Stealth technology, also termed low observable technology (LO technology), is a sub-discipline of military tactics and passive and active electronic countermeasures, which covers a range of methods used to make personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, missiles, satellites, and ground vehicles less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared, sonar and other detection methods. It corresponds to military camouflage for these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum (i.e., multi-spectral camouflage).

Development of modern stealth technologies in the United States began in 1958, where earlier attempts to prevent radar tracking of its U-2 spy planes during the Cold War by the Soviet Union had been unsuccessful. Designers turned to developing a specific shape for planes that tended to reduce detection by redirecting electromagnetic radiation waves from radars. Radiation-absorbent material was also tested and made to reduce or block radar signals that reflect off the surfaces of aircraft. Such changes to shape and surface composition comprise stealth technology as currently used on the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit "Stealth Bomber".

The concept of stealth is to operate or hide while giving enemy forces no indication as to the presence of friendly forces. This concept was first explored through camouflage to make an object's appearance blend into the visual background. As the potency of detection and interception technologies (radar, infrared search and tracking, surface-to-air missiles, etc.) have increased, so too has the extent to which the design and operation of military personnel and vehicles have been affected in response. Some military uniforms are treated with chemicals to reduce their infrared signature. A modern stealth vehicle is designed from the outset to have a chosen spectral signature. The degree of stealth embodied in a given design is chosen according to the projected threats of detection.

History

Camouflage to aid or avoid predation predates humanity, and hunters have been using vegetation to conceal themselves perhaps as long as people have been hunting. The earliest application of camouflage in warfare is impossible to ascertain. Methods for visual concealment in war were documented by Sun Tzu in his book The Art of War in the 5th century BC, and by Frontinus in his work Strategemata in the 1st century AD.

In England, irregular units of gamekeepers in the 17th century were the first to adopt drab colours (common in 16th century Irish units) as a form of camouflage, following examples from the continent.

During World War I, the Germans experimented with the use of Cellon (Cellulose acetate), a transparent covering material, in an attempt to reduce the visibility of military aircraft. Single examples of the Fokker E.III Eindecker fighter monoplane, the Albatros C.I two-seat observation biplane, and the Linke-Hofmann R.I prototype heavy bomber were covered with Cellon. However, sunlight glinting from the material made the aircraft even more visible. Cellon was also found to degrade quickly from both sunlight and in-flight temperature changes, so the effort to make transparent aircraft ceased.

In 1916, the British modified a small SS class airship for the purpose of night-time reconnaissance over German lines on the Western Front. Fitted with a silenced engine and a black gas bag, the craft was both invisible and inaudible from the ground but several night-time flights over German-held territory produced little useful intelligence and the idea was dropped.

Diffused lighting camouflage, a shipborne form of counter-illumination camouflage, was trialled by the Royal Canadian Navy from 1941 to 1943. The concept was followed up for aircraft by the Americans and the British: in 1945 a Grumman Avenger with Yehudi lights reached  from a ship before being sighted. This ability was rendered obsolete by radar.

Chaff was invented in Britain and Germany early in World War II as a means to hide aircraft from radar. In effect, chaff acted upon radio waves much as a smoke screen acted upon visible light.

The U-boat U-480 may have been the first stealth submarine. It featured an anechoic tile rubber coating, one layer of which contained circular air pockets to defeat ASDIC sonar. Radar-absorbent paints and materials of rubber and semiconductor composites (codenames: Sumpf, Schornsteinfeger) were used by the Kriegsmarine on submarines in World War II. Tests showed they were effective in reducing radar signatures at both short (centimetres) and long (1.5 metre) wavelengths.

In 1956 the CIA began attempts to reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) of the U-2 spyplane. Three systems were developed, Trapeze, a series of wires and ferrite beads around the planform of the aircraft, a covering material with PCB circuitry embedded in it, and radar-absorbent paint. These were deployed in the field on the so-called dirty birds but results were disappointing, the weight and drag increases were not worth any reduction in detection rates. More successful was applying camouflage paint to the originally bare metal aircraft; a deep blue was found to be most effective. The weight of this cost 250 ft in maximum altitude, but made the aircraft harder for interceptors to see.

In 1958, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency requested funding for a reconnaissance aircraft to replace the existing U-2 spy planes, and Lockheed secured contractual rights to produce it. "Kelly" Johnson and his team at Lockheed's Skunk Works were assigned to produce the A-12 (or OXCART), which operated at high altitude of 70,000 to 80,000 ft and speed of Mach 3.2 to avoid radar detection. Various plane shapes designed to reduce radar detection were developed in earlier prototypes, named A-1 to A-11. The A-12 included a number of stealthy features including special fuel to reduce the signature of the exhaust plume, canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall finish in radar-absorbent paint.

In 1960, the USAF reduced the radar cross-section of a Ryan Q-2C Firebee drone. This was achieved through specially designed screens over the air intake, and radiation-absorbent material on the fuselage, and radar-absorbent paint.

The United States Army issued a specification in 1968 which called for an observation aircraft that would be acoustically undetectable from the ground when flying at an altitude of 1,500 feet (457 m) at night. This resulted in the Lockheed YO-3A Quiet Star, which operated in South Vietnam from late June 1970 to September 1971.

During the 1970s the U.S. Department of Defense launched project Lockheed Have Blue, with the aim of developing a stealth fighter. There was fierce bidding between Lockheed and Northrop to secure the multibillion-dollar contract. Lockheed incorporated into its bid a text written by the Soviet-Russian physicist Pyotr Ufimtsev from 1962, titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction, Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1962. In 1971 this book was translated into English with the same title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division. The theory played a critical role in the design of American stealth-aircraft F-117 and B-2. Equations outlined in the paper quantified how a plane's shape would affect its detectability by radar, termed radar cross-section (RCS). At the time, the Soviet Union did not have supercomputer capacity to solve these equations for actual designs.  This was applied by Lockheed in computer simulation to design a novel shape they called the "Hopeless Diamond", a wordplay on the Hope Diamond, securing contractual rights to produce the F-117 Nighthawk starting in 1975. In 1977 Lockheed produced two 60% scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that lasted from 1976 to 1979. The Northrop Grumman Tacit Blue also played a part in the development of composite material and curvilinear surfaces, low observables, fly-by-wire, and other stealth technology innovations. The success of Have Blue led the Air Force to create the Senior Trend program which developed the F-117.

Principles

Stealth technology (or LO for low observability) is not one technology. It is a set of technologies, used in combinations, that can greatly reduce the distances at which a person or vehicle can be detected; more so radar cross-section reductions, but also acoustic, thermal, and other aspects.

Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions

Almost since the invention of radar, various methods have been tried to minimize detection. Rapid development of radar during World War II led to equally rapid development of numerous counter radar measures during the period; a notable example of this was the use of chaff. Modern methods include Radar jamming and deception.

The term stealth in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular during the late eighties when the Lockheed Martin F-117 stealth fighter became widely known. The first large scale (and public) use of the F-117 was during the Gulf War in 1991. However, F-117A stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of Panama in 1989.

Vehicle shape

Aircraft

The possibility of designing aircraft in such a manner as to reduce their radar cross-section was recognized in the late 1930s, when the first radar tracking systems were employed, and it has been known since at least the 1960s that aircraft shape makes a significant difference in detectability. The Avro Vulcan, a British bomber of the 1960s, had a remarkably small appearance on radar despite its large size, and occasionally disappeared from radar screens entirely. It is now known that it had a fortuitously stealthy shape apart from the vertical element of the tail. Despite being designed before a low radar cross-section (RCS) and other stealth factors were ever a consideration, a Royal Aircraft Establishment technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar echoing object, due to its shape: only one or two components contributing significantly to the echo at any aspect (one of them being the vertical stabilizer, which is especially relevant for side aspect RCS), compared with three or more on most other types. While writing about radar systems, authors Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan singled out the Vulcan's shape as acting to reduce the RCS. In contrast, the Tupolev 95 Russian long-range bomber (NATO reporting name 'Bear') was conspicuous on radar. It is now known that propellers and jet turbine blades produce a bright radar image; the Bear has four pairs of large (5.6-meter diameter) contra-rotating propellers.

Another important factor is internal construction. Some stealth aircraft have skin that is radar transparent or absorbing, behind which are structures termed reentrant triangles. Radar waves penetrating the skin get trapped in these structures, reflecting off the internal faces and losing energy. This method was first used on the Blackbird series: A-12, YF-12A, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.

The most efficient way to reflect radar waves back to the emitting radar is with orthogonal metal plates, forming a corner reflector consisting of either a dihedral (two plates) or a trihedral (three orthogonal plates). This configuration occurs in the tail of a conventional aircraft, where the vertical and horizontal components of the tail are set at right angles. Stealth aircraft such as the F-117 use a different arrangement, tilting the tail surfaces to reduce corner reflections formed between them. A more radical method is to omit the tail, as in the B-2 Spirit. The B-2's clean, low-drag flying wing configuration gives it exceptional range and reduces its radar profile. The flying wing design most closely resembles a so-called infinite flat plate (as vertical control surfaces dramatically increase RCS), the perfect stealth shape, as it would have no angles to reflect back radar waves.

In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury the engines within the wing or fuselage, or in some cases where stealth is applied to an extant aircraft, install baffles in the air intakes, so that the compressor blades are not visible to radar. A stealthy shape must be devoid of complex bumps or protrusions of any kind, meaning that weapons, fuel tanks, and other stores must not be carried externally. Any stealthy vehicle becomes un-stealthy when a door or hatch opens.

Parallel alignment of edges or even surfaces is also often used in stealth designs. The technique involves using a small number of edge orientations in the shape of the structure. For example, on the F-22A Raptor, the leading edges of the wing and the tail planes are set at the same angle. Other smaller structures, such as the air intake bypass doors and the air refueling aperture, also use the same angles. The effect of this is to return a narrow radar signal in a very specific direction away from the radar emitter rather than returning a diffuse signal detectable at many angles. The effect is sometimes called "glitter" after the very brief signal seen when the reflected beam passes across a detector. It can be difficult for the radar operator to distinguish between a glitter event and a digital glitch in the processing system.

Stealth airframes sometimes display distinctive serrations on some exposed edges, such as the engine ports. The YF-23 has such serrations on the exhaust ports. This is another example in the parallel alignment of features, this time on the external airframe.

The shaping requirements detracted greatly from the F-117's aerodynamic properties. It is inherently unstable, and cannot be flown without a fly-by-wire control system.

Similarly, coating the cockpit canopy with a thin film transparent conductor (vapor-deposited gold or indium tin oxide) helps to reduce the aircraft's radar profile, because radar waves would normally enter the cockpit, reflect off objects (the inside of a cockpit has a complex shape, with a pilot helmet alone forming a sizeable return), and possibly return to the radar, but the conductive coating creates a controlled shape that deflects the incoming radar waves away from the radar. The coating is thin enough that it has no adverse effect on pilot vision.

Ships

Ships have also adopted similar methods. Though the earlier Arleigh Burke-class destroyer incorporated some signature-reduction features. the Norwegian Skjold-class corvette was the first coastal defence and the French La Fayette-class frigate the first ocean-going stealth ship to enter service. Other examples are the Dutch De Zeven Provinciën class frigates, the Taiwanese Tuo Chiang stealth corvette, German Sachsen-class frigates, the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the USS San Antonio amphibious transport dock, and most modern warship designs.

Materials

Non-metallic airframe
Dielectric composite materials are more transparent to radar, whereas electrically conductive materials such as metals and carbon fibers reflect electromagnetic energy incident on the material's surface. Composites may also contain ferrites to optimize the dielectric and magnetic properties of a material for its application.

Radar-absorbent material

Radiation-absorbent material (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces. While the material and thickness of RAM coatings can vary, the way they work is the same: absorb radiated energy from a ground- or air-based radar station into the coating and convert it to heat rather than reflect it back. Current technologies include dielectric composites and metal fibers containing ferrite isotopes. Ceramic composite coating is a new type of material systems which can sustain at higher temperatures with better sand erosion resistance and thermal resistance. Paint comprises depositing pyramid-like colonies on the reflecting superficies with the gaps filled with ferrite-based RAM. The pyramidal structure deflects the incident radar energy in the maze of RAM. One commonly used material is called iron ball paint. It contains microscopic iron spheres that resonate in tune with incoming radio waves and dissipate most of their energy as heat, leaving little to reflect back to detectors. FSS are planar periodic structures that behave like filters to electromagnetic energy. The considered frequency-selective surfaces are composed of conducting patch elements pasted on the ferrite layer. FSS are used for filtration and microwave absorption.

Radar stealth countermeasures and limits

Low-frequency radar

Shaping offers far fewer stealth advantages against low-frequency radar. If the radar wavelength is roughly twice the size of the target, a half-wave resonance effect can still generate a significant return. However, low-frequency radar is limited by lack of available frequencies (many are heavily used by other systems), by lack of accuracy of the diffraction-limited systems given their long wavelengths, and by the radar's size, making it difficult to transport. A long-wave radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not provide enough information to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide a fighter to it.

Multiple emitters

Stealth aircraft attempt to minimize all radar reflections, but are specifically designed to avoid reflecting radar waves back in the direction they came from (since in most cases a radar emitter and receiver are in the same location). They are less able to minimize radar reflections in other directions. Thus, detection can be better achieved if emitters are in different locations from receivers. One emitter separate from one receiver is termed bistatic radar; one or more emitters separate from more than one receiver is termed multistatic radar. Proposals exist to use reflections from emitters such as civilian radio transmitters, including cellular telephone radio towers.

Moore's law

By Moore's law the processing power behind radar systems is rising over time. This will eventually erode the ability of physical stealth to hide vehicles.

Ship wakes and spray

Synthetic aperture sidescan radars can be used to detect the location and heading of ships from their wake patterns. These are detectable from orbit. When a ship moves through a seaway it throws up a cloud of spray which can be detected by radar.

Acoustics

Acoustic stealth plays a primary role for submarines and ground vehicles. Submarines use extensive rubber mountings to isolate, damp, and avoid mechanical noises that can reveal locations to underwater passive sonar arrays.

Early stealth observation aircraft used slow-turning propellers to avoid being heard by enemy troops below. Stealth aircraft that stay subsonic can avoid being tracked by sonic boom. The presence of supersonic and jet-powered stealth aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird indicates that acoustic signature is not always a major driver in aircraft design, as the Blackbird relied more on its very high speed and altitude.

One method to reduce helicopter rotor noise is modulated blade spacing. Standard rotor blades are evenly spaced, and produce greater noise at a given frequency and its harmonics. Using varied spacing between the blades spreads the noise or acoustic signature of the rotor over a greater range of frequencies.

Visibility

The simplest technology is visual camouflage; the use of paint or other materials to color and break up the lines of a vehicle or person.

Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and operate only at night. Lately, interest in daylight Stealth (especially by the USAF) has emphasized the use of gray paint in disruptive schemes, and it is assumed that Yehudi lights could be used in the future to hide the airframe (against the background of the sky, including at night, aircraft of any colour appear dark) or as a sort of active camouflage. The original B-2 design had wing tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlorofluorosulfonic acid, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of their formation is minimized.

In space, mirrored surfaces can be employed to reflect views of empty space toward known or suspected observers; this approach is compatible with several radar stealth schemes. Careful control of the orientation of the satellite relative to the observers is essential, and mistakes can lead to detectability enhancement rather than the desired reduction.

Infrared

An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature. One means to reduce IR signature is to have a non-circular tail pipe (a slit shape) to minimize the exhaust cross sectional area and maximize the mixing of hot exhaust with cool ambient air (see Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk). Often, cool air is deliberately injected into the exhaust flow to boost this process (see Ryan AQM-91 Firefly and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit). The Stefan–Boltzmann law shows how this results in less energy (Thermal radiation in infrared spectrum) being released and thus reduces the heat signature. In some aircraft, the jet exhaust is vented above the wing surface to shield it from observers below, as in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, and the unstealthy Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. To achieve infrared stealth, the exhaust gas is cooled to the temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it radiates are absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapor, greatly reducing the infrared visibility of the exhaust plume. Another way to reduce the exhaust temperature is to circulate coolant fluids such as fuel inside the exhaust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as heat sinks cooled by the flow of air along the wings.

Ground combat includes the use of both active and passive infrared sensors. Thus, the United States Marine Corps (USMC) ground combat uniform requirements document specifies infrared reflective quality standards.

Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions

In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars, communications systems, or RF leakage from electronics enclosures. The F-117 uses passive infrared and low light level television sensor systems to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy aircraft without triggering a radar warning receiver response.

Measuring
The size of a target's image on radar is measured by the radar cross section (RCS), often represented by the symbol σ and expressed in square meters. This does not equal geometric area. A perfectly conducting sphere of projected cross sectional area 1 m2 (i.e. a diameter of 1.13 m) will have an RCS of 1 m2. Note that for radar wavelengths much less than the diameter of the sphere, RCS is independent of frequency. Conversely, a square flat plate of area 1 m2 will have an RCS of σ=4π A2 / λ2 (where A=area, λ=wavelength), or 13,982 m2 at 10 GHz if the radar is perpendicular to the flat surface. At off-normal incident angles, energy is reflected away from the receiver, reducing the RCS. Modern stealth aircraft are said to have an RCS comparable with small birds or large insects, though this varies widely depending on aircraft and radar.

If the RCS was directly related to the target's cross-sectional area, the only way to reduce it would be to make the physical profile smaller.  Rather, by reflecting much of the radiation away or by absorbing it, the target achieves a smaller radar cross section.

Tactics
Stealthy strike aircraft such as the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as command and control centers or surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible. Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short ranges around the radars; for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain undetected by radar. Even if a stealth aircraft is detected, fire-control radars operating in C, X and Ku bands cannot paint (for missile guidance) low observable (LO) jets except at very close ranges. Many ground-based radars exploit Doppler filter to improve sensitivity to objects having a radial velocity component relative to the radar. Mission planners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to fly these "safe" routes, it is necessary to understand an enemy's radar coverage (see electronic intelligence). Airborne or mobile radar systems such as AWACS can complicate tactical strategy for stealth operation.

Research
After the invention of electromagnetic metasurfaces, the conventional means to reduce RCS have been improved significantly. As mentioned earlier, the main objective in purpose shaping is to redirect scattered waves away from the backscattered direction, which is usually the source. However, this usually compromises aerodynamic performance. One feasible solution, which has extensively been explored in recent time, is to use metasurfaces which can redirect scattered waves without altering the geometry of a target. Such metasurfaces can primarily be classified in two categories: (i) checkerboard metasurfaces, (ii) gradient index metasurfaces. Similarly, negative index metamaterials are artificial structures for which refractive index has a negative value for some frequency range, such as in microwave, infrared, or possibly optical. These offer another way to reduce detectability, and may provide electromagnetic near-invisibility in designed wavelengths.

Plasma stealth is a phenomenon proposed to use ionized gas, termed a plasma, to reduce RCS of vehicles. Interactions between electromagnetic radiation and ionized gas have been studied extensively for many purposes, including concealing vehicles from radar. Various methods might form a layer or cloud of plasma around a vehicle to deflect or absorb radar, from simpler electrostatic to radio frequency (RF) more complex laser discharges, but these may be difficult in practice.

Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions of aircraft flight control systems such as ailerons, elevators, elevons, flaps, and flaperons into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose with the advantages of lower RCS for stealth, via simpler geometries and lower complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer or no moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance), and lower mass, cost (up to 50% less), drag (up to 15% less during use), and inertia (for faster, stronger control response to change vehicle orientation to reduce detection). Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics.

In flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. Adaptive compliant wings are a military and commercial effort. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing was a US Air Force, Boeing, and NASA effort.

In fluidics, fluid injection into airflows is being researched for use in aircraft to control direction, in two ways: circulation control and thrust vectoring. In both, larger more complex mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler, lower mass fluidic systems, in which larger forces in fluids are diverted by smaller jets or flows of fluid intermittently, to change the direction of vehicles. Mechanical control surfaces that must move cause an important part of aircraft radar cross-section. Omitting mechanical control surfaces can reduce radar returns. , at least two countries are known to be researching fluidic control. In Britain, BAE Systems has tested two fluidically controlled unmanned aircraft, one starting in 2010 named Demon, and another starting in 2017 named MAGMA, with the University of Manchester. In the United States, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) program named Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors (CRANE) seeks "... to design, build, and flight test a novel X-plane that incorporates active flow control (AFC) as a primary design consideration. ... In 2023, the aircraft received its official designation as X-65."

In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings, aircraft flight control systems are replaced by slots which emit fluid flows.

List of stealth aircraft

F-117 Nighthawk
B-2 Spirit
F-22 Raptor
F-35 Lightning II
J-20
Su-57
B-21 Raider

List of reduced-signature ships

Navy ships worldwide have incorporated signature-reduction features, mostly for the purpose of reducing anti-ship missile detection range and enhancing countermeasure effectiveness rather than actual detection avoidance. Such ships include:
 Bhumibol Adulyadej-class frigate
 Independence-class littoral combat ship
 Kamorta-class corvette
 Kolkata-class destroyer
 Klewang-class fast attack craft
 Nilgiri-class frigate (2019)
 La Fayette-class frigate
 Visby-class corvette
 Skjold-class corvette
 Tuo Chiang-class Stealth Corvette
 Sachsen-class frigate
 Shivalik-class frigate
 Talwar-class frigate
 Type 055 destroyer
 Visakhapatnam-class destroyer
 Zumwalt-class destroyer

List of stealth helicopters

Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche

See also
 Active camouflage
 Multi-spectral camouflage
 Cloaking device
 Penetration aid
 Pyotr Ufimtsev – Soviet-Russian physicist who created much of the original theory behind radar stealth

References

Bibliography

 Dawson, T.W.G., G.F. Kitchen and G.B. Glider. Measurements of the Radar Echoing Area of the Vulcan by the Optical Simulation Method. Farnborough, Hants, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment, September 1957 National Archive Catalogue file, AVIA 6/20895
 Ufimtsev, Pyotr Ya., "Method of edge waves in the physical theory of diffraction," Moscow, Russia:  Izd-vo. Sov. Radio [Soviet Radio Publishing], 1962, pages 1–243.

 Analogues of Stealth – Northrop Grumman
 Countering stealth
 How "stealth" is achieved on F-117A
 United States Patent No.6,297,762. 2 October 2001. Electronic countermeasures system (Apparatus for detecting the difference in phase between received signals at two spaced antennas and for then retransmitting equal amplitude antiphase signals from the two spaced antennas is disclosed.)
  and 3-540-97161-0.

External links

 Stealth design used for military aircraft?
 A Stealth Satellite Sourcebook
 Stealth in strike warfare
 Stealth technology
 The Paradigm Shift in Air Superiority (Stealth)

Military technology
Radar
Aerial warfare
Naval warfare tactics

Stealth technology


"Runnin' Out of Air" is a song recorded by American country music duo Love and Theft. It was released in November 2012 as the second single from their second studio album, Love and Theft. The song was written by Matt Jenkins, Shane McAnally and Josh Osborne.

Critical reception
Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song four-and-a-half stars out of five, comparing it to "a busted piñata that just keeps giving sweet goodness." Dukes wrote that "even traditionalists won't be able to keep from tapping a boot when the first hit of the snare drum melts into a funky guitar lick that sets the mood for what's to come. […] Add guitar, piano, mandolin and effortless harmonies, and you have a single that bursts out of the speakers." He predicted that "by embracing everything great about artists like Rascal Flatts and Taylor Swift while adding their own unique sounds, they've created a single radio will still be playing years from now." In his review of the album, Matt Bjorke of Roughstock wrote that the song "feels like another potential hit with the moody, swampy melody being accentuated with mandolins and b-3 in Josh Leo's production mix a long with a little cow bell." Bjorke felt that it was "a nice play on love lost and the sadness that can accompany those emotions."

Music video
The music video was directed by Mason Dixon and premiered in November 2012. It features the band performing in a club to an audience of mainly female fans, and each member separately in a different darkened room being seduced by 3 women each.

Chart performance
"Runnin' Out of Air" debuted at number 60 on the U.S. Billboard Country Airplay chart for the week of November 24, 2012. It also debuted at number 50 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of February 2, 2013.

References

2012 songs
2012 singles
Love and Theft (duo) songs
RCA Records Nashville singles
Songs written by Shane McAnally
Song recordings produced by Josh Leo
Songs written by Matt Jenkins
Songs written by Josh Osborne

Runnin' Out of Air


Farjad Nabi () is a Pakistani writer, film producer, director, cinematographer and documentary maker. His 2013 feature film Zinda Bhaag, co written and co directed with Meenu Gaur, became the first Pakistani film in over fifty years to be submitted for Oscar consideration in the 'Foreign Language Film Award' category at the 86th Academy Awards He rose to prominence in 1997, when his debut film Nusrat has left the building...But When? won the Second Best Film Award at Film South Asia, Kathmandu. In 1999 his second film
No One Believes the Professor entered the Film South Asia festival and won the Best Film Award.

Personal life
Farjad was born to Muslim parents in 1969 in Lahore, Pakistan.

Work and career
Nabi is a Lahore-based director who has directed award-winning documentaries including Nusrat has Left the Building… But When? and No One Believes the Professor. He has also documented the work of Lahore film industry's last poster artist in The Final Touch. Nabi has produced and presented a musical documentary on interior Sindh called Aaj ka Beejal for BBCUrdu. Since then he has been recording the dying breed of gallivants (story singers) in the Lahore region. His Punjabi stage plays Annhi Chunni di Tikki (Bread of Chaff & Husk) and Jeebho Jani di Kahani (The Story of Jeebho Jani) has been recently staged and published. He is presently working on a documentary film and monograph along with Meenu Gaur on the Lahore film industry also known as Lollywood.

Zinda Bhaag

In 2013 Farjad co-directed  Zinda Bhaag with Meenu Gaur, Under Meenu's husband Mazhar Zaidi's film production Matteela Films which earned him a critical acclaimed and recognition in film world. In an interview he describe the inspiration of film: "When we heard stories shared by friends and family members who had risked everything to do the 'dunky,' we were fascinated by these stories; [however], one question still rankled in us. It was, "Why do men risk their lives to do the 'dunky'?" Our research had dispelled the notion that it is a pure economic question. The truth is there is no one answer. Men do want to change their lives overnight, especially young men who find all legitimate doors closed for them. At the same time, it is almost a tradition which has been followed through generations. further adding he said, "Meenu and I have been collaborating on many projects. We have done documentaries, music videos and scripts together. Right now we have a couple of documentaries we want to finish. One is called The Ghost of Maula Jutt, which is about the rise and decay of Lollywood."
Zinda Bhaag became one of the highest-grossing of Pakistan and has won many accolades and recognition including an official selection for Best Foreign Language Film at 86th Academy Awards however was out of the competition for the final race. Zinda Bhaag was only the third Pakistani film in 50 years to get recognition at the Oscars, after 1959's The Day Shall Dawn and 1963's The Veil.

Filmography

References

External links

Living people
Mass media people from Lahore
Pakistani film directors
Pakistani film producers
1969 births

Farjad Nabi


(born 27 November 1954) is a noted Indian political theorist, who was professor of political theory at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. His works on political theory, multiculturalism, identity politics and secularism have evoked sharp debates.

He is Honorary Fellow and Founder Director, Parekh Institute of Indian Thought, CSDS (Centre for the Study of Developing Societies) Delhi. He has been former Director of the Centre between 2007-2014.  He is also Honorary fellow, Balliol College, Oxford.

Education
He received his B.A. degree in economics from the University of Delhi, followed by M.Phil. and D.Phil. from Oxford University.

Career
Bhargava started his academic career at St. Stephen's College, Delhi in 1979, in the following year he joined the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi where he worked till 2005, when he joined Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi as a senior fellow and from 2007-2014, was its director. He formally retired in 2019 but continues to be an Honorary Fellow and Director of its Parekh Institute of Indian Thought.

Over the years, he has been faculty fellow in ethics at Harvard University, Leverhulme Fellow at University of Bristol, senior fellow at Institute of Advanced Studies, Jerusalem, fellow, Wissenschaftkolleg, Berlin, fellow, Institute of Human Sciences, Vienna, visiting fellow of the British Academy, Berggruen Fellow, CASBS, Stanford, Tsinghua University, China and NYU between 2015-2017, Professorial Fellow, Institute of Social Justice, ACU, Sydney and held the Asia Chair at Sciences Po Paris in 2006. In 2022, he was Senior Research Fellow at the Multiple Secularities project, University of Leipzig.

Bhargava writes a regular column for the Indian national daily, The Hindu. He also served on the Social Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize in 2019. in 2009, Bhargava was awarded the UGC national award for his contribution to political science and in 2011, the Malcolm Adiseshiah award for his contribution to the social sciences.

Selected works
 Individualism in Social Science, (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992) This book offers a balanced, subtle critique of methodoloigical individualism.
 Secularism and its critics, (Oxford University Press, 1998) The first major anthology of its kind that sparked international academic interest in secularism.
 Multiculturalism, Liberalism and Democracy (OUP, 1999). This book looks into the cultural dimension of political and political dimensions of identity and culture.
 Politics and Ethics of the Indian Constitution (OUP, 2008). This book examines Indian constitution from the perspective of political theory.
 What is Political Theory why do we need it? (OUP, Delhi, 2010). In this book Bhargava clarifies concepts like secularism, multiculturalism, socialism, individualism and ethnocentrism etc.
 The Promise of India's secular democracy (OUP, Delhi, 2010). This book explores the politics of secularism in India.
 Secular States and Religious Diversity (UBC Press, Vancouver, 2013). He gave the concept of Principled Distance model of secularism as an alternative model to be more suitable for a heterogeneous society like India.
 Politics, Ethics and the Self: Re-reading Gandhi's Hind Swaraj (Routledge, London and New Delhi, 2022). Based on a conference on Hind Swaraj's centenary, this book puts together essays by the most eminent contemporary writers on Gandhi.
 Between Hope and Despair: 100 Ethical Reflections on Contemporary India (Bloomsbury, New Delhi, 2023). This book, written for a wider, non-academic readership, is on the crisis of India's collective ethical identity.
 Bridging the Two Worlds: Comparing Classical Political Thought and Statecraft in India and China (California University Press, 2023), edited with Amitav Acharya, Daniel A. Bell, and Yan Xuetong.

References

External links
 Rajeev Bhargava at Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS)

20th-century Indian economists
1954 births
Living people
Indian political philosophers
Indian political writers
Delhi University alumni
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Academic staff of Jawaharlal Nehru University
Academic staff of Delhi University
Centre for Political Studies (CPS), Jawaharlal Nehru University

Rajeev Bhargava


Dental fluorosis is a common disorder, characterized by hypomineralization of tooth enamel caused by ingestion of excessive fluoride during enamel formation.

It appears as a range of visual changes in enamel causing degrees of intrinsic tooth discoloration, and, in some cases, physical damage to the teeth. The severity of the condition is dependent on the dose, duration, and age of the individual during the exposure. The "very mild" (and most common) form of fluorosis, is characterized by small, opaque, "paper white" areas scattered irregularly over the tooth, covering less than 25% of the tooth surface.  In the "mild" form of the disease, these mottled patches can involve up to half of the surface area of the teeth.  When fluorosis is moderate, all of the surfaces of the teeth are mottled and teeth may be ground down and brown stains frequently "disfigure" the teeth.  Severe fluorosis is characterized by brown discoloration and discrete or confluent pitting; brown stains are widespread and teeth often present a corroded-looking appearance.

People with fluorosis are relatively resistant to dental caries (tooth decay caused by bacteria), although there may be cosmetic concern. In moderate to severe fluorosis, teeth are weakened and suffer permanent physical damage.

Diagnosis
The adequate diagnosis of fluorosis can be diagnosed by visual clinical examination. This requires inspection of dry and clean tooth surfaces under a good lighting. There are individual variations in clinical fluorosis manifestation which are highly dependent on the duration, timing, and dosage of fluoride exposure.There are different classifications to diagnose the severity based on the appearances. The clinical manifestation of mild dental fluorosis is mostly characterised a snow flaking appearance that lack a clear border, opaque, white spots, narrow white lines following the perikymata or patches as the opacities may coalesce with an intact, hard and smooth enamel surface on most of the teeth. With increasing severity, the subsurface enamel, all along the tooth becomes more porous. Enamel may appear yellow/ brown discolouration and/ or many and pitted white-brown lesions that look like cavities. They are often described as "mottled teeth". Fluorosis does not cause discolouration to the enamel directly, as upon eruption into the mouth, affected permanent teeth are not discoloured yet. In dental enamel, fluorosis causes subsurface porosity or hypomineralizations, which extend toward the dentinal-enamel junction as the condition progresses and the affected teeth become more susceptible to staining. Due to diffusion of exogenous ions (e.g., iron and copper), stains develop into the increasingly and abnormally porous enamel.

The differential diagnosis for this condition includes:
 Turner's hypoplasia (although this is usually more localized)
 Enamel defects caused by an undiagnosed and untreated celiac disease.
 Some mild forms of amelogenesis imperfecta and enamel hypoplasia
 Enamel defects caused by infection of a primary tooth predecessor
 Dental caries: Fluorosis-resembling enamel defects are often misdiagnosed as dental caries.
 Dental trauma: Mechanical trauma to the primary tooth may cause disturbance to the maturation phase of enamel formation, which may result in enamel opacities on the permanent successors.

Classification

The two main classification systems are described below. Others include the tooth surface fluorosis index (Horowitz et al. 1984), which combines Deans index and the TF index; and the fluorosis risk index (Pendrys 1990), which is intended to define the time at which fluoride exposure occurs, and relates fluorosis risk with tooth development stage.

Dean's index
Dean's fluorosis index was first published in 1934 by H. Trendley Dean. The index underwent two changes, appearing in its final form in 1942. An individual's fluorosis score is based on the most severe form of fluorosis found on two or more teeth.

TF index
Proposed by Thylstrup and Fejerskov in 1978, the TF index represents a logical extension of Dean's index, incorporating modern understanding of the underlying pathology of fluorosis. It scores the spectrum of fluorotic changes in enamel from 0 to 9, allowing more precise definition of mild and severe cases.

Causes
Dental fluorosis is caused by a higher than normal amount of fluoride ingestion whilst teeth are forming. Primary dentine fluorosis and enamel fluorosis can only happen during tooth formation, so fluoride exposure occurs in childhood. Enamel fluorosis has a white opaque appearance which is due to the surface of the enamel being hypomineralised.

The most superficial concern in dental fluorosis is aesthetic changes in the permanent dentition (the adult teeth). The period when these teeth are at highest risk of developing fluorosis is between when the child is born up to 6 years old, though there has been some research which proposes that the most crucial course is during the first 2 years of the child's life. From roughly 7 years old thereafter, most children's permanent teeth would have undergone complete development (except their wisdom teeth), and therefore their susceptibility to fluorosis is greatly reduced, or even insignificant, despite the amount of intake of fluoride. The severity of dental fluorosis depends on the amount of fluoride exposure, the age of the child, individual response, weight, degree of physical activity, nutrition, and bone growth. Individual susceptibility to fluorosis is also influenced by genetic factors.

Many well-known sources of fluoride may contribute to overexposure including dentifrice/fluoridated mouthrinse (which young children may swallow), excessive ingestion of fluoride toothpaste, bottled waters which are not tested for their fluoride content, inappropriate use of fluoride supplements, ingestion of foods especially imported from other countries, and public water fluoridation. The last of these sources is directly or indirectly responsible for 40% of all fluorosis, but the resulting effect due to water fluoridation is largely and typically aesthetic. Severe cases can be caused by exposure to water that is naturally fluoridated to levels above the recommended levels, or by exposure to other fluoride sources such as brick tea or pollution from high fluoride coal.

Dental fluorosis has been growing in the United States concurrent with fluoridation of municipal water supplies, although disproportionately by race. A 2010 CDC report acknowledges an overall incidence of dental fluorosis of 22% from 1986-87 increased to 41% in the early 21st century, with an increase in moderate to severe dental fluorosis from 1% to 4%. The 2011-12 NHANES figures documented another 31% overall increase among American teens since the previous decade, with a total adolescent population impact of 61% afflicted. More than one in five American teens (23%) have moderate to severe dental fluorosis on at least two teeth.

Mechanism
Teeth are the most studied body tissues to examine the impact of fluoride to human health. There are a few possible mechanisms that have been proposed. It is generally believed that the hypomineralization of affected enamel is mainly due to in-situ toxic effects of the fluoride on the ameloblasts in the enamel formation, and not caused by the general effects of fluoride on the calcium metabolism, or by the poisoning effects that suppress the fluoride metabolism. However, despite decades of research and studies, there have yet to be any studies that substantiate the believed mechanism whereby dental fluorosis is a result of alteration in the mineralisation that takes place when fluoride interacts with mineralising tissues.

In the extra-cellular environment of maturing enamel, an excess of fluoride ions alters the rate at which enamel matrix proteins (amelogenin) are enzymatically broken down and the rate at which the subsequent breakdown products are removed. Fluoride may also indirectly alter the action of protease via a decrease in the availability of free calcium ions in the mineralization environment. This results in the formation of enamel with less mineralization. This hypomineralized enamel has altered optical properties and appears opaque and lusterless relative to normal enamel.

Traditionally severe fluorosis has been described as enamel hypoplasia, however, hypoplasia does not occur as a result of fluorosis. The pits, bands, and loss of areas of enamel seen in severe fluorosis are the result of damage to the severely hypomineralized, brittle and fragile enamel which occurs after they erupt into the mouth.

Hydroxyapatite is converted to fluoroapatite in a three step process.  Dental fluorosis can be prevented at a population level through defluoridation. It is the downward adjustment of the level of fluoride in drinking water.

Management
Dental fluorosis may or may not be of cosmetic concern. In some cases, there may be varying degrees of negative psychosocial effects. The treatment options are:
 Mild cases: Tooth bleaching
 Moderate cases: Enamel microabrasion (outer affected layer of enamel is abraded in an acidic environment)
 Severe cases: Composite fillings, Micro-abrasion, Veneers, Crowns

Epidemiology
Fluorosis is extremely common, with 41% of adolescents having definite fluorosis, and another 20% "questionably" having fluorosis according to the Centers for Disease Control.
 surveys conducted by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research in the USA between 1986 and 1987 and by the Center of Disease Control between 1999 and 2004 are the only national sources of data concerning the prevalence of dental fluorosis.  Before the 1999-2004 study was published, CDC published an interim report covering data from 1999 to 2002.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control found a 9 percentage point increase in the prevalence of confirmed dental fluorosis in a 1999-2002 study of American children and adolescents than was found in a similar survey from 1986-1987 (from 22.8% in 1986-1987 to 32% in 1999-2002). In addition, the survey provides further evidence that African Americans suffer from higher rates of fluorosis than Caucasian Americans.

The condition is more prevalent in rural areas where drinking water is derived from shallow wells or hand pumps.  It is also more likely to occur in areas where the drinking water has a fluoride content greater than 1 ppm (part per million).

If the water supply is fluoridated at the level of 1 ppm, one must consume one litre of water in order to take in 1 mg of fluoride. It is thus improbable a person will receive more than the tolerable upper limit from consuming optimally fluoridated water alone.

Fluoride consumption can exceed the tolerable upper limit when someone drinks a lot of fluoride-containing water in combination with other fluoride sources, such as swallowing fluoridated toothpaste, consuming food with a high fluoride content, or consuming fluoride supplements. The use of fluoride supplements as a prevention for tooth decay is rare in areas with water fluoridation, but was recommended by many dentists in the UK until the early 1990s.

In November 2006 the American Dental Association published information stating that water fluoridation is safe, effective and healthy; that enamel fluorosis, usually mild and difficult for anyone except a dental health care professional to see, can result from ingesting more than optimal amounts of fluoride in early childhood;  that it is safe to use fluoridated water to mix infant formula; and that the probability of babies developing fluorosis can be reduced by using ready-to-feed infant formula or using water that is either free of fluoride or low in fluoride to prepare  powdered or liquid concentrate formula. They go on to say that the way to get the benefits of fluoride but minimize the risk of fluorosis for a child is to get the right amount of fluoride, not too much and not too little. "Your dentist, pediatrician or family physician can help you determine how to optimize your child's fluoride intake."

Prevention
Dental fluorosis can be prevented by lowering the amount of fluoride intake to below the tolerable upper limit. This can be achieved by consuming de-fluorinated water and improving the general nutritional status of the people.

History

In ancient times, Galen describes what is thought to be dental fluorosis. However, it was not until the early 20th century that dental fluorosis became increasingly recognized and scientifically studied.

In 1901 Eager published the first description of the "mottled enamel" of immigrants from a small village near Naples, Italy. He writes that the condition is called "Denti di Chiaie" (Chiaie teeth), named after Stefano Chiaie, an Italian professor. In the United States of America, a dentist, Frederick McKay, set up practice in Colorado Springs in 1901 and discovered a high proportion of the residents had stained teeth, locally termed the "Colorado brown stain". He took this information to Greene Vardiman Black, a prominent American dentist of the time. After examining specimens of affected enamel, in 1916 Black described the condition as "[a]n endemic imperfection of the enamel of the teeth, heretofore unknown in the literature of dentistry." They made the interesting observation that although the mottled enamel was hypomineralized, and therefore should be more susceptible to decay, this was not the case. Gradually, they became aware of existing and further reports of a similar condition worldwide.

In 1931, 3 different groups of scientists around the world published their discoveries that this condition was caused by fluoride in drinking water during childhood. The condition then started to become termed "dental fluorosis". Through epidemiological studies in the US, Henry Trendley Dean helped to identify a causal link between high concentrations of fluoride in the drinking water and mottled enamel. He also produced a classification system for dental fluorosis that is still used in modern times, Dean's Index. As research continued, the protective effect of fluoride against dental decay was demonstrated.

See also
 Skeletal fluorosis
 Fluoride toxicity

References

External links

Developmental tooth disorders
Toxic effects of dietary elements
Fluorine

Dental fluorosis


João Esteves da Veiga de Nápoles (1397–1461) was a Portuguese nobleman and Minister-Counselor, the eldest (and probably only) son of Leonardo Esteves de Nápoles and his wife Margarida Anes Afonso. He was the 1st Lord (Senhor) of Salvaterra de Magos, Montargil, Vacariça and Vila Nova de Monsarros.

De Nápoles distinguished himself as a diplomat and later as member of the Privy Council of King John I of Portugal. Later in life, de Nápoles founded the Honour of Molelos, a major lordship which would survive until the Liberal triumph of 1848.

Marriage and children
De Nápoles married Leonor Anes de Vasconcelos, daughter of Dom João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos, the Chief Governor (Mordomo-Mór) of King Afonso IV, and wife Constança Soares. They had one son, Henrique Esteves da Veiga de Nápoles, and two daughters, Catarina Anes da Veiga, first wife of Pedro Rodrigues Juzarte, and Margarida, wife of Vasco Pimentel and Luís Pereira.

See also
Honour (land)

References
Pereira Marques, António Augusto. Os Senhores das Honras de Molelos e o Asilo da Folhadosa. Guarda, 1953; pp. 9–10.
Unknown Author. Livro das Chancelarias de El-rei D. Afonso IV. Manuscript, 15th century; p. 9.

1397 births
1461 deaths
Portuguese diplomats
Napoles
15th-century Portuguese people
15th-century diplomats

João Esteves da Veiga de Nápoles


Telford United Football Club was an English football club based in Telford, Shropshire.

The club existed under various names for a total of 132 years from its formation in 1872. The club was a founder member of the Alliance Premier League (later renamed the Football Conference) in 1979 and played at this level for 25 years. The club was known for memorable exploits in the FA Cup during the early 1980s and in the 2003–04 FA Cup as well as the 1970–71, 1982–83 and 1988–89 FA Trophies.

After Telford United was wound up in 2004, supporters established a new club named AFC Telford United.

Club history

Parish Church Institute & Wellington Town
The club was formed in late 1872 as Parish Church Institute, and in 1879 was renamed Wellington Town. They won the Shropshire Senior Cup in 1881, and in 1892 were founder members of the Shropshire League. In 1898 they joined the Birmingham & District League. In 1901 they switched to The Combination and won the Welsh Cup, before returning to the Birmingham & District League in 1902. They won the Welsh Cup for a second time in 1906–07.

They left the league again at the end of the 1905–06 season, but returned in 1908. In 1920–21 they won the league for the first time, and in 1925–26 reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time, something they repeated for the next two seasons and again in 1929–30. In 1930–31 they reached the second round. The club won back-to-back titles in 1934–35 and 1935–36, before switching to the Cheshire County League in 1938. However, they returned to the Birmingham & District League after a single season and went on to win the league and the Welsh Cup again in 1939–40.

After World War II they joined the Cheshire County League, winning the title in 1945–46 and 1946–47 and again in 1951–52. In 1958 they moved up to the expanded Southern League, and were placed in the Premier Division for the 1959–60 season after a transitional year in the North-West Division.

Telford United
In 1969 the club was renamed Telford United in recognition of the new town which had grown around Wellington. In their first season under the new name they reached the final of the first FA Trophy, but lost 2–0 to Macclesfield Town. They reached the final again the following year and won 3–2 against Hillingdon Borough. Following a third-place finish in 1978–79 they were founder members of the new Alliance Premier League. In 1982, when Alliance Premier League champions Runcorn failed to meet Football League stadium requirements, Telford applied to join the Football League, but their application was unsuccessful.

During the 1980s the club had several good runs in the FA Cup, reaching the second round in 1982–83 when they knocked out Third Division Wigan Athletic before losing to Tranmere Rovers in a replay. They also reached the final of the FA Trophy again, winning 2–1 against Northwich Victoria. The following season they reached the fourth round, beating Stockport County, Northampton Town and Rochdale before losing to Derby County. In 1984–85 they reached the fifth round, knocking out Lincoln City, Preston North End, Bradford City and Darlington before losing to Everton. They continued to claim League scalps, beating Stockport in 1985–86, Burnley in 1986–87 and Stoke City in 1991–92. They reached the FA Trophy final again in 1987–88, but lost to Enfield in a replay. The following season they reached the Trophy final for a fifth time, this time defeating Macclesfield 1–0. In 2003–04 FA Cup they knocked out both Brentford and Crewe Alexandra before losing to eventual finalists Millwall. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Trophy, but lost on penalties to Canvey Island. They folded at the end of the season, due to the business failure of owner Andy Shaw in March,  but the name was resurrected shortly afterwards by the creation of A.F.C. Telford United.

Honours
As Wellington Town:
Welsh Cup
Winners 1901–02, 1905–06, 1939–40
Cheshire County League
Champions 1945–46, 1946–47, 1951–52
Birmingham & District League
Champions 1920–21, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1939–40

As Telford United F.C.:
FA Trophy
Winners 1970–71, 1982–83, 1988–89

Club records
Record attendance: 13,000 vs Shrewsbury Town, Shropshire Senior Cup Final.
Record win: 7–1 vs Frickley Athletic, 13 February 1982
Best FA Cup performance: Fifth round, 1984–85
Best FA Trophy performance: Winners 1970–71, 1982–83, 1988–89

References

External links

Association football clubs established in 1872
Defunct football clubs in England
Defunct football clubs in Shropshire
Southern Football League clubs
National League (English football) clubs
Association football clubs disestablished in 2004
Sport in Telford
1872 establishments in England
2004 disestablishments in England
Wellington, Shropshire
Cheshire County League clubs

Telford United F.C.


Freedom from Fear is a painting of Norman Rockwell and is one of his series of four paintings called the Four Freedoms. Rockwell was inspired to make these paintings since he heard the Four Freedoms Speech of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt of January 6, 1941.

Background
This painting was made public in The Saturday Evening Post of March 13, 1943, along with an essay of Stephen Vincent Benét. The other paintings of the Four Freedoms series are Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship and Freedom from Want, and were shown in other editions of the paper.

The painting portrays children laying in bed, a mother  tucking them in and a father watching with a newspaper in his hand, telling the stories of the war with the headlines "Bombings Kill... Horrors Hit...". The children are free from fearing these horrors of the war. He took Vermont neighbors as models for his series.

This painting is the only one in the Four Freedoms series he had not specially painted for this subject. He first made it to illustrate the Battle of Britain of 1940. He did not want it to be published though, because he distasted the idea that American children were resting safely in their beds as Europe burned.

The paintings toured through the United States with the motto Buy War Bonds. All together 1.2 million Americans saw the paintings and 132 million dollar was collected to be used in World War II.

The painting can be found in the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts.

References
Parts of this article are derived from the article on English Wikipedia

1943 paintings
American paintings

Freedom from Fear (painting)


Georgina Carolina Verbaan (born 9 October 1979) is a Dutch actress and singer. Verbaan is best known for her recurring role in soap opera Goede Tijden, Slechte Tijden. She has also appeared in various Dutch films, including Costa!, Volle maan and Oogverblindend.

Early life
Verbaan was born in The Hague, Netherlands. She joined a musical group in her hometown, Zoetermeer, in 1990, at the age of 11. In 1992, Verbaan started attending a theatre school in The Hague. She graduated from mavo (high school) in Zoetermeer.

Career

1997-2003: Soap opera, music and film
Verbaan joined the cast of soap opera Goede Tijden, Slechte Tijden in 1997, at the age of 16. She played the recurring role of Hedwig Harmsen from 1997 to 2000, growing increasingly popular and famous during her tenure on the show.

Verbaan left the show in 2000, seeking to pursue an acting career. She appeared in the Dutch film Costa! in 2001. Costa! was a nationwide commercial success, attracting over 200,000 visitors. Verbaan sang the film's theme song.

Verbaan had a cameo in English-language, Dutch film Soul Assassin in 2001. She made a major appearance in Dutch film Volle maan in 2002, but the film was a commercial and critical failure. Verbaan had the lead role in 2003 film Adrenaline.

In 2002, she released her debut studio album Sugar Spider that resulted in a number of radio hits including "Ritmo", "Yo quiero bailar" a cover of Sonia & Selena and "Denis" a cover of Blondie.

Verbaan received a Golden Onion (Dutch: Gouden Ui), the Dutch equivalent to a Golden Raspberry, for her performance in the 2005 film Joyride.

2004-06: Politics

In 2006, Verbaan, a vegetarian and anti-fur activist, began speaking in support of the Party for the Animals (PVDD). In the 2006 Dutch general election, she appeared on the PVDD's list, among other prominent Dutch celebrities, such as acclaimed writer Jan Wolkers. Verbaan received 1,337 votes, while the PVDD received enough votes to secure two seats in the House of Representatives.

2006-present: Television work
Verbaan starred in series like Dok12 and Floor Faber and had guest appearances several television shows and was a cast member of reality show Ranking the Stars. Later on, she received a recurring role in yet another television series, 't Schaep Met De 5 Pooten. She sang several songs for this series. For her role in this series, she also received a Beeld en Geluid Award ("Screen and Sound Award") for best actress.

In 2009, her role in the film Oogverblindend ("Dazzled"), directed by avantgarde filmmaker Cyrus Frisch, was critically acclaimed. The film was praised in Dutch press as "the most relevant Dutch film of the year".

She also had a minor, non-speaking role as the female bartender in Stanley Tucci's indie film "Blind Date" (2007), based on Theo Van Gogh's 1996 Dutch original. She played a major role in an episode of Dutch crime series "Van God Los" in 2011, playing a woman who kills her sister's friend after this friend has an affair with the woman's partner. For her role, Verbaan received critical acclaim and she was nominated for a Beeld & Geluid Award as best actress. Her episode of Van God Los (Spookbeeld) was also nominated for a Gouden Kalf.

Personal life
Verbaan became involved with trumpeter Rob van de Wouw in 2009. In April 2010, show business newscast RTL Boulevard reported Verbaan was pregnant with the couple's first child. Verbaan gave birth to a daughter, Odilia Lilibet van de Wouw, on October 21, 2010.  In June 2013 Georgina and Rob separated.

Discography

Albums

Singles

Filmography

Films

TV series

Dubbing

Theater

Musicals
2000: De Geest van Laat maar Waaien (2000)

Stage
2005: Oogverblindend written and directed by Cyrus Frisch
2005: De Barones2007: De Batavia written by Marcel Otten and directed by Ignace Cornelissen
2010: Late Avond Idealen directed by Sanne Vogel
2010: Ik hield van Hitler''

References

External links

parool.nl

1979 births
Living people
Actresses from The Hague
20th-century Dutch actresses
Dutch television actresses
Dutch voice actresses
Dutch pop singers
21st-century Dutch singers
21st-century Dutch women singers

Georgina Verbaan


The sternal angle (also known as the angle of Lewis, angle of Louis, angle of Ludovic, or manubriosternal junction) is the projecting angle formed between the manubrium and body of a sternum at their junction at the manubriosternal joint.

The sternal angle is a palpable and visible landmark in surface anatomy, presenting as either a slight body ridge or depression upon the upper chest wall which corresponds to the underlying manubriosternal joint. The sternal angle is palpable and often visible in young people.

The sternal angle corresponds to the level of the 2nd costal cartilage on either side, and the level between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebra. The sternal angle is used to define the transverse thoracic plane which represents the imaginary boundary between the superior and inferior mediastinum. It is also used to identify the second rib during physical examination and then the rest of the ribs by counting.

Anatomy
The sternal angle forms an angle of about 162° in males.

Relations
It marks the approximate level of the 2nd pair of costal cartilages, (sources differ) the level of the intervertebral disc between thoracic vertebra T4-T5 or the lower border of the thoracic vertebra T4, and the space between the spinous processes of thoracic vertebrae T3-T4. The horizontal plane that passes through the sternal angle and the articular disc between the 4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae represents the imaginary boundary between the superior mediastinum and inferior mediastinum.

It is located approximately 7 cm inferior to the superior margin of the manubrium.

The sternal angle is used in the definition of the thoracic plane.

The angle also marks the level of a number of features:

 Boundary between the superior and inferior portion of the mediastinum
 Passage of the thoracic duct from right to left behind esophagus
 Tracheal bifurcation
 The bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk
 The superior limit of the fibrous pericardium surrounding the ascending aorta
 Termination of the azygos vein into the superior vena cava
 Ligamentum arteriosum
 Loop of left recurrent laryngeal nerve around aortic arch
 The beginning and end of the aortic arch
 Carina of the trachea is deep to the sternal angle
Passage of the thoracic duct from right to left behind esophagus

Clinical significance
The sternal angle is the most frequent site of sternal fracture among elderly people.

Surface anatomy and physical examination
The sternal angle marks the point at which the costal cartilage of either second rib articulates with the sternum. During physical examinations, the readily palpated sternal angle is thus used as a landmark to identify the 2nd rib, and by extension, by counting, also the remaining ribs. Meanwhile, the first rib cannot be used for this purpose because it cannot be palpated. Counting ribs is essential attempting to make a thoracic incision; an incision at the first or second rib interspace can result in damage to large, important blood vessels and the brachial plexus. Identification of the second rib and thus the second intercostal space inferiorly is useful when auscultating heart sounds. The optimal location for auscultation of the aortic valve is generally the right second intercostal space, whereas the optimal location for auscultation of the pulmonic valve is generally the left second intercostal space.

The sternal angle is used as the starting point in physical examinations of the heart since the sternal angle is located 5 cm superior to the right atrium.

History
The sternal angle is also called the angle of Louis, but the reason for that name was lost. Once thought to be after Antoine Louis or Wilhelm Friedrich von Ludwig, it is now believed to be after Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis.

See also
 Thoracic plane
 List of medical mnemonics

References

External links
  - "Thoracic Wall: Bones"

Bones of the thorax

Sternal angle


The Prix Rossini for composition was a prize for young librettist and composers which was granted by the French Académie des Beaux-Arts. The prize was funded by a provision in composer Gioachino Rossini's will which took effect in 1878 after the death of his widow. First and second prize winners received funding for their winning work to be performed in a prestigious ceremony which was managed by the Société des Concerts of the Institut de France, also associated with the Paris Conservatoire. The first award of the prize in 1881 was to librettist Paul Collin and composer Marie, Countess of Grandval for the oratorio La fille de Jaïre.

It was first planned to present the works in a concert two weeks post-season every two years, but because of the expense and difficulty of producing the large-scale events, it was decided to award the prize on three year cycle instead. In 1893 the presentation was moved to two weeks pre-season. The Société des Concerts presented six productions between 1885 and 1911, all for composers who went on to establish successful careers. In 2004 the prize was still awarded to musicians.

Winners
Winners of the Prix Rossini include:
Clémence de Grandval (1828–1907)
Paul Collin (1843–1915)
Will Chaumuet (1842–1903)
Auguste Chapuis (1858–1933)
Henri Hirschmann (1872–1961)
Marcel Rousseau (1882–1955)
Marc Delmas (1885–1931)
Louis Fourestier (1892–1976)
Gaston Litaize (1909–1991)
Marcel Tournier (1879–1951)
Herman Bemberg (1859–1931)
Lucien-Léon Guillaume Lambert (1858–1945)

References

French music awards
1878 establishments in France
Awards established in 1878
Gioachino Rossini

Prix Rossini


Stouts Hill is an 18th-Century Gothic revival country house situated in the Cotswolds, just outside the village of Uley.

Although there are records of one Adam le Stut settled here in the 13th century, the present house, built for the Gyde family of local weavers, dates only from 1743, the design being attributed to William Halfpenny. In the late 18th century, the estate was acquired by the Lloyd Baker family, whose principal estate was established at Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester. It was subsequently occupied as a secondary house by members of the family, including Colonel Browne. Stouts Hill was the birthplace reputedly of the Gloucestershire historian, Samuel Rudder, and of the distinguished Persian scholar Edward Granville Browne.

From 1935 until 1979 it was let for use as a private boys' preparatory school in which some 100 pupils were boarders. Notable former pupils of the school include Stephen Fry, who makes a detailed reference to the school in his autobiography, Moab Is My Washpot, and Captain Mark Phillips, former husband of Anne, the Princess Royal.

References

External links

Stoutshillschool (blogsite)

Country houses in Gloucestershire

Stouts Hill


Samacheer Kalvi or Tamil Nadu Uniform System of School Education or Equitable education system is a School Education Department of Government of Tamil Nadu, India programme to integrate the various school educational systems within the state. Uniform System of School Education was implemented by Tamil Nadu Uniform System of School Education Act 2010 which paves way for quality education to all children without any discrimination based on their economic, social or cultural background. The new system of education was introduced for classes I and VI in the 2010 academic year.

The system was introduced by Karunanidhi-led DMK government. It was scrapped by Jayalalithaa-led AIADMK government shortly after assuming office in May 2011. The scrapping was challenged in the court. The Supreme Court of India in its verdict in August 2011, directed the AIADMK government to implement it.

Background
There are over 12 million students in four streams of school education comprising about 45,000 state board schools, 11,000 matriculation schools, 25 oriental schools and 50 Anglo-Indian schools, with different syllabus, textbooks and schemes of examinations.

Need for a unified system
The main need for this system to be proclaimed as the syllabus in Tamil Nadu, was that all the school students must have uniform study, diminishing the variations between the Matriculation or CBSE Students and the Government school Students. The motivation for a uniform syllabus was obtained from the Ex. Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, K. Kamaraj who was the first to initiate a uniform dress code in schools to reduce the differentiation between students from households with varying income. Tamil Nadu government also published school books in digital format.

Litigation
Jayalalithaa Government dropped the Samacheer Kalvi syllabus for the 2011–2012 academic year as the books had content in praise of DMK's leaders. But, the High Court of Tamil Nadu ordered that Samacheer Kalvi must come into immediate effect. Tamil Nadu Government moved the Supreme Court and the apex court refused to stay the order of the High Court and insisted that the books need to be distributed on or before 2 August 2011.

On 9 August 2011, the Supreme Court of India rejected Tamil Nadu State Government's request to drop the Tamil Nadu Uniform System of School Education and also directed the state government to implement the Uniform System of School Education (Amendment) Act within 10 days i.e., within 19 August 2011. The Supreme Court of India in its order said that any sort of objectionable material such as personal glorification, self publicity and promotion involved, could be deleted, rather than putting the operation of the Act 2010 in abeyance.

On 23 February 2022, a public interest litigation petition was filed the Madras High Court seeking a direction to the State government to adopt the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) syllabus for State Board schools. The petitioners claimed that Samacheer Kalvi was not helping the students crack the competitive exams. The HC dismissed the petition, at the stage of admission. First Division Bench of Chief Justice Munishwar Nath Bhandari and Justice D. Bharatha Chakravarthy did not entertain the case and said that it was for the government and not the court to decide the appropriate type of syllabus for schools.

References

External links
 Samacheer Kalvi Books

Education in Tamil Nadu
Textbook controversies
Education controversies in India

Samacheer Kalvi


William Kenneth Harbinson (11 July 1906 – 7 November 2000) was an Irish-born English cricketer (born in Larne) who played 14 first-class matches for Cambridge University in the late 1920s.

Harbinson was the first man to score a hundred in each innings of a match for Cambridge.
Against Glamorgan at Fenner's in 1929, from number two in the order he struck 130 in the first innings and 109 not out in the second.
His unbroken stand of 331 for the second wicket with Tom Killick (200*) remains as of March 2009 Cambridge's highest partnership against Glamorgan for any wicket.

Notes

References

English cricketers
Cambridge University cricketers
1906 births
2000 deaths

Kenneth Harbinson


Willamina is a city in Polk and Yamhill Counties in the U.S. state of Oregon. The population was 2,239 at the 2020 census.

The Yamhill County portion of Willamina is part of the Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton, Metropolitan Statistical Area, while the Polk County portion is part of the Salem Metropolitan Area.

History
Willamina was named after Willamina Creek, which in turn was named for early settler Willamina Williams shortly after she fell off of her horse and into the creek. Williams was born Willamina Craig in 1817 in Ohio. She married James Maley in 1837 and the couple came to Oregon in 1845 with James' daughter. While looking for land to settle, the family came across a tributary of the South Yamhill River and named it for Mrs. Maley. James Maley died in 1847, and Willamina married Enos Williams in 1848. They settled in what is now Amity.

Willamina post office was established in 1855 on the James Brown land claim, about a mile east of present-day Willamina. The office moved in 1863 about two miles west to the Jeremiah Lamson land claim. In 1866, the office was moved and renamed to present-day Sheridan. In 1878, a new Willamina post office was established; it operated from December 1880 to March 1891 just over the county line in Polk County. A gristmill and sawmill were established in 1878. The townsite was platted in 1879 and Willamina incorporated in 1903. At that time the city had 200 residents.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which  is land and  is water.

The city lies near the intersection of Oregon Route 18, Oregon Route 18 Business, and Oregon Route 22 next to the South Yamhill River. The communities of Shipley and Sheridan are to the east, and Valley Junction is to the west.

Demographics

2020 census
As of the 2020 census, there were 2,239 people, 852 housing units, and 852 families. There were 1,748 White people, 5 African Americans, 177 Native Americans, 12 Asians, 8 Pacific Islanders, 77 people from some other race, and 212 people from two or more races. 197 people were of Hispanic or Latino origin.

The ancestry of Willamina was 18.5% German, 12.9% Irish, 10.3% English, 7.4% Scottish, 3.7% Norwegian, 3.4% French, 2.9% Polish, and 2.0% Italian.

The median age was 35.4 years old. 14.6% of the population was older than 65, with 7.8% between the ages of 65 and 74, 3.7% between the ages of 75 and 84, and 3.1% 85 years or older. 1.3% of the population was foreign born.

The median household income was $49,773, families had $57,656, married-couples had $65,273, and non-families had $33,000. 15.7% of the population were in poverty, with 13% of people under 18, 15.8% of people between 18 and 64, and 20.4% over 65 were in poverty.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,025 people, 698 households, and 501 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 777 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 82.1% White, 0.3% African American, 8.8% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.4% Pacific Islander, 2.3% from other races, and 5.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.0% of the population.

There were 698 households, of which 40.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.7% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 10.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.2% were non-families. 20.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.26.

The median age in the city was 33.2 years. 28.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.4% were between the ages of 25 and 44; 26.6% were between the ages of 45 and 64; and 9.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.1% male and 49.9% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,844 people, 666 households, and 480 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 715 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.22% White, 0.16% African American, 9.82% Native American, 0.16% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.84% from other races, and 3.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.42% of the population.

There were 666 households, of which 39.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.1% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.9% were non-families. 22.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.19.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 32.4% under the age of 18, 9.1% between the ages of 18 and 24, 28.3% between the ages of 25 and 44, 19.8% between the ages of 45 and 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $32,326, and the median income for a family was $37,250. Males had a median income of $30,082 versus $22,432 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,349. About 10.9% of families and 14.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.2% of those under age 18 and 7.7% of those age 65 or over.

Economy

Willamina experienced an economic boom in 1907, when a brick-making company, the Pacific Face Brick Company, moved from Newberg and opened the Willamina Clay Products plant. The Sheridan and Willamina Railroad was built to the city because of the brick plant, which ran for 82 years. Bricks made at Willamina Clay Products were used in the Portland Art Museum, Jackson Tower, and Lloyd Center in Portland, and the Yamhill County Courthouse. The brick plant closed in 1974; the buildings were razed in 1976. The red clay for the company's products came from Newberg, the white clay from Willamina, and the buff clay from Buena Vista.

The other mainstay of the city's economy is the timber industry, and when the Pacific Plywood Corporation opened a plant in 1939, the city's population tripled. Willamina became known as "The Little Town with the Big Payroll". As of 2002, the city's largest employers were Spirit Mountain Casino in nearby Grand Ronde, Hampton Lumber Company, Willamina School District, Maben Trucking, and Eddy Trucking.

Education
Willamina is served by the Willamina School District, including Willamina High School.

Media
Willamina was formerly served by The Sun, Sheridan's weekly newspaper, which ceased publication in 2014. Currently, Willamina is served by the News-Register, a county-wide publication based in McMinnville.

Infrastructure

Rail
The Sheridan and Willamina Railroad was founded in 1907 and became part of the Southern Pacific Railroad's Willamina Branch in 1913. The independent short line company Willamina and Grand Ronde Railroad (W&GR) extended the line south and west from Willamina to Grand Ronde in 1922; the W&GR changed ownership several times. It was purchased by the Willamette Valley Railway in 1980. Today the lines east and west of Willamina are owned by the Portland and Western Railroad, although the portion of the line from Fort Hill to Grand Ronde is abandoned.

References

External links

 Entry for Willamina in the Oregon Blue Book

 Official website
 Historic images of Willamina from Salem Public Library
 Willamina Planning Atlas, 1979
 Willamina Brick Factory historic inventory by Stephen Dow Beckham

1903 establishments in Oregon
Populated places established in 1903
Cities in Oregon
Cities in Polk County, Oregon
Cities in Yamhill County, Oregon
Portland metropolitan area
Salem, Oregon metropolitan area

Willamina, Oregon


FC Zenit-2 Saint Petersburg () is a Russian football team from Saint Petersburg. It plays in the Russian Second League (third level). It is a farm club for the Russian Premier League team FC Zenit Saint Petersburg.

History
Zenit's reserve squad played professionally as Zenit-2 (Russian Second League in 1993, Russian Second Division from 1998 to 2000) and Zenit-d (Russian Third League from 1994 to 1997). Another team that was founded as Lokomotiv-Zenit-2 played as Zenit-2 in the Russian Second Division from 2001 to 2008. By 2008, there was no relation between that team and FC Zenit. Another farm club called FC Smena-Zenit debuted in the Russian Second Division in 2009, taking the spot of the former FC Zenit-2. FC Smena-Zenit was dissolved after the 2009 season because it did not fulfill Zenit's initial expectations.  Zenit-2 reentered professional football in the 2013–14 season in the Russian Professional Football League.

In the 2014–15 season, Zenit-2 came in second in its PFL zone behind FC Spartak-2 Moscow. When FC Torpedo Armavir (which qualified for promotion from the Zone South) refused to be promoted to FNL for financial reasons, the league offered the second-placed teams in the PFL an FNL spot. Zenit-2 was the only one who applied and played in the second-tier competition for the first time in their history in 2015–16. Zenit-2 finished the 2017–18 season in the relegation zone, but was saved from going down due to several teams above them failing licensing. At the end of the 2018–19 season it was relegated back to the PFL.

Current squad

References

External links

Association football clubs established in 2013
Football clubs in Saint Petersburg
FC Zenit Saint Petersburg
2013 establishments in Russia

FC Zenit-2 Saint Petersburg


Honored Artist of the Byelorussian SSR () is the English translation of two different awards of the Byelorussian SSR, the older Soviet forms of two of the modern orders, decorations, and medals of Belarus.

The English term "artist" is used to cover two Belarusian terms: artist (Belarusian Заслужаны артыст БССР, modern Заслужаны артыст Рэспублікі Беларусь) meaning "performer", and "maker of art" meaning visual arts or architecture (Belarusian Заслужаны дзеяч мастацтваў Рэспублікі Беларусь, Russian Заслуженный деятель искусств Республики Беларусь).

The English term "Honored" (Belarusian Заслужаны Russian Заслуженный) is often translated "Meritorious" as in Meritorious Artist. This level of award is an award equivalent to the modern Merited Artist of Ukraine or Honored Artist of Russia, and these are lower level awards than the "National Artist" level awards such as the People's Artist of Russia, or People's Artist of the BSSR.

References

Orders, decorations, and medals of Belarus
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
Soviet awards
Awards established in 1927

be:Заслужаны дзеяч мастацтваў Рэспублікі Беларусь

Honored Artist of the Byelorussian SSR


Zhang Xuanjing (張玄靚 or 張玄靖) (350–363), courtesy name Yuan'an (), formally Duke Jingdao of Xiping (西平敬悼公, posthumous name given by Jin Dynasty (266–420)) or Duke Chong of Xiping (西平沖公, posthumous name used internally in Former Liang) was a ruler of the Chinese state Former Liang.  He became the titular ruler at the young age of five after his violent uncle Zhang Zuo, who had seized the title from his older brother Zhang Yaoling and subsequently killed him, was himself killed in a coup.  Zhang Xuanjing was addressed as Prince Chong of (Former) Liang ()

The years of his rule were characterized by political instability, as he went through a progression of regents who overthrew each other -- Zhang Guan (), Song Hun (), Song Cheng (), Zhang Yong (), and finally his uncle Zhang Tianxi, who eventually had him killed and took over the title in 363.  During Zhang Guan's regency, he temporarily used the title Prince of Liang, but after Song Hun overthrew Zhang Guan, he again used the Jin-created title of Duke of Xiping.

Early life
Zhang Xuanjing was born in 350, during the reign of his father Zhang Chonghua (Duke Jinglie).  His mother was likely Zhang Chonghua's concubine Lady Guo (as he honored her as princess dowager in 363, which he would have had little reason to do if she were not his mother).  He had an older brother, Zhang Yaoling, who was his father's heir apparent.

In 353, Zhang Chonghua died, and Zhang Yaoling became the ruler (as Duke Ai), but actual power was in the hands of Zhang Chonghua's older brother Zhang Zuo, who was having an affair with Zhang Chonghua's mother Princess Dowager Ma and received her support in early 354 to depose Zhang Yaoling and claim the throne himself.  Later that year, when he declared independence from Jin Dynasty (266–420), which Former Liang had been a titular vassal of, he created Zhang Xuanjing the Marquess of Liangwu.

In 356, the violent and capricious Zhang Zuo was overthrown and killed by the generals Zhang Guan and Song Hun.  Initially, Song had Zhang Xuanjing claim the Jin-created title of Duke of Xiping, a title that his ancestors had carried for generations, but Zhang Guan overruled Song and had the young ruler claim the title Prince of Liang, a title that Jin had declined to grant previously.  Zhang Guan served as regent.

Under the regency of Zhang Guan
Despite his having Zhang Xuanjing claim a non-Jin-created title, Zhang Guan nevertheless continued to claim that Former Liang was a Jin vassal.  In 356, however, under diplomatic and implied military pressure from Former Qin, Zhang Guan, on Zhang Xuanjing's behalf, formally submitted to Former Qin as a vassal.

Zhang Guan governed with a heavy hand, based on his own whim.  In 359, he became suspicious of Song Hun and wanted to kill him and his brother Song Cheng (), and then depose Zhang Xuanjing and take the throne himself.  Song Hun received news of this, however, and started an uprising within the capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu).  Song's and Zhang Guan's forces battled within the city, but eventually Song prevailed, and Zhang Guan and his brother Zhang Ju () committed suicide.  Their clan was slaughtered.  Song Hun became regent.

Under the regencies of Song Hun and Song Cheng
Song Hun's regency was better received, as Song emphasized faithfulness and tolerance.  He also had Zhang Xuanjing disclaim the title Prince of Liang and return to the Jin-created title Duke of Xiping.  The people appeared to be happy about his regency.  However, turmoil came again in 361, after Song Hun died.  Under Song Hun's recommendation, his brother Song Cheng became regent, but Song Cheng, not as skillful as Song Hun, was soon killed by the general Zhang Yong (), and his clan was slaughtered.  Zhang Yong and Zhang Xuanjing's uncle Zhang Tianxi became coregents, but with Zhang Yong having the bulk of power.

Under the regencies of Zhang Yong and Zhang Tianxi
After becoming regent, Zhang Yong became arrogant, sexually immoral, and dictatorial, and he often executed officials, causing the nobles and the officials to be fearful.  Zhang Tianxi's assistants Liu Su (), comparing Zhang Yong to Zhang Zuo, persuaded him that he needed to act against Zhang Yong, and later in 361, Zhang Tianxi had Liu Su and another assistant, Zhao Baiju () attempt to assassinate Zhang Yong, but failed.  Zhang Yong then gathered his troops and attacked Zhang Tianxi, but Zhang Tianxi persuaded Zhang Yong's troops that he was avenging the Song clan and that Zhang Yong's next move was going to slaughter the royal Zhang clan.  Zhang's forces, hearing this, abandoned him, and Zhang Yong committed suicide.  His clan was slaughtered, and Zhang Tianxi became sole regent.  Zhang Tianxi ended the practice of using Emperor Min of Jin's era name Jianxing and instead started using the current era name of Jin Dynasty (at the time, Emperor Ai's Shengping), to show even greater affinity with Jin.

In 363, Princess Dowager Ma died, and Zhang Xuanjing honored Lady Guo as princess dowager.  She became concerned that Zhang Tianxi was acting dictatorially, and she conspired with the high-level official Zhang Qin () to kill Zhang Tianxi, but the news leaked, and Zhang Qin and other conspirators were put to death.  Zhang Xuanjing became fearful and offered to yield the throne to Zhang Tianxi, but Zhang Tianxi refused.  A month later, however, he had Liu Su lead soldiers into the palace to assassinate the 13-year-old Zhang Xuanjing, but claimed that Zhang Xuanjing died of an illness.  Zhang Tianxi took the throne himself.

Era name
 Taishi (太始 taì shǐ) 355–356

After 356, the era name of Emperor Min of Jin, Jianxing, was used until 361, when Former Liang switched to using the current era names used by Jin—therefore, Emperor Mu's Shengping in 361 and Emperor Ai's Longhe in 362–363.

Personal information
 Father
 Zhang Chonghua (Duke Jinglie)
 Mother
 Likely Lady Guo

Notes

References

4th-century Chinese monarchs
Monarchs of Former Liang
Former Qin people
350 births
363 deaths
People from Wuwei

Zhang Xuanjing


Michael Schumann (24 September 1946 – 2 December 2000) was a German philosophy professor who became an East German advocate for reform and a politician during the build-up to German reunification. He is widely seen as a pioneer of the Party of Democratic Socialism which superseded the Socialist Unity Party in the German Democratic Republic in 1989/90.

Life
Schumann was born in the Soviet occupation zone of what remained of Germany, slightly more than a year after the Second World War had ended in defeat and regime change. His birthplace was Zella-Mehlis, a small industrial town some 65 km (40 miles) south-west of Erfurt. His father, Erwin Schumann, worked as a foreman. Long before he was old enough for school, the Soviet occupation zone had reinvented itself, formally in October 1949, as the Soviet sponsored German Democratic Republic, which involved a return to one-party dictatorship, this time with constitutional arrangements modeled on those of the Soviet Union itself. Michael Schumann attended primary and secondary schools locally, passing his school final exams in 1965. In parallel with this, 1965 was also the year in which he obtained a certificate of expertise in cattle breeding from the VEB agricultural cooperative in nearby Rohr.

Between 1965 and 1970 he studied Philosophy at the "Karl Marx University" (as it was then known) in Leipzig. A defining influence during his first year of study was the philosophical school of his tutor, Helmut Seidel.

In 1967, the year of his twenty-first birthday, Schumann joined East Germany's ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED /Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands). Although he would later come to prominence at a party conference late in 1989 because of his critical attitude to the direction taken by East Germany under the SED, he would remain a member of the party, and then of its successor entity, for the rest of his life. He received his doctorate in 1970 for work on Hegel. His first job after this was as a research assistant in the Marxism–Leninism section of the Philosophy Department at the party's own "Walter Ulbricht" Academy for Law and Political Sciences in Potsdam-Babelsberg, which placed him at the heart of one of the SED's most important cadre schools. Until 1989, albeit with a couple of breaks, the Academy would be his political and academic home in the years preceding his emergence as a politician.

From November 1970 till April 1972 Schumann performed his Military Service in the National People's Army, reaching the rank of junior officer in a political section. It was during this period that he married Ingeburg Reuß who was at the time employed on the commercial side by DEFA, the state-owned film studin. He had a son, Marco.

Back in the academic world, in 1986 he was appointed to a full professorship at the Walter Ulbricht Academy.

He is remembered for the frequently repeated assertion, "We break irrevocably with Stalinism as a system!", which he delivered to the extraordinary SED Party Conference of 16 December 1989. As matters turned out it would be the last SED conference before the party began its slightly awkward conversion process into the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) in preparation for a democratic future which after the events of the previous month was widely anticipated. The resolution, which marked a break with the government by dictatorship that had controlled the German Democratic Republic for more than four decades, was created by several people, including the Stasi Intelligence Chief Markus Wolf and the politician Heinz Vietze, but it was Schumann's part in its authorship that was given greater prominence precisely because, some said, Wolf and Vietze were both highly positioned members of the now largely discredited East Germany political establishment whereas Schumann's party work had been low level and peripheral to his career. To have a chance of survival, the party would need to undergo a new beginning appropriate to a new kind of East Germany.

On 18 March 1990 the German Democratic Republic conducted its first — and as matters turned out, only — free parliamentary election. Michael Schumann was elected a member of the National Legislature (Volkskammer). Following reunification in October of that year he sat as a member of the German Bundestag till December. 1990 also marked a return for regional government in what had been East Germany, and in the 1990 Brandenburg state election Schumann was returned as one of the 13 PDS Assembly members, retaining his seat till his death in December 2000 after which his former seat went to Gerrit Große. From 1989 till October 2000 Schumann was also a member of the PDS National Executive.

Michael and Ingeburg Schumann were killed in a road traffic accident near Gransee (Brandenburg) on 2 December 2000. They are buried in the cemetery at Bornstedt (Potsdam).

References

1946 births
2000 deaths
People from Zella-Mehlis
Socialist Unity Party of Germany members
Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany) politicians
Members of the 10th Volkskammer
Members of the Landtag of Brandenburg
Academic staff of the University of Potsdam

Michael Schumann