Mark Anthony Koenig (July 19, 1904 – April 22, 1993) was an American baseball shortstop who played twelve seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB).  He played with the New York Yankees, Detroit Tigers, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants from 1925 to 1936.  A switch hitter who threw right-handed, he was listed at  and .  Although primarily playing as a shortstop, Koenig was utilized at both second base and third base as well.

Koenig played minor league baseball with four different teams until May 1925, when he signed with the New York Yankees.  After making his debut in September 1925 and spending five seasons with the Yankees, he was traded to the Detroit Tigers, where he spent the next two seasons.  He subsequently joined the Chicago Cubs and the Cincinnati Reds via trades in 1932 and 1934, respectively, and was finally traded to the New York Giants, with whom he played his last game on September 27, 1936.  Koenig is most famous for being the last surviving member of the Murderers' Row.

Early life
Koenig was born on July 19, 1904, in San Francisco.  His father, Charles Koenig, and paternal grandfather William were both bricklayers, with the latter having immigrated from Germany to the United States.  His mother Stella was of Swiss descent.  Koenig had two brothers and a sister, and, during his childhood, he first met and played baseball with fellow San Franciscan and future teammate Tony Lazzeri.  He attended Lowell High School in his hometown, but dropped out at the age of 16 in order to pursue a career in baseball.  His high school eventually bestowed upon him his diploma in 1988.  Koenig, who was 83 at the time, described the honor as a complete surprise.

Professional career

Minor leagues
Koenig first started playing organized baseball on the Moose Jaw Millers team in the Western Canada League.  It was here he was first spotted by Bob Connery, a scout who worked for the New York Yankees organization.  After the league collapsed in the middle of the season, he proceeded to play with the St. Paul Saints, a minor league baseball team which competed in the American Association.  He spent nearly the next four seasons with the team; during this time, he had brief sojourns with the Jamestown Jinkotans and the Des Moines Boosters in order to garner more playing experience.

Koenig returned to St. Paul in  and though he spent the entire season with the team, he played just 68 games for them.  At the end of the season, the Saints advanced to the Little World Series, where they faced the International League's Baltimore Orioles.  Having had limited playing time, it was in Game 5 where he finally had the opportunity to prove himself.  Danny Boone, St. Paul's starting shortstop, injured his ankle during batting practice.  Although the rules at the time stipulated the Saints could temporarily utilize a player from another American Association team to replace Boone, the Orioles objected and the National Association president ruled Koenig constituted an ample substitute for Boone.  He proved to be exactly that when he scored the Saints' only run via a home run.  He finished the Little World Series with a .429 batting average and 2 home runs, including one hit off Lefty Grove.  His stellar performance in the series resulted in at least seven MLB teams seeking to acquire him in the offseason.  However, he stayed with the Saints for the first part of the  season before he was traded on May 29 to the New York Yankees in exchange for Fred Hofmann, Oscar Roettger, $50,000 ($ in current dollar terms) and a player to be named later (Ernie Johnson).

New York Yankees (1925–1930)
Koenig made his major league debut for the Yankees on September 8, 1925, at the age of 21, entering the game as a defensive substitute for shortstop Pee-Wee Wanninger in a 5–4 win against the Boston Red Sox.  During his rookie season the following year, he posted a batting average of .271 and struck out just 37 times in 617 at bats, a statistic which his manager Miller Huggins looked highly upon.  Defensively, he committed the most errors among all fielders in the American League and most errors by a shortstop with 52.  Nonetheless, he had the AL's third highest range factor at shortstop of 4.99 and made a league-leading 470 putouts.  In the postseason, the Yankees advanced to the 1926 World Series, where they lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games.  In the crucial Game 7, Koenig made an error attempting to field a double play opportunity in the fourth inning.  This eventually led to the Cardinals scoring—what turned out to be—the winning run in a 3–2 victory.  Koenig was subsequently criticized by fans for being responsible for Yankees losing the game and, ultimately, the series.

Koenig was penciled into the two-hole spot in the Yankees'  Opening Day lineup, with Earle Combs batting in front of him at leadoff and Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Bob Meusel and Tony Lazzeri batting behind him.  This lineup, which was utilized in that order throughout the majority of the season, was given the nickname "Murderers' Row".  Many sports analysts, baseball writers and fans consider the 1927 team the greatest baseball team of all time.  Although he was dismissive of the role he played, Koenig contributed to the team's success as he batted .285 and amassed 150 hits, 11 triples, 99 runs scored and 62 runs batted in.  However, he once again led the league in errors with 47, but compensated for this by recording the highest range factor at shortstop (5.61) and third most assists at shortstop (423).  He was also part of history when, after hitting a triple, he was the only Yankees player on base when Babe Ruth hit his milestone 60th home run, setting a new single-season record.  The Yankees advanced to the World Series that year, where they swept the Pittsburgh Pirates.  Koenig performed impressively throughout the series, batting a team-leading .500 and committed no errors in 24 total chances.

Career statistics

In 1162 games over 12 seasons, Koenig posted a .279 batting average (1190-for-4271) with 572 runs, 195 doubles, 49 triples, 28 home runs, 446 RBIs, 31 stolen bases, 222 bases on balls, .316 on-base percentage and .367 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .933 fielding percentage playing primarily at shortstop, third and second base. In 20 World Series games, he batted .237 (18-for-76) with 9 runs, 3 doubles, 1 triple and 5 RBI.

Personal life
In June 1928, Koenig became engaged to Katherine Tremaine, whom he married at the end of that year's baseball season.  Together, they had one daughter, Gail, who was born in 1930.  He later was remarried to Doris Bailey, who died in 1979.  He appeared as himself in The Pride of the Yankees, an Academy Award-winning movie released in 1942 which paid tribute to his fellow Yankees teammate Lou Gehrig.  After his baseball career ended, he settled back in his hometown and took up several jobs, namely owning gas stations and working as a brewer.

Beginning in 1982, Koenig's health began to deteriorate.  In addition to the lung cancer which had developed, he also suffered from gout, poor eyesight and back pain necessitating the use of a cane.  Because of these ailments, he moved to Orland, California, in 1986 in order to live with his daughter and her family.  He died of cancer on April 22, 1993, in Willows, California, at the age of 88 and was cremated.  He had outlived his two wives and was survived by his daughter, five grandchildren and nine great-grandchildren.  At the time of his death, he was the last surviving member of the 1927 New York Yankees starting lineup, nicknamed "Murderers' Row". He was also the last surviving member of the 1928 World Champion New York Yankees.

References

External links

1904 births
1993 deaths
American people of Swiss-German descent
Baseball players from San Francisco
Chicago Cubs players
Cincinnati Reds players
Detroit Tigers players
Jamestown Jimmies players
Major League Baseball shortstops
Mission Reds players
New York Giants (NL) players
New York Yankees players
St. Paul Saints (AA) players
People from Orland, California

Mark Koenig


In the context of classical Greek architecture, orthostates are squared stone blocks much greater in height than depth that are usually built into the lower portion of a wall. They are so called because they seem to "stand upright" rather than to lie on their sides. In other contexts the English term is usually orthostat. It is typical in Greek architecture for pairs of orthostates to form the thickness of a wall, one serving as the inner and the other serving as the outer face of the wall. Above a course of orthostates, it is common to lay a course of stones spanning the width of the wall and joining its two faces (a binder course).

The term has been generalized for use in the description of the architecture of many cultures. In Hittite and Assyrian sculpture, orthostats are often intricately carved. The term may be used more generally of other upright-standing stones, including megalithic menhirs.

See also
Glossary of architecture

References
Robertson, D. S. (1929) Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Architectural elements
Ancient Greek architecture

Orthostates


Dymkovo toys, also known as the Vyatka toys or Kirov toys ( in Russian) are moulded painted clay figures of people and animals (sometimes in the form of a pennywhistle). It is one of the old Russian folk art handicrafts, which still exists in the village of Dymkovo near Kirov (former Vyatka). Traditionally, the Dymkovo toys are made by women.

The tradition of making pennywhistles in the form of a horse, a horse rider, and a bird goes back to the ancient magic ritual images and has to do with the agricultural calendar holidays. Later, the little figures lost their magic meaning and turned into toys for children, the making of which would become an artistic handicraft. Up until the 20th century, this toy production had been timed to the spring fair called свистунья, or whistler. The first recorded mentioning of this event took place in 1811, but it is believed to have existed for some 400 years, thus dating the history of the Dymkovo toy at least from the 17th century.

In the late 19th century the handicraft fell into decline because the Dymkovo toys had been forced out of the market by the factory-made moulded plaster statuettes, which imitated porcelain articles. During Soviet times, however, the Dymkovo handicraft was revived. In 1933, they organized an artel called Вятская игрушка (The Vyatka Toy), which would turn into a workshop of the Artistic Fund of the RSFSR (). These days, the Dymkovo toys are known as a popular Russian souvenir.

The Dymkovo toys are moulded from a mixture of local potter's clay and river sand. The parts are then fastened together with watery clay. After the toys are dried and tempered in a furnace, they are whitewashed with chalk diluted in milk, then painted with tempera (before 1953, the artists used aniline paints ground with eggs) in 4 to 10 (or more) colors, and decorated with gold leaf.

Modern Dymkovo toys include ancient motifs, as well as those of the second half of the 19th century, such as барыни (barynyas, or landladies), няньки (nyanki, or nannies), водоноски (vodonoski, or female watercarriers) and others. In the 1930s, the Dymkovo toys began to depict fairy tales and a contemporary lifestyle. There were also multi-character compositions on stands, and figures of people taller than 30 cm.

Massive, abstract, and somewhat grotesque forms of the Dymkovo toys are emphasized by ruffles, puffed collars, and other features. The improvised bright painting of the toys represents a geometric ornament of circles, checks, and dots of different colors and sizes.

See also
Filimonovo toy

References

 Энциклопедия земли Вятской. Том 10, Ремёсла. ГИПП «Вятка», 2000 год.  / The Encyclopedia of Vyatka Land. Vol. 10, Handicrafts. Vyatka, 2000. .
 Dymkovo toy: all about the history and the best makers

Culture of Russia
Russian inventions
Russian handicrafts
Clay toys
Traditional toys
Culture of Kirov Oblast

Dymkovo toys


Pieternella Cornelia (Elly) Plooij-van Gorsel (born 20 March 1947 in Tholen, Zeeland) was a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in the delegation of the liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie - VVD) for ten years.

Biography

Early life (1947–1994)
Van Gorsel attended high school until 1965, specializing in science. She studied psychology at the University of Utrecht, where she graduated in 1971. In 1971, she became a researcher at the University of Leiden, where she received a PhD in 1980. Her thesis was titled Personality and Arousal: A Research into the Cortical and Autonomous Functions into Relation to Personality. She continued at the University of Leiden as a lecturer. There, she took courses in management and information technology. During this period, she was secretary of the church council of the Remonstrant Church in Oude Wetering and citizen-councillor for the VVD in Alkemade. She was vice-chairperson of the commission for emancipation of the Leiden University Council.

In 1987, van Gorsel switched from science to business and became head of Seminars and Conferences at the NIVE; she also became secretary of the Dutch Association of Professional Conference Organisers. From 1987 and 1991, she was editor for The Liberal Woman, the magazine of the feminist group within the VVD. In 1988, she became chairperson of the Foundation Woman and Management and a member of the International Advisors Board of Governors of the American National Women's Economic Alliance in Washington, D.C. After taking courses in commercial economics in 1990, she became head of sales for Service One Business Catering. From 1991 and 1994, she was treasurer of the Leiden branch of the VVD, and its European contact.

Political career (1994–2004)
In 1994, she was elected into the European Parliament for the VVD, which is part of the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party. She became a member of the committee for Research, Technology and Energy and of the committee for External Economic Relations. She was a member of the Delegation for Relations with the United States, and a substitute of the Delegation for Relations with the Czech Republic.

After the 1999 elections, she became a member of the committee for Industry, External Trade, Research and Energy and a substitute for the committee for Economic and Monetary Affairs. She became chairperson of the Delegation for Relations with the People's Republic of China, and a member of the conference of delegation chairpersons. During this period, she was a reporter on the Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals. In 2003, she was appointed draftsperson for the Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions and proposed an amendment for a "grace period" which would have brought European patent practice in the field of software patents closer to the United States practice of "first to invent" as opposed to the European practice of "first to file". Between 2001 and 2002, she was vice-president of the European Parliament.

After political career (2004–present)
In 2004, Van Gorsel joined Blueprint Partners as senior counsellor. She co-founded the European Internet Foundation, an independent, neutral and non-partisan discussion forum on ICT-related topics, governed by elected members of the European Parliament. She was a member of the Steering Committee of the Trans-Atlantic Policy Network, a network for European and American politicians and businessmen. Van Gorsel is chairperson of the Dutch Expert Council for national standards. She currently resides in Brussels, Belgium.

References
  Parlement.com biography

1947 births
Living people
Dutch psychologists
Dutch women psychologists
Leiden University alumni
MEPs for the Netherlands 1994–1999
MEPs for the Netherlands 1999–2004
20th-century women MEPs for the Netherlands
21st-century women MEPs for the Netherlands
People from Tholen
People's Party for Freedom and Democracy MEPs
Utrecht University alumni
Remonstrants

Elly Plooij-van Gorsel


Paper marbling is a method of which can make patterns. The patterns are the result of paint floated on water. The colouring is transferred to an absorbent surface, such as paper or fabric.

It is often used as a writing surface for calligraphy, and especially book covers and endpapers in bookbinding and stationery.

It is rarely used today, but was common in the 19th century. The reason for its lack of use today may be that it adds to the expense of the finished book.

References

Paper
Art
Publishing

Paper marbling


In databases, a partial index, also known as filtered index is an index which has some condition applied to it so that it includes a subset of rows in the table.

This allows the index to remain small, even though the table may be rather large, and have extreme selectivity.

Suppose you have a transaction table where entries start out with STATUS = 'A' (active), and then may pass through other statuses ('P' for pending, 'W' for "being worked on") before reaching a final status, 'F', at which point it is no longer likely to be processed again.

In PostgreSQL, a useful partial index might be defined as:
create index partial_status on txn_table (status)
where status in ('A', 'P', 'W');
This index would not bother storing any of the millions of rows that have reached "final" status, 'F', and would allow queries looking for transactions that still "need work" to efficiently search via this index.

Similarly, a partial index can be used to index only those rows where a column is not null, which will be of benefit when the column usually is null.
create index partial_object_update on object_table (updated_on)
where updated_on is not null;
This index would allow the following query to read only the updated tuples:
select * from object_table
where updated_on is not null
order by updated_on;
It is not necessary that the condition be the same as the index criterion; Stonebraker's paper below presents a number of examples with indexes similar to the following:
create index partial_salary on employee(age)
where salary > 2100;

Support

In SQL Server, this type of index is called a filtered index.

Partial indexes have been supported in PostgreSQL since version 7.2, released in February 2002.

SQLite supports partial indexes since version 3.8.0.

MongoDB supports partial indexes since version 3.2.

References

External links
The Case For Partial Indexes

Database management systems
PostgreSQL

Partial index


Harut and Marut are a pair of angels mentioned in the Qur'an. These angels are send down to earth and teach sorcery. Practicing sorcery is a sin Islam, so some Muslim theologians wondered how angels could do that. Some reject that Harut and Marut are really angels and that they are merely kings (in Arabic kings and angels are simialr words). Others argue that knowing or teaching sorcery isn't a sin. Only praticing it is a sin, like knowing to build an idol isn't a sin, but worshipping an idol is.

Muhammad's companions say that Harut and Marut have been angels in heaven who were outraged by human's sin. God then made a bet with the angels, that they wouldn't be better, if they lived on earth with human urges. They agreed but actually sinned on earth and so they were not allowed to return to heaven. Further, they have to choose their punishment, either in this world or in hell. They choose earth, and so they became (fallen) angels tempting people into sorcery.

Angels

Harut and Marut


Can Parellada is a village which forms part of the municipality of Masquefa in the comarca of the Anoia in Catalonia, Spain. It is served by a station on the FGC railway line R6 between Barcelona and Igualada. Its population as of 2005 was 1343.

Populated places in Anoia

Can Parellada


"The Requiem" () is an 1886 short story by Anton Chekhov.

Publication
The story was first published in Novoye Vremyas (o.s.) 15 February, No. 3581, 1886 issue, in the Subbotniks section. With minor changes it made its way into the In the Twilight (В сумерках, V sumerkakh) 1887 collection (to be reproduced in its 2–13, 1888–1899 editions). With several more minor changes it was included by the author into Volume 3 of his Collected Works which were published by Adolph Marks in 1899–1901.

Background
Chekhov, for whom this would be the first publication in Novoye Vremya, originally signed it with his usual pen name A. Chekhonte (А. Чехонте). On 27 (o.s. 14) February he received a telegram from the newspaper asking for the permission to publish it under his real name. "Chekhov gave such a permission, but regretted it, for he was planning to publish something in medical journals and was keeping his real name for serious articles," A.S. Lazarev-Gruzinsky opined in his memoirs.

Answering Suvorin's letter, Chekhov wrote on 6 March (o.s. 21 February): "Thank you for your kind words on my stories and for publishing this one so promptly... I share your opinion considering the finale which you dropped and am grateful for your criticism which I found very constructive. I've been writing for six years now but you are the first editor who'd taken the trouble of proving a perfectly reasonable explanation for the cut you've made."

The dropped finale issue was also mentioned in Viktor Bilibin's early March letter: "I've read your story in Novoye Vremya with great pleasure but failed to notice in it any old spinster that you'd [previously] mentioned." Chekhov's original manuscript has been lost and there is only the Novoye Vremya version of the story that is extant.

Synopsis

Andrey Andreyitch, a shopkeeper, comes to the local village church to ask for prayers for his recently deceased daughter Maria, and is chided by the priest for the wrong kind of language that he'd used in his written request. The shopkeeper's daughter was an actress, and quite a well known one, and he simply fails to understand why the clergymen are so offended by the word 'harlot' with which he described her occupation. The rendition of the prayers awaken in Andrey Andreyitch some tender memories of his beautiful, sensitive and intelligent girl, yet even mentally he keeps referring to her as 'harlot' for he can't see how an actress could be described otherwise.

References

External links
 Панихида, the original Russian text
 The Requiem, the English translation

Short stories by Anton Chekhov
1886 short stories
Works originally published in Russian newspapers

The Requiem (short story)


Vulcanops  jennyworthyae is an extinct species of bat that lived during the Miocene in New Zealand, a large burrowing microchiropteran that probably ate arthropods and plant material around twenty million years before present.  It is the type and only described species of the genus Vulcanops.

Taxonomy and etymology
Vulcanops jennyworthyae was described in 2018 from fossilized teeth and bone fragments.
The new genus and species were placed within the family Mystacinidae, commonly called the burrowing bats.
The genus name "Vulcanops" is derived from the Roman god of fire and volcanoes, Vulcan.
The suffix "-ops" is commonly used for bat genera.
"Vulcan" was chosen in homage to the tectonic nature of New Zealand, as well as a historic hotel, Vulcan Hotel, in the mining town of Saint Bathans.
The eponym for the specific epithet "jennyworthyae" is Jennifer P. Worthy "in recognition of her pivotal role in revealing the diversity of the St Bathans Fauna."
Jennifer Worthy is the scientist who discovered the fossils of V. jennyworthyae.
The fossilized remains were found in sediments approximately 16–19 million years old.

Description
Based on the mean of several extrapolations from the size of its teeth, Vulcanops jennyworthyae would have weighed slightly less than .
Its body mass would be three times the average size of modern bats.
It is the largest bat of its family ever described.

Biology and ecology
The presence of a large hypocone on its upper molars indicates that it was not strictly carnivorous.
A large, blunt hypocone is indicative of herbivory.
It would have lived among the trees while also foraging on the ground.
It likely consumed invertebrates such as insects and spiders.

Their diet likely included a range of animals and plants and resembled the South American species of the Mystacinidae, consuming greater amounts of plant-based foods than the smaller and more carnivorous modern Australasian species.

References

Mystacinidae
Miocene bats
Neogene mammals of Oceania
Fossils of New Zealand
Fossil taxa described in 2018
Prehistoric bat genera
Mammals of New Zealand
Endemic fauna of New Zealand
Endemic mammals of New Zealand

Vulcanops


Valentina Mikhailovna Maksimova (; born 21 May 1937) is a retired Russian track cyclist. She won silver medals in the sprint at four consecutive world championships in 1958–1961, behind Galina Ermolaeva. Between 1953 and 1955 she set seven Soviet records in 200–500 m events.

Maksimova graduated from the Institute of Pedagogy in Tula and then from the Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport, Youth and Tourism, where she also defended a PhD on training sprint cyclists. From 1985 to 1993 she headed the women's section of the Soviet Cycling Federation, and since 1988 was an executive member of the Russian Cycling Federation.

References

1937 births
Living people
Russian female cyclists
Sportspeople from Tula, Russia
Soviet female cyclists

Valentina Maksimova


The Man from Beyond is a 1922 American silent mystery film starring Harry Houdini as a man found frozen in arctic ice who is brought back to life.

Plot
As described in a film magazine, scientist Dr. Gregory Sinclair (Connelly) and his fellow explorers find a man, Howard Hillary (Houdini), frozen in solid arctic ice and chop him out and then thaw him. When he returns to life, Dr. Sinclair does not tell Howard that he is 100 years behind the times, planning to study his reactions after they return to civilization. Howard tells that he loved Felice, the daughter of the captain of a ship, and there was a mutiny. In his last memory of the event, Howard was trying to save the young woman's father when he received a blow to the head. Dr. Sinclair persuades Howard not to search the snow and ice of the arctic, but to return to civilization. When Dr. Sinclair returns home, he learns that his ward's father, Dr. Crawford Strange, had set out to join him in the arctic but was lost. It is the wedding day of his ward. When Howard sees the bride, he calls out to her, calling her "Felice" and begging her to recall their love. The ward's name is Felice Strange (Connelly) and she is the reincarnation of Howard's lost sweetheart. The wedding is postponed indefinitely, and Felice begs Howard to help find her missing father. The discarded suitor, Dr. Gilbert Trent (Maude), has kidnapped her father Dr. Strange and is holding him in the cellar of his house, having planned to marry Felice and having her go with him to hunt for her father in the arctic. Howard and Dr. Sinclair stumble upon a clue, a hat with a cloth in it with Dr. Strange's initials, which leads them to rescuing him. Felice is being pursued by a hireling of Dr. Trent, and Howard follows them to the edge of the Niagara rapids. Howard swims the rapids, catches up with the canoe, and saves the young woman. Howard and Dr. Trent battle on the cliff and Trent goes over. Felice recognizes in Howard her true mate for their belated romance.

Cast
Harry Houdini as Howard Hillary / The Man from Beyond
Arthur Maude as Dr. Gilbert Trent
Albert Tavernier as Dr. Crawford Strange
Erwin Connelly as Dr. Gregory Sinclair
Frank Montgomery as Francois Duval
Luis Alberni as Captain of the Barkentine
Yale Benner as Milt Norcross
Jane Connelly as Felice Strange / Felice Norcross
Nita Naldi as Marie Le Grande

Production
According to the film's press book, Burton King's directing was supposedly usurped by Houdini's "supervision," but there is little evidence that this was true. As was his habit, Houdini performed all of his own stunts.

Houdini and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
The Man from Beyond is in some ways Houdini's attempt to reconcile with his erstwhile friend, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Houdini befriended the English author while performing in Britain in 1920, but the two publicly disagreed about the legitimacy of spiritualism (Doyle was a fervent advocate of the supernatural while Houdini was its most famous critic). The pair had a falling out when they attended a seance in which the "spirit" of Houdini's mother (who had only spoken and understood German while alive) communicated to her son in English. By 1922, the men were no longer talking because Doyle refused to accept Houdini's criticisms of the event. The Man from Beyond ends with the words "You must believe" and the spirit of the vintage-1820 Felice entering the body of the 1922 model, a replication of the cover of Doyle's 1918 spiritual treatise, The New Revelation. Doyle praised the film and wrote:From the opening scene showing the actual chopping of a frozen man from the center of a mass of ice and restoring him to life, to the closing scenes of the sensational rescue of the girl from the very brink of  Falls, it holds one breathless. I consider The Man from Beyond one of the really great contributions to the screen. The film's publicity campaign subsequently used Doyle's quote in advertisements.

References

External links

The Man from Beyond Google Video Copy

1922 films
American silent feature films
American black-and-white films
1922 mystery films
Silent American mystery films
Harry Houdini
Films directed by Burton L. King
1920s American films
English-language mystery films
1920s English-language films

The Man from Beyond


Haskell Robert "Cool Papa" Sadler (April 16, 1935 – May 6, 1994) was an American blues singer, songwriter, and guitarist.

Born in Denver, Colorado, United States, Sadler moved to California and worked in clubs in the San Francisco Bay Area starting in the 1960s. He played a number of times at the San Francisco Blues Festival.  Sadler wrote "747" as recorded by Joe Louis Walker, and "Yesterday" recorded by Tiny Powell.  In the 1970s, he recorded as "Cool Papa" for TJ Records. Cool Papa proved to be a guiding hand to Gene "Birdlegg" Pittman, then a new arrival in the Bay Area, and Pittman played alongside Sadler for 13 years.

He developed diabetes, and had a leg amputated in 1990.   He died, aged 59, in Berkeley, California, in 1994.

See also
West Coast blues

References

External links
Cool Papa photos

1935 births
1994 deaths
American blues singers
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
West Coast blues musicians
20th-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American guitarists
Singers from Denver
Guitarists from Colorado
20th-century American male musicians
American male singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from Colorado

Haskell Sadler


In Greek mythology, Argus (; Ancient Greek: Ἄργος Argos) was the builder and eponym of the ship Argo, and consequently one of the Argonauts; he was said to have constructed the ship under Athena's guidance. Argus was commissioned to build the Argo by King Pelias (ruler of Iolcus) so that the crew that would come to be known as the Argonauts could find and bring the Golden Fleece back to Iolcus, which was in Thessaly.

Family
Argus' parentage is debated, but most often he is referred to be the son of Arestor. The latter was a member of the Argive royal house, is given as his father by Apollonius Rhodius and John Tzetzes, but Hyginus says Argus' parents were Polybus and Argia or Danaus to be his father.

Mythology
In Valerius Flaccus' Argonautica, Argus is said to have originated from Thespiae. Argus was also credited with creating a wooden statue of Hera that was a cult object in Tiryns.

King Pelias did not believe that the crew would be able to come back with the Golden Fleece successfully because he knew that the king of Colchis would not part with it easily, and that a never-sleeping dragon guarded it. So the King gave Jason, leader of the Argonauts, all the timber and the crew he needed. Argus was then selected to build the ship, and he was said to have constructed the ship under Athena's guidance. Athena with the help of Argus put a piece of a sacred oak on the prow of the ship that was taken from the sacred grove of Zeus at Dodona.  This sacred piece of wood has the ability to speak in times of danger and advise Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, on what to do. Argus did such a great job constructing this ship that at the time it was referred to the "most seaworthy ship ever seen. The Argo was also notably the first ship that Argus ever built.

Argus as one of the Argo's crew included the very well known Greek heroes: Jason, the leader, Augeas, Theseus, Meleager, Peleus, Telamon, Nauplius, Orpheus, and Heracles. Many of the crew were fathers of Trojan War heroes.

He should not be confused with the hundred-eyed giant Argus Panoptes.

In popular culture
As an essential element in the retelling of the story of Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece, Argus has appeared in several featured films including the 1958 Italian films Hercules and Hercules Unchained in which he is portrayed by Italian actor Aldo Fiorelli. Other films have featured Argus as an elderly character including the 1963 film classic Jason and the Argonauts (portrayed by British actor Laurence Naismith) and the 2000 television mini-series of the same name (portrayed by British actor David Calder).

Notes

References
 Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
 Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica. George W. Mooney. London. Longmans, Green. 1912. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
 Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. Online version at theio.com.
 Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonauticon. Otto Kramer. Leipzig. Teubner. 1913. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.

Argonauts
Characters in the Argonautica
Deeds of Athena

Argus (Argonaut)


German Kleinlokomotiven (literally: small locomotives) like the DRG Kö II (later: Köf II) were developed as locomotives with a low weight and driving power for light shunting duties.  There were two classes, based on engine power. The Class II were engines which developed more than 40 (later 50) HP.

After tests with several trial locomotives, they were placed in service from 1932 onwards by the Deutsche Reichsbahn (DRG) and used on small stations for light shunting and marshalling work. They were intended to make the handling of goods traffic more economical. To do that, an appropriately trained controller had to be able to handle shunting duties using the locomotive. Accordingly, the locomotive was designed to be robust and easy to operate.

Technology
Light locomotives mainly used diesel motors (originally classified as Kö/Köf/Köe by the DRG), as their source of energy, but there were also versions with Benzol motors, designated as Kb/Kbf/Kbe, and with electrical batteries (accumulator cars: Ks/Ka), as well as one locomotive with a steam engine. The third letter, if present, indicated the type of power transmission. If there was none, the locomotive had a mechanical gear system with a dry clutch. An f stood for an hydraulic drive and an e for electric traction motors, that were fed by a generator. Köf, therefore, stood for a light locomotive (Kleinlok) with diesel engine (Öl-(Diesel-)Motor) and hydraulic transmission (Flüssigkeitsgetriebe). Power is transmitted to the axles using a chain linkage.

The locomotive is very small and yet of , standard gauge, width, but only fills about half the loading gauge profile. As a result, it can be loaded onto flat wagons. This was how the locomotives were moved between yards or to depots for overhaul and repair. The top speed of  made it impractical for the locomotives to power themselves over the mainline.

The light diesel locomotives were the first German diesel engines that were built in batches by several manufacturers.
They were initially divided into two power groups:

 Class I (initially , later )
 Class II (up to )

DB had over 700 new Köf II engines newly built and further developed after the war. In the GDR, 32 Kö II were (re-)built in Dessau maintenance works for DR (among them the last ever built of 1968). More than 360 very similar vehicles were produced exclusively for industrial railways, series N3 with chain link drive and , referred to as N3 by the manufacturers, and series N4 with side rod drive and . The first proper development of small shunting locomotives in the GDR was the V 10 B, which was further developed into class V 15. A plan – similar to the one of DB – to build a series of more powerful Köf III was subsequently discarded and replaced by the DR class V 60 project.

The DB later developed a Köf III with up to . In 1987, the Class 260/261 (up to 1968 called V 60) engines were reclassified as light locomotives and renumbered into classes 360/361.

The brake effort of the Kö was initially only determined by the weight of the engine driver and the maximum force he could transmit via the brake pedal. With the introduction of new, more powerful motors (up to ) and the corresponding increase in tractive effort this proved insufficient; as a result many light locos in the DB and DR were equipped with a compressed-air brake, that could also operated the brakes of attached wagons. DR engines were not equipped with their own brake cylinders so that only the attached wagons were air-braked. In the DB the permitted top speed was raised from  where compressed-air brakes had been installed. These locos can be easily recognised by their air reservoirs on the front. Because the open cab gave no real protection from the weather in winter, doors and windows were added during the course of main inspections from the late 1950s.

Classifications

Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft: power category (Leistungsgruppe) II, Kb/Kö/Köf/Kbf 4001 to 6047
Deutsche Bundesbahn: continued production of Köf II up to Köf 6835
Deutsche Bundesbahn: in 1968 redesignated as Class 321-324
Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany): new models Kö 4002 to 4032
Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany): in 1970 redesignated as Class 100
Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany): in 1973, narrow gauge Kö redesignated as Class 199
Deutsche Bahn AG: in 1992 DR Class 100 redesignated as DBAG Class 310

 Class 321: Vmax = 30 km/h, foot brake, rebuilt into 322-324 stopped in February 1974
 Class 322: Vmax = 30 km/h, compressed-air brake
 Class 323-324: Vmax = 45 km/h, compressed-air brake

Preserved Locomotives

Deutsche Bundesbahn/Deutsche Bahn AG
In the 1980s numerous Köf IIs were still in service with the DB and DR (some over 50 years old. For a while, DB 323 412 and 323 415 were the oldest locomotives in the Deutsche Bundesbahn), as well as a handful of battery-operated light locos, of classes 381 and 382. Since 1999 no Köf IIs have worked for the Deutsche Bahn AG. However many remain working for other railway companies and societies, both in regular services and as museum locomotives.

East German Deutsche Reichsbahn
In 1970 the Deutsche Reichsbahn incorporated 378 machines of power category 2 in its EDP classification scheme as Class 100. After German reunification these became Class 310 in the DB AG. Only a few of the DR's light locomotives had  hydraulic power transmission; they were grouped into sub-class 100.8. Under the old numbering scheme they were classified as  Köf. Dead man's handles (Sifa) and radios for marshalling were not common. The Deutsche Reichsbahn converted many Kö to compressed-air brakes, this programme had not been completed when the Berlin Wall came down.

In 1983/84 three DR Kö II were converted to metre gauge working for the Halle industrial railway and the Harz Narrow Gauge Railway. They have been preserved.

Gallery

See also
Deutsche Reichsbahn
List of DRG locomotives and railbuses
Kleinlokomotive
DRG Kleinlokomotive Class I
DB Class Köf III

Literature

External links
 Deutsche Kleinloks.de, Extensive data bank for all Köf (German)
 Axel Klatt's light locomotive pages (German)

Diesel locomotives of Germany
Kof II
B locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1932
Standard gauge locomotives of Germany
Shunting locomotives

DRG Kleinlokomotive Class II


Roger de Beaufeu  (fl. 1297–1308) also known as Bello Fago was an English judge, possibly of the same family as Nicholas de Beaufo of Beaufo's Manor, Norfolk, a contemporary of the judge.

Name and records

One Radulphus de Bello Fago or Bella Fago (both genders are found, though the masculine predominates) is mentioned in the Domesday Book as holding extensive estates in Norfolk. The Bishop of Thetford is also mentioned there, which we know from other sources to have been William de Beaufo, called by Godwin inaccurately Galsagus [1 and by others still more corruptly Welson. It may be mentioned in passing that many other varieties of the name are found, such as Belfagus, Beaufou, Beaufogh, Beaufour, Belflour, Beufo, Beufew and in the eighteenth century, Beaufoy. How the Bishop of Thetford stood related to Radulphus de Bello Fago, we do not certainly know. Of Radulphus de Bello Fago little else is known, while of William, we know little more than the dates of his appointment to the see of Thetford and his death. That Roger de Beaufo was a lineal descendant of either Ralph or William de Bello Fago cannot be affirmed, nor can his relation to his contemporary Nicholas de Beaufo, of Beaufo's manor, be precisely determined, and we cannot connect him with Norfolk, all the estates which he is known to have possessed being situate in Berkshire and Oxfordshire; but the singularity of the name renders it highly probable that he was derived from the same original stock as the Norfolk family.

The earliest mention of him occurs in the roll of parliament for 1305, when he was assigned with William de Mortimer and others as receiver of petitions from Ireland and Guernsey.

In the same year, he received, with the same William de Mortimer, a special commission to try an action of "novel disseisin," i.e., ejectment, brought by one John Pecche against the abbot of Westminster for the recovery of a mansion and one parcel of land in Warwickshire. From the writ, it appears that the ordinary justices itinerant for that county were behind with their business, and it would seem that Mortimer and Beaufo were appointed "justices of assize" for that occasion only. In the same year and the following, he traveled the large western circuit of that day, which stretched from Cornwall to Southampton in one direction and Staffordshire and Shropshire in another, as one of the first commissions of trailbaston issued for those counties. The popular odium to which he attracted attention and of which the memory is preserved by a line, "Spigurnel e Belflour sunt gens de cruelté", in a ballad of the time celebrating the doings of the commission, proves him to have displayed exceptional vigor in the performance of his duty. In a writ of uncertain date, he is joined with William de Bereford and two other judges in a commission to inquire into the obstruction of the Thames between London and Oxford by weirs, locks, and mills, which was considered such a serious grievance by the merchants who were in the habit of traveling or sending goods by water between the two towns that they had petitioned the king for its redress.

We find him summoned with the other judges to parliament at Northampton by Edward II in 1307 and to attend the coronation of that monarch in 1308. He was not summoned to Parliament after that year. He is classed as a tenant of land or rents to the value of £20 or upwards in Berkshire and Oxfordshire in a writ of summons to muster at London for service overseas issued in 1297; in 1301 he was included in the list of those summoned to attend the king at Berwick-on-Tweed with horses and arms for the invasion of Scotland as one of the contingents to be furnished by the counties of Bedford and Buckingham. From a grant enrolled in the King's Bench, we know that he possessed land at Great Multon, in Oxfordshire, and from the record of an assize of "novel disseisin" preserved in the rolls of the same court, it appears that his daughter Isabella acquired by marriage a title to an estate in Little Bereford in the same county, which a subsequent divorce and remarriage were held not to divest. Later on, one Humfrey Beaufo of Bereford St. John, Oxfordshire, is mentioned by Dugdale as having married Joan Hugford, and the manors of Edmondscote or Emscote in Warwickshire and Whilton in Northamptonshire passed into his family in the reign of Henry VII. From him descended the Beaufos, or Beaufoys, of Edmondscote and Whilton.

The manor of Whilton was sold in 1619 by the then lord, Henry Beaufo, mentioned by Dugdale as lord of the manor of Edmondscote in 1640. His daughter, Martha Beaufoy, married Sir Samuel Garth, the author of the "Dispensary", and their daughter Martha, who inherited the estates, married, in 1711, William Boyle, grandson of Roger, the first earl of Orrery.

Notes

Attribution
 Endnotes:
Godwin, De Præsul. 426, 731
Dugdale's Monasticon, iii. 216
Blomefield's Norfolk, i. 200, 404, ii. 465
Rot. Parliamentary. i. 168 b, 218 b, 475 b
Rymer (ed. Clarke), i 970
Wright's Political Songs (Camden Society), 233
Parliamentary Writs, i. 155, 291, 353, 408, ii. div. ii. part i. 3, 17, 18, 21, 23
Plac. Abbrev. 214, 299
Dugdale's Ant. Warwickshire, 189
Baker's Hist. Northamptonshire, i. 232
Domesday Book, fols. 190 b-201 b, 225 b-229 b
Coll. Top. et Genesis viii. 361
Foss's Judges of England.

External links

13th-century births
14th-century deaths
14th-century English judges

Roger de Beaufeu


Diane M. Asitimbay (pronounced (/ə see´tim bai/)) is an American author, poet, teacher and intercultural trainer.

Personal life

Asitimbay was born on January 26, 1958, and grew up in metropolitan Detroit.  Asitimbay's mother was an elementary school teacher and her father was a government employee. Asitimbay has been writing poetry and stories since elementary school. She published her first poem when she was in high school for Pencil Marks, the school's literary magazine. Throughout college, she continued to publish articles, essays, and poems for literary magazines and newspapers.

After graduating in international relations from Michigan State University, she moved to New York City. Before writing her first book, she worked at many jobs, including a copy editor for a legal book publisher, a Spanish court interpreter, a political reporter in Mexico for a daily newspaper, and a history teacher in a New York City public high school.

Asitimbay currently lives in San Diego, where she is an adjunct instructor in the English Language Institute at University of California, San Diego Extension.

Books
Asitimbay's first book on American behavior called "What's Up, America?" (2005), was selected as a finalist for the Fresh Voices Award and the author was praised by reviewers and called "a powerful and important emerging cultural commentator." Following the book's publication, Asitimbay appeared on Fox Tv on the morning "FOX & FRIENDS" show and on KPBS public radio on the "These Days" show. A second and expanded edition of "What's Up, America?" was released in 2009.

This was followed by Asitimbay's second book, a humorous poetry collection for children called "No Perfect People Please!" (2007), which was Silver Recipient for Juvenile Poetry and received an honorable mention by the London Book Festival.

Themes
Asitimbay writes about American behavior and culture, drawing upon her many years of teaching international students as a basis for identifying characteristics unique to the United States. She analyzes American cultural quirks, from the magnets on our refrigerators to the bumper stickers on our cars and then compares American habits to Korean, Japanese, and European customs and describes how cultural practices differ in many parts of the world.

Asitimbay often speaks about the need for Americans to become global citizens and advocates developing genuine relationships with people from other cultures. Her insights have been found useful to a wide array of international organizations and universities including the U.S. Department of State's Fulbright scholars, the San Diego Consular Corp, the Citizen's Diplomacy Council, and National Association of Foreign Student Advisors.(NAFSA), California Association of Teachers of the English Language (CATESOL)  and the University of California, Irvine.

Asitimbay also examines a wide variety of personalities and experiences from a child's point of view as depicted in her second book. She performs her poetry in local elementary schools in an effort to promote literacy and participates in literary events such as "Read Across America" held every March.

Bibliography
Non-Fiction
 What's Up America? A Foreigner's Guide to Understanding Americans. (2005) Second Edition (2009)
Fresh Voices" Award, Travel Guide Finalist, Writer's Marketing Association
2010 San Diego Book Awards - Travel Books Finalist

Poetry
 No Perfect People, Please! (Culturelink Press, November 2007)
Honorable Mention for Children's Books, London Book Festival 2007
Silver Award Mom's Choice Awards 2009

Fiction
My Life as a Cactus, Tales of a Rookie Reporter 2023
2017-1018, San Diego Book Awards Finalist - Fiction - Novel

External links
 Official website

References

Living people
American children's writers
1958 births
Writers from Detroit
Michigan State University alumni
American women children's writers
21st-century American women

Diane Asitimbay


Allacma fusca is a species of springtail. This species is endemic to western areas of Continental Europe and the British Isles, where it lives in the surface layers of the soil in moist habitats such as among leaf litter.

Description

Allacma fusca is a large species of springtail with a dark brown globular abdomen; adults reach a length of around . There is often a "snowflake"-like marking on the abdomen, which is most noticeable in paler coloured individuals. The mouthparts are internal, and the head bears a pair of antennae, two groups of eyespots known as "composed eyes" and a pair of small post-antennal organs. The setae (bristles) on the third antennal segment are unequal in length, some being much longer than others, and the fourth antennal segment is divided into sixteen sub-segments. There are three thoracial segments, each bearing a leg, and five abdominal segments. The fourth abdominal segment bears an organ known as a "dens", and at the tip of this is a structure known as a "mucro". This species has mucros with smooth outer edges and saw-edged inner edges. In females, the appendage on the fifth abdominal segment is unforked.

Distribution and habitat
This springtail is native to Western Europe. It is common in the British Isles and inhabits moist terrestrial environments such as plant litter.

Ecology
Invertebrates living among the soil particles in underground habitats often experience raised levels of carbon dioxide, which tends to increase with depth. Researchers have found that the surface-dwelling Allacma fusca can tolerate a 10% level of carbon dioxide for a few hours while in contrast, the springtail Folsomia candida, which lives deeper in the soil, can survive under the same conditions for more than six weeks.

References

Collembola
Animals described in 1758
Arthropods of Europe
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Allacma fusca


Sylveanus Augustus "Vean" Gregg (April 13, 1885 – July 29, 1964) was an American professional baseball player. A pitcher, Gregg played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cleveland Naps, Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Athletics, and Washington Senators from 1911 through 1925.

Gregg was given the nickname, "the Western Wonder". He won 20 games in his first three seasons, becoming the only MLB ballplayer to accomplish the feat in the 20th century. Gregg led the American League in earned run average in 1911 and won the 1915 World Series.

Early life
Gregg was born in Chehalis, Washington and lived for most of his youth in Clarkston.  His brother, Dave Gregg, pitched one inning in 1913 as Vean's teammate for the Cleveland Naps.

Professional career
Gregg started his professional career with the Spokane Indians of the Northwestern League in 1910. In 1910, he played for the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League (PCL). He threw 14 shutouts with the Beavers.

The next year, Gregg played for the Cleveland Naps of the American League, pitching to a 23–7 win–loss record with a league-leading 1.80 earned run average. In 1912 and 1913, he started 34 games both years with an identical 20–13 record each season.

On July 28, 1914, the Naps traded Gregg to the Boston Red Sox for Fritz Coumbe, Ben Egan, and Rankin Johnson Sr. He developed a sore arm in 1914 and had continual arm problems for the rest of his career. He played for them on both the  and  World Series championship teams.

On December 14, 1917, the Red Sox traded Gregg, Merlin Kopp, Pinch Thomas and $60,000 to the Philadelphia Athletics for Bullet Joe Bush, Wally Schang, and Amos Strunk. Gregg went 9–14 in 30 games with a 3.12 ERA for the last-place Athletics in 1918. Gregg did not play baseball at any level from 1919 to 1921.

Gregg returned to professional baseball in 1922 with the Seattle Indians of the PCL and played there until 1924. After the 1924 season, Seattle sold Gregg to the Washington Senators of the American League for three players and cash considerations. In the 1925 season, Gregg went 2–2 with two saves. His final appearance, at any level, was in 1927 and consisted of a one-third inning outing for the Sacramento Senators of the PCL.

Career statistics
Gregg's major league career record was 92–63 with a lifetime 2.70 ERA in 1,393 innings pitched and 720 strikeouts.  He was the only pitcher in the 20th century to win 20 games or more in his first three seasons.

Player profile
Gregg was given the nickname, "the Western Wonder" and was declared by Ty Cobb to be "the toughest lefty he ever faced". Eddie Collins called Gregg "the left-handed Walter Johnson".

Post career and personal life
Vean's brother, Dave Gregg, played for Cleveland in 1913. Vean and Dave opened a gas station under the name "Vean Gregg Service Station" in Seattle during his return to the PCL. After his playing career ended, he owned and operated The Home Plate, a combined café and sporting goods store in Hoquiam, Washington. In 1934, Gregg ran for sheriff of Grays Harbor County, Washington.

In 2004, Gregg was inducted in the Pacific Coast League Hall of Fame.

Gregg and his wife, Dorothy, had five children. He died on July 29, 1964, in Aberdeen, Washington.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders

References

External links

SABR Dave Gregg Biography

1885 births
1964 deaths
Baseball players from Washington (state)
Major League Baseball pitchers
American League ERA champions
Cleveland Naps players
Boston Red Sox players
Philadelphia Athletics players
Washington Senators (1901–1960) players
People from Chehalis, Washington
Spokane Indians players
Portland Beavers players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Providence Grays (minor league) players
Seattle Indians players
New Orleans Pelicans (baseball) players
Sacramento Senators players
South Dakota State Jackrabbits baseball players

Vean Gregg


An irreversible agonist is a type of agonist that binds permanently to a receptor in such a manner that the receptor is permanently activated.  It is distinct from a mere (reversible) agonist in that the association of an agonist to a receptor is reversible, whereas the binding of an irreversible agonist to a receptor is, at least in theory, irreversible. Oxymorphazone is an example of an irreversible agonist. In practice, the distinction may be more a matter of degree, in which the binding affinity of an irreversible agonist is some orders of magnitude greater than that of an agonist.

Examples
 Oxymorphazone
 Metaphit

See also
 Agonist
 Irreversible antagonist
 Irreversible enzyme inhibitor

References

Receptor agonists

Irreversible agonist


The Wandsworth Shield is a circular bronze Iron Age shield boss or mount decorated in La Tène style which was found in the River Thames at Wandsworth in London sometime before 1849.  Another incomplete bronze shield mount, sometimes called the Wandsworth Mask Shield was found at the same time.  Both shield mounts are now held at the British Museum.  The bold repoussé decoration on the Wandsworth Shield, comprising two birds with outstretched wings and long trailing tail feathers, has led Barry Cunliffe, Emeritus Professor of European Archaeology at the University of Oxford, to consider the shield to be "among the masterpieces of British Celtic art".

Discovery
The circular bronze shield mount, another incomplete bronze shield mount, a bronze sword, and celt were found in the River Thames at Wandsworth during dredging operations in 1849 or earlier, and were presented to the Royal Archaeological Institute by William English in December 1849. English was a millwright who operated steam dredging machines on the Thames from 1808 until about 1850. The two shield mounts were donated to the British Museum by the Royal Archaeological Institute in 1858.

Description

The circular shield mount (Proto-Celtic *skētos (compare Breton skoed "shield"; Latin scūtum) comprises a central shield boss and an outer flange, 33 cm in diameter, and may be the central boss of an oblong shield similar to the Battersea Shield. The boss is ornamented with a curvilinear decoration in La Tène style comprising two almost identical bird patterns. There is a depression in the centre of the boss that would have originally held an ornamental stud made of enamel, as is also the case with the Battersea Shield. The surrounding flange is decorated with stylised designs of two large birds, with outstretched palmette wings and long trailing tail feathers, each a mirror image of the other. Further bird shapes are incised with a rocked graver technique on the wings of the two birds. The eye of each bird is marked with a depression in which there is a rivet that would originally have held a stud, possibly of Mediterranean coral. The bronze part of the shield would have been mounted on a wooden backing by six rivets, of which only one survives. This rivet extends 8 mm in length, indicating that the wooden backing to the shield would have been no more than 8 mm thick.

The incomplete bronze shield mount consists of a central boss, 11.85 cm in diameter, which transforms into a half-cylindrical spine at the top and bottom, one end broken and one end terminating in an anthropomorphic face. The surviving portion of the mount is 37.0 cm in length, and is similar to the boss and medial spine on the Witham Shield. The central boss is ornamented with repoussé work combined with a finely engraved spiral decoration, showing the heads of two ducks. The terminal face has three hairspring spirals engraved on the nose, and a row of triangles representing the teeth of the mouth.  The surviving bronze mount would have been mounted on an oblong wooden shield with at least seven rivets. The length of the rivets indicates that the wooden backing would have been no more than 8 mm thick.

The circular shield mount is dated to the 2nd century BC, and the mask shield is dated to the later 3rd century BC. It has been conjectured that these two shields, as well as other Iron Age shields that have been found in rivers, such as the Battersea Shield and the Witham Shield, were votive offerings to the gods.  Together with the Witham Shield, the style, especially of the engraving, is very close to that of the Torrs Pony-cap and Horns found in Scotland and now in the Museum of Scotland.

See also
 Waterloo Helmet

References

External links
 Drawing of the Wandsworth Shield
 Drawing of the Wandsworth Mask Shield

Archaeological artefacts from the River Thames
Ancient Celtic metalwork
Prehistoric objects in the British Museum
Iron Age Britain
Individual shields
History of the London Borough of Wandsworth

Wandsworth Shield


First Orbit is a 2011 feature-length, experimental documentary film about Vostok 1, the first human space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the International Space Station to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground track and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering 1961 orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive of Scientific and
Technical Documentation. The film features the music of composer Philip Sheppard.

Production

Although the film archive of Gagarin's training, preparations, and subsequent world tour is extensive, footage of the actual Vostok 1 flight hardly exists. In 2010 Riley came up with the idea to film Yuri's original view of the Earth from space through the International Space Station's new giant-windowed cupola.

The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth once every 90 minutes, but it does not always follow the same route that Gagarin took. To find out when filming opportunities might occur, the European Space Agency (ESA) teamed Riley up with German Flight Dynamics Engineer, Gerald Ziegler. Ziegler discovered that the ISS covered similar ground to Gagarin's Vostok 1 spaceship approximately every week. To complicate things further, the filmmakers needed to film at exactly the same time of day that Gagarin made his flight: passing over Gagarin's launch site, near the Aral Sea, at 06:07 UT and into the nightside of Earth over the Pacific Ocean at 06:37, before emerging into sunlight again over the Southern Atlantic at 07:10 UT and passing across the African continent and the Middle East, returning to the ground at 07:55 UT, just north of the Caspian Sea.

Further calculations confirmed that opportunities to film this trajectory, with the correct sun angles, at this exact time of day, only came around once every six weeks. According to Riley, the second challenge was fitting these filming opportunities into crew time on board the space station. "The astronauts have a busy schedule; conducting a packed programme of experiments, Earth observations and activities like sleep, exercise and meal times. This meant that accommodating the extra filming request for First Orbit was yet another challenge for the ESA mission directors," he told BBC news in a March 2011 interview. On the final flight path back towards Gagarin's landing site, the scenes shot for First Orbit are slightly to the east of the original Vostok 1 trajectory. Because the vantage point is so high, the vista was similar to that of Gagarin's vantage point.

Mission directors Roland Luettgens and Giovanni Gravili worked closely with the team to turn the filming opportunities into precise technical notes which translated Chris's camera directions into instructions for the crew. After a brief test shoot in November 2010, conducted by NASA's Expedition 25 astronaut Doug Wheelock, European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli filmed most of the footage for the project in early January 2011. This new footage showed the Earth as Gagarin would have seen it almost exactly fifty years before. The film does include views of the Moon, though. When Gagarin flew into the nightside of the Earth on 12 April 1961, there was a crescent moon and, according to his 1960s autobiography, Road to the Stars, Gagarin tried looking for the Moon out of curiosity, to see what it looked like from space. Unfortunately, it was not in his field of view. The filmmakers added the Moon into the scene as a tribute.

Music
The music in First Orbit was composed by Philip Sheppard and was taken from his album Cloud Songs. Riley first worked with Sheppard in 2006 on the Sundance award-winning feature documentary film, In the Shadow of the Moon. Since that time, he had worked on a new suite of music inspired by space flight, which he donated to this new film project.

Coincidentally, the music in the film was taken on board the ISS by NASA astronaut Catherine Coleman before it was used in the film. Catherine Coleman flew to the ISS with astronaut and First Orbit cameraman Paolo Nespoli without either of them knowing about the other's connection to the film project.

Archive audio
The producers sourced portions of Gagarin's original mission audio for First Orbit from the Russian State Archive. These historic recordings principally document the conversation between Yuri Gagarin on board Vostok 1 and Sergei Korolev on the ground. According to Riley, it is the first time that such quantities of the flight have been heard outside Russia. Additional archive audio in the film comes from a Radio Moscow report broadcast during the flight and news bulletins from the BBC and the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia TASS. The Russian recordings in the film are subtitled in English.

Global distribution

The finished film was streamed through the website www.firstorbit.org in a global YouTube premiere on 12 April 2011. On the day of release the film was viewed 1.3 million times within 24 hours and 2.3 million times within 48 hours. In addition to this online première the film opened on over 1600 screens around the world in more than 130 countries, including UNESCO HQ in Paris, Boeing HQ in Seattle, and the European Space Agency's Columbus Control Centre near Munich. In October 2011 the producers announced a call to action to translate the film into as many languages as possible. Their translation campaign resulted in 30 new languages which were published for free on the project's web site. To make these translations as accessible as possible the producers launched a crowd funding campaign on IndieGoGo to manufacture multi-language DVD and Blu-ray discs of the film. They raised only 20% of their target amount, but went ahead with the production anyway, releasing a limited run of discs on 12 March 2012, through the project's web site, and Amazon, almost exactly a year after the film was originally launched.

See also
 Gagarin: First in Space, 2013 docudrama

References

External links
First Orbit - the project's web page
First Orbit on YouTube - the global premiere channel for the film

2011 films
Cultural depictions of Yuri Gagarin
British documentary films
Documentary films about outer space
Films released on YouTube
Internet documentary films
2010s British films

First Orbit


George Griswold Latimer Bates (March 21, 1863, Abingdon, Illinois US  – January 31, 1940 Chelmsford UK), LL.D., M.B.O.U. was an American naturalist. He lived in central Africa and travelled widely, collecting specimens of natural history from which numerous new species were described. As many as 62 new species of mammals, reptiles and amphibians were described from his collections, including the Goliath frog, the hairy frog, and the Goliath shrew Crocidura goliath. He published a Handbook of the Birds of West Africa (1930) and was compiling a catalogue of the birds of Arabia. A plant genus Batesanthus was named after him and several species of bird bear his name including the rare Bates's weaver.

Life and work
Bates was born near Abingdon, Illinois. He went to school where he learned Latin and became interested in languages. He got an interest in natural history from his teacher Leanna Hague who took the class on botanical trips. He went to study at Lincoln, Illinois, and then transferred to Knox College, Galesburg. He worked in the summer to help produce maps for the Santa Fe Railroad in Knox County and Galesburg. After graduating with a doctor of letters from Knox College in 1885 he became a teacher in Hawaii but quit after a few months. He then worked as a surveyor for a railroad company in Tennessee. Following his parents' wishes, he joined the Chicago Theological Seminary where he studied Greek and Hebrew and graduated with a theology degree in 1892. He then taught at Ward Academy in South Dakota, using his free time to study the plants of the region.

Cameroon
In 1895 went to West Africa to work in a Presbyterian Mission. Here he took an interest in the local language and began to document the Bulu grammar and vocabulary. This led to a publication of a textbook in 1926. He lived initially at Senji, later at Efulen near Great Batanga in the German part of Cameroon, making a living by farming. He was known by the locals as "Bitye" and he called his farm by the same name. He collected natural history specimens both around him and on his travels and sent many of these to the Natural History Museum in London. He made use of native hunters to assist him in his collections. Some of the natives believed that he sought to collect male and female specimens so as to populate his own country with the bird species. Richard Bowdler Sharpe noted in 1906 that Bates' specimens were valuable and that there were several new species. By 1928, the number of specimens he had sent to the museum was estimated at 6905. During World War I, Bates was unable to send specimens and he began to spend more time on his farm cultivating cocoa, coffee and rubber trees. His may have been the earliest rubber plantations in the region. The German authorities forced him to hand over his guns (used for bird collecting) and he was asked to leave the region in 1915. He then moved south on foot to Rio Beneto in the Spanish Guinea. It was only in 1916 that he returned to his plantation and by 1921 he had travelled  across the Cameroon which was controlled by Britain and France. He wrote on the structure of the underwing coverts in 1918. In 1922 he travelled to Nigeria and in 1927 he visited the northwest of Lake Chad.

England
Bates left Africa and moved to live in England in Little Watham, Essex in 1928 and settled in a home that he called 'Timbuctoo'. He then began to examine the bird collections in the bird room in the British Museum, London, and began to work on a Handbook of the Birds of West Africa. In 1930 he made a collecting trip to Sierra Leone for the Natural History Museum, and also visited Guinea and Mount Nimba.  In 1931 he went on another expedition to Mali. He was asked to examine the specimen collection of Harry St John Bridger Philby. He learned Arabic and visited Arabia at the age of 70 in 1934 on the invitation of Philby. He spent three month and collected more than 500 specimens. Bates trained Philby's servant to skin and had an Indian clerk Mahbub Elahi Kazi to collect specimens with a 16-bore gun. He also left a .410 bore shotgun for Philby to obtain more bird specimens.  Philby found it difficult to skin birds and Norman Kinnear influenced the Bombay Natural History Society to send a skinner named Fateh Khan to Arabia. The skinner however proved to be inexperienced and fell sick, forced to return to India. Philby's specimens included several new species including Dendrocopus dorae which he requested be named after his wife Dora. He also had a subspecies of owl named as Otus senegalensis pamelae named after Miss Pamela Lovibond, a friend and librarian at the Athenaeum Club. Bates was unable to publish the Birds of Arabia but wrote several papers on Arabian birds for the Ibis. His unpublished manuscript on the Birds of Arabia was later used by Richard Meinertzhagen who added various embellishments and gave little credit to Bates. Bates died in Chelmsford following a surgery and recurring serious illness.

Legacy
A species of African snake, Rhamnophis batesii, is named in his honor, as are three species of African amphibians (Astylosternus batesi, Phrynobatrachus batesii, and Nectophryne batesii), twenty birds, and four mammals.

References

External links
 Handbook of Bulu (1904)
 Archives at Knox College
 A photograph of Bates in Cameroon

American ornithologists
1863 births
1940 deaths
People from Abingdon, Illinois

George Latimer Bates


The Andean-Saharan glaciation, also known as the Early Paleozoic Ice Age (EPIA), the Early Paleozoic Icehouse, the Late Ordovician glaciation, the end-Ordovician glaciation, or the Hirnantian glaciation, occurred during the Paleozoic from approximately 460 Ma to around 420 Ma, during the Late Ordovician and the Silurian period. The major glaciation during this period was formerly thought only to consist of the Hirnantian glaciation itself but has now been recognized as a longer, more gradual event, which began as early as the Darriwilian, and possibly even the Floian. Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Arabia, North Africa, South Africa, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and Wyoming. More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician, tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 °C cooler than present day; this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process.

The Late Ordovician glaciation is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Late Ordovician mass extinction, and it is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61% of marine life. Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometres, and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years. At its height during the Hirnantian, the ice age is believed to have been significantly more extreme than the Last Glacial Maximum occurring during the terminal Pleistocene. Glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the Southern Hemisphere.

Timeline

Pre-Hirnantian glaciations
The earliest evidence for possible glaciation comes from Floian conodont apatite oxygen isotope fluctuations, which display a periodicity characteristic of Milankovitch cycles and have been interpreted as reflecting cyclic waxing and waning of polar ice caps. A speculated glaciation in the middle Darriwilian corresponds to the MDICE positive carbon isotope excursion. Sea level changes likely reflective of glacioeustasy are known from this geologic stage, around 467 Ma. However, there are no known Middle Ordovician glacial deposits that would provide direct geological evidence of glaciation. Isotopic evidence from the Sandbian reveals three possible glaciations: an early Sandbian glaciation, a middle Sandbian glaciation, a late Sandbian glaciation. Although biostratigraphy dating the glacial deposits in Gondwana has been problematic, there is evidence suggesting the presence of glaciation by the Sandbian stage (approximately 451–461 Ma). Graptolite distribution during the time interval delineated by the Nemacanthus gracilis graptolite biozone indicates a latitudinal extent of the subtropics and tropics similar to that of today, as evidenced by a steep faunal gradient that is uncharacteristic of greenhouse periods, suggesting that Earth was in a mild icehouse state by the start of the Sandbian, around 460 Ma. Many possible short glaciation occurred during the Katian: three very short glaciations during the early Katian, the Rakvere glaciation during the late early Katian, a middle Katian glaciation, the Early Ashgill glaciation of the early late Katian, and a latest Katian glaciation that was followed by a rapid warming event in the Paraorthograptus pacificus graptolite biozone immediately before the Hirnantian glaciation itself. Evidence of major changes in bottom water formation, which usually indicates a sudden change in global climate, is known from the Katian. Shifts in isotopic ratios of carbon and neodymium that correspond to graptolite biostratigraphy lend further evidence in favour of the existence of glacioeustatic cycles during the Katian, as do conodont apatite δ18O fluctuations from Kentucky and Quebec that likely reflect glacioeustatic sea level changes. However, the existence of glacials during the Katian remains controversial. Katian brachiopod and seawater δ18O values from Cincinnati Arch indicate ocean temperatures characteristic of a global greenhouse state.

Hirnantian glaciation

At the Katian-Hirnantian boundary, a sudden cooling event caused a rapid expansion of glaciers, resulting in one of the most severe glaciations of the Phanerozoic, an extreme cooling event generally believed to be coincident with the first pulse of the Late Ordovician mass extinction. An δ18O shift occurs at the start of the Hirnantian; the magnitude of this shift (+2-4‰) was extraordinary. Its direction implies glacial cooling and possibly increases in ice-volume. The observed shifts in the δ18O isotopic indicator would require a sea-level fall of 100 meters and a drop of 10 °C in tropical ocean temperatures to have occurred during this glacial episode. Sedimentological data shows that Late Ordovician ice sheets glacierized the Al Kufrah Basin. Ice sheets also probably formed continuous ice cover over North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. In all areas of North Africa where Early Silurian shale occurs, Late Ordovician glaciogenic deposits occur beneath, likely due to the anoxia promoted in these basins.

At the end of the Hirnantian, an abrupt retreat of glaciers concurrent with the second pulse of the Late Ordovician mass extinction occurred, after which Earth receded back into a much warmer climate during the Rhuddanian. Late Hirnantian warming was marked by a similarly meteoric shift in δ18O towards more negative values. δ13C values likewise fall sharply at the beginning of the Silurian.

Silurian glaciations
Following the relatively warm Rhuddanian, glacial events occurred during the early and latest Aeronian. A further glaciation occurred from the late Telychian to middle Sheinwoodian. From the early to late Homerian, Earth was in yet another glacial phase. The last major glaciation of the EPIA occurred during the Ludfordian and was associated with the Lau event.

During this period, glaciation is known from Arabia, Sahara, West Africa, the south Amazon, and the Andes, and the centre of glaciation is known to have migrated from the Sahara in the Ordovician (450–440 Ma) to South America in the Silurian (440–420 Ma). According to Eyles and Young, "A major glacial episode at c. 440 Ma, is recorded in Late Ordovician strata (predominantly Ashgillian) in West Africa (Tamadjert Formation of the Sahara), in Morocco (Tindouf Basin) and in west-central Saudi Arabia, all areas at polar latitudes at the time. From the Late Ordovician to the Early Silurian the centre of glaciation moved from northern Africa to southwestern South America." Continental glaciers developed in Africa and eastern Brazil, while alpine glaciers formed in the Andes. In western South America (Peru, Bolivia and northern Argentina) were found glacio-marine diamictites interbedded with turbidites, shales, mud flows and debris flows, dated as early Silurian (Llandonvery), with a southward extension into northern Argentina and western Paraguay, and with a probably northern extension into Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.

A major ice age, the Andean-Saharan was preceded by the Cryogenian ice ages (720–630 Ma, the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations), often referred to as Snowball Earth, and followed by the Karoo Ice Age (350–260 Ma).

Evidence

Lithologic
 The sequence of the stratigraphic architecture of the Bighorn Dolomite (which represents end of the Ordovician period), is consistent with the gradual buildup of glacial ice.  The sequences of the Bighorn Dolomite display systematic changes in their component cycles, and the changes in these cycles are interpreted as being a change from a greenhouse climate to a transitional ice house climate.

Possible causes

CO2 depletion
One of the factors that hindered glaciation during the early Paleozoic was atmospheric CO2 concentrations, which at the time were somewhere between 8 and 20 times pre-industrial levels. However, solar irradiance was significantly lower during the Late Ordovician; 450 million years ago, solar irradiance of Earth was about 1312.00 Wm−2 compared to 1360.89 Wm−2 in the present day. Furthermore, CO2 concentrations are thought to have dropped significantly in the Hirnantian, which could have induced widespread glaciation during an overall cooling trend. Methods for the removal of CO2 during this time were not well known, and are still hotly debated, with the radiation of terrestrial plants, enhanced oceanic organic carbon burial, and a reduction in volcanic outgassing of carbon dioxide having been proposed. It could have been possible for glaciation to initiate with high levels of CO2, but it would have depended highly on continental configuration.

Silicate weathering
Long-term silicate weathering is a major mechanism through which CO2 is removed from the atmosphere, converting it into bicarbonate which is stored in marine sediments. This has often been linked to the Taconic Orogeny, a mountain-building event on the east coast of Laurentia (present-day North America). Another hypothesis is that a hypothetical large igneous province in the Katian led to basaltic flooding caused by high continental volcanic activity during that period. In the short term, this would have released a large amount of CO2 into the atmosphere, which may explain a warming pulse in the Katian. However, in the long term flood basalts would have left behind plains of basaltic rock, replacing exposures of granitic rock. Basaltic rocks weather substantially faster than granitic rocks, which would quickly remove CO2 from the atmosphere at a much faster rate than before the volcanic activity. CO2 levels could also have decreased due to accelerated silicate weathering caused by the expansion of terrestrial non-vascular plants. Vascular plants only appeared 15 Ma after the glaciation.

Organic carbon burial
Isotopic evidence points to a global Hirnantian positive shift in δ13C at nearly the same time as the positive shift in marine carbonate δ18O. This shift is known as the Hirnantian Isotopic Carbon Excursion (HICE). The positive shift in δ13C implies a change in the carbon cycle leading to more burial of organic carbon, though some researchers hold a conflicting interpretation of this δ13C change as being caused by increased weathering of carbonate platforms exposed by sea level fall. This enhanced organic carbon burial resulted in a decrease in the atmospheric CO2 levels and an inverse greenhouse effect, allowing glaciation to occur more readily.

Gamma-ray burst
A gamma-ray burst (GRB) has been suggested by some researchers as the cause of the abrupt glaciation at the beginning of the Hirnantian. The effects of a ten second GRB occurring within two kiloparsecs of Earth would have delivered it a fluence of 100 kilojoules per square metre. This would have resulted in large amounts of nitric acid raining down on Earth's surface in the aftermath of the gamma-ray burst, causing blooms of nitrate-limited photosynthesisers that would have sequestered large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Additionally, the GRB would have initiated a major depletion of ozone, another potent greenhouse gas, through its reaction with nitric oxide produced as a result of the GRB's dissociation of diatomic nitrogen and subsequent reaction of nitrogen atoms with oxygen.

Asteroid impact

Ordovician meteor event
The breakup of the L-chondrite parent body caused a rain of extraterrestrial material onto the Earth called the Ordovician meteor event. This event increased stratospheric dust by 3 or 4 orders of magnitude and may have triggered the ice age by reflecting sunlight back into space.

Deniliquin impact structure
A 2023 paper has proposed that the Hirnantian glaciation could have come about due to an impact winter generated by the impact that formed the Deniliquin multiple-ring feature in what is now southeastern Australia, although this hypothesis currently remains untested.

Volcanic aerosols
Although volcanic activity often leads to warming through the release of greenhouse gasses, it may also lead to cooling via the production of aerosols, light-blocking particles. There is good evidence for elevated volcanic activity through the Hirnantian, based on anomalously high concentrations of mercury (Hg) in many areas. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other sulphurous volcanic gasses are converted into sulphate aerosols in the stratosphere, and short, periodic large igneous province eruptions may be able to account for cooling in this way. Although there is no direct evidence for a large igneous province during the Hirnantian, volcanism could still be a major factor. Explosive volcanic eruptions, which regularly send debris and volatiles into the stratosphere, would be even more effective at producing sulfate aerosols. Ash beds are common in the Late Ordovician, and Hirnantian pyrite records sulphur isotope anomalies consistent with stratospheric eruptions. The enormous megaeruption that formed the Deicke bentonite layer in particular has been linked to global cooling due to it coinciding with a major positive oxygen isotope excursion and the high sulphur concentration observed in its bentonite layer.

Sea level change
One of the possible causes for the temperature drop during this period is a drop in sea level. Sea level must drop prior to the initiation of extensive ice sheets in order for it to be a possible trigger. A drop in sea level allows more land to become available for ice sheet growth.  There is wide debate on the timing of sea level change, but there is some evidence that a sea level drop started before the Ashgillian, which would have made it a contributing factor to glaciation.

Palaeogeography
The possible setup of the paleogeography during the period from 460 Ma to 440 Ma falls in a range between the Caradocian and the Ashgillian. The choice of setup is important, because the Caradocian setup is more likely to produce glacial ice at high CO2 concentrations, and the Ashgillian is more likely to produce glacial ice at low CO2 concentrations.

The height of the land mass above sea level also plays an important role, especially after ice sheets have been established.  A higher elevation allows ice sheets to remain with more stability, but a lower elevation allows ice sheets to develop more readily. The Caradocian is considered to have a lower surface elevation, and though it would be better for initiation during high CO2, it would have a harder time maintaining glacial coverage.

From what we know about tectonic movement, the time span required to allow the southward movement of Gondwana toward the South Pole would have been too long to trigger this glaciation. Tectonic movement tends to take several million years, but the scale of the glaciation seems to have occurred in less than 1 million years, but the exact time frame of glaciation ranges from less than 1 million years to 35 million years, so it could still be possible for tectonic movement to have triggered this glacial period. Alternatively, true polar wander (TPW) and not conventional plate motion may have been responsible for the initiation of the Hirnantian glaciation. Palaeomagnetic data from between 450 and 440 Ma indicates a TPW of around ~50˚ occurring at a maximum speed of ~55 cm per year, which better explains the rapid motion of the continents than conventional plate tectonics.

Poleward ocean heat transport
Ocean heat transport is a major driver in the warming of the poles, taking warm water from the equator and distributing it to higher latitudes. A weakening of this heat transport may have allowed the poles to cool enough to form ice under high CO2 conditions. Due to the paleogeographic configuration of the continents, global ocean heat transport is thought to have been stronger in the Late Ordovician. However, research shows that in order for glaciation to occur, poleward heat transport had to be lower, which creates a discrepancy in what is known.

Orbital parameters
Orbital parameters may have acted in conjunction with some of the above parameters to help start glaciation. The variation of the earth's precession, and eccentricity, could have set the off the tipping point for initiation of glaciation.  The Orbit at this time is thought to have been in a cold summer orbit for the Southern Hemisphere. This type of orbital configuration is a change in the orbital precession such that during the summer when the hemisphere is tilted toward the sun (in this case the earth) the earth is furthest away from the sun, and orbital eccentricity such that the orbit of the earth is more elongated which would enhance the effect of precession.

Coupled models have shown that in order to maintain ice at the pole in the Southern Hemisphere, the earth would have to be in a cold summer configuration. The glaciation was most likely to start during a cold summer period because this configuration enhances the chance of snow and ice surviving throughout the summer.

End of the event
The cause for the end of the Late Ordovician Glaciation is a matter of intense research, but evidence shows that the deglaciation in the terminal Hirnantian may have occurred abruptly, as Silurian strata marks a significant change from the glacial deposits left during the Late Ordovician. Though the Hirnantian glaciation ended rapidly, milder glaciations continued to occur throughout the subsequent Silurian period, with the last glacial phase occurring in the Late Silurian.

Ice collapse
One of the possible causes for the end of the Hirnantian glaciation is that during the glacial maximum, the ice reached out too far and began collapsing on itself. The ice sheet initially stabilized once it reached as far north as  Ghat, Libya and developed a large proglacial fan-delta system. A glaciotectonic fold and thrust belt began to form from repeated small-scale fluctuations in the ice. The glaciotectonic fold and thrust belt eventually led to ice sheet collapse and retreat of the ice to south of Ghat. Once stabilized south of Ghat, the ice sheet began advancing north again. This cycle slowly shrank more south each time which lead to further retreat and further collapse of glacial conditions. This recursion allowed the melting of the ice sheet, and rising sea level. This hypothesis is supported by glacial deposits and large land formations found in Ghat, Libya which is part of the Murzuq Basin.

CO2
As the Ice sheets began to increase the weathering of silicate rocks and basaltic important to carbon sequestration (the silicates through the Carbonate–silicate cycle, the basalt through forming calcium carbonate) decreased, which caused  levels to rise again, this in turned helped push deglaciation. This deglaciation cause the transformation of silicates exposed to the air (thus given the opportunity to bind to its ) and weathering of basaltic rock to start back up which caused glaciation to occur again.

Significance
Even before the mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician, which resulted in a significant drop in chitinozoan diversity and abundance, the biodiversity of chitinozoans was adversely impacted by the onset of the Andean-Saharan glaciation. Following a peak in diversity in the late Darriwilian, chitinozoans declined in diversity as the Late Ordovician progressed. An exception to this declining trend of chitinozoan diversity was exhibited in Laurentia due to its low latitude position and warmer climate.

The Late Ordovician Glaciation coincided with the second largest of the five major extinction events, known as the Late Ordovician mass extinction. This period is the only known glaciation to occur alongside of a mass extinction event. The extinction event consisted of two discrete pulses. The first pulse of extinctions is thought to have taken place because of the rapid cooling, and increased oxygenation of the water column. This first pulse was the larger of the two and caused the extinction of most of the marine animal species that existed in the shallow and deep oceans. The second phase of extinction was associated with strong sea level rise, and due to the atmospheric conditions, namely oxygen levels being at or below 50% of present-day levels, high levels of anoxic waters would have been common. This anoxia would have killed off many of the survivors of the first extinction pulse. In all the extinction event of the Late Ordovician saw a loss of 85% of marine animal species and 26% of animal families.

The deglaciation at the end of the Homerian glacial interval was coeval with the first major radiation of trilete spore-producing plants, harbingering the dawn of the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The later middle Ludfordian glaciation caused a sea level drop that created vast areas of new terrestrial habitats that were promptly colonised by land plants, further facilitating their diversification. The warming during the Pridoli that marked the end of the Andean-Saharan glaciation saw further floral expansion.

See also
 Timeline of glaciation
 Ordovician–Silurian extinction events
 Late Paleozoic icehouse

References

Glaciology
Ice ages
Ordovician events
Silurian events
Ordovician Africa
Silurian Africa
Ordovician South America
Silurian South America
Aeronian
Telychian
Hirnantian
Katian
Sandbian
Darriwilian

Andean-Saharan glaciation


Free Software Magazine (also known as FSM and originally titled The Open Voice) is a Web site that produces a (generally bi-monthly) mostly free-content online magazine about free software.

It was started in November 2004 by Australian Tony Mobily, the former editor of TUX Magazine, under the auspices of The Open Company Partners, Inc. (based in the United States), and carried the subtitle The free magazine for the free software world.

History
FSM was originally conceived by its creator as a magazine to be sold in both print and electronic formats, with a higher signal-to-noise ratio than mass-produced print Linux magazines. Under this model, the articles were freely licensed six weeks after the print edition's publication.  As O'Reilly Media's onLAMP.com noted, "several excellent magazines cover Linux, but they're directed at particular subsets of Linux users and don't have the broad mandate of Free Software Magazine."

However, the high costs of printing and postage resulted in the magazine moving to exclusively electronic publication via PDF.

PDF version history
Initially a print-ready, hand-crafted  PDF version was available for download. With Issue 16 (February 2007), this was withdrawn, with the publishers citing time and money constraints. As a result, the magazine is no longer available in print copy. This move sparked a harsh response from some members of the community. As a result, from March 2008, PDF and printer friendly version of articles and PDF versions of entire issues were made available to all logged-in users. These PDF files are created automatically using TOXIC and omit the styling and presentation of the print-ready ones.

Content
FSM devotes most of its context to Linux, the GNU Project and free software in general, including articles about software freedom and how it can be protected. The issues had three main sections:
Power-up Non-technical articles about various subjects (interviews, opinions, book reviews, etc.)
User space Articles aimed at end users.
Hacker's code Technical articles about what can be achieved with free software.

Most of the articles are released under a free license (generally a Creative Commons License or GNU Free Documentation License). Some articles are released under a verbatim-copying-only license.

In keeping with the move to more on-line content, FSM moved to blog-style columns where regular authors write on more political, philosophical and ethical aspects of the free software world, and discuss free software advocacy and community in addition to tutorials and reviews of free software. There is also a community posts section which allows registered users to post similar blog-style pieces. The site also features a regular webcomic "the Bizarre Cathedral".

Free Software Daily
Free Software Daily (FS Daily) was a website originally created by the staff of FSM that posted summaries of articles about free software. At first, it was based on Slash and was similar in nature to Slashdot.org.  However, the project died before it could gain momentum, mainly because of the huge hardware resources required by Slash and the time constraints of the FSM staff.

The FSM website's blogs somewhat filled the gap that Free Software Daily originally planned to fill. But later, FS Daily came back, first as a Pligg based site, and then as a Drigg site. Drigg was developed by Free Software Magazine's editor Tony Mobily specifically for FSDaily. However, Drigg is now available as a standard Drupal module.

Although Free Software Magazine and Free Software Daily share similar motives and a common root, they are no longer directly connected.

Free Software Magazine Press
In 2009 Free Software Magazine Press published their first book under the imprint of Free Software Magazine Press. The book, Achieving Impossible Things with Free Culture and Commons-Based Enterprise  by Terry Hancock, was published both as a printed book and as a series of free articles released under an "Attribution Share-Alike" Creative Commons license.

See also

Linux Journal
Linux Weekly News
Linux Gazette

References

External links

Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Computer magazines published in the United States
Downloadable magazines
Drupal
Free magazines
Free software websites
Linux magazines
Magazines established in 2004
Online computer magazines

Free Software Magazine