Tang poetry () refers to poetry written in or around the time of or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 – June 4, 907, including the 690–705 reign of Wu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style, often considered as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry. The Complete Tang Poems includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors. During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone. This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. The two most famous poets of the period were Li Bai and Du Fu. The Qing dynasty selection,Three Hundred Tang Poems, has made Tang poetry familiar to educated Chinese in modern times.

Periodization

The periodization scheme employed in this article is the one detailed by the Ming dynasty scholar Gao Bing (1350–1423) in the preface to his work Tangshi Pinhui, which has enjoyed broad acceptance since his time. This system, which unambiguously treats poetry composed during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (the "High Tang" period) as being superior in quality to what came before and after, is subjective and evaluative, and often does not reflect the realities of literary history.

Forms

The representative form of poetry composed during the Tang dynasty is the shi. This contrasts to poetry composed in the earlier Han dynasty and later Song and Yuan dynasties, which are characterized by fu, ci and qu forms, respectively. However, the fu continued to be composed during the Tang dynasty, which also saw the beginnings of the rise of the ci form.

Within the shi form, there was a preference for pentasyllabic lines, which had been the dominant metre since the second century C.E., but heptasyllabic lines began to grow in popularity from the eighth century. The poems generally consisted of multiple rhyming couplets, with no definite limit on the number of lines but a definite preference for multiples of four lines.

Sources
The Complete Tang Poems anthology compiled in the early eighteenth century includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors. The Quan Tangwen (全唐文, "Complete Tang Prose"), despite its name, contains more than 1,500 fu and is another widely consulted source for Tang poetry. Despite their names, these sources are not comprehensive, and the manuscripts discovered at Dunhuang in the twentieth century included many shi and some fu, as well as variant readings of poems that were also included in the later anthologies. There are also collections of individual poets' work, which generally can be dated earlier than the Qing anthologies, although few earlier than the eleventh century. Only about a hundred Tang poets have such collected editions extant.

Another important source is anthologies of poetry compiled during the Tang dynasty, although only thirteen such anthologies survive in full or in part.

Many records of poetry, as well as other writings, were lost when the Tang capital of Changan was damaged by war in the eighth and ninth centuries, so that while more than 50,000 Tang poems survive (more than any earlier period in Chinese history), this still likely represents only a small portion of the poetry that was actually produced during the period. Many seventh-century poets are reported by the 721 imperial library catalog as having left behind massive volumes of poetry, of which only a tiny portion survives, and there are notable gaps in the poetic œuvres of even Li Bo and Du Fu, the two most celebrated Tang poets.

The pre-Tang poetic tradition
The poetic tradition inherited by the Tang poets was immense and diverse. By the time of the Tang dynasty, there was already a continuous Chinese body of poetry dating back for over a thousand years. Such works as the Chu Ci and Shijing were major influences on Tang poetry, as were the developments of Han poetry and Jian'an poetry. All of these influenced the Six Dynasties poetry, which in turn helped to inspire the Tang poets. In terms of influences upon the poetry of the early Tang, Burton Watson characterizes the poetry of the Sui and early Tang as "a mere continuation of Six Dynasties genres and styles."

History

The Tang dynasty was a time of major social and probably linguistic upheavals. Thus, the genre may be divided into several major more-or-less chronological divisions, based on developmental stages or stylistic groupings (sometimes even on personal friendships between poets). It should be remembered that poets may be somewhat arbitrarily assigned to these based on their presumed biographical dates (not always known); furthermore that the lifetimes of poets toward the beginning or end of this period may overlap with the preceding Sui dynasty or the succeeding Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The chronology of Tang poetry may be divided into four parts: Early Tang, High Tang, Middle Tang, and Late Tang.

Early Tang
In Early Tang (初唐),  poets began to develop the foundation what is now considered to be the Tang style of poetry inherited a rich and deep literary and poetic tradition, or several traditions. Early Tang poetry is subdivided into early, middle and late phases.
 Some of the initial poets who began to develop what is considered to be the Tang dynasty style of poetry were heavily influenced by the Court Style of the Southern Dynasties (南朝宫), referring to the Southern Dynasties of the Southern and Northern Dynasties time period (420–589 CE) that preceded the short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618 CE). The Southern Dynasty Court (or Palace) poems tended towards an ornate and flowery style and particular vocabulary, partly passed on through continuity of certain governmental individuals who were also poets, during the transition from Sui to Tang. This group includes the emperor Li Shimin, the calligrapher Yu Shinan, Chu Liang (禇亮), Li Baiyao, the governmental official Shangguan Yi, and his granddaughter, the governmental official and later imperial consort Shangguan Wan'er. Indeed, there were many others, as this was a culture that placed a great emphasis on literature and poetry, at least for persons in official capacity and their social intimates.
 Representative of the middle phase of early Tang were the so-called "Four Literary Friends:" poets Li Jiao, Su Weidao, Cui Rong, and Du Shenyan. This represents a transitional phase.
 In the late phase the poetic style becomes more typical of what is considered as Tang poetry. A major influence was Wang Ji (585–644) upon the Four Paragons of the Early Tang: Wang Bo, Yang Jiong, Lu Zhaolin, and Luo Binwang. They each preferred to dispense with literary pretensions in favor of authenticity.
 Chen Zi'ang (661–702) is credited with being the great poet who finally brought an end to the Beginning Tang period, casting away the ornate Court style in favor of a hard-hitting, authentic poetry which included political and social commentary (at great risk to himself), and thus leading the way to the greatness that was to come.

High Tang
In High Tang (盛唐), sometimes known as Flourishing Tang or Golden Tang, first appear the poets which would come to mind as Tang poets, at least in the United States and Europe. High Tang poetry had numerous schools of thought:
 The beginning part of this era, or style-period, include Zhang Jiuling (678–740), Wang Han, and Wang Wan. There were also the so-called Four Gentlemen of Wuzhong (吳中四士): He Zhizhang (659–744), Bao Rong, Zhang Xu (658–747, also famous as a calligrapher), and Zhang Ruoxu.
 The "Fields and Gardens Poets Group" (田园诗派) include Meng Haoran (689 or 691–740), the famous poet and painter Wang Wei (701–761), Chu Guangxi (707–760), Chang Jian, Zu Yong (祖咏), Pei Di, Qiwu Qian (綦毋潜), Qiu Wei (丘为), and others.
 The "Borders and Frontier Fortress Poets Group" () includes Gao Shi (706–765), Cen Shen (715–770), Wang Changling (698–756), Wang Zhihuan, (688–742) Cui Hao (poet) (about 704–754) and Li Qi (690–751).
 Li Bai (701–762) and Du Fu (712–770) were the two best-known Tang poets. Li Bai and Du Fu both lived to see the Tang Empire shaken by the catastrophic events of the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763). This had a tremendous impact on their work, though it did not mark the end of Tang Dynasty poetry, which ended with Li Yu in 978.

Middle Tang
The poets of the Middle Tang (中唐) period also include many of the best known names, and they wrote some very famous poems. This was a time of rebuilding and recovery, but also high taxes, official corruption, and lesser greatness. Li Bo's bold seizing of the old forms and turning them to new and contemporary purposes and Du Fu's development of the formal style of poetry, though hard to equal, and perhaps impossible to surpass, nevertheless provided a firm edifice on which the Middle Tang poets could build.
 In the early phase of the Middle Tang period Du Fu's yuefu poetry was extended by poets such as Dai Shulun (戴叔伦, 732–789) who used the opportunity to admonish governmental officials as to their duties toward the suffering common folk.
 Others concentrated on developing the Landscape Style Poem (山水诗), such as Liu Changqing (刘长卿, 709–780) and Wei Yingwu (韦应物, 737–792).
 The Frontier Fortress Style had its continued advocates, representative of whom are Li Yi (李益) and Lu Lun (卢纶, 739–799).
 The traditional association between poetry and scholarship was shown by the existence of a group of ten poets (大历十才子), who tended to ignore the woes of the people, preferring to sing and chant their poems in praise of peace, beautiful landscapes and the commendability of seclusion. They are: Qian Qi (錢起, 710–782), Lu Lun is also a part of this group, Ji Zhongfu (吉中孚), Han Yi (韩翊), Sikong Shu (司空曙, 720–790), Miao Fa—or  Miao Bo – (苗發/苗发),  Cui Tong (崔峒), Geng Hui (耿諱/耿讳), Xia Hou Shen (夏侯审), and the poet Li Duan (poet) (李端, 743–782).
 One of the greatest Tang poets was Bai Juyi (白居易, 772–846), considered the leader of the somewhat angry, bitter, speaking-truth-to-power New Yuefu Movement (新樂府運動). Among the other poets considered to be part of this movement are Yuan Zhen (元稹, 779–831), Zhang Ji (张籍, 767–830), and Wang Jian (王建).
 Several Tang poets stand out as being too individualistic to really be considered a group, yet sharing a common interest in experimental exploration of the relationship of poetry to words, and pushing the limits thereof; including: Han Yu (韩愈, 768–824), Meng Jiao (孟郊, 751–814), Jia Dao (賈島/贾岛, 779–843), and Lu Tong (盧仝/卢仝, 795–835).
 Two notable poets were Liu Yuxi (刘禹锡, 772–842) and Liu Zongyuan (柳宗元, 773–819).
 Another notable poet, the short-lived Li He (李贺, 790–816), has been called "the Chinese Mallarmé".

Late Tang
In the Late Tang (晚唐), similarly to how eventually the earlier duo of Li Bo and Du Fu came to be known by the combined name of Li-Du (李杜), so in the twilight of the Late Tang there was the duo of the Little Li-Du (小李杜), referring to Du Mu (803–852) and Li Shangyin (813–858). These dual pairs have been considered to typify two divergent poetic streams which existed during each of these two times, the flourishing Tang and the late Tang:
 The Late Tang poetry of Du Mu's type tended toward a clear, robust style, often looking back upon the past with sadness, perhaps reflecting the times. The Tang dynasty was falling apart, it was still in existence, but obviously in a state of decline.
 The poetry of Li Shangyin's type tended towards the sensuously abstract, dense, allusive, and difficult. Other poets of this style were Wen Tingyun (温庭筠, 812–870) and Duan Cheng Shi (段成式, about 803–863). These poets have been attracting gaining interest in modern times.
 There were also other poets belonging to one or the other of two major schools of the Late Tang. in one school were Luo Yin (羅隱/罗隐, 833–909), Nie—or Zhe or She or Ye—Yizhong (聶夷中/聂夷中, 887-884), Du Xunhe (杜荀鹤), Pi Rixiu (皮日休, approximately 834/840—883), Lu Guimeng (陸龜蒙/陆龟蒙 ?-881), and others. In the other group, were Wei Zhuang (韦庄, 836–910), Sikong Tu (司空圖, 837–908), Zheng Gu (鄭谷, 849–911), Han Wo (844-?), and others. During the final twilight of Tang, both schools were prone to a melancholic angst; they varied by whether they tended towards metaphor and allusiveness or a more clear and direct expression.
 Yu Xuanji was a famous female poet of Late Tang.

Continuation in Southern Tang
After the official fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, some members of its ruling house of Li managed to find refuge in the south of China, where their descendants founded the Southern Tang dynasty in the year 937. This dynasty continued many of the traditions of the former great Tang dynasty, including poetry, until its official fall in 975, when its ruler, Li Yu, was taken into captivity. Importantly for the history of poetry, Li survived another three years as a prisoner of the Song dynasty, and during this time composed some of his best known works. Thus, including this "afterglow of the T'ang dynasty", the final date for the Tang Poetry era can be considered to be at the death of Li Yu, in 978.

After the fall of the Tang dynasty
Surviving the turbulent decades of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era, Tang poetry was perhaps the major influence on the poetry of the Song dynasty, for example seeing such major poets as Su Shi creating new works based upon matching lines of Du Fu's. This matching style is known from the Late Tang. Pi Rixiu and Lu Guimeng, sometimes known as Pi-Lu, were well known for it: one would write a poem with a certain style and rhyme scheme, then the other would reply with a different poem, but matching the style and with the same rhymes. This allows for subtleties which can only be grasped by matching the poems together.

Succeeding eras have seen the popularity of various Tang poets wax and wane. The Qing dynasty saw the publication of the massive compilation of the collected Tang poems, the Complete Tang Poems, as well as the less-scholarly (for example, no textual variants are given), but more popular, Three Hundred Tang Poems. Furthermore, in the Qing dynasty era the imperial civil service examinations the requirement to compose Tang style poetry was restored. In China, some of the poets, such as Li Bo and Du Fu have never fallen into obscurity; others, such as Li Shangyin, have had modern revivals.

Anthologies

Many collections of Tang poetry have been made, both during the Tang dynasty and subsequently. In the first century of the Tang period several early collections of contemporary poetry were made, some of which survive and some which do not: these early anthologies reflect the imperial court context of the early Tang poetry. Later anthologies of Tang poetry compiled during the Qing dynasty include both the imperially commissioned Complete Tang Poems and the scholar Sun Zhu's own privately compiled Three Hundred Tang Poems. Part of an anthology by Cui Rong, the  Zhuying ji also known as the Collection of Precious Glories has been found among the Dunhuang manuscripts, consisting of about one-fifth of the original, with fifty-five poems by thirteen men, first published in the reign of Wu Zetian (655–683). The book contains  poems by Cui Rong (653–706), Li Jiao (644–713), Zhang Yue (677–731), and others.

The 300 Tang Poems

The most popular Tang Poems collection might be the so-called 300 Tang Poems compiled by Qing dynasty scholar Sun Zhu.
It is so popular that many poems in it have been adopted by Chinese language text books of China's primary schools and secondary schools. Some of the poems in it are normally regarded as must-recite ones.

He said he found the poems in the poetry textbook students that had been using, "Poems by A Thousand Writers" (Qian-jia-shi), were not carefully selected but a mixture of Tang dynasty poems and Song dynasty poems written in different styles. He also regarded that some poetry works in that book were not very well-written in terms of language skill and rhyme.

Therefore, he picked those best and most popular poems from Tang dynasty only and formed this new collection of about 310 poems including poems by the most renowned poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu.

These poems are about various topics including friendship, politics, idyllic life and ladies' life, and so on.

Exemplary verse
《旅夜書懷》
杜甫
細草微風岸,危檣獨夜舟。
星垂平野闊,月湧大江流。
名豈文章著,官應老病休。
飄飄何所似?天地一沙鷗。

    My Reflection by Night
                                                    by Du Fu
     Some scattered grass. A shore breeze blowing light.
    A giddy mast. A lonely boat at night.
    The wide-flung stars o'erhang all vasty space.
    The moonbeams with the Yangtze's current race.
    How by my pen can I to fame attain?
    Worn out, from office better to refrain.
    Drifting o'er life — and what in sooth am I?
    A sea-gull floating twixt the Earth and Sky.

    Translated by W.J.B. Fletcher (1919)

The first twenty characters translate literally as:

"fine grass micro- wind shore / high boom [= part of rigging] alone night boat.
stars hanging-down level field width / moon[-light] surge big river flow."

Translation into western languages

Major translators of Tang poetry into English include Herbert Giles, L. Cranmer-Byng, Archie Barnes, Amy Lowell, Arthur Waley, Witter Bynner, A. C. Graham, Shigeyoshi Obata, Burton Watson, Gary Snyder, David Hinton, Wai-lim Yip, Red Pine (Bill Porter), and Xian Mao.  Ezra Pound drew on notes given to him by the widow of Ernest Fenollosa in 1913 to create English poems indirectly through the Japanese, including some Li Bai poems, which were published in his book Cathay. Some popular Western adaptations of Tang poetry include songs like Pink Floyd's "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".

Characteristics
Tang poetry has certain characteristics. Contextually, the fact that the poems were generally intended to be recited in more-or-less contemporary spoken Chinese (now known as Classical Chinese; or, sometimes, as Literary Chinese, in post-Han dynasty cases) and that the poems were written in Chinese characters are certainly important. Also important are the use of certain typical poetic forms, various common themes, and the surrounding social and natural milieu.

Relationship to Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism
The Tang dynasty time was one of religious ferment, which was reflected in the poetry. Many of the poets were religiously devout. Also, at that time religion tended to have an intimate relation with poetry.

Gender studies
There has been some interest in Tang poetry in the field of gender studies. Although most of the poets were men, there were several significant women. Also, many of the men wrote from the viewpoint of a woman, or lovingly of other men. Historically and geographically localized in Tang dynasty China, this is an area which has not escaped interest from the perspective of historical gender roles.

See also

 7th century in poetry
 8th century in poetry
 9th century in poetry
 Chinese poetry
 Classical Chinese poetry
 Ci (poetry)
 Complete Tang Poems
 Four Literary Eminences in Early Tang
 Fu (poetry)
 Hanshan (poet)
 Jueju
 List of Chinese language poets
 List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
 Shi (poetry)
 Song poetry
 Tang dynasty poets (list)
 Three Hundred Tang Poems
 Wangchuan ji
 Yuefu

References

Cited works
 Hoyt, Ed; Vanessa Lide Whitcomb, Michael Benson (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Modern China. Alpha Books. .
 Jing-Schmidt, Zhuo (2005). Dramatized discourse: the Mandarin Chinese ba-construction. John Benjamins Publishing Company. .
 Mair, Victor H. (ed.) (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. . (Amazon Kindle edition.)

 Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. New York: Columbia University Press.
 Wu, John C. H. (1972). The Four Seasons of Tang Poetry. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E.Tuttle.
 Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions", in Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2, Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University).

Further reading
 Graves, Robert (1969). ON POETRY: Collected Talks and Essays. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
 Hinton, David (2008). Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.  / .

 Stephen Owen. The Poetry of the Early T'ang. New Haven: Yale University Press,  1977. .  Revised edition, Quirin Press, 2012.
 Stephen Owen. The Great Age of Chinese Poetry: The High T'ang. New Haven Conn.: Yale University Press,  1981. . Revised edition, Quirin Press, 2013.
 Stephen Owen. The Late Tang: Chinese Poetry of the Mid-Ninth Century (827–860). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Harvard East Asian Monographs,  2006. .

External links
 Three Hundred Tang Poems (online : Chinese + English)

7th-century poems
8th-century poems
9th-century poems
10th-century poems

Tang poetry


Tokangawhā / Split Apple Rock is a geological rock formation in Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere off the northern coast of the South Island of New Zealand. Made of granite from the cretaceous, it is in the shape of an apple which has been cut in half. The cleft to produce two sides of the 'apple' was a naturally occurring joint.  Joints occur commonly in granite and are planes of weakness that rain and waves exploit. The traditional Maori myth for the formation describes two gods breaking apart the rock.

It is a popular tourist attraction in the waters of the Tasman Sea approximately 50 metres off the coast  between Kaiteriteri and Mārahau. The rock sits in shallow water at low tide and is accessible by wading. It is also a point of interest for the many tourist boats and pleasure craft which operate along the shores of the Abel Tasman National Park. The name Split Apple Rock was made official in 1988, and was officially altered to Tokangawhā / Split Apple Rock in August 2014.

See also
List of rock formations of New Zealand

References

Rock formations of New Zealand
Islands of the Tasman District
Islands of Tasman Bay

Split Apple Rock


In mathematics, a symplectomorphism or symplectic map is an isomorphism in the category of symplectic manifolds. In classical mechanics, a symplectomorphism represents a transformation of phase space that is volume-preserving and preserves the symplectic structure of phase space, and is called a canonical transformation.

Formal definition

A diffeomorphism between two symplectic manifolds  is called a symplectomorphism if

where  is the pullback of . The symplectic diffeomorphisms from  to  are a (pseudo-)group, called the symplectomorphism group (see below).

The infinitesimal version of symplectomorphisms gives the symplectic vector fields. A vector field  is called symplectic if

Also,  is symplectic iff the flow  of  is a symplectomorphism for every .
These vector fields build a Lie subalgebra of .
Here,  is the set of smooth vector fields on , and  is the Lie derivative along the vector field

Examples of symplectomorphisms include the canonical transformations of classical mechanics and theoretical physics, the flow associated to any Hamiltonian function, the map on cotangent bundles induced by any diffeomorphism of manifolds, and the coadjoint action of an element of a Lie group on a coadjoint orbit.

Flows
Any smooth function on a symplectic manifold gives rise, by definition, to a Hamiltonian vector field and the set of all such vector fields form a subalgebra of the Lie algebra of symplectic vector fields. The integration of the flow of a symplectic vector field is a symplectomorphism. Since symplectomorphisms preserve the symplectic 2-form and hence the symplectic volume form, Liouville's theorem in Hamiltonian mechanics follows. Symplectomorphisms that arise from Hamiltonian vector fields are known as Hamiltonian symplectomorphisms.

Since  the flow of a Hamiltonian vector field also preserves . In physics this is interpreted as the law of conservation of energy.

If the first Betti number of a connected symplectic manifold is zero, symplectic and Hamiltonian vector fields coincide, so the notions of Hamiltonian isotopy and symplectic isotopy of symplectomorphisms coincide.

It can be shown that the equations for a geodesic may be formulated as a Hamiltonian flow, see Geodesics as Hamiltonian flows.

The group of (Hamiltonian) symplectomorphisms
The symplectomorphisms from a manifold back onto itself form an infinite-dimensional pseudogroup. The corresponding Lie algebra consists of symplectic vector fields.
The Hamiltonian symplectomorphisms form a subgroup, whose Lie algebra is given by the Hamiltonian vector fields.
The latter is isomorphic to the Lie algebra of smooth
functions on the manifold with respect to the Poisson bracket, modulo the constants.

The group of Hamiltonian symplectomorphisms of  usually denoted as .

Groups of Hamiltonian diffeomorphisms are simple, by a theorem of Banyaga. They have natural geometry given by the Hofer norm. The homotopy type of the symplectomorphism group for certain simple symplectic four-manifolds, such as the product of spheres, can be computed using Gromov's theory of pseudoholomorphic curves.

Comparison with Riemannian geometry
Unlike Riemannian manifolds, symplectic manifolds are not very rigid: Darboux's theorem shows that all symplectic manifolds of the same dimension are locally isomorphic. In contrast, isometries in Riemannian geometry must preserve the Riemann curvature tensor, which is thus a local invariant of the Riemannian manifold.
Moreover, every function H on a symplectic manifold defines a Hamiltonian vector field XH, which exponentiates to a one-parameter group of Hamiltonian diffeomorphisms. It follows that the group of symplectomorphisms is always very large, and in particular, infinite-dimensional. On the other hand, the group of isometries of a Riemannian manifold is always a (finite-dimensional) Lie group. Moreover, Riemannian manifolds with large symmetry groups are very special, and a generic Riemannian manifold has no nontrivial symmetries.

Quantizations
Representations of finite-dimensional subgroups of the group of symplectomorphisms (after ħ-deformations, in general) on Hilbert spaces are called quantizations.
When the Lie group is the one defined by a Hamiltonian, it is called a "quantization by energy".
The corresponding operator from the Lie algebra to the Lie algebra of continuous linear operators is also sometimes called the quantization; this is a more common way of looking at it in physics.

Arnold conjecture

A celebrated conjecture of Vladimir Arnold relates the minimum number of fixed points for a Hamiltonian symplectomorphism , in case  is a compact symplectic manifold, to Morse theory (see ). More precisely, the conjecture states that  has at least as many fixed points as the number of critical points that a smooth function on  must have. Certain weaker version of this conjecture has been proved: when  is "nondegenerate", the number of fixed points is bounded from below by the sum of Betti numbers of  (see,). The most important development in symplectic geometry triggered by this famous conjecture is the birth of Floer homology (see ), named after Andreas Floer.

In popular culture
"Symplectomorphism" is a word in a crossword puzzle in episode 1 of the anime Spy × Family.

See also

References

General
.
. See section 3.2.

Symplectomorphism groups
.
.

Symplectic topology
Hamiltonian mechanics

Symplectomorphism


Livadia was an imperial yacht of the House of Romanov built in 1869–1873 by Leopold Schwede in Nikolaev. She served on the Black Sea. The Livadia was the only Russian imperial yacht that has seen active combat service during the Russo-Turkish war of 1877–1878. October 21–22, 1878 she ran aground near Cape Tarkhan-Kut in Crimea and sank.

In 1860 General Admiral of Russian Imperial Navy Grand Duke Constantin converted Tigr, a three-masted paddle steamer built in 1855–1858, into a yacht for the Romanovs. The 62 meter long Tigr did not have the space and comforts expected by her distinguished patrons, and in 1868 the government discussed ordering her replacement in England. This proposal was discarded, and the job was awarded to captain Leopold Schwede of Nikolaev Admiralty. Work began in the end of 1869, although officially the Livadia was laid down only in March 1870.

Livadia, which displaced 1,965 tons, was smaller than her Baltic Sea counterpart Derzhava (launched 1871, 3114 tons) but matched her in size and comfort of the imperial suites designed by Ippolit Monighetti.

Livadia spent the summer of 1873 on the Black Sea, tending to the Romanovs on their short route from Sebastopol to Yalta. In March 1874 it left for a long training voyage of the Mediterranean and reportedly survived a force 11 storm. After the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 it was converted into an armed auxiliary cruiser. On August 21, 1877 Livadia sank a Turkish schooner but was spotted by two Turkish ironclads and survived an 18-hour pursuit.

In the evening of October 21, 1878 Livadia left Sebastopol for Odessa. Some unknown urgency forced the captain to sail into the night in inclement weather. None of the Romanovs was on board. In the foggy morning of October 22, 1878 Livadia ran aground near the Tarkhankut Lighthouse, the western vortex of the Crimean peninsula (). The crew safely reached the shore and salvaged most of the royal furnishings. Salvage of the ship itself failed, and 47 days after the accident the hull of Livadia was destroyed by waves.

In 1880 the name Livadia was given to an experimental yacht built for the Romanovs in Scotland.

Remains of Livadia are still visible in the shallow waters near the cape. For decades divers knew them simply as "that little steamer"; identity of the ship was confirmed in October 2008. Divers from Tula examined the wreck and reported that the wooden hull had completely disintegrated. Remains of the deck and copper lining were still identifiable; sensors showed presence of more metal in the sand.

See also
Russian yacht Livadia (1880)

Notes

References

 Larionov, A. L. (2001, in Russian). Из истории императорских яхт Is istorii imperatorskikh yacht. Gangut magazine, no. 22, 2001.

Further reading
 Taylor, Joan du Plat (1965). Marine archaeology: developments during sixty years in the Mediterranean. World Confederation of Underwater Activities, Hutchinson. - contains an account of locating the wreck of Livadia in 1960s.
 Larionov, A. L. (2006, in Russian). Russkie imperatorskie yachty (Русские императорские яхты конец XVII - начало XX века). EGO. .

Royal and presidential yachts
Ships of the Imperial Russian Navy
1872 ships
Maritime incidents in October 1878

Russian yacht Livadia (1873)


A princess is a female member of a royal family. A son of a monarch is called a prince. A princess may become a ruler by heredity or by marriage. Sometimes the expression "princess" is used when a woman has noble qualities such as kindness, charity, and virtue.

Stubs

Princess


The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court is a 2007 non-fiction book by legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin. Based in part on exclusive interviews with the justices and former law clerks, Toobin profiles the justices of the United States Supreme Court, the functioning of that institution, and how it has changed over the years.  The book covers the years from 1994 to 2005.

Publishers Weekly wrote of the book, "Toobin paints not a conservative revolution but a period of intractable moderation. The real power, he argues, belonged to supreme swing-voter Sandra Day O'Connor, who decided important cases with what Toobin sees as an almost primal attunement to a middle-of-the-road public consensus. By contrast, he contends, conservative justices William Rehnquist and Antonin Scalia ended up bitter old men, their rigorous constitutional doctrines made irrelevant by the moderates' compromises."

The book spent four months on the New York Times bestseller list.

References

External links
New York Times review by David Margolick
The Nine at Amazon.com

Supreme Court of the United States
2007 non-fiction books
Books by Jeffrey Toobin

The Nine (book)


Jean Fréour (8 August 1919 – 11 June 2010) was a prominent Breton sculptor.

Fréour was born in Nantes. He studied at the Bordeaux School of the Fine arts and attended the classes of Louis-Henry Bouchard in the national School of the Fine arts in Paris. He is a member of the Breton artistic movement Seiz Breur.

In the mid-1950s he settled in the Breton south coast town of Batz-sur-Mer. For a period of a year, he was mayor of the town.

In his work, Fréour uses different materials, including the schist, marble, onyx, and wood. His sculptures often carry a stamp of Breton identity impregnated with Catholicism.

He is the author of the statue of Anne of Brittany (made of bronze and erected in the city of Nantes in 2002).

The works of Jean Fréour gives details of Fréours work.

External links
 Bronze statue  Anne de Bretagne by Jean Fréour
 Monument by Fréour to First World War soldiers at the Saint-Charles de Potyze Cemetery

1919 births
20th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
21st-century French sculptors
21st-century French male artists
Breton artists
Artists from Nantes
2010 deaths

Jean Fréour


In international law, a mandate is a binding obligation issued from an inter-governmental organization (e.g. the United Nations) to a country which is bound to follow the instructions of the organization.

Before the creation of the United Nations, all mandates were issued from the League of Nations. An example of such a mandate would be Australian New Guinea, which is officially the Territory of Papua.

See also
 UN Mandate
 League of Nations mandate

References

International law
Law of obligations

Mandate (international law)


Resource Magazine is a New York-based quarterly publication, dedicated to the photo production industry's sub-culture.

Details
Resource was founded by Alexandra Niki and Aurelie Jezequel.

Since publishing its first issue in October 2007, Resource has grown to a circulation of 22,000 copies, many of which are available for free in photo studios, labs, and prop and rental houses in New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, and Miami. Resource is also available on newsstands in the United States and Canada.

RETV
RETV is Resource's online video magazine counterpart. RETV provides additional coverage based on the magazine's print content, as well as interviews, demos, documents, and event coverage. Adam Sherwin is RETV's Executive Producer.

References

External links
Resource Magazine
RETV

Magazines established in 2007
Photography magazines

Resource Magazine


Dr. Michel Welter (21 March 1859, Heiderscheid – 22 April 1924) was a Luxembourgian politician, and former leader of the Socialist Party.  A member of Luxembourg's Chamber of Deputies, he served as the Director-General for Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry from 24 February 1916 until 3 January 1917, during the German occupation.

He was one of the fiercest defenders of Victor Thorn's National Union Government.  Poorly implemented policies designed to avoid a food shortage back-fired, and the country only narrowly averted a famine.  Welter, as the minister responsible for both agriculture and commerce, was held responsible; on 22 December, Welter was censured by the Chamber of Deputies.  Although Thorn sought to avoid firing Welter, he was left with no choice, and replaced him with Ernest Leclère.

Born on 21 March 1859 in Heiderscheid to a family of modest means, he studied at several European universities, before settling in Esch-Alzette as a doctor. His work as a physician brought him into contact with the miners and railway workers there, and it was their poor living and working conditions which drove him to take up politics. He campaigned for women's right to vote, paid holidays, social security and decent housing for workers.

In 1896 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time, where his social campaigning soon earned him the nickname "de rouden Dokter" (= "the red doctor"). Yet Welter, seen as a radical by the middle-class Deputies, was criticised by the workers for his own middle-class background.

In 1902, Welter moved to Luxembourg city, where he co-founded the Social-Democratic Party. He was Luxembourg's delegate at the Second International and came into contact with Jean Jaurès, Clara Zetkin and August Bebel.

From 1896 to 1897 he wrote for the Escher Courrier, then for the Patriot, the Escher Volksblatt, the Escher Journal, and the Frankfurter Zeitung. From 1913 to 1916 he edited the Tageblatt. Throughout his career, he got into several fights with the conservative Luxemburger Wort.

In the debate over the Education Law of 1912 he campaigned for a strict separation of church and state. In 1916 he was appointed to the Thorn government, as minister for agriculture, commerce, and industry. His time as a member of the government was brief and difficult. He was accused of having made an agreement with the German occupiers to allow the import of badly needed food supplies into Luxembourg. Such an agreement was impossible due to Luxembourg's neutral status. He was dismissed from the government on 2 January 1917 and became director of the medical section of the spa in Mondorf.

Towards the end of the war he was a member of the Luxmbourgish Soviet, which called for the nationalisation of the iron industry, the introduction of the 8-hour day, the abdication of the Grand Duchess and the establishment of a republic. The question over the dynasty and the form of government was decided in the 1919 referendum; the same year saw the introduction of women's suffrage. Welter joined the Chamber of Deputies again in 1920, but was not re-elected in 1922.

Two years later, he died of a stroke, in 1924.

The city of Esch dedicated a monument to him on 21 August 1927 in the park on the Galgenberg, with the inscription: À l'ami du peuple - la classe ouvrière reconnaissante ("To the friend of the people - the grateful working class").

Footnotes

References
  German occupation of Luxembourg.  GWPDA, 21 May 1998.  Retrieved on 2006-07-26.

1859 births
1924 deaths
People from Heiderscheid
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)
Luxembourgian physicians
Luxembourgian journalists
Male journalists
Tageblatt people
Luxembourgian people of World War I
Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party politicians
Alumni of the Athénée de Luxembourg
Ministers for Agriculture of Luxembourg
19th-century Luxembourgian politicians

Michel Welter


Marc Anthony Jackson (born January 16, 1975) is an American former professional basketball player who played seven seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 2000 to 2007. He is a current television analyst of the Philadelphia 76ers for NBC Sports Philadelphia.

Early life and college
Jackson grew up in North Philadelphia and attended Roman Catholic High School. He averaged 18 points, 11 rebounds and two blocks while leading his team to the Catholic League championship in 1993, as well as winning the Alhambra Catholic Invitational Tournament. During the ACIT, he was commanding presence in the middle during Roman Catholic's run, including their defeat of perennial powerhouse DeMatha in the final. His performance earned him an All-Tournament Team nod, in spite of missing a dunk during the semi-final game that drew massive gasps, and then laughs, from the packed crowd. He committed to Virginia Commonwealth University where he played for one year. Prior to his sophomore year, Jackson transferred to Temple University, which was only five blocks from his childhood home in Philadelphia. He would redshirt his first year of eligibility, then play two seasons for the Owls. Jackson led the team in scoring and rebounding both seasons, helping them to a 40–14 record over those years and advanced to the NCAA Tournament both seasons. He gave up his fifth and final year of eligibility to declare for the NBA draft.

Professional career
Jackson was drafted in the second round (37th overall) of the 1997 NBA draft by the Golden State Warriors. Because he fell to the second round, Jackson chose to begin his pro career in Europe to make more money to support his mother and younger brother and better develop his skills before entering the NBA. He spent three years overseas playing for Tofaş Bursa (Turkey), Lobos Caja Cantabria (Spain) and Cantabria Lobos (Spain), before returning to U.S. and debuting for the Warriors in 2000.

Jackson made an immediate impact for the Warriors, leading all rookies in points and rebounds, while staying near the top of the list in field goal and free throw percentages. He was named to the All-Rookie team and finished third in Rookie of the Year voting. As a restricted free agent at the end of the season, Jackson signed a six-year, $24.375 million offer sheet with the Houston Rockets, which the Warriors matched. Despite Jackson's success, he was stuck behind Adonal Foyle, Danny Fortson and Erick Dampier on Golden State's depth chart, and voiced his displeasure with the Warriors front office matching the offer, rather than allowing him to get more playing time elsewhere.

At the 2002 NBA trade deadline, the Warriors traded Jackson to the Minnesota Timberwolves, to play alongside Kevin Garnett. On July 23, 2003, he was traded to his hometown Philadelphia 76ers in a four-team deal. He missed 57 games due to injury his first season in Philadelphia, but bounced back the next year leading the team in rebounds and being second in points, to help the Sixers return to the playoffs. During his time in Philadelphia, he split time between the Center and Power Forward positions.

On August 9, 2005, Jackson was traded to the New Jersey Nets after a deal to bring in Shareef Abdur-Rahim from the Portland Trail Blazers to the Nets fell through. Before the 2005–06 trade deadline, he was traded by the Nets to the New Orleans Hornets. In 2007, he signed with the Greek League team Olympiacos, but was released after not fitting in the system of the team's new coach, Panagiotis Giannakis. In August, 2008, Jackson was signed by UNICS Kazan of the Russian Super League, and he announced his retirement shortly after signing for Obradoiro CAB in 2009.

Post playing career
Jackson now works as 76ers basketball analyst for NBC Sports Philadelphia.

References

External links
Career stats
Olympiacos BC player profile
Marc Jackson's life in Kazan (russian)
TBLStat.net Profile

1975 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
American expatriate basketball people in Greece
American expatriate basketball people in Russia
American expatriate basketball people in Spain
American expatriate basketball people in Turkey
American men's basketball players
Anadolu Efes S.K. players
Basketball players from Philadelphia
BC UNICS players
Cantabria Baloncesto players
Centers (basketball)
Golden State Warriors draft picks
Golden State Warriors players
Liga ACB players
Minnesota Timberwolves players
New Jersey Nets players
New Orleans Hornets players
Obradoiro CAB players
Olympiacos B.C. players
Philadelphia 76ers players
Power forwards (basketball)
Temple Owls men's basketball players
Tofaş S.K. players
VCU Rams men's basketball players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Marc Jackson


Mitford is a ghost town in Alberta. Established in 1886, Mitford supported a sawmill, and later a coal mine, before being abandoned by 1898.

History
In 1885, T.B.H. Cochrane and his wife Adela exchanged their lease of  near High River for one just west of present-day Cochrane, Alberta. The next year, Cochrane associated himself with the Calgary Lumber Company and built a sawmill three miles west of present-day Cochrane, handling the vast amount of lumber on his lease. Although the Canadian Pacific Railway approached the mill from the east, tension built between Cochrane and the railway, as the railway did not like stopping at the mill due to the steep grades nearby. By 1888 the town contained an office, drug store and bunkhouses.  By 1891 it had a school as well, meeting in the saloon.   It was named for a friend of Cochrane's wife.

However, the success of the sawmill was limited. Most of the good quality fir to be found in the area was never sold, instead ironically being used to construct a railway designed to transport the lumber to market. In 1888, a coal mine began operation in the area, with the distinct advantage of having the sawmill's railway nearby to transport the coal to market. In 1890, it became obvious that both operations were doomed to fail, closing the same year. In an effort to save the town, T.B.H. Cochrane established a brickyard using material found just north of Mitford. In 1893, that operation was also closed, due to the inferior quality of its product. After the closing of the brickyard, the town fell into decline, before it was abandoned in 1898. Before its desertion, Mitford housed a store, a school, a hotel, a restaurant, a medical practice, and an Anglican church. The steam engine used on Mitford's railway was sold to a British Columbia mill, and the Canadian Pacific Railway ceased making regular stops at the town.

Today
In 1898 a fire started in the Chinese restaurant, destroying most of the town. In 1899, the town's church was moved to Cochrane, and today all that remains is the town's cemetery, which currently stands on private property.

References

Ghost towns in Alberta
Localities in Rocky View County
Populated places established in 1886

Mitford, Alberta


"Crazy Over You" is a debut song recorded by American country music duo Foster & Lloyd, who also wrote the song.  It was released in May 1987 as the first single from their self-titled debut album.  It was their most successful single, peaking at #4 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in 1987.  The song was simultaneously recorded and released by Ricky Van Shelton on his debut album, Wild-Eyed Dream.

Chart performance

References

1987 debut singles
1987 songs
Ricky Van Shelton songs
Foster & Lloyd songs
Songs written by Radney Foster
RCA Records singles
Songs written by Bill Lloyd (country musician)

Crazy Over You


Winfield Scott Angus (January 10, 1896 – May 10, 1977) was an American football and basketball coach.  He was the seventh head football coach at Eastern Illinois State Teachers College—now known as Eastern Illinois University—in Charleston, Illinois, serving for one season, in 1935, and compiling a record of 1–7.  Angus was also the head basketball coach at Eastern Illinois for the 1935–36 season, tallying a mark of 7–12.

Head coaching record

Football

References

1896 births
1977 deaths
Basketball coaches from New Jersey
Eastern Illinois Panthers football coaches
Eastern Illinois Panthers men's basketball coaches
Sportspeople from Hoboken, New Jersey

Winfield Angus


Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, 521 U.S. 844 (1997), was a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, unanimously ruling that anti-indecency provisions of the 1996 Communications Decency Act violated the First Amendment's guarantee of freedom of speech. This was the first major Supreme Court ruling on the regulation of materials distributed via the Internet.

Background and procedural history
The Communications Decency Act (CDA) was an attempt to protect minors from explicit material on the Internet by criminalizing the knowing transmission of "obscene or indecent" messages to any recipient under 18; and also knowingly sending to a person under 18 anything "that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards, sexual or excretory activities or organs." The American Civil Liberties Union argued that certain parts of the act were facially unconstitutional and sought a preliminary injunction preventing the government from enforcing those provisions.

Section 561 of the act required that any facial challenges be heard by a panel of three district judges; that panel granted the injunction. Because the act also permitted appeals to be heard directly by the Supreme Court, that court took the case without the usual intermediate appellate decision.

The government's main defense of the CDA was that similar decency laws had been upheld in three prior Supreme Court decisions: Ginsberg v. New York (1968); F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation (1978); and Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc. (1986); and that the CDA should be similarly upheld.

In Ginsberg v. New York, the Supreme Court ruled that material that is not obscene may nonetheless be harmful for children, and its marketing may be regulated. In F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation, the Supreme Court had upheld the possibility of the FCC delivering administrative sanctions to a radio station for broadcasting George Carlin's "Seven Dirty Words" comedy routine.

In Reno v. ACLU, though, the Supreme Court held that this was not case law justifying the CDA, as the FCC's sanctions were not criminal punishments; and TV and radio broadcasts, "as a matter of history, had 'received the most limited First Amendment protection' ... in large part because warnings could not adequately protect the listener from unexpected program content", as opposed to Internet users, who must take "a series of affirmative steps" to access explicit material.

Finally, in Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc., the Supreme Court had upheld a zoning ordinance that kept adult movie theaters out of residential neighborhoods. The government argued that the CDA was an attempt to institute "a sort of 'cyberzoning' on the Internet". In Reno v. ACLU, however, the Court ruled that the "time, place, and manner regulation" that Renton had enacted did not correspond with the CDA, which was "a content-based blanket restriction on speech".

Opinion of the Court
In a nuanced decision, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote of the differences between Internet communication and previous types of communication that the Court had ruled on. In conclusion, he wrote:

We are persuaded that the CDA lacks the precision that the First Amendment requires when a statute regulates the content of speech. In order to deny minors access to potentially harmful speech, the CDA effectively suppresses a large amount of speech that adults have a constitutional right to receive and to address to one another. That burden on adult speech is unacceptable if less restrictive alternatives would be at least as effective in achieving the legitimate purpose that the statute was enacted to serve.  ... It is true that we have repeatedly recognized the governmental interest in protecting children from harmful materials. But that interest does not justify an unnecessarily broad suppression of speech addressed to adults. As we have explained, the Government may not "reduc[e] the adult population ... to ... only what is fit for children."

The rest of the CDA, including the "safe harbor" provision in Section 230 protecting Internet service providers from being liable for the words of others, was not affected by this decision and remains law.

Concurring opinion
Justice O'Connor, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, agreed with the decision "as of 1997" but expressed interest in the idea of creating an "adult zone" on the Internet that was made inaccessible to minors through "gateway technology" that had been investigated by a lower district court. If such technology could be introduced, they wrote, zoning portions of the Internet to prohibit adult content could be as constitutional as such zoning is in the physical world.

The two dissented in part, writing they would have invalidated a narrower portion of the two CDA provisions under review.

See also

 Chris Hansen, ACLU litigator who organized the case
 Communications Decency Act, the 1996 Act invalidated by Reno v. ACLU
 Child Online Protection Act, successor legislation, also invalidated
 Children's Internet Protection Act, successor legislation, ultimately upheld

Further reading

External links

First Amendment Library entry on Reno v. ACLU
Netlitigation case summary and review
Howard Rheingold's testimony as an expert witness

References

United States obscenity case law
United States Internet case law
1997 in United States case law
American Civil Liberties Union litigation
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
Communications Decency Act

Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union


The Workers Revolutionary Party (WRP, from 2009 to 2014 named the Communist Party of Namibia) is a communist party in Namibia led by Attie Beukes and Harry Boesak.

The party was founded by Attie Beukes in May 1989 as the Workers Revolutionary Party. It joined the United Democratic Front (UDF) alliance for participation in the 1989 elections. The UDF won four seats in this election for the Constituent Assembly of Namibia, none of which went to the WRP.

Election results

2004
In the 2004 election, the WRP joined with SWANU in an alliance of socialist parties. The SWANU-WRP alliance received 3,428 votes, which were not enough for a seat in the National Assembly.

2009
Under its new name, Communist Party of Namibia, it contested the 2009 general election for seats in the National Assembly and the Presidency.

The party registered for the 2009 election as the fourteenth and final party. Beukes, the party's candidate for president, received 1,005 votes, which was the lowest total of all candidates. The CPN received 810 votes, which was the lowest of all contesting parties and did not qualify them for a seat in the National Assembly. Beukes received his highest vote total in the Mariental Rural constituency in the Hardap Region and the CPN received its highest vote total in the Gibeon, Hardap Region constituency.

2014
The WRP contested the 2014 general election again under its original name, Workers Revolutionary Party. It achieved 1.49% of the vote and gained two seats in the National Assembly.

2019
In the 2019 elections the WRP gathered 3,212 votes for the national assembly (0.39%) and lost its representation in parliament. It did not submit a candidate for the presidential election.

References

1989 establishments in South West Africa
Communism in Namibia
Namibia
Political parties established in 1989
Political parties in Namibia
Socialist parties in Namibia

Workers Revolutionary Party (Namibia)


Tavistock railway station is a proposed new station to serve Tavistock in Devon, England, in order to reinstate a rail connection between the town and Plymouth, about  to the south.

Background
Tavistock used to have two railway stations, both now closed, with trains to Plymouth:
 Tavistock North was the Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway station, operated by the London and South Western Railway.
 Tavistock South was the Great Western Railway station, on the other side of the river Tavy, opposite the town.

The trackbed of the Tavistock North route for around a mile south of Tavistock North station is open to the public as a footpath and nature reserve. The route is almost intact to  where it joins today's Tamar Valley Line between  and . An engineering assessment in 2009 showed that the rail-bed, bridges and tunnels between Bere Alston and Tavistock were in sound condition.

The Tamar Valley line, with which the line from Tavistock would connect, was designated as a community rail line in September 2005, being one of seven pilots for the Department for Transport's Community Rail Development Strategy.  One of the aims of this designation was to establish the potential for extending the line from Bere Alston to Tavistock.

Reopening plans
In 2008 Kilbride, a housing developer, offered to pay for rebuilding the railway to Bere Alston (from a new station just to the south of Tavistock, on the route from the former Tavistock North station) if agreement to build 800 properties near the station could be concluded. Kilbride published a detailed update on this project in December 2010.

A report by Devon County Council in September 2010 said: "In suffering deteriorating travel conditions while having to support new development, Tavistock is not unique. Where it differs from other towns is that there is a timely, sustainable and affordable solution that will benefit Tavistock's residents and visitors among others. This solution is the proposed reinstatement of the rail service between Tavistock and Plymouth via Bere Alston."

The West Devon Core Strategy, which was adopted on 19 April 2011, identified the need for additional residential and employment development in Tavistock and the potential need to reopen the railway to Bere Alston. Devon County Council has said that it is working with West Devon Borough Council, the developer and Kilbride Community Rail to develop the project further but reinstatement would occur only in the long term. The County Council would be undertaking the necessary work to secure the powers to build the railway over the coming few years.

West Devon Borough Council announced in August 2011 that Kilbride Group had sold its interest in the residential land at the site to national house builder Bovis Homes Ltd, and that Kilbride would work with Devon County Council to be the promoter of the rail reinstatement scheme, which will largely be funded by the residential development. Councillor Stuart Hughes, Devon County Council Cabinet Member for Highways and Transportation, said: "Improving links to major urban areas is a key transport vision for Devon's market towns, and making better use of sustainable transport, including rail, is an important element of this vision. This proposed rail link will play a vital role in improving connections between Tavistock and Plymouth to offer a real alternative to using the car, while also providing Tavistock with a link to the national rail network".

Network Rail's Network Specification for the Western route, published in September 2011, noted that "West Devon Council are proposing to reinstate the former railway line between Bere Alston and Tavistock subject to funding and availability of rolling stock".

A Devon County Council leaflet, endorsed by West Devon Borough Council, Bovis Homes and Kilbride Community Rail, was published in February 2012 outlining the project and emphasising that a public inquiry would be necessary before work could begin, with the inquiry not likely to be held until 2014. The county council launched a consultation in January 2013 on reopening the railway between Tavistock and Bere Alston, and providing a parallel cycle track. It submitted a report to the Planning inspectorate in October 2014 to the inspectorate to trigger a decision on whether a full environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the proposals is required (the 'screening' stage), and the second step is to set out the scope of the assessments needed for the EIA (the 'scoping' stage). Devon County Council were awarded £50,000 from the October 2021 United Kingdom budget toward the cost of producing the required Strategic Outline Business Case for the creation of the new station and reconstruction of the line to serve it.

In February 2017 it was suggested that new cheap 'no-frill mini trains' could be running on disused or little used lines across the country such as Bere Alston to Tavistock in order to see services closed by Beeching reopened. Plymouth City Council announced in April 2017 that a line to Tavistock could be open within five years and be connected to a tram-style 'Plymouth metro' by 2024.

An announcement on the outcome of the bid to re-open the line to Bere Alston was made in early Autumn 2023, when Huw Merriman, the Minister of State for Rail, said that "the project will be funded to delivery, subject to future updates to the project business case".

See also
 Exeter to Plymouth railway of the LSWR
 Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway

References

Proposed railway stations in England
Tavistock

Tavistock railway station


Alfonso VII (1 March 110521 August 1157), called the Emperor (el Emperador), became the King of Galicia in 1111 and King of León and Castile in 1126. Alfonso, born Alfonso Raimúndez, first used the title Emperor of All Spain, alongside his mother Urraca, once she vested him with the direct rule of Toledo in 1116. Alfonso later held another investiture in 1135 in a grand ceremony reasserting his claims to the imperial title. He was the son of Urraca of León and Raymond of Burgundy, the first of the House of Ivrea to rule in the Iberian peninsula.

Alfonso was a dignified and somewhat enigmatic figure. His rule was characterised by the renewed supremacy of the western kingdoms of Christian Iberia over the eastern (Navarre and Aragón) after the reign of Alfonso the Battler. Though he sought to make the imperial title meaningful in practice to both Christian and Muslim populations, his hegemonic intentions never saw fruition. During his tenure, Portugal became de facto independent in 1128 and was recognized as independent de jure in 1143. He was a patron of poets, including, probably, the troubadour Marcabru.

Succession to three kingdoms
In 1111, Diego Gelmírez, Bishop of Compostela and the count of Traba, crowned and anointed Alfonso King of Galicia in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. He was a child, but his mother had (1109) succeeded to the united throne of León-Castile-Galicia and wished to retain sole rulership of the kingdom. By 1125 he had inherited the formerly Muslim Kingdom of Toledo. On 10 March 1126, after the death of his mother, he was crowned in León and immediately began the recovery of the Kingdom of Castile, which was then under the domination of Alfonso the Battler. By the Peace of Támara of 1127, the Battler recognised Alfonso VII of Castile. The territory in the far east of his dominion, however, had gained much independence during the rule of his mother and experienced many rebellions. After his recognition in Castile, Alfonso fought to curb the autonomy of the local barons.

When Alfonso the Battler, King of Navarre and Aragón, died without descendants in 1134, he willed his kingdom to the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller. The aristocracy of both kingdoms rejected this. García Ramírez, Count of Monzón was elected in Navarre while Alfonso pretended to the throne of Aragón. The nobles chose another candidate in the dead king's brother, Ramiro II. Alfonso responded by reclaiming La Rioja and "attempted to annex the district around Zaragoza and Tarazona".

In several skirmishes, he defeated the joint Navarro-Aragonese army and put the kingdoms to vassalage. He had the strong support of the lords north of the Pyrenees, who held lands as far as the River Rhône. In the end, however, the combined forces of the Navarre and Aragón were too much for his control. At this time, he helped Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, in his wars with the other Catalan counties to unite the old Marca Hispanica.

Imperial rule

A vague tradition had always assigned the title of emperor to the sovereign who held León.  Sancho the Great considered the city the imperiale culmen and minted coins with the inscription  after being crowned in it. Such a sovereign was considered the most direct representative of the Visigothic kings, who had been themselves the representatives of the Roman Empire. But though appearing in charters, and claimed by Alfonso VI of León and Alfonso the Battler, the title had been little more than a flourish of rhetoric.

On 26 May 1135, Alfonso was crowned "Emperor of Spain" in the Cathedral of León. By this, he probably wished to assert his authority over the entire peninsula and his absolute leadership of the Reconquista. He appears to have striven for the formation of a national unity which Spain had never possessed since the fall of the Visigothic kingdom. The elements he had to deal with could not be welded together. The weakness of Aragon enabled him to make his superiority effective. After Afonso Henriques recognised him as liege in 1137, Alfonso VII lost the Battle of Valdevez in 1141 thereby affirming Portugal's independence in the Treaty of Zamora (1143). In 1143, he himself recognised this status quo and consented to the marriage of Petronila of Aragon with Ramon Berenguer IV, a union which combined Aragon and Catalonia into the Crown of Aragon.

War against Al-Andalus
Alfonso was a pious prince. He introduced the Cistercians to Iberia by founding a monastery at Fitero. He adopted a militant attitude towards the Moors of Al-Andalus, especially the Almoravids. From 1138, when he besieged Coria, Alfonso led a series of crusades subjugating the Almoravids. After a seven-month siege, he took the fortress of Oreja near Toledo and, as the Chronica Adefonsi Imperatoris tells it:

In 1142, Alfonso besieged Coria a second time and took it. In 1144, he advanced as far as Córdoba. Two years later, the Almohads invaded and he was forced to refortify his southern frontier and come to an agreement with the Almoravid Ibn Ganiya for their mutual defence. When Pope Eugene III preached the Second Crusade, Alfonso VII, with García Ramírez of Navarre and Ramon Berenguer IV, led a mixed army of Catalans and Franks, with a Genoese–Pisan navy, in a crusade against the rich port city of Almería, which was occupied in October 1147. A third of the city was granted to Genoa and subsequently leased out to Otto de Bonvillano, a Genoese citizen. It was Castile's first Mediterranean seaport. In 1151, Alfonso signed the Treaty of Tudilén with Ramon Berenguer. The treaty defined the zones of conquest in Andalusia in order to prevent the two rulers from coming into conflict. Six years later, Almería entered into Almohad possession. Alfonso was returning from an expedition against them when he died on 21 August 1157 in Las Fresnedas, north of the Sierra Morena.

Legacy
Alfonso was at once a patron of the church and a protector, though not a supporter of, the Muslims, who were a minority of his subjects. His reign ended in an unsuccessful campaign against the rising power of the Almohads. Though he was not actually defeated, his death in the pass, while on his way back to Toledo, occurred in circumstances which showed that no man could be what he claimed to be – "king of the men of the two religions." Furthermore, by dividing his realm between his sons, he ensured that Christendom would not present the new Almohad threat with a united front.

Family
In November 1128, he married Berenguela, daughter of Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona. She died in 1149. Their children were:
 Ramón, living 1136, died in childhood
 Sancho III of Castile (1134–1158)
 Ferdinand II of León (1137–1188)
 Constance (c. 1138–1160), married Louis VII of France
 Sancha (–1179), married Sancho VI of Navarre
 García (–1145/6)
 Alfonso (1144/1148–)

In 1152, Alfonso married Richeza of Poland, the daughter of Ladislaus II the Exile. They had:
 Ferdinand (1153–1157)
 Sancha (1155–1208), the wife of Alfonso II of Aragón.

Alfonso also had two mistresses, having children by both. By an Asturian noblewoman named Gontrodo Pérez, he had an illegitimate daughter, Urraca (1132–1164), who married García Ramírez of Navarre, the mother retiring to a convent in 1133. Later in his reign, he formed a liaison with Urraca Fernández, widow of count Rodrigo Martínez and daughter of Fernando García de Hita, having a daughter, Stephanie the Unfortunate (1148–1180), who was killed by her jealous husband, Fernán Ruiz de Castro.

Family tree

In fiction
A parody version of king Alfonso and queen Berengaria is presented in the tragicomedy La venganza de Don Mendo by Pedro Muñoz Seca.
In its film version, Antonio Garisa played Alfonso.

References

Bibliography

External links

Arnaldo, Bishop of Astorga, wrote an account of Alfonso VII's life and reign known as the Chronica Adefonsi Imperatoris.

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1105 births
1157 deaths
12th-century Castilian monarchs
Castilian House of Burgundy
Leonese infantes
12th-century Leonese monarchs
12th-century Galician monarchs
People of the Reconquista
Patrons of literature
Christians of the Second Crusade
Castilian infantes
Sons of emperors

Alfonso VII of León and Castile


SIC Caras is a Portuguese digital cable and satellite television channel owned by SIC. It features talk-shows, biographies and documentaries programming related to celebrities and royalty, reflecting Caras magazine content. Passadeira Vermelha (Red Carpet), is the primetime and flagship show, a SIC Caras original, while almost half of programming is imported, ranging from celebrity-related documentaries to U.S. talk shows (Martha Stewart, Miss pageants, Victoria's Secret). In Portugal, initially the channel had an exclusivity contract with NOS.

In June 2014, it started broadcasting to ZAP in Angola and Mozambique.

References

Television stations in Portugal
Television channels and stations established in 2013
2013 establishments in Portugal

SIC Caras


Springfield Park (formerly Dignam Park until 1914, and then Confederate Park until 2020) is a public park in Jacksonville, Florida, on the southern bounds of the historic neighborhood of Springfield. It is part of a network of parks that parallel Hogan's Creek.

History
Springfield Park was opened in 1907 as Dignam Park, named for a former chairman of the city's Board of Public Works. It was the first Jacksonville city park to include a playground. From opening until the Civil rights movement the park was open to whites only.

In 1914, Jacksonville hosted the annual reunion of the United Confederate Veterans, with estimated attendance of about 8,000 former Confederate soldiers. The UCV chose the park as the location for a new monument to honor the Women of the Southland, and five months after the reunion the city renamed the park "Confederate Park." Florida's Tribute to the Women of the Confederacy, a monument/statue, was erected in 1915.

On August 11, 2020, the Jacksonville City Council voted to change the name of the park to Springfield Park, after the name of the neighborhood it sits in.

The Springfield Park Playground, east of the park, was originally a part of Springfield Park, but was used for military training during World Wars I and II. It is now a dog park.

Florida's Tribute to the Women of the Confederacy

The monument was designed in 1914 by sculptor Allen George Newman (1875–1940), and dedicated on October 26, 1915. Jno. Williams, Inc. served as the founder, and McNeel Marble Works served as the work's contractor. Its condition was deemed "treatment needed" by the Smithsonian Institution's "Save Outdoor Sculpture!" program in November 1992. As the inscription says, it was sponsored by the Florida Division of the United Confederate Veterans.

In May 2018, the monument was cited among those targeted by the March for Change, a three-day, 40-mile (64-km) protest against Confederate monuments located in Jacksonville and St. Augustine. It is No. 10 on the Make It Right Project's list of Confederate memorials it wants to see removed.

Gallery

References

External links

Confederate States of America monuments and memorials in Florida
Parks in Jacksonville, Florida
1907 establishments in Florida

Springfield Park (Jacksonville)


The Pancor Jackhammer is a fully automatic, rotary magazine, 12 gauge shotgun. Designed in 1984 by John Anderson, and patented in 1987. The concept of a fully automatic shotgun has not taken hold with the military, or with law enforcement, due to the difficulty of controlling such a weapon. Only three prototypes were constructed, with two of the three exploding during testing; only one survives today, in the hands of a private collector. However, the shotgun's futuristic appearance has made it popular in action movies and video games.

Shotguns

Pancor Jackhammer


The Year of the Six Emperors was the year AD 238, during which six men made claims to be emperors of Rome. This was an early symptom of what historians now call the Crisis of the Third Century, also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of foreign invasions and migrations into the Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions, political instability (with multiple usurpers competing for power), Roman reliance on (and growing influence of) foreign mercenaries known as foederati and commanders nominally working for Rome (but increasingly independent), the devastating social and economic effects of the plague, debasement of currency, and economic depression. The crisis ended with the ascension of Diocletian and his implementation of reforms in 284.

History

Maximinus Thrax
The emperor at the beginning of the year was Maximinus Thrax, who had ruled since 235. Later sources claim he was a cruel tyrant (which was most likely at least in part for propaganda reasons), and in January of 238, a revolt erupted in North Africa. The Historia Augusta states:
"The Romans could bear his barbarities no longer—the way in which he called up informers and incited accusers, invented false offences, killed innocent men, condemned all whoever came to trial, reduced the richest men to utter poverty and never sought money anywhere save in some other's ruin, put many generals and many men of consular rank to death for no offence, carried others about in wagons without food and drink, and kept others in confinement, in short neglected nothing which he thought might prove effectual for cruelty—and, unable to suffer these things longer, they rose against him in revolt."

Gordian I and Gordian II
Some young aristocrats in Africa murdered the imperial tax-collector then approached the regional governor, Gordian, and insisted that he proclaim himself emperor. Gordian agreed reluctantly, but as he was almost 80 years old, he decided to make his son joint emperor, with equal power. The senate recognised father and son as emperors Gordian I and Gordian II, respectively.

Their reign, however, lasted for only 20 days. Capelianus, the governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia, held a grudge against the Gordians. He led an army to fight them and defeated them decisively at Carthage. Gordian II was killed in the battle, and on hearing this news, Gordian I hanged himself.

Gordian I and II were deified by the senate.

Pupienus, Balbinus and Gordian III
Meanwhile, Maximinus, now declared a public enemy, had already begun to march on Rome with another army. The senate's previous candidates, the Gordians, had failed to defeat him, and knowing that they stood to die if he succeeded, the senate needed a new emperor to defeat him.  With no other candidates in view, on 22 April 238 they elected two elderly senators, Pupienus and Balbinus (who had both been part of a special senatorial commission to deal with Maximinus), as joint emperors.

This choice was not popular with the people, however, and mobs threw stones and sticks at the new emperors. Therefore, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Pius, the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordian I, was nominated as emperor Gordian III, holding power only nominally in order to appease the population of the capital, which was still loyal to the Gordian family.

Pupienus was sent at the head of an army to face Maximinus, and Balbinus stayed in Rome. Meanwhile, Maximinus was also having problems. In early February, he reached the city of Aquileia, to find that it had declared for his three enemies. Maximinus besieged the city, but without success. By April, discontent due to this failure, the lack of success in the campaign in general, lack of supplies and the strong opposition from the senate, forced his legionaries to rethink their allegiance.

Soldiers of the II Parthica killed Maximinus in his tent, along with his son Maximus (who had been appointed deputy emperor in 236), and surrendered to Pupienus at the end of June. Maximinus' and his son's corpses were decapitated and their heads carried to Rome. For saving Rome from a public enemy, the soldiers were pardoned and sent back to their provinces.

The co-emperor then returned to Rome, only to find the city in riot. Balbinus had not managed to control the situation, and the city had burned in a fire, resulting in mutiny. With both emperors present, the situation calmed down, but the unease remained.

Coins from their reign show one of them on one side and two clasped hands on the other to show their joint power, yet their relationship was clouded with suspicion from the start, with each fearing assassination by the other. They were planning an enormous double campaign, Pupienus against the Parthians and Balbinus against the Carpians (Grant says against the Goths and the Persians, respectively), but they quarrelled frequently and could not agree or trust each other.

It was during one of these heated discussions, in May or on July 29, that the Praetorian Guard decided to intervene. They stormed into the room containing the emperors, seized them both, stripped them, dragged them naked through the streets, tortured and eventually murdered them. On the same day, Gordian III was proclaimed sole emperor (238–244), though in reality his advisors exercised most of his power. Together Pupienus and Balbinus had ruled for only 99 days.

See also
Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69)
Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193)

References

Ancient sources
Historia Augusta
Herodian

Modern sources
 Henning Börm: Die Herrschaft des Kaisers Maximinus Thrax und das Sechskaiserjahr 238. Der Beginn der "Reichskrise"?, in: Gymnasium 115, 2008, pp. 69–86.
 David Potter: The Roman Empire at Bay. London 2004, pp. 167–172.

Civil wars of the Roman Empire
238
230s in the Roman Empire
Crisis of the Third Century
Roman emperors
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Africa

Year of the Six Emperors