දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය(Doctor of Philosophy), කෙටි යෙදුම Ph.D. හෝ PhD ලතික් භාෂාවේ , දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය(දර්ශනය උගන්වන ගුරුවරයා) යන්න මෙහි නිරුකක්ත්‍යාර්තයයි.මෙය උසස් අධ්‍යපන උපාධියකි.මෙම උපාධිය ඉතා ඉහළ මට්ටමේ උපාධියකි. මේ සදහා විශ්ව විද්‍යාල මට්ටමේ පර්යේෂණ ක්ෂේත්‍ර පරීක්ෂණ අඩංගු විය යුතුය.

The detailed requirements for award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world; however, there are a number of common factors. In some countries (the US, Canada, Denmark, for example), most universities require coursework for Ph.D. degrees. In many other countries (especially those with a greater degree of specialization at the undergraduate level, such as the UK) there is no such condition in general. It is not uncommon, however, for individual universities or departments to specify analogous requirements for students not already in possession of a master's degree.

In countries requiring coursework, there is usually a prescribed minimum amount of study — typically two to three years full time, or a set number of credit hours — which must take place before submission of a thesis. This requirement is usually waived for academic staff submitting a portfolio of peer-reviewed published work. The candidate may also be required to successfully complete a certain number of additional, advanced courses relevant to his or her area of specialization.

A candidate must submit a thesis or dissertation consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-refereed context. In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and the issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed.

Universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the Anglophone Ph.D. degree for their research doctorates (see, for example, Bologna Process).

ආචාර්‍ය උපාධි ඉතිහාසය
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-iftta ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs from the 9th century, though it was limited to Islamic law at the time, as in a Doctor of Laws degree. The doctorate was later extended to philosophy in the යුරෝපයan universities in the Middle Ages which generally placed all academic disciplines outside the professional fields of theology, වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව and law under the broad heading of "philosophy" (or "natural philosophy" when referring to science). The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was a doctorate, generally granted as honorary degrees to select and well-established scholars.

According to Wellington, Bathmaker, Hung, MucCullough and Sikes (2005), the first Ph.D. degree was awarded in Paris in 1150, but not until the early nineteenth century did the term "Ph.D. degree" acquire its modern meaning as the highest academic doctoral degree, thanks to university practice in ජර්මනිය. As Wellington et al. explain, prior to the nineteenth century professional doctoral degrees could only be awarded in theology (Th.D.), law (J.D.), or medicine (M.D.). In 1861, Yale University adopted the ජර්මානු practice (first introduced in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin) of granting the degree to younger students who had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis/dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.

From the United States the degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1917. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). Oxford retained the D.Phil. abbreviation for their research degrees. Some newer UK universities, for example Buckingham (est. 1976), Sussex (est. 1961), and, until a few years ago, York (est. 1963), chose to adopt the D.Phil., as did some universities in නවසීලන්තය.

ලෝකයේ දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය උපාධි
Ph.D. degrees are awarded under different circumstances and with different requirements in many different countries.

ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව සහ නවසීලන්තය

Admission
Admission to a Ph.D. program within ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව and New Zealand requires the prospective student to have completed a bachelor's degree with an honours component or a higher degree, such as a post graduate  master's degree by research or a master's degree by course work.

In most disciplines, honours require an extra year of study including a large research component in addition to coursework; however, in some disciplines such as engineering, law and pharmacy, honours are automatically awarded to high achievers of the normal four-year program. To obtain a Ph.D. position, students must usually gain first class honours, but may sometimes be admitted with high second class honours (known as a 2A, or Second Class Honours Division I). Alternatively, a student who fails to achieve first or second class Honours may apply for a research masters course (usually 12–18 months) and upgrade to a Ph.D. program after the first year, pending sufficient improvement.

Funding
In both ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව and නවසීලන්තය, Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their Ph.D. degree.   The most common of these in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව is the government-funded ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AU$ 20,000 a year (tax free). Most universities in both countries also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but are funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. Due to a continual increase to living costs, many Ph.D. students are forced to live under the poverty line,. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු and New Zealand students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. degree.  These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AU$7,000 more than the usual APA rate. ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු and New Zealand students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes and do guest lectures (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income. An ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු or New Zealand Ph.D. scholarship is paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.

ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු-citizen and other eligible Ph.D. and Research Masters students in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව are not charged course fees as these are paid for by the ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු Government under the Research Training Scheme. International students and Coursework Masters students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. In order to attract top international doctoral students, the නවසීලන්තය government reduced international doctoral fees to the domestic fee level in 2006.

ආජන්ටිනාව

Admission
In the Latin American docta, the admission to a Ph.D. program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentinian Master's titles are generally accepted into a Ph.D. program when the degree comes from a recognized university.

Funding
While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.

Requirements for completion
Upon completion of at least two years' research and course work as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate  truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor — abbreviated, "Dr.", with a suffix appropriate to the specific field — is received after a successful defense of the candidate's dissertation.

කැනඩාව

Admission
Admission to a Ph.D. program at a Canadian university may require completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a Ph.D. program. The student usually submits an application package including a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a sample of the student's writing. A common criterion for prospective Ph.D students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below).

At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (e.g., Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability.

Funding
While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (i.e., employment) outside of their studies.

At some Canadian universities, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver).  Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships;  experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all Ph.D. candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty.

Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.

Requirements for completion
In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations.  At this stage, the student is known as a "Ph.D. student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.

Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "Ph.D. candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a Ph.D. thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public.

At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a Ph.D. degree typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form.  The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a Ph.D. student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing.

France

Admission
Due to the differences in French education systems in comparison to anglophone systems, students who want to earn the Ph.D. degree must complete a Master of Science program which lasts for 2 years after graduation with a Bachelor's degree (5 years in total).

In France, the Masters program is divided into two branches, Master of Engineering which orients the students towards the working world. On the other hand, a Master of Science orients the students towards research.
The Ph.D admission is adopted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale"), a Ph.D Student has to follow some courses offered by the graduate school while continuing his/her research at laboratory. His/her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the student as an engineer and the student is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the Ph.D degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the Master degree. Consequently, the Ph.D degree is considered in France as a "Bac +8" diploma ."Bac" stands for "Baccalauréat" which is the French High-school diploma.

Funding
The financing of Ph.D studies comes mainly from funds for research of French Ministry of National Education. These grants often depend of the results and the student's file. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premise (as in the case where Ph.D students do their research in a company). Other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc.

ජර්මනිය

Admission
In ජර්මනිය an above-average degree (Master, Diplom, Magister or Staatsexamen) is usually required to gain admission to a doctoral program. The degree should usually be in a related field. The candidate must also find a tenured professor or Privatdozent to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Gutachter) of on the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally termed "Doktorvater".

Doctoral programs in ජර්මනිය generally take one to four years to complete (usually three), strongly depending on the subject. Since there are usually no formal classes to attend, and the doctoral candidate mainly conducts independent research under the tutelage of a single professor, a good deal of doctoral candidates work as teaching or research assistants, and are paid a reasonably competitive salary. This is a considerable difference from the situation in many other countries (such as the U. S.), where doctoral candidates are often referred to as Ph.D. "students". For German doctoral candidates, this rather inaccurate term should be avoided, because they do not take formal courses, but are often considered a full member of staff.

However, external funding by research organisations and foundations is also common. Furthermore, many universities have established research-intensive Graduiertenkollegs, which are a colleges / research schools that provide funding for doctoral theses.

ඉතිහාසය
In early university history the Doctorate was awarded as a first degree. It has since evolved into a research degree.

In ජර්මානු-speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former සෝවියට් සංගමය, most parts of Africa, ආසියාව, and many Spanish-speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "doctor" (Doktor), and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." for , which is a title like a master, unlike a PhD, "Dr.rer.nat" for  — Doctor of Science, "Dr. phil." for , "Dr. iur." for , which is not equal to a J.D., etc.).

නෝර්වේ

Norway was one of the first countries to introduce the Doctor of Philosophy degree, inspired by the German university system. The degree doctor philosophiae, abbreviated dr. philos., was first awarded in 1847. The degree was used for all other fields than theology, law and medicine, which had separate degrees: doctor theologiae, doctor juris and doctor medicinae. In the late 20th century new degrees were created in the fields of natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, but it was still possible to obtain the dr. philos. degree in any field. As the dr. philos. degree was one of the four original doctoral degrees and much older than the specific degrees in natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, it was considered more prestigious by some. Both the dr. philos. degree and the other degrees required four years of high-level scientific research which significantly contributed to new knowledge of its field. Most people who started at a doctoral degree had already studied for six or seven years and obtained a Candidate degree (six years) or a Magister degree (seven years).

Following a reform in 2003, all the traditional degrees except dr. philos. were abolished, and replaced by a new doctor of philosophy degree, spelled philosophiae doctor and abbreviated ph.d. The scientific standard of the ph.d. degree is lower, as it in most cases only requires three years of research.

The traditional degree dr. philos., equivalent of four years of scientific research, is still awarded to those who qualify for such a degree without being admitted to an organized doctoral programme.

එක්සත් රාජධානිය

Admission
In principle, a university is free to admit anyone to a Ph.D. programme; however, in practice, admission is usually conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree.

In addition, Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics and many natural, engineering and material sciences. This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.

Funding
In the United Kingdom, funding for Ph.D. students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend of around GBP 12,940 per year for three years (rising to £14,940 per year in London), whether or not the degree continues for longer. Research Council funding is sometimes 'earmarked' for a particular department or research group, who then allocate it to a chosen student, although in doing so they are generally expected to abide by the usual minimum entry requirements (typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes).  However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research proposals, references and backgrounds are likely to be awarded a studentship.  The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council) explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or 2.2 plus additional masters degree) is required - no additional marks are given for students with a first class honours or a distinction at masters level.

Since 2002, there has been a move by research councils to fund interdisciplinary doctoral training centres such as MOAC which concentrate on communication between traditional disciplines and an emphasis on transferable skills in addition to research training.

Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence.

Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £25–30 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.

Completion
Funding typically lasts for three or four years for PhD students and four years for students earning both their master's degree and PhD degree; there is a usually first-year assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of the 3-4 year program.  These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but it is rare for students to spend more than four years in the programme. Since the early 1990s, the UK funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.

Other doctorates
In the United Kingdom Ph.D. degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research.

Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.),public administration (D.P.A.), business administration (D.B.A.), and music (D.M.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a Ph.D. degree.

එක්සත් ජනපදය

Overview

In the United States, the Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. The Ph.D. degree is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term doctorate. While the Ph.D. degree is the most common doctorate, the term doctorate can refer to any number of doctoral degrees in the United States.  The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous doctoral degrees as "equivalent", and do not discriminate between them.

American students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph.D. degree.  The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. Some Ph.D. programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practica and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology).

Another two to four years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages in length. In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.

As the Ph.D. degree is often a preliminary step toward a career as a professor, throughout the whole period of study and dissertation research the student may be required or at least offered the opportunity, depending on the university and degree, to teach undergraduate or sometimes graduate courses in relevant subjects.

Admission
There are 282 universities in the United States that award the Ph.D. degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs. Typically, Ph.D. programs require applicants to have a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in rare cases, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT). Specific admissions criteria differ substantially according to university admissions policies and fields of study; some programs in well-regarded research universities (i.e., Research 1 universities) may admit less than five percent of applicants and require an exceptional performance on the GRE along with near-perfect grades, strong support in letters of recommendation, substantial research experience, and academically sophisticated samples of their writing.

Master's degree "in passing"
As applicants to many Ph.D. programs are not required to have master's degrees, many programs award a Master of Arts or Master of Science degree "in passing" or "in course" based on the graduate work done in the course of achieving the Ph.D. Students who receive such master's degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis. Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional. Not all Ph.D. students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the M.A. or M.S. if such requirements are not mandated by their programs. Those students will simply obtain the Ph.D. degree at the end of their graduate study.

Some programs also include a Master of Philosophy degree as part of the Ph.D. program. The M.Phil., in those universities that offer it, is usually awarded after the appropriate M.A. or M.S. (as above) is awarded, and the degree candidate has completed all further requirements for the Ph.D. degree (which may include additional language requirements, course credits, teaching experiences, and comprehensive exams) aside from the writing and defense of the dissertation itself. This formalizes the "all but dissertation" (ABD) status used informally by some students, and represents that the student has achieved a higher level of scholarship than the M.A./M.S. would indicate - as such, the M.Phil. is sometimes a helpful credential for those applying for teaching or research posts while completing their dissertation work for the Ph.D. degree itself.

Time
Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a Ph.D. program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a Ph.D. program with a master's degree may complete their Ph.D. degree a year or two sooner. As Ph.D. programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many U.S. universities have set a ten-year limit for students in Ph.D. programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a Ph.D. degree.  Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years of taking it. Overall, 57% of students who begin a Ph.D. program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.

Funding
Doctoral students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training. As a result, Ph.D. students at U.S. universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university. Many U.S. graduate students work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students.  Graduate schools increasingly encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it.

Ph.D. candidacy
A Ph.D. Candidate (sometimes called Candidate of Philosophy) is a postgraduate student at the doctoral level who has successfully satisfied the requirements for doctoral studies, except for the final thesis or dissertation. As such, a Ph.D. Candidate is sometimes called an "ABD" (All But Dissertation). Although a minor distinction in postgraduate study, achieving Ph.D Candidacy is not without benefit. For example, Ph.D. Candidate status may coincide with an increase in the student's monthly stipend and may make the student eligible for additional employment opportunities.

Models of supervision
At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise Ph.D. studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997). Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits that Ph.D. students may gain if they publish their work, and note that Ph.D. students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors.

Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has distinguished between two models of supervision:
The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique;
The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the Ph.D. process.
These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005).
Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips &  Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of Ph.D. supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005).

මේවාත් බලන්න
International Ph.D. Equivalent Degrees:

 Belgium (Dutch-speaking): Doctor
 Belgium (French-speaking): Doctorat
 Brazil: Doutorado
 France: Doctorat
 Greece: Διδακτορικό
 Italy: dottorato di ricerca
 Latin America: Doctorado/Doctorate
 Mexico: Doctorado
 Poland: Doktor
 Portugal: Doutoramento
 Spain: Doctorado
 Turkey: Doktora

Other Degrees:
 Doctorate - A general term describing a set of degrees analogous to the Ph.D.
 Terminal degree - The highest degree awarded in a field, usually a Ph.D.
 Graduate student - A student pursuing education past the bachelor's degree, such as Masters Degree or a Ph.D.
 C.Phil. (also ABD) - Term, usually used unofficially, for a graduate student who has completed all Ph.D. coursework but has yet to defend his or her dissertation.
 Kandidat - Degree awarded by USSR and post-Soviet states.
 Licentiate - Degree awarded in various countries, including පෘතුගාලය, Belgium, the UK, Argentina, ජර්මනිය, Switzerland, ස්වීඩනය, Finland, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, නවසීලන්තය, Mexico and Poland.
 Sandwich PhD Programme

Ph.D. in popular culture:
 Piled Higher and Deeper - Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia, a comic strip by Jorge Cham

සටහන්

යොමුව
 Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. & Parry, O. (1997). Supervising the Ph.D.: A guide to success. Buckingham: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-19516-4
 Dinham, S. & Scott, C. (2001). The experience of the results of disseminating the results of doctoral research. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25 (1) 45-55. ISSN: 1469-9486
 MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. Secrets of Their Success (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002).
 Phillips, E. & Pugh, D.S. (1987). How to get a PhD : managing the peaks and troughs of research / Estelle M. Phillips and D.S. Pugh. Milton Keynes: Open University Press ISBN 0-335-15537-5
 Simpson, Renate. How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education, Society for Research into Higher Education, Guildford (1983).
 Wellington, J. Bathmaker, A._M., Hunt, C., McCullough, G. & Sikes, P. (2005). Succeeding with your doctorate. London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-0116-2
 Wilkinson, D. (2005) The essential guide to postgraduate study. London : SAGE ISBN 1-4129-0062-X (hbk.)

බාහිර සබැදුම්External links
 Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities: Summary Report 2005  (1.9MiB)
 LaTeX template for writing PhD thesis
 The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics.

Philosophy, Doctor of

දර්ශන ආචාර්ය


In the Conference of London (12 February – 10 April 1920), following World War I, leaders of Britain, France, and Italy met to discuss the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and the negotiation of agreements that would become the Treaty of Sèvres. Under the leadership of British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France Alexandre Millerand, and Prime Minister of Italy Francesco Saverio Nitti, the allied powers reached agreements that would form the basis of their arguments at the San Remo conference.

Military administration of Constantinople

After the armistice of Mudros, the allies' military administration was established in Constantinople on 13 November 1918, but at that time they did not dismantle the Ottoman government or the Ottoman Sultan. The control of the Ottoman Empire was the main point of discussions during the conference. Most of the discussions were based on how to restrict the power of the Ottoman Sultan (see Ottoman Caliphate) and how to keep him in Constantinople, literally and politically, including the size of the Sultan's army and the sharing of the Dardanelles straits.

A balance was sought to allow the Sultan to control the security of the Caliphate, but not to enable him to change the course of the peace settlements. The members were constantly informed about the Khilafat Movement which tried to protect the position of caliphate.

However, the new Ottoman parliament deputies elected after the armistice met on 28 January 1920 and published their decisions of independence (Misak-ı Milli (National Oath)) on 12 February 1920. The Khilafat Movement try to influence the British government and protect the caliphate of the Ottoman empire and although mainly a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle became a part of the wider Indian independence movement. For Britain's part, it would seek to preserve the Caliphate, likely to utilize it as a socio-political instrument in their rule over many of the world's Muslim lands. The Conference of London decided to take actions, at least on Turkish national movement, and decided to shift from "de facto" occupation of the Constantinople to "de jure" occupation of Constantinople.

References

See also

San Remo conference
Occupation of Constantinople

Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
London Conference of 1920
February 1920 events
1920 in London
1920 in international relations

Conference of London (1920)


Paul Grof is a Czech-born psychiatrist in Canada who was a member of the World Health Organization committee that evaluated ecstasy.
Rick Doblin notes:
The person appointed chairman of WHO's Expert Committee was Dr. Paul Grof, brother of Stanislav Grof, the LSD researcher. [Through him] I was able to send information about MDMA to Paul Grof. Though the committee did make MDMA illegal, they did so over the objections of the chairman, with the objections being formally noted in the committee's recommendation. Even more importantly, the committee explicitly encouraged the signatory nations to the international drug control treaty to facilitate research into MDMA, which they called a most interesting substance.(Saunders, 1994, Appendix 1, note 94)

Following his graduation in medicine, Paul Grof took his psychiatric training and became specialized in psychiatry in 1962. He worked as a research psychiatrist in the Psychiatric Research Institute in Prague, and as a fellow in psychoendocrinology of affective disorders in West Germany. In the fall of 1968 Dr. Grof was recruited as research psychiatrist and faculty member at McMaster University, Canada. Between 1974 and 1977 he helped develop and run Affective disorder Clinics at the Sunnybrook Medical Center at the University of Toronto, and several other Canadian universities. Dr. Grof spent 1977 and 1978 as a visiting scientist at the National Institute of Mental Health in Washington, initially in a clinical neuropharmacology branch with Dennis Murphy and later in the psychobiology branch with Fred Goodwin. In 1982 Dr. Grof became Director of Research and Education at the Hamilton Psychiatric Hospital, a teaching hospital of McMaster University where he expanded research activities in psychobiology, and established a psychopharmacology research and training center. 1985–2000 he was active as Expert of the World Health Organization, Mental Health section and chaired both an Expert committee and a Working Group on psychotropic drugs. In 1988 Dr. Grof was recruited as Clinical Director of the Royal Ottawa Hospital. He was recently Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Ottawa, and remains so with the University of Toronto, and directs a Mood Disorders Center. He has published over 350 articles and two books, and received several national and international research awards.

References
Saunders, N. (1994)  E for Ecstasy by Nicholas Saunders Appendix 1: Reference Section Retrieved 10/5/2008.

External links
Paul Grof's clinic: The Mood Disorders Centre of Ottawa.

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Czech psychiatrists
Canadian psychiatrists

Paul Grof


Morib is a mukim in Kuala Langat District, Selangor, Malaysia, under the administration of Zone 18 of Kuala Langat Municipal Council. Morib Beach is a quiet seaside tourist attraction. It was one of the first landing points on the west coast for the British and Indian Army liberation forces during end of World War II in 1945. It is a small but suitable beach for swimming.
Morib is a state constituency in Selangor, Malaysia, that has been represented in the Selangor State Legislative Assembly since 1959.

It is located near Simpang Morib, which is about 10 km from the town of Banting. Morib attracts more than 10000 visitors annually notably during the month of August, festive seasons and public holidays.

Recognisable people noted for their presence on this beach include the Honourable Leader of the National Boys Scout, former Malaysian Education Minister Datuk Shafie Salleh and local entrepreneur Machap Mark Ganasan.

Attractions

Some seafood restaurants can be found on the beach serving an array of seafood.

The town of Morib also has a hotel resort known as Gold Coast Morib, with features such as a water theme park, flying fox cables, and a kayaking pond.

References

External links
 Tourism Selangor

Kuala Langat District
Mukims of Selangor
Beaches of Malaysia
Tourist attractions in Selangor

Morib


Industrial Union Department v. American Petroleum Institute (also known as the Benzene Case), 448 U.S. 607 (1980), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States.  This case represented a challenge to the OSHA practice of regulating carcinogens by setting the exposure limit "at the lowest technologically feasible level that will not impair the viability of the industries regulated."  OSHA selected that standard because it believed that (1) it could not determine a safe exposure level and that (2) the authorizing statute did not require it to quantify such a level. The AFL Industrial Union Department served as the petitioner; the American Petroleum Institute was the respondent. A plurality on the Court, led by Justice Stevens, wrote that the authorizing statute did indeed require OSHA to demonstrate a significant risk of harm (albeit not with mathematical certainty) in order to justify setting a particular exposure level.

Perhaps more important than the specific holding of the case, the Court noted in dicta that if the government's interpretation of the authorizing statute had been correct, it might violate the nondelegation doctrine.  This line of reasoning may represent the "high-water mark" of recent attempts to revive the doctrine.

Background
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 delegated broad authority to the Secretary of Labor to promulgate standards to ensure safe and healthful working conditions for the Nation's workers (the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) being the agency responsible for carrying out this authority). According to Section 3(8), standards created by the secretary must be "reasonably necessary or appropriate to provide safe or healthful employment and places of employment." Section 6(b)(5) of the statute sets the principle for creating the safety regulations, directing the Secretary to "set the standard which most adequately assures, to the extent feasible, on the basis of the best available evidence, that no employee will suffer material impairment of health or functional capacity…". At issue in the case, is the Secretary's interpretation of "extent feasible" to mean that if a material is unsafe he must "set an exposure limit at the lowest technologically feasible level that will not impair the viability of the industries regulated."

Opinion of the Court
The Court held the Secretary applied the act inappropriately. To comply with the statute, the secretary must determine 1) that a health risk of a substance exists at a particular threshold and 2) Decide whether to issue the most protective standard, or issue a standard that weighs the costs and benefits. Here, the secretary failed to first determine that a health risk of substance existed for the chemical benzene when workers were exposed at 1 part per million. Data only suggested the chemical was unsafe at 10 parts per million. Thus, the secretary had failed the first step of interpreting the statute, that is, finding that the substance posed a risk at that level.

In its reasoning, the Court noted it would be unreasonable to assume that congress intended to give the Secretary "unprecedented power over American industry." Such a delegation of power would likely be unconstitutional. The Court also cited the legislative history of the act, which suggested that Congress meant to address major workplace hazards, not hazards with low statistical likelihoods.

Concurring opinion
In a famous concurrence, Justice Rehnquist argued that the section 6(b)(5) of the statute, which set forth the "extent feasible" principle, should be struck down on the basis of the non-delegation doctrine. The non-delegation doctrine, which has been recognized by the Supreme Court since the era of Chief Justice Marshall, holds that Congress cannot delegate law-making authority to other branches of government. Rehnquist offered three rationales for the application of the non-delegation doctrine. First, ensure Congress makes social policy, not agencies; delegation should only be used when the policy is highly technical or the ground too large to be covered. Second, agencies of the delegated authority require an "intelligible principle" to exercise discretion which was lacking in this case. Third, the intelligible principle must provide judges with a measuring stick for judicial review.

Subsequent developments
Most scholars have said that the interpretation of statute ignored a foundational principle of statutory interpretation. Generally, specific language governs general language. In this case, the court read the more general provision of Section 3(8) as governing the specific process specified in Section 6(b)(5).

The case also marks the current state of affairs for the non-delegation doctrine. When the court is faced with a provision that appears to be an impermissible delegation of the authority, it will use tools of statutory interpretation to try to narrow the delegation of power.

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
United States administrative case law
Chemical safety
1980 in the environment
1980 in United States case law
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
American Petroleum Institute
AFL–CIO
United States labor case law
United States nondelegation doctrine case law


Ron Wojciak (March 22, 1943 – September 29, 1966) was an American baseball player.

Wojciak grew up in Columbia Heights, Minnesota. He attended the University of Minnesota, where he earned All-Big 10 and All-American honors in baseball. His team, the Minnesota Golden Gophers, won the 1964 College World Series. He served as the team's catcher. He signed to play professional baseball with the Minnesota Twins. He played for the Orlando Twins, a Twins minor league affiliate in the Florida State League, in 1965, appearing in 59 games with a .250 batting average.

Wojciak died in 1966 of lung cancer. In his honor, his hometown boosters founded the Ron Wojciak Award, to be given to those involved in community youth athletics. The award has been presented annually since 1966. He was elected to the Gopher Sports Hall of Fame in 2004.

Notes

External links

1943 births
1966 deaths
Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball players
Orlando Twins players
Baseball catchers
People from Columbia Heights, Minnesota
Sportspeople from Anoka County, Minnesota
Deaths from lung cancer

Ron Wojciak


Zoltan Bathory (born in 1978) is a Hungarian-American musician and martial artist. He is the founder and rhythm guitarist of Las Vegas-based heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch. In 2010, he was named Golden God's "Best Shredder" by Metal Hammer magazine.

He is an actively competing martial artist, a black belt in both jiu-jitsu and judo, and 2021's Jiu-Jitsu American Nationals Silver Medalist. in Black Belt Masters Super Heavy Division. Bathory is also a founding board member of the veterans nonprofit Home Deployment Project in Las Vegas and sits on the Board of Advisors at VETPAW (Veterans Empowered to Protect African Wildlife), an anti-poaching organization operating on the African continent, composed of US combat veterans.

Career
Bathory joined the post-grunge band U.P.O. in 2004, replacing Ben Shirley on bass. He left the band in 2005, switched back to guitar, and went on to form the heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch in Los Angeles, California.

Five Finger Death Punch recorded their debut album in 2006 with engineers Steve Bruno and Mike Sarkisyan. It was mixed by Soulfly/Machine Head guitarist Logan Mader. Soon after finishing the album, the band was signed by a major management company The Firm and The Way of the Fist was released on July 31, 2007. This self-produced record sold 500,000 copies in the US and spawned three top-10 singles. Their follow-up album, War Is the Answer was released on September 22, 2009, through Prospect Park Records. The record debuted number 7 on the Billboard 200 and all four singles (off of the album) made it to the top 10 mainstream rock charts. War Is the Answer stayed on Billboards Top 100 for over a record-breaking 92 weeks and sold over 1,000,000 copies.

Their third record American Capitalist was even more successful. It debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200, had another three top 10 singles and it achieved Gold status within a year of its release. It has since been certified Platinum. In 2013, the band released a double studio album The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 1 and Volume 2 within three months from each other. Both albums debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 chart. Volume 1 featured guest vocalists Rob Halford of Judas Priest, Maria Brink of In This Moment, Tech N9ne, Jamey Jasta of Hatebreed, and Max Cavalera of Sepultura and Soulfly. Both albums also became certified Platinum.

The band's sixth record Got Your Six was the band's biggest first-week commercial success. The record was number one on Billboard 200's physical sales chart and number 2 on the overall charts. Since 2010, only six metal albums had achieved RIAA Certified Platinum Status: Metallica's Hardwired... to Self-Destruct and five of Five Finger Death Punch's albums (War Is the Answer, American Capitalist, Wrong Side of Heaven, Volume 1 and Volume 2, and Got Your Six). The band have had twenty one top 10 hit singles on U.S. Mainstream Rock Radio. Bathory won the "Best Shredder" award at the 2010 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards. The award was the third Golden God trophy the band received (the first was for 2009 Best New Artist and the second for 2010 Breakthrough Artist, respectively).

In 2013, the band was nominated and won another Golden God Award (Song of the Year) with "Lift Me Up". This number one mainstream rock hit featured Rob Halford of Judas Priest as a guest vocalist. Halford and Rob Zombie joined the band's performance at the Golden Gods Award Ceremony.

In 2017, it was announced that Bathory expanded into artist management and took a new band, Bad Wolves, under his wing. Bad Wolves' first record Disobey was released in May 2018 via Eleven Seven Records. The Bathory managed band's first single "Zombie" became a number one hit in the United States and several other countries.

Shortly after, Bathory signed a second band to his management company, Fire from the Gods.

Equipment

In 2009, B.C. Rich launched three Zoltan Bathory Artist Signature Guitars: Bathory – Assassin (Artist Signature Model). Bathory runs this through TC Electronic G-System and Diamond Amplifiers. He uses a Dunlop heavy core string set (gauge of .13 to .66).

It was announced in November 2014, that DBZ Guitars had teamed up with Bathory to create the company's first ever Diamond signature guitars. Although Bathory made the switch to Diamond/DBZ guitars in late 2014, the company claims he goes way back with Diamond, as he designed several guitars in Diamond's arsenal in the past (Bird of Pray, Halcyon) and he's used their amplifiers for over a decade.

Philanthropy
Five Finger Death Punch have played many military benefit concerts, visited bases around the world and spearheaded a fundraising campaign for veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury.

In 2014, the band launched a campaign that raised over $225,000. The band used their recent music video for their latest single "Wrong Side of Heaven" to focus on the theme and launched website 5fdp4Vets.com. They also started selling a custom jersey which was designed by Bathory, on Indiegogo. The funds raised went to organizations that raise awareness about post-traumatic stress disorder.

Bathory was elected as the chairman of development of the non-profit organization The Home Deployment Project in Las Vegas, helping veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic homelessness.

In 2017, it was announced that Bathory had joined VETPAW (Veterans Empowered To Protect African Wildlife), an anti-poaching organization consisting of US combat veterans. VETPAW focuses on fighting against illegal rhino killings on the continent. To achieve this, VETPAW launched Operation Rhino Shield in South Africa where they deployed a team of Army, Marine and Navy veterans on private reserves that are under direct threat from rhino poachers.

Bathory is a long-time supporter of law enforcement and first responders. In 2017, Five Finger Death Punch donated $58,000 to The Badge of Honor Memorial Foundation, an organization recognized by the Department of Justice, that's available to assist the departments and families of fallen police officers by identifying all the federal and state benefits that are available for them.

In 2018, Bathory spearheaded another campaign wherein his band Five Finger Death Punch donated a portion of their ticket sales ($95,000) to C.O.P.S. (Concerns of Police Survivors), an organization that supports families of officers killed in the line of duty by offering scholarships, counseling services and peer support.

In 2019, Five Finger Death Punch teamed up with Brantley Gilbert, Brian May of Queen and Kenny Wayne Shepherd to re-record a new version of Shepherd's song "Blue on Black". All proceeds from the recording is donated to First Responders via The Gary Sinise Foundation.

Personal life
In his private life, Bathory is an actively competing martial artist, who practices judo (black belt) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (black belt), often appearing in martial art magazines. He is married to Heather Grace Gracie, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu's Founding Father Carlos Gracie's grand daughter. He is a member of the Gracie Humaita Jiu-Jitsu Competition Team, under Professor Amilcar Cipili (5th Degree) and 8th Degree Black Belt Master Royler Gracie. Bathory won the silver medal at the 2021 American National JiuJitsu Championship in the Black Belt Super Heavy Weight Masters Division and the Open Weight Class Absolute Division. He also placed second at the Abu-Dhabi Pro Jiu-Jitsu World Trials and at The North American Grappling Championship in 2011.  He placed third at the 2012 Masters World Championship in his division. He is one of the few civilians certified by the US Army as an L1 Modern Army Combatives Instructor – Close Quarter Combat. Bathory also practices Wing Chun Kung-Fu under Grand Master Randy Williams C.R.C. Academy and Guerilla Jiu-Jitsu under professor John Simons III. Bathory is featured in former Navy Seal Team 6 operator Clint Emerson's "100 Deadly Skills Combat Edition  – The Most Dangerous Men in America" series.

In May 2014, Bathory joined Monster Jam Free Style World Champion Jimmy Creten's Monster Truck Racing Team 2Xtreme Racing as their driver behind the wheel of the new Knucklehead truck. Bathory's professional debut took place in California at the WGAS Motorsport Flip Fest Monster Truck and Motocross Show. Bathory raced at Florida's EastBay Race Way, Kansas City Speedway, Newfoundland Raceway in Canada, and appeared at the 2015 Monster Jam Finals in Las Vegas.

In a Revolver Magazine article it was revealed that he is a co-owner of Epic Roll a premier Jiu-Jitsu Gear Manufacturer

Bathory is a contributing writer and social-political commentator for the nationally distributed Skillset magazine.

In July 2023 the video game franchise Call of Duty announced Bathory as a playable character in the game.

Jiu-Jitsu Championship records
Source:

References

External links

Five Finger Death Punch official website

Living people
Hungarian rock guitarists
Male guitarists
American heavy metal guitarists
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Five Finger Death Punch members
1978 births
Hungarian male musicians

Zoltan Bathory


The Turkmen of Turkmenistan, are predominantly Muslims. According the U.S. Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report for 2022,According to U.S. government estimates, the country is 89 percent Muslim (mostly Sunni), 9 percent Eastern Orthodox, and 2 percent other. There are small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, Shia Muslims, Baha'is, Roman Catholics, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, and evangelical Christians, including Baptists and Pentecostals. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians identify as Orthodox Christian and generally are members of the Russian Orthodox Church or Armenian Apostolic Church. Some ethnic Russians and Armenians are also members of smaller Protestant groups. There are small pockets of Shia Muslims, consisting largely of ethnic Iranians, Azeris, and Kurds, some located in Ashgabat, with others along the border with Iran and in the western city of Turkmenbashy.

The great majority of Turkmen readily identify themselves as Muslims and acknowledge Islam as an integral part of their cultural heritage.

The country of Turkmenistan encourages the conceptualization of "Turkmen Islam," or worship that is often mixed with veneration of elders and saints, life-cycle rituals, and Sufi practices.

Since Turkmenistan's independence saw an increase in religious practices and the development of institutions like the Muftiate and the building of mosques, today it is often regulated.

The government leadership of Turkmenistan often uses Islam to legitimize its role in society by sponsoring holiday celebrations such as iftar dinners during Ramadan and presidential pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. This sponsorship has validated the country's two presidents (Nyýazow and Berdimuhamedow) as pious Turkmen, giving them an aura of cultural authority.

Religious demography
The country has an area of  and an officially declared population of 5.5- to 6 million, though unofficial sources indicate the resident population may not exceed five million. Official statistics regarding religious affiliation are not available. According to the Government's most recent published census (1995) ethnic Turkmen constitute 77 percent of the population. Minority ethnic populations include Uzbeks (9.2 percent), Russians (6.7 percent), and Kazakhs (2 percent). Armenians, Azeris, and other ethnic groups comprise the remaining 5.1 percent. The unpublished 2012 census reportedly counted Turkmen as 85.6 percent, followed by 5.8 percent Uzbeks and 5.1 percent ethnic Russians. The majority religion is Sunni Islam, and Russian Orthodox Christians constitute the largest religious minority. The level of active religious observance is unknown.

Since independence, Islam has been revived but it is tightly controlled. During the Soviet era, only four mosques operated; now there are 698. Ethnic Turkmens, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Balochs and Pashtuns living in Mary Province are predominantly Sunni Muslim. There are small pockets of Shi'a Muslims, many of whom are ethnic Iranians, Azeris, or Kurds living along the border with Iran and in Turkmenbashy.

While the 1995 census indicated that ethnic Russians composed almost 7 percent of the population, subsequent emigration to Russia and elsewhere has reduced considerably this proportion. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians are Orthodox Christians. There are 12 Russian Orthodox churches, four of which are in Ashgabat. An archpriest resident in Ashgabat leads the Orthodox Church within the country.  Until 2007 Turkmenistan fell under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox archbishop in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, but since then has been subordinate to the Archbishop of Pyatigorsk and Cherkessia. There are no Russian Orthodox seminaries in Turkmenistan.

Ethnic Russians and Armenians also comprise a significant percentage of members of unregistered religious congregations; ethnic Turkmen appear to be increasingly represented among these groups as well. There are small communities of the following unregistered denominations: the Roman Catholic Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and several evangelical Christian groups including "Separate" Baptists, charismatic groups, and an unaffiliated, nondenominational group.

Small communities of Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, the Society for Krishna Consciousness and the Bahá'í Faith have registered with the Government. In May 2005 the Greater Grace World Outreach Church of Turkmenistan, the International Church of Christ, the New Apostolic Church of Turkmenistan, and two groups of Pentecostal Christians were able to register. There are also the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Greater Grace World Outreach Church, the Protestant Word of Life Church.

A very small community of ethnic Germans, most of whom live in and around the city of Sarahs, reportedly included practicing Lutherans. Approximately one thousand ethnic Poles live in the country; they have been largely absorbed into the Russian community and consider themselves Russian Orthodox. The Catholic community in Ashgabat, which includes both citizens and foreigners, meet in the chapel of the Apostolic Nunciature. There are a very small number of foreign missionaries, although the extent of their activities is unknown.

An estimated two hundred Jews live in the country in 2022. Most are members of families who came from Ukraine during World War II. There are some Jewish families living in Turkmenabat, on the border with Uzbekistan, part of the Bukharan Jewish community, a historical reference to the Khanate of Bukhara that until the Russian conquest ruled that area. There are no synagogues; the last synogogue was turned into a gym during the Soviet era. Some in the community gather for religious observances but collectively Jews have not opted to register as a religious group.  There are no reports of harassment of Jews.

Islam and its history in Turkmenistan

Islam came to the Turkmen primarily through the activities of Sufi shaykhs rather than through the mosque and the "high" written tradition of sedentary culture. These shaykhs were holy men critical in the process of reconciling Islamic beliefs with pre-Islamic belief systems; they often were adopted as "patron saints" of particular clans or tribal groups, thereby becoming their "founders." Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan.

Integrated within the Turkmen tribal structure is the "holy" tribe called övlat . Ethnographers consider the övlat, of which six are active, as a revitalized form of the ancestor cult injected with Sufism. According to their genealogies, each tribe descends from Muhammad through one of the Four Caliphs. Because of their belief in the sacred origin and spiritual powers of the övlat representatives, Turkmen accord these tribes a special, holy status. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the övlat tribes became dispersed in small, compact groups in Turkmenistan. They attended and conferred blessings on all important communal and life-cycle events, and also acted as mediators between clans and tribes. The institution of the övlat retains some authority today. Many of the Turkmen who are revered for their spiritual powers trace their lineage to an övlat, and it is not uncommon, especially in rural areas, for such individuals to be present at life-cycle and other communal celebrations.

In the Soviet era, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. An official Muslim Board of Central Asia with a headquarters in Tashkent was established during World War II to supervise Islam in Central Asia. For the most part, the Muslim Board functioned as an instrument of propaganda whose activities did little to enhance the Muslim cause. Atheist indoctrination stifled religious development and contributed to the isolation of the Turkmen from the international Muslim community. Some religious customs, such as Muslim burial and male circumcision, continued to be practiced throughout the Soviet period, but most religious belief, knowledge, and customs were preserved only in rural areas in "folk form" as a kind of unofficial Islam not sanctioned by the state-run Spiritual Directorate.

Religion after Independence
Since 1991, Islam and minority religions have been allowed to resume, though under tight government control. Mosques were reopened, and Russian Orthodox Christian churches were allowed to operate; a small number of Protestant Christian churches have been allowed to register and operate. Large new mosques have been built in major cities, including the Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Mosque in Ashgabat, constructed by Bouygues of France. Instruction in Islam is authorized in one educational institution, Turkmen State University, which includes a Department of Theology.

Religion remains under government supervision. The mufti is appointed by the president. Importation of religious literature must be approved by the government.

The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom reported in 2020The 2016 Religion Law asserts that Turkmenistan is a secular state with religious freedom. However, it requires religious groups to register with the Ministry of Justice under intrusive criteria (including having 50 adult citizen founders), prohibits any activity by unregistered groups, requires that the government be informed of all foreign financial support, bans worship in private homes and private religious education, and prohibits the wearing of religious garb in public except by clerics. All religious activity is overseen by the State Commission on Religious Organizations and Expert Evaluation of Religious Information Resources (SCROEERIR), which approves the appointment of religious leaders, the building of houses of worship, the import and publication of religious literature, and the registration of all religious organizations. The law does not specify the criteria for gaining SCROEERIR approval, which enables arbitrary enforcement. The registration process requires religious organizations to provide the government with detailed information about founding members, including names, addresses, and birth dates. Registered communities must reregister every three years, and religious activity is not permitted in prisons or the military.

The U.S. Department of State reported in 2019The constitution provides for the freedom of religion and for the right of individuals to choose their religion, express and disseminate their religious beliefs, and participate in religious observances and ceremonies. The constitution maintains the separation of government and religion, stipulating religious organizations are prohibited from "interference" in state affairs. The law on religion requires all religious organizations, including those previously registered under an earlier version of the law, to reregister with the Ministry of Justice (MOJ) every three years to operate legally. According to religious organizations, government security forces continued to surveil religious organizations and ban the importation of religious literature, and it remained difficult to obtain places of
worship.

In 2022, many religious groups reported an increase in young people showing an interest in religion and spirituality; this is said to be a result of growing up after the Soviet era, and a response to the threat of Covid.

Syncretism in Turkmen Islam
The Russian Academy of Sciences has identified many instances of syncretic influence of pre-Islamic Turkic belief systems on practice of Islam among Turkmen, including placing offerings before trees. The Turkmen word taňry, meaning "God", derives from the Turkic Tengri, the name of the supreme god in the pre-Islamic Turkic pantheon. The Turkmen language features a multitude of euphemisms for "wolf", because of a belief that speaking the actual word while tending a flock of sheep will invoke a wolf's appearance. In other examples of syncretism, some infertile Turkmen women, rather than praying, step or jump over a live wolf to assist them in getting pregnant. Children born subsequently are typically given names associated with wolves; alternatively the mother may visit shrines of Muslim saints. The future is also divined by reading of dried camel dung by special fortune tellers.

Other religions

Christianity

Christianity is the second largest religion in Turkmenistan, accounting for 6.4% of the population or 320,000 according to a 2010 study by Pew Research Center. Around 5.3% or 270,000 of the population of Turkmenistan are Eastern Orthodox Christians.

Protestants account for less than 1% (30,000) of the population of Turkmenistan. There are also very few Catholics in the country - around 95 in total.

Armenians living in Turkmenistan (below 1%) mostly adhere to Armenian Apostolic Church and Russian Orthodox Church.

Hinduism
Hinduism was spread in Turkmenistan by International Society for Krishna Consciousness.  ISKCON Hindus are a minority community in Turkmenistan.

A ISKCON representative reported to the U.S. Department of State that harassment from officials had decreased since her group's registration. In October 2006, as part of a general annual prison amnesty, former President Niyazov released imprisoned ISKCON follower Ceper Annaniyazova, who had been sentenced to seven years in prison in November 2005 for having illegally crossed the border in 2002.

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith in Turkmenistan dates to before Russia's advances into the region, while the area was under Persian influence. By 1887 a community of Bahá'í refugees from religious violence in Persia had founded a religious center in Ashgabat. While the Bahá'í Faith spread across the Russian Empire and attracted the attention of scholars and artists, the Bahá'í community in Ashgabat built the first Bahá'í House of Worship, elected one of the first Bahá'í local administrative institutions and was a center of scholarship. However, during the Soviet period religious persecution caused the Bahá'í community almost to disappear.  Nevertheless, Bahá'ís who moved into the regions in the 1950s did identify individuals still adhering to the religion. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1991, Bahá'í communities and their administrative bodies started to develop across the nations of the former Soviet Union. In 1994 Turkmenistan elected its own National Spiritual Assembly; however, laws passed in 1995 in Turkmenistan required 500 adult religious adherents in each locality for registration and no Bahá'í community in Turkmenistan could meet this requirement. As of 2007 the religion had still failed to reach the minimum number of adherents to register and individuals have seen their homes raided for Bahá'í literature.

Freedom of religion

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by Article 11 of the Constitution of Turkmenistan.  However, like other human rights, in practice it does not exist. Former President Saparmurat Niyazov's book of spiritual writings, the Ruhnama, is imposed on all religious communities. According to Forum 18, despite international pressure, the authorities severely repress all religious groups, and the legal framework is so constrictive that many prefer to exist underground rather than have to pass through all of the official hurdles. Protestant Christian adherents are affected, in addition to groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses, Bahá'í, and International Society for Krishna Consciousness.  Jehovah's Witnesses have been fined, imprisoned and suffered beatings for their faith or due to being conscientious objectors; in 2022 they reported no arrests, but noted that the government continues to call them for military service and do not offer exemptions for conscientious objectors.

A 2009 CIA report regarding religious freedom in Turkmenistan reads:"A survey of bookstores in central Ashgabat to check the availability of the Quran, the holy book of Muslims, revealed that the book was practically unavailable in state stores except for rare cases of second-hand copies.  The only other places where the Quran could be bought were at an Iranian bookshop and from a private bookseller.  During the visit to the Iranian store, the clerk explained that to import and sell the Quran in Turkmenistan, the store needed approval by the Presidential Council on Religious Affairs.  In a predominantly Muslim society, the unavailability of the Quran for purchase seems to be an anomaly.  The authorities' strict control over the availability of religious literature, including Islamic literature, highlights the state's insecurity about the impact that the unrestricted practice of religion could have on the current status quo in Turkmen society ... In general, the majority of Turkmen have a Quran in Arabic in their homes.  Even if they cannot read Arabic, the fact of having the holy book is believed to protect a family from evil and misfortune. For an explanation of the Quran, most people rely on imams, who are appointed by the Council on Religious Affairs at national, provincial, city and district levels.  The scarcity of the Quran in a familiar language leaves people little choice but to turn to the state-appointed imams for the "correct" interpretation of the book, a further sign of the government's policy of strict control over religious life in the country."

In 2023, the country was scored zero out of 4 for religious freedom; it was noted that restrictions have tightened since 2016. In the same year it was ranked the 26th worst place in the world to be a Christian.

See also
Demographics of Turkmenistan

References

fr:Turkménistan#Religions

Religion in Turkmenistan


A schismatic temperament is a musical tuning system that results from tempering the schisma of 32805:32768 (1.9537 cents) to a unison. It is also called the schismic temperament, Helmholtz temperament, or quasi-Pythagorean temperament.

Construction

In Pythagorean tuning all notes are tuned as a number of perfect fifths (701.96 cents ). The major third above C, E, is considered four fifths above C. This causes the Pythagorean major third, E (407.82 cents ), to differ from the just major third, E (386.31 cents ): the Pythagorean third is sharper than the just third by 21.51 cents (a syntonic comma ).

C — G — D — A — E

Ellis's "skhismic temperament" instead uses the note eight fifths below C, F (384.36 cents ), the Pythagorean diminished fourth or schismatic major third. Though spelled "incorrectly" for a major third, this note is only 1.95 cents (a schisma) flat of E, and thus more in tune than the Pythagorean major third. As Ellis puts it, "the Fifths should be perfect and the Skhisma should be disregarded [accepted/ignored]."

E  F
F — C — G — D — A — E — B — F — C

In his eighth-schisma "Helmholtzian temperament" the note eight fifths below C is also used as the major third above C. However, in the "skhismic temperament" pure perfect fifths are used to construct an approximate major third, while in the "Helmholtzian temperament" approximate perfect fifths are used to construct a pure major third. To raise the Pythagorean diminished fourth 1.95 cents to a just major third each fifth must be narrowed, or tempered, by 1.95/8 = 0.24 cents. Thus the fifth becomes 701.71 cents instead of 701.96 cents. As Ellis puts it, "the major Thirds are taken perfect, and the Skhisma is disregarded [tempered out]."

E  F
E — C — G — D — A — E — B — F — C

Compare  vs. .

Comparison with other tunings

Whereas schismatic temperaments achieve a ratio with a number of fifths, each tempered by a fraction of the schisma; meantone temperaments achieve a ratio with fifths, each tempered by a fraction of the syntonic comma (81:80, 21.51 cents). As meantone temperaments are often described by what fraction of the syntonic comma is used to alter the perfect fifths, schismatic temperaments are often described by what fraction of the schisma is used to alter the perfect fifths (thus quarter-comma meantone temperament, eighth-schisma temperament, etc.).

In both eighth-schisma tuning and quarter-comma meantone the octave and major third are just, but eighth-schisma has much much more accurate perfect fifths and minor thirds (less than a quarter of a cent off from just intonation). However, quarter-comma meantone has a large advantage in that the major third and minor third are spelled as such, whereas in schismatic tunings, they're represented by the diminished fourth and augmented second (if spelled according to their construction in the tuning). This places them well outside the span of a single diatonic scale, and requires both a larger number of pitches and more microtonal pitch-shifting when attempting common-practice Western music.

Various equal temperaments lead to schismatic tunings which can be described in the same terms. Dividing the octave by 53 provides an approximately 1/29-schisma temperament; by 65 a 1/5-schisma temperament, by 118 a 2/15-schisma temperament, and by 171 a 1/10-schisma temperament. The last named, 171, produces very accurate septimal intervals, but they are hard to reach, as to get to a 7/4 requires 39 fifths. The −1/11-schisma temperament of 94, with sharp rather than flat fifths, gets to a less accurate but more available 7:4 by means of 14 fourths. Eduardo Sabat-Garibaldi also had an approximation of 7:4 by means of 14 fourths in mind when he derived his 1/9-schisma tuning.

History of schismatic temperaments

Historically significant is the eighth-schisma tuning of Hermann von Helmholtz and Norwegian composer Eivind Groven. Helmholtz had a special Physharmonica (a harmonium by Schiedmayer) with 24 tones to the octave. Groven built an organ internally equipped with 36 tones to the octave which had the ability to adjust its tuning automatically during performances; the performer plays a familiar 12-key (per octave) keyboard and in most cases the mechanism will choose from among the three tunings for each key so that the chords played sound virtually in just intonation. A 1/9-schisma tuning has also been proposed by Eduardo Sabat-Garibaldi, who together with his students uses a 53-tone to the octave guitar with this tuning.

Mark Lindley and Ronald Turner-Smith argue that schismatic tuning was briefly in use during the late medieval period. This was not temperament but merely 12-tone Pythagorean tuning. Justly tuned fifths and fourths generate a reasonable schismatic tuning and therefore schismatic is in some respects an easier way to introduce approach justly tuned thirds into a Pythagorean harmonic fabric than meantone. However, the result suffers from the same difficulties as just intonation – for example, the wolf B-G here arises all too easily when availing oneself of the concordant schismatic substitutions just outlined – so it is not surprising that meantone temperament became the dominant tuning system by the early Renaissance. Helmholtz's and Groven's systems get around some, but not all, of these difficulties by including multiple tunings for each key on the keyboard, so that a particular note can be tuned as G in some contexts and F in others, for example.

References

External links
"Schismic Temperaments", Intonation Information.

"Schismic", Tonalsoft(R) - Encyclopedia of microtonal music theory.

Linear temperaments

Schismatic temperament


An anti-roll bar (roll bar, anti-sway bar, sway bar, stabilizer bar) is an automobile suspension part that helps reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over road irregularities. It links opposite front or rear wheels to a torsion spring using short lever arms for anchors. This increases the suspension's roll stiffness—its resistance to roll in turns.

The first stabilizer bar patent was awarded to Canadian inventor Stephen Coleman of Fredericton, New Brunswick on April 22, 1919.

Anti-roll bars were unusual on pre-WW2 cars due to the generally much stiffer suspension and acceptance of body roll. From the 1950s on, however, production cars were more commonly fitted with anti-roll bars, especially those vehicles with softer coil spring suspension.

Purpose and operation

An anti-sway or anti-roll bar is intended to reduce the lateral tilt (roll) of the vehicle on curves, sharp corners, or large bumps. Although there are many variations in design, the object is to induce a vehicle's body to remain as level as possible by forcing the opposite wheel's shock absorber, spring, or suspension rod in the same direction as the one being impacted.

In a turn a vehicle compresses its outer wheel's suspension. The anti-roll bar forces the opposite wheel's to also compress, thereby keeping the body in a more level lateral attitude.  This has the additional benefit of lowering its center of gravity during a turn, increasing its stability.

When both front and rear anti-roll bars are fitted, their combined effect can help maintain a vehicle's tendency to roll towards the general slope of the terrain.

Principles
An anti-roll bar is usually a torsion spring anchored to  resist body roll motions. It is usually constructed out of a cylindrical steel bar, formed into a "U" shape, that connects to the body at two points along its longer center section, and on each end. When the left and right wheels move together the bar simply rotates on its central mounting points. When  the wheels move relative to each other, torsion forces cause the bar to twist.

Each end of the bar is connected to an end link through a flexible joint. The link is connected in turn to a spot near a wheel or axle, transferring forces from the heavily loaded side of a suspension to the opposite.

Forces are therefore transferred:
 from the heavily loaded side of the suspension
 to the connected end link via a bushing
 to the anti-sway (torsion) bar via a flexible joint
 to the connected end link on the opposite side of the vehicle
 to the opposite side of the suspension.

The bar resists the torsion through its stiffness. The stiffness of an anti-roll bar is proportional to the stiffness of the material, the fourth power of its radius, and the inverse of the length of the lever arms (i.e., the shorter the lever arm, the stiffer the bar). Stiffness is also related to the geometry of the mounting points and the rigidity of the bar's mounting points. The stiffer the bar, the more force required to move the left and right wheels relative to each other. This increases the amount of force required to make the body roll.

In a turn the sprung mass of the vehicle's body produces a lateral force at the centre of gravity (CG), proportional to lateral acceleration. Because the CG is usually not on the roll axis, the lateral force creates a moment about the roll axis that tends to roll the body. (The roll axis is a line that joins the front and rear roll centers). The moment is called the roll couple.

Roll couple is resisted by the suspension roll stiffness, which is a function of the  spring rate of the vehicle's springs and of the anti-roll bars, if any. The use of anti-roll bars allows designers to reduce roll without making the suspension's springs stiffer in the vertical plane, which allows improved body control with less compromise of ride quality.

One effect of body lean, for typical unibody suspension geometry, is positive camber of the wheels on the outside of the turn and negative on the inside, which reduces their cornering grip (especially with cross ply tires).

Main functions
Anti-roll bars provide two main functions. The first is to reduce body lean. This is dependent on the total roll stiffness of the vehicle. Increasing this stiffness does not change the steady state total load (weight) transfer from the inside wheels to the outside, it only reduces body lean. The total lateral load transfer is determined by the center of gravity height and track width.

The other function of anti-roll bars is to tune the handling balance of a car. Understeer or oversteer can be reduced by changing the proportion of the total roll stiffness that comes from the front and rear axles. Increasing it at the front increases the proportion of the total load transfer that the front axle reacts to—and decreases it in the rear. In general, this makes the outer front wheel run at a comparatively higher slip angle, and the outer rear wheel to run at a comparatively lower slip angle, increasing understeer. Increasing the proportion of roll stiffness at the rear axle has the opposite effect, decreasing understeer.

Drawbacks
Because an anti-roll bar connects wheels on opposite sides of the vehicle, the bar transmits the force of a bump on one wheel to the opposite wheel. On rough or broken pavement, anti-roll bars can produce jarring, side-to-side body motions (a "waddling" sensation), which increase in severity with the diameter and stiffness of the anti-roll bars. Other suspension techniques can delay or dampen this effect of the connecting bar.

Excessive roll stiffness, typically achieved by configuring an anti-roll bar too aggressively, can make the inside wheels lift off the ground during hard cornering. This can be used to advantage: many front wheel drive production cars lift a rear wheel when cornering hard in order to overload the opposite wheel, limiting understeer.

Adjustable bars

Some anti-roll bars, particularly those intended for use in auto racing, are externally adjustable while the car is in the pit, whereas some systems can be adjusted in real time by the driver from inside the car, such as in Super GT. This allows the stiffness to be altered, for example by increasing or reducing the length of the lever arms on some systems, or by rotating a flat lever arm from a stiff edge-on position to a more flexible flat-side-on position on other systems. This lets a mechanic tune the roll stiffness for different situations without replacing the entire bar.

MacPherson struts
The MacPherson strut is a common form of strut suspension. This was not the first attempt at strut suspension, but in MacPherson's original patent, the anti-roll bar forms an integral and essential part of the suspension, in addition to its usual function in controlling body roll. A strut suspension like MacPherson's requires a hinged lower member between the chassis and wheel hub to control the wheel position both inwards and outwards (controlling the track), and also forwards and backwards. This may be provided by a wishbone with a number of joints, or by using an additional radius rod. MacPherson's design replaced the wishbone with a simpler and cheaper track control arm, with a single inboard joint, to control the track. Forward and backward position was controlled through the anti-roll bar. Overall this required a simpler and cheaper set of suspension members than with wishbones, also allowing a reduction in unsprung weight.

As the anti-roll bar is required to control wheel position, the bars of a MacPherson strut suspension may be connected through ball joints. However many later "MacPherson strut" suspensions have reverted to using wishbones rather than the simplified track control arm of the original design.

Semi active anti-roll bars

Various methods of decoupling the anti-roll bar have been proposed. The first production car to use a semi-active anti-roll bar was the 1988 Mitsubishi Mirage Cyborg. The 16-valve turbo model's "Dual Mode Suspension" has a dashboard- operated hydraulic actuator built into the front anti-roll bar link, allowing it to toggle between sport and touring modes. The Jeep Wrangler (JK, JL) and Jeep Gladiator (JT) also have a switchable decoupler on Rubicon models,  to increase wheel articulation for off-roading.

Active systems

The first active anti-roll bar  system was Citroën's SC.CAR (Systeme Citroën de Contrôle Actif du Roulis), debuted in its 1994 Xantia Activa, a medium-sized European sedan. The anti-roll bar could be stiffened by the suspension ECU during hard cornering, minimizing body roll to 2 degrees.

The Mercedes-Benz S-Class Active Body Control system eliminates the anti-roll bar, instead using sensors to detect lateral load, lateral force, and height difference in the suspension strut, which then hydraulically raise or lower the spring to counter roll.

Toyota also uses a mechanical system called Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System (KDSS) that essentially disengages the stabilizer bars when off-road, allowing for greater vehicle articulation and ride quality.

See also
Panhard rod
Torsion bar suspension

References

Canadian inventions
Automotive suspension technologies
Automotive safety technologies
Auto parts
Mechanical power control

Anti-roll bar


The Canadian Lacrosse League (usually abbreviated as CLax) is a professional indoor lacrosse league in Canada. It was started in 2012. The league's season is played during the winter and spring.

The league has five teams, all located in Canada:
 Barrie Blizzard, in Barrie, Ontario
 Durham TurfDogs, in Oshawa, Ontario
 Niagara Lock Monsters, in St. Catharines, Ontario
 Ohsweken Demons, in Hagersville, Ontario
 SouthWest Cyclops, in Hagersville, Ontario

2012 establishments in Canada

Canadian Lacrosse League