bio

1923 births
2020 deaths
Czech ice hockey players
Czech Olympic silver medalists
Sportspeople from Prague

Vladimír Zábrodský


Shaving is removing hair from the face or other body part with a razor.

"Shaving" often refers to men who cut their facial hair with a razor or clipper. Sometimes they just trim their facial hair while other men completely shave it. Some people do not shave the chin, this is called a goatee beard. Other men do not shave the upper lip, this is called a mustache.

In addition to this, many men choose to shave their heads and be bald. In many armies, male soldiers are required (have to) shave their heads.

Hygiene

Shaving