Hurricane Ian was a deadly and extremely destructive Category 5 Atlantic hurricane, which was the third-costliest weather disaster on record, the deadliest hurricane to strike the state of Florida since the 1935 Labor Day hurricane, and the strongest hurricane to make landfall in Florida since Michael in 2018. Ian caused widespread damage across western Cuba, Florida, and the Carolinas. Ian was the ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2022 Atlantic hurricane season. Ian was the first Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic since Lorenzo in 2019, and the fifth since 2016 to reach that strength before making landfall in the contiguous United States.

Ian originated from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Western Africa and across the central tropical Atlantic towards the Windward Islands. The wave moved into the Caribbean Sea on September 21 bringing heavy rain and gusty winds to Trinidad and Tobago, the ABC islands, and the northern coast of South America. On the morning of September 23, the wave had enough organization to be designated as a tropical depression, after which it strengthened into Tropical Storm Ian early the next day while it was southeast of Jamaica. As Ian rapidly intensified into a Category 3 hurricane, it made landfall in western Cuba. Heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding across the area resulting in a nationwide power outage. Ian lost a minimal amount of strength while over land and soon re-strengthened while over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. It peaked as a Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of  early on September 28, while progressing towards the west coast of Florida, and made landfall just below peak intensity in Southwest Florida on Cayo Costa Island. In doing so, Ian tied with several other storms to become the 5th-strongest hurricane on record to make landfall in the contiguous U.S. After moving inland, Ian quickly weakened to a tropical storm before moving back offshore into the Atlantic. There it re-strengthened to become a hurricane once again before making its final landfall in South Carolina on September 30. Ian became extratropical shortly after landfall and fully dissipated by early the next day.

Hurricane Ian caused 161 fatalities: 5 in Cuba, 150 in Florida, 5 in North Carolina, and 1 in Virginia. Ian caused catastrophic damage with losses estimated to be around $113 billion, making it the costliest hurricane in Florida's history, surpassing Irma of 2017, as well as the third-costliest in US history, behind only Katrina of 2005 and Harvey of 2017 respectively. Much of the damage was from flooding brought about by a storm surge of . The cities of Fort Myers, Cape Coral, and Naples were particularly hard hit, leaving millions without power in the storm's wake and numerous inhabitants forced to take refuge on their roofs. Sanibel Island, Fort Myers Beach, and Pine Island bore the brunt of Ian's powerful winds and its accompanying storm surge at landfall, which leveled nearly all standing structures and collapsed the Sanibel Causeway and the Matlacha Bridge to Pine Island, entrapping those left on the islands for several days.

Meteorological history

Ian originated from a tropical wave producing a large amount of showers and thunderstorms moving off the west coast of Africa on September 14–15. The wave subsequently moved westward, passing south of the Cape Verde Islands with occasional bursts of convection during the ensuing six days. On September 22, as the disturbance tracked west-northwestward it showed signs of increasing organization. Strong wind shear with  winds generated by the upper-level outflow from Hurricane Fiona inhibited development into a tropical depression. A well-defined circulation was still able to form within the disturbance by 06:00  September 23; its convection then increased and became persistent overnight into the next day. As a result, it was designated Tropical Depression Nine at that time.

By 00:00 UTC on September 24, the depression's wind speed had increased to , at which time it became Tropical Storm Ian. Moderate-to-strong vertical wind shear hindered development of Ian until late the following day; it began rapidly intensifying at 18:00 UTC September 25. Ian became a hurricane 12 hours later and a major hurricane after another 24 hours. At approximately 08:30 UTC on September 27, Ian made landfall on western Cuba as a high-end Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) and a pressure of , becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to impact Pinar del Río Province since Hurricane Gustav in 2008. Ian weakened to a low-end major hurricane with  winds as it emerged off the coast of Cuba and into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico around 14:00 UTC. Ian restrengthened slightly once offshore, then initiated an eyewall replacement cycle causing its wind speed to remain steady at  for about 12 hours.  Its central pressure continued to fall to a minimum of  before temporarily rising to  by 02:00 UTC, when it moved over the Dry Tortugas with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h). Ian completed the eyewall replacement cycle shortly afterwards and began rapidly intensifying once more. By 12:00 UTC on September 28, Ian strengthened further to its peak intensity as a Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of  and an estimated central pressure of  as it neared Southwest Florida, despite outflow being restricted in its southwestern quadrant by moderate wind shear. Operationally, the NHC classified Ian as a high-end Category 4 hurricane with winds of , but during post-season reanalysis concluded a peak wind speed of  based on stepped frequency microwave radiometer measurements of . At around this time, a NOAA weather drone measured wind gusts reaching up to . Ian maintained its intensity for several hours before weakening to a Category 4 hurricane as it approached the coast of Florida. At 19:05 UTC, Ian made landfall on Cayo Costa with sustained winds of  and an estimated central pressure of , becoming the first Category 4 hurricane to impact Southwest Florida since Charley in 2004, which made landfall at the same location. Ian then made a second landfall just south of Punta Gorda near Pirate Harbor at 20:35 UTC with  winds.

Ian weakened to Category 3 strength by 00:00 UTC the next day. Continual land interaction resulted in the frictional displacement of the system, and that coupled with high vertical wind shear caused Ian to quickly degrade to a tropical storm by 12:00 UTC as it moved north-northeast off of the eastern Florida coastline. At 00:00 UTC, the system's low-level circulation had completely emerged off of the coast of Florida, and although the convection was slightly offset to the north, Ian reintensified to a Category 1 hurricane at that time. The system turned northward on the morning of September 30 and accelerated toward the South Carolina coast. It strengthened some during this time, as deep convection re-developed near the center and hybrid frontal features moved away. The system made its final landfall that afternoon near Georgetown, South Carolina, at 18:05 UTC, with sustained winds of . Ian became extratropical a few hours later over northeastern South Carolina, and fully dissipated over central North Carolina by 12:00 UTC on October 1.

Preparations

Preparation in the Caribbean

Preparation in Jamaica
The Meteorological Service of Jamaica issued tropical storm watches for the island of Jamaica on September 23. Flood warnings and marine warnings were issued simultaneously.

Preparation in the Cayman Islands
The government of the Cayman Islands issued hurricane watches for its three islands, Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman, on September 23 at 21:00 UTC as Ian was projected to pass over the British Overseas Territory as a hurricane. The National Emergency Operations Centre had gone into full activation mode. Along with the emergency services, the Cayman Islands Regiment and Cayman Islands Coast Guard saw the full mobilization and deployment of their personnel. In addition, the Governor of the Cayman Islands, Martyn Roper, requested for the United Kingdom to further deploy additional military assets to the islands for Humanitarian Aid and Disaster Relief Operations. Subsequently, HMS Medway was deployed to the Cayman Islands. Helicopters from Royal Cayman Islands Police Service were also deployed to assist in the operation. At the time one of the helicopters was deployed to the Turks and Caicos Islands before the development of Ian to assist recovery efforts there after the passage of Hurricane Fiona. The Royal Navy also deployed its helicopter to assist. Schools, universities, and education centers closed on the evening of September 23. On September 24 at 18:00 UTC, the hurricane watch for Grand Cayman was upgraded to a hurricane warning, and the hurricane watch for Cayman Brac and Little Cayman was changed to a tropical storm watch. Flood warnings along with marine warnings were also issued for Grand Cayman. The Cayman Islands Airports Authority continued operating the airports until the afternoon of September 25. Then the airports closed and the aircraft at the airports were evacuated.

Preparation in Cuba
Authorities in Cuba issued evacuation orders for around 50,000 people in the Pinar del Rio province and set up around 55 shelters before the storm. State media stated that steps were being taken to protect food and crops in warehouses. Locals removed fishing boats in Havana, and city workers inspected and unclogged storm drains.

Preparation in the United States
Amtrak suspended its Auto Train service for September 27–28 and truncated the September 26 southbound Silver Star service, which was already on a modified schedule due to the suspension of the Silver Meteor service, at Jacksonville, Florida, on September 27. Silver Star service was canceled for September 27–28 with the northbound Silver Star for September 29 also canceled. Ian's updated track forecast then prompted them to suspend those services through October 1. Palmetto service was also truncated for Washington D.C., on September 30 and October 1. As Ian dissipated over the Carolinas, Amtrak modified its schedule, truncating the October 2 southbound Silver Star at Jacksonville, which would be the origin of the October 3 northbound Silver Star. Bus transportation was provided for Orlando and Tampa. Additionally, the resumption of the Silver Meteor service, which had been suspended since January 24, 2022, due to a resurgence of the Omicron variant of COVID-19, was pushed back from October 3 to 11. The modified schedule and the resumption of service for the Silver Meteor was then pushed out to October 13 due to the extensive damage inflicted along the Central Florida Rail Corridor. Full resumptions of both of these services would occur over a period from October 14–17.The ninth public hearing of the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack, scheduled for September 28 was postponed. The governors of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia declared a state of emergency in preparation for the incoming storm. Over 3,500 flights were canceled as a direct result of Ian. Amazon canceled warehouse operations in some facilities.

Preparation in Florida
On September 24, Governor Ron DeSantis declared a state of emergency for all of Florida. Tampa Bay area schools also announced closures, and several colleges and universities, including the University of South Florida, the University of Tampa, and Eckerd College announced that they were canceling classes and closing. By September 27, 55 public school districts across the state announced cancellations, many through the end of the week. Officials at the Kennedy Space Center delayed the launch of NASA's Artemis 1, and the rocket was returned to the Vehicle Assembly Building. President Joe Biden approved a state of emergency declaration for Florida on September 24. Many airports and ports in Tampa, Tampa Bay, Orlando, St. Petersburg, Key West, and other places announced that they would be suspending operations. Walt Disney World and Universal Orlando said that they would be closing attractions. A number of stores and restaurants like Walmart and Waffle House were closed because of the impending dangerous weather.
Mandatory evacuation orders were issued for parts of multiple counties. Around 300,000 people were evacuated in Hillsborough County (which centers on Tampa) with schools and other locations being used as shelters. Before the impact school closures and mandatory evacuations were made across much of the Florida peninsula. DeSantis mobilized 5,000 Florida state national guard troops. Another 2,000 were deployed on standby in neighboring states. Officials in Tallahassee and nearby cities commissioned the monitoring of local power lines and scouring of storm-water systems to make sure them prepared and secure.

The college football game between the East Carolina Pirates and the South Florida Bulls was moved from South Florida's stadium in Tampa to Boca Raton. The Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League moved practices from Tampa south to the Miami Dolphins training facility in Miami Gardens.

All three national parks in Florida closed in preparation for the hurricane. The Florida section of Gulf Islands National Seashore was also closed.

Preparation in Georgia
Governor Brian Kemp ordered the activation of the State Operations Center on September 26 which began preparations for the impact of the storm in the later part of the week. Many farmers prepared before the storm by turning off irrigation systems attempting to dry out the ground while harvesting what they could (much of the state's cotton crop had not been harvested yet). Atlanta Motor Speedway opened their campgrounds to hurricane evacuees. The construction project to improve I-16 in Chatham County was put on hold until the storm passed as well.

Preparation in South Carolina
Governor Henry McMaster declared a state of emergency and activated the emergency operations plan for the state. The college football game between the South Carolina State Bulldogs and South Carolina Gamecocks scheduled for October 1 at 12:00 p.m. was moved up to September 29 at 7:00 p.m. on account of the storm. On September 29, the National Park Service announced that Congaree National Park will be closed until at least October 2. The National Forest Service, meanwhile, closed both Francis Marion National Forest and Sumter National Forest. On September 30, the Weather Prediction Center issued a moderate risk of excessive rainfall for a large portion of South Carolina and North Carolina. In the afternoon of September30, Hurricane Ian made landfall just south of Georgetown, South Carolina causing moderate flooding in the streets.

Preparations elsewhere
Talladega Superspeedway in Alabama and Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina opened their campgrounds to hurricane evacuees. In Washington, D.C., a Major League Baseball game between the Philadelphia Phillies and Washington Nationals was rescheduled. A Major League Baseball game in Baltimore between the Baltimore Orioles and Toronto Blue Jays was also rescheduled. Finally, a third Major League Baseball game in New York City between the New York Mets and Washington Nationals was postponed.

Preparation in the Bahamas
The eastward shift in Ian's track as well as the increasing size of the hurricane prompted the issuance of a tropical storm warning for Bimini and Grand Bahama in The Bahamas late on September 27.

Impact

Impact in Caribbean

Impact in the Southern Caribbean and South America
The disturbance brought gusty winds and heavy rain to Trinidad and Tobago, the ABC islands, and to the northern coasts of Venezuela and Colombia, causing flooding and minor damage.

Impact in the Cayman Islands
Minimal impacts were felt on the Cayman Islands as the storm passed to its west. The all-clear for the Islands was called at 3:00 pm. EDT on September 26 from the National Emergency Operations Center. Several inches of rain and wind gusts of up to  were observed at Seven Mile Beach on Grand Cayman, along with minor storm surge flooding. Minor damage and scattered power outages were also reported.

Impact in Cuba
Striking western Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane, Ian caused extensive damage throughout Pinar del Río and Mayabeque provinces. The storm made landfall at 4:30 local time on September 27, in Pinar del Río. A peak wind gust of  was observed in San Juan y Martínez. A 24-hour rainfall total of  was measured on Isla de la Juventud. Significant storm surge inundation occurred along the coasts of the Gulf of Guanahacabibes and Isla de la Juventud. Ian caused a power outage in Pinar del Río, cutting power to the entire province, which had a population of 850,000. The Cuba Institute of Meteorology located in Havana reported a sustained wind of  with a gust to  during the afternoon of September 27. Five people were killed in Cuba: a man in San Juan y Martínez who was electrocuted while disconnecting a wind turbine used for irrigating his field, a 43-year-old woman who died when one of the walls of her house collapsed, two state technicians who were working on repairing breakdowns caused by Ian, and a fifth person of unknown cause.

In the early morning of September 28, the storm knocked out power to the entirety of Cuba after a collapse of its power grid; it left 11 million people without power.

Impact in the United States

Impact in Florida

On September 29, Lee County Sheriff Carmine Marceno, whose jurisdiction covers Cape Coral and Fort Myers, estimated that thousands of people may still be trapped in floodwaters. President Biden said the storm could end up as the deadliest in Florida's history. In an interview on September 29, Marceno said that hundreds of deaths may have occurred, but he and Governor DeSantis later downplayed the remark.

According to the Florida Medical Examiners Commission, as of February 3, 2023, 149 people were confirmed to have died across Florida as a direct result of Hurricane Ian. 72 of those deaths occurred in Lee County, and 9 occurred in neighboring Charlotte County. In the Florida Keys, seven Cuban migrants drowned when their boat capsized off Stock Island, in Monroe County, as Ian moved through; 11 others were missing. In addition, ten people died in Sarasota and Collier Counties; seven in Monroe and Volusia Counties; five in Hillsborough, Manatee, and Osceola Counties; four in Hardee County; three in Orange and Putnam Counties; two each in Hendry and Polk Counties; and one each in DeSoto, Lake, and Martin, Miami-Dade and St. Lucie Counties. Ian also caused two indirect deaths in Sarasota County, a 94-year-old man, and an 80-year-old woman, both due to disabled oxygen machines that they were using. Another from Lee County reportedly died by suicide after seeing the extent of damage done to his property after the storm.

Overall, more than 2.4 million people in Florida lost power during the storm and in its aftermath. Rainfall in Ponce Inlet was recorded at . Total damage in Florida was estimated at $109.5 billion.

Impact in south Florida and the Florida Keys

Tropical-storm-force winds were observed at Key West International Airport before 22:00 UTC (18:00 EDT) the same day; the city of Key West subsequently recorded its third-highest storm surge since 1913. Coastal flooding impacted 93 homes, with 38 experiencing substantial damage and 55 others suffering minor damage, while several cars on the south side of the Truman Annex were flooded. Residents of approximately 24 family units in that neighborhood fled their dwellings due to rising floodwaters. Additionally, a fire ignited during the storm demolished 14 business and 14 residential units. The southwest side of Stock Island reported several impassable streets and widespread flood damage to sheds and outbuildings. Similar impacts occurred on islands north of there through Big Pine Key. Almost 10,000 customers beyond the west end of the Seven Mile Bridge lost power, roughly one-third of electrical subscribers in the Lower Florida Keys. Storm surge flooding farther north briefly left some streets impassible, while winds caused isolated and sporadic power outages. Throughout the Florida Keys, the hurricane ripped about 150 vessels loose from their moorings.

Several tornadoes touched down in South Florida as the storm approached on September 27–28; 12 tornadoes touched down with all but one of them occurring in the Miami metropolitan area. One EF1 tornado severely damaged over 20 aircraft and several hangars at the North Perry Airport in Broward County; additional structures and trees were also damaged. An EF2 tornado on the night of September 27 overturned multiple cars, shattered windows, damaged several roofs, and toppled a large tree onto an apartment building at Kings Point in Palm Beach County, injuring two people. Another EF1 tornado damaged several roofs and caused some significant tree damage in Wellington and Loxahatchee. The same storm quickly produced another EF1 tornado as the first one dissipated; damage was inflicted to trees and the roofs of a stable and a house. The other tornadoes were rated EFU-EF0. Wind gusts reportedly did not exceed  in the Gold Coast, but some minor wind damage was reported and power outages in the tri-county area affected 15,632 customers.

Impact in southwest Florida

With the storm making landfall in Southwest Florida on September 28 as a strong Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 150 mph (241 km/h), the National Weather Service in Tampa issued multiple extreme wind warnings, indicating the likelihood for damage caused by sustained winds of  or greater. Heavy precipitation across the region prompted the National Weather Service to issue a flash flood emergency for portions of Charlotte, DeSoto, Hardee, Highlands, Manatee, and Sarasota Counties due to accumulated rainfall of 20+ inches (508+ mm). The National Hurricane Center's advisory at 15:00 UTC warned that the "extremely dangerous eyewall of Ian" is "moving onshore." Sustained hurricane-force winds were confirmed in several places at the landfall point in Southwest Florida, including one report southeast of Cape Coral, where the location recorded a wind gust of , around the time of Ian's second landfall. A private weather station near Port Charlotte reported a sustained wind of , with a wind gust of .

The hardest-hit areas were in Lee County, where catastrophic damage occurred as Ian pushed a destructive  storm surge into Fort Myers Beach, Sanibel Island, and Bonita Springs, just south of where its eye made landfall. Combined with high winds this resulted in damage to 52,514 buildings and homes, which included minor damage to 16,314 structures, major damage to 14,245 structures, and the destruction of 5,369 others. A preliminary estimate placed building damages at $6.8 billion.

Additionally, a large portion of the Sanibel Causeway collapsed and washed away during the storm, cutting off all vehicle access to Sanibel. Vehicular access to the island was re-established on October 11 for emergency workers and public access was re-established October 21 for local residents. This cut off the J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge, forcing them to temporarily close. The hurricane damaged the Matlacha Bridge and washed out the approach to it which connected Pine Island to the mainland. A temporary bridge was opened for public use on October 5. Both the Sanibel Causeway and the Matlacha Bridge are eligible for federal bridge rehabilitation funds. Strong winds also resulted in a widespread downing of electrical poles, trees and tree limbs, road signs, and traffic signals. Consequently, there were significant disruptions in communication and electrical services; falling debris blocked many roadways.
In Collier County, rising coastal floodwaters in the Naples area trapped people and prompted numerous calls for rescue. Water entered the first floor of several parking garages, impacting many cars. A fire station was completely flooded, substantially damaging nearly all of the equipment in the building. Damages in Naples alone was estimated at $989 million. The ambulance bay and helipad were inundated at a hospital in North Naples. Multiple rescues occurred in Goodland after some people unsuccessfully attempted to flee the storm surge. Farther inland  of water covered portions of US 41 near Carnestown. Aside from Naples Ian caused $256 million in damages in Marco Island, $7.1 million in Everglades City, and $948 million in unincorporated areas. Throughout the county, the hurricane caused major impacts to 3,515 commercial and residential structures and demolished 33 others. Building damages alone in Collier County totaled about $2.2 billion.
After moving across Charlotte Harbor, the eye of Hurricane Ian made landfall on the Florida Peninsula in Charlotte County, near Punta Gorda. While escaping the Storm Surge that occurred further to the south, catastrophic wind damage occurred in Charlotte County. In all, more than 200 homes were destroyed in Charlotte County. Ian also dumped over 2 feet of rain in portions of the county, with the storm maximum rainfall total of 26 inches (660 mm) being recorded in Grove City.

Further inland, Winds affected 112 structures in Hendry County, with damages estimated at $419,000. Parts of Glades County likely experienced hurricane-force wind gusts, destroying 3 structures, causing major damage to 14 structures and inflicting minor damage on 25 others. An EF0 tornado in Moore Haven damaged trees and homes and tipped over two storage trailers. Several counties inland experienced heavy rains during Ian. In Hardee County, the Peace River crested at a record height of  near Zolfo Springs, while wind gusts reached  in Wauchula. The county also reported minor damage to 367 buildings and homes, major damage to 114 buildings and homes, and the destruction of 18 others. Wind gusts in Highlands County peaked at  at the Sebring Regional Airport, leaving 56,690 customers without power; approximately 89% of the county had no electricity. Ian spawned a brief tornado in Lake Placid and possibly another in Sebring.

Impact in the Greater Tampa Bay Area

Although the storm was a considerable threat to the majority of the Tampa Bay area, Ian's core remained well to the south of Tampa and St. Petersburg. Ian's offshore flow pulled a large amount of water out of Tampa Bay, with tides reaching  below normal at the Hillsborough County side of the bay. Parts of the county also received  of precipitation and wind gusts generally ranging from . Damages in Hillsborough County totaled $54.8 million. Tides also decreased in Pinellas County, falling to  below average along the coast and  in Tampa Bay. A total of 191,415 customers lost electricity, over one-third of the county. Overall, 31 dwellings reported major damage and 86 others suffered minor damage. Ian caused $22.6 million in damages throughout Pinellas County. Ian produced wind gusts up to  and rainfall ranging from  in Polk County. Around 35% of customers lost electricity, while wind damage varied from isolated in Lakeland to much more commonplace in Fort Meade and Frostproof. Overall, Ian caused minor damage to 799 structures and major damage to 192 others in the county. Areas north of Tampa reported minor or sporadic wind damage, including some tree damage and a loss of shingles in Pasco, Citrus, and Levy counties. The Tampa Bay Lightning hockey team was forced to postpone two preseason games due to the storm.

The most impacted areas of the Greater Tampa Bay region were in Sarasota and Manatee Counties. Sarasota County reported extensive tree and structural damage due to wind, as well as significant flooding in inland areas, specifically in and around Venice and North Port. Most of the southern portion of the county remained in Ian's northern eyewall for nearly five hours, subjected to extreme wind and over 20 inches (508 mm) of rain, which caused catastrophic flooding. In North Port, vast portions of the city were impassible due to floodwaters, while the Myakka River reached a record flood stage on September 30 of , forcing a  portion of I-75 to close on Friday as the Myakka River overtopped the bridge and flooded the highway. On October 2, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis visited North Port, and described the flooding as the worst he had seen across Florida. Venice turned off the water supply to the island of Venice, which has since been restored. Ian brought similar conditions to Manatee County. The cyclone destroyed 10 structures there, 297 structures were majorly impacted, and 891 others had minor impacts. Overall, the storm left over 1.05 million cubic yards (803,000 cubic meters) of debris in Sarasota County, and over 233,000 cubic yards (155,000 cubic meters) of debris in Manatee County. As of October 10, 2022, the damage estimates in Sarasota and Manatee County totaled over $230 million.

Impact in east central Florida
Strong winds in Okeechobee County caused minor damage to 113 structures, major damage to 35 structures, and the destruction of 2 structures. Damages there reached about $1.4 million. Martin County reported mostly isolated wind impacts, which included damage to a mobile home and a tree falling onto a residence at a fishing camp along Lake Okeechobee. Along the coast, erosion damages totaled about $6 million. Hundreds of sea turtle eggs were destroyed and scattered across the Fort Pierce beach. Ian wrought little structural impacts in Indian River County, although a loss of up to  of sand was reported, with a replacement expected to cost nearly $4 million. In Osceola County, severe flooding affected or damaged some 900 businesses and 3,200 dwellings, leading to around $148 million in private property damages. The worst of the floods in the county occurred near Lake Center and in parts of Kissimmee and St. Cloud.

Most neighborhoods in Orlando were flooded as many of the city's numerous lakes overflowed, with the city receiving  of rain. About 250 people were rescued. This heavy rain, combined with Hurricane Nicole in November, led to Orlando recording their wettest meteorological autumn on record in 2022. Orlando International Airport recorded wind gusts of up to . Near the University of Central Florida, hundreds of students were displaced after several nearby off-campus apartment complexes flooded. Property damages in Orange County were estimated at $206 million. In Seminole County, extensive floods occurred in areas adjacent to the Little Wekiva River in Altamonte Springs, the St. Johns River at Lake Harney and in Sanford, and the larger and smaller branches of the Econlockhatchee River near Oviedo. Ian destroyed 2 structures, caused major damage to 1,076 structures, and inflicted minor impacts on 580 others. Damages in Seminole County totaled about $241 million. Heavy precipitation inundated many areas along the St. Johns River in Lake County, particularly around Astor. The cyclone caused minor damage to 61 structures and major impacts to 49 others, with damages in the county estimated at $4.5 million. Severe flooding also occurred to the east in Volusia County, especially adjacent to Lake Monroe and the St. Johns River. Along the coast, the storm surge caused extensive impacts to seawalls in the vicinity of Daytona Beach. In New Smyrna Beach, about 180 residents had to be evacuated due to rising floodwaters, with the coastal town receiving almost  of rain according to a preliminary report released by the National Weather Service. Around 247,000 customers lost power during the storm in Volusia County alone. The hurricane caused minor impacts to 1,197 structures, major impacts to 181 structures, and the destruction of 40 others. Damages in Volusia County were estimated at $128 million. Near June Park to the west of Melbourne, Ian spawned a weak EF0 tornado that damaged only trees and no buildings. Kennedy Space Center received wind gusts as high as , but only minor damage occurred. Storm surge and high tides in Brevard County caused about $7 million in damage to dunes and beach crossovers.

Impact elsewhere in Florida
Portions of the First Coast experienced strong winds, heavy rains, and significant storm surge heights that rivaled those observed during Hurricane Irma. In Flagler County, storm surge and high tides substantially damaged the Flagler Beach pier, rendered a few coastal roads impassable, and flooded home in Flagler Beach, lab buildings in Marineland, and a restaurant in Bunnell. Heavy precipitation and storm surge in St. Johns County flooded several roads in St. Augustine and resulted in the temporary closure of the Bridge of Lions. Floodwaters entered some homes in the Davis Shores neighborhood of Anastasia Island. In Duval County, several locations reported storm surge inundation, including along the Intracoastal Waterway and in Jacksonville's Riverside neighborhood. Widespread power outages and isolated wind damage also occurred, such as several trees downed at Naval Air Station Jacksonville, some of which struck homes, displacing two families. In Nassau County, the storm surge resulted in damage to Fernandina Beach High School and the Fernandina Beach marina and inundated numerous roads on Piney Island near the Amelia River. Abnormally high tides, storm surge, and tropical-storm-force winds in Putnam County caused flooding in areas by Lake George and the St. Johns River, with water entering dozens of residences in Fruitland, Satsuma, and Welaka.

Impact in South Carolina

By 3:00 pm EDT on September 30, over 210,000 customers had lost power in the state from the hurricane. A tidal gauge at Springmaid Pier in Myrtle Beach reached , beating the record of  set by Hurricane Isaias which struck two years prior. As of 11:00 am EDT on October 1, an estimated 63,000 customers remained without power, primarily in Horry, Georgetown, Charleston, Florence, Williamsburg, and Berkeley Counties.

Impact in North Carolina
 By 3:30 pm EDT on September 30, over 76,000 people had lost power in the state, with 65,000 in Wake County alone. An EF0 tornado also touched down in Holden Beach, damaging multiple homes in the town, while an EFU tornado touched down northeast of Aurora. There were five storm-related deaths in the state: three in Johnston County, one in Martin County, and one in Moore County.

Impact elsewhere
Strong winds and rain moved through the Mid-Atlantic region. 95,000 people lost power in Virginia. Wind gusts reached as high as  in Cape Henry and  in the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel. In Delaware, gusts reached  in Dewey Beach. On October 3, flooding resulted in Delaware Route 1 shutting down between Bethany Beach and Dewey Beach.

A separate low-pressure area formed to the northeast of Ian as it dissipated on October 1, which stalled off the coast of New Jersey for nearly a week. Widespread coastal flooding occurred along the Jersey Shore, with Sea Isle City receiving  of rain between October 1 and 3. In addition, Philadelphia set a daily precipitation record due to the storm on October 2, at . AccuWeather described the system as a nor'easter which produced storm surge levels comparable to those of Hurricane Sandy. The rainfall alleviated drought conditions throughout much of New Jersey, and lasted until October 5. The system also produced unseasonably cold temperatures across the region, with Trenton having a maximum temperature of  on October 4, one degree shy of the record lowest daily high for that date. Several ferries between Cape May, New Jersey and Lewes, Delaware were canceled due to the storm on October 3. Due to the storm drenching New Jersey, the state realized their tenth wettest October on record. In New York, Seastreak ferry service suspended all service on October 2 until the next day due to high winds; however, Staten Island Ferry and NYC Ferry continued operations. The system brought the coldest daily high for October 3 on record to John F. Kennedy International Airport, with a high of . Minor coastal flooding occurred in New York City as well.

Aftermath

Aftermath in Cuba
Mass power outages and a nationwide blackout led to protests in Cuba, with at least 400 demonstrators demanding the central government restore power and Internet access. A rare request of emergency assistance from the U.S. was approved by Biden on September 30 after Ian passed. The European Union announced a package of €1 million in aid while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship of Argentina sent pills for the potabilization of nearly one million liters of water via the White Helmets Commission. The government of Japan also dispatched help to Cuba through its Japan International Cooperation Agency agency.

Aftermath in the United States

Soon after the conditions improved in impacted parts of Florida, search and rescue teams, first responders, and utility workers from un-impacted parts of Florida and across the country deployed to the area. The American Red Cross mobilized and began to provide shelter and supplies to those who needed it as well. Various other International, federal and local organizations also mobilized to help spread donations throughout affected populations in the form of both monetary and physical donations. On October 3, The Guardian reported 10,000 people remained unaccounted for. However, the next day, FEMA's statement did not include numbers about people remaining unaccounted for.

There were sporadic reports of looting and burglaries at several businesses in Lee County, Florida; alleged thefts of non-essential items such as sports apparel and athletic shoes during the height of the storm prompted officials to enforce a curfew in the county. According to DeSantis, Florida was working with SpaceX CEO Elon Musk to use the Starlink satellite Internet service to help restore communication across the state.

At least eight school districts suffered closures as a result of Ian. The Lee County and DeSoto County Public School Districts reopened on October 17. The Charlotte County Public School District reopened October 18. Sarasota County Schools were closed due to damage from storm, with classes resuming on October 10 for most of the county, while several schools that sustained more damage remaining closed until October 17.

Critics have noted that federally subsidized flood insurance is one of the reasons that people continue to move to hurricane-prone areas of Florida. Since the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) began, millions of people moved to Florida in the past 50 years into areas that were part of Hurricane Ian's path in part, critics note, due to the subsidized flood insurance offered by the federal government and insurance companies.

Lee County also saw a sharp rise in infections and death from flesh-eating bacteria that live in warm brackish water. By October 18, 29 illnesses and four deaths had been recorded since landfall due to infection from Vibrio vulnificus, at least one of whom was from out of state.

Weeks later several coastside condominiums and hotels damaged by Ian in Volusia County were deemed unsafe and evacuated as Hurricane Nicole approached on November 10. Many structures fell into the ocean.

Damage estimates

Preliminary estimates of damages from Hurricane Ian are wide-ranging. Various analytic agencies and insurance companies have placed losses in the tens of billions. CoreLogic reported potential insured losses at $28–47 billion. Verisk Analytics indicated a total of $42–57 billion and potentially over $60 billion when losses not covered under the NFIP are included. Moody's Analytics calculated potential damages of $45–55 billion in Florida alone with billions more in South Carolina. Total economic losses were estimated at $56 billion by Enki Research. Karen Clark & Co. placed insured damages at nearly $63 billion with total economic losses over $100 billion. On October 10, Risk Management Solutions, a subsidiary of Moody's Corporation, placed private market damages at $53–74 billion with an additional $10 billion from the NFIP. Beyond physical and economic losses, The Triple-I Corporation estimated litigation costs in Florida would reach $10–20 billion.

On January 10, 2023, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimated total losses at $112 billion, making Ian the costliest hurricane in Florida's history, surpassing Hurricane Irma of 2017, as well as the third-costliest in US history, behind only Hurricane Katrina of 2005 and Hurricane Harvey of 2017 respectively. Ian marked the 15th billion-dollar disaster for the country in 2022.

In 2023, Florida senator Rick Scott introduced the Hurricane Tax Relief Act into the 118th Congress, which would enable Ian's victims, as well as victims of Hurricanes Nicole and Fiona in the US and Puerto Rico to more easily claim damage relief on their 2022 tax bills.

Depiction in media
The storm had heavy coverage in both traditional media and social media. Coverage of Hurricane Ian was the most viewed by cable viewership on September 28 with the Weather Channel occupying eight of the top ten cable spots with continuous coverage of the storm. Fox Weather, the weather streaming service from Fox News reported an average of 552,000 viewers on September 28 between 1:00–4:00 pm ET when the storm made landfall in Florida. This was by far their most ever daily views. Internet personality Ryan Hall, Y'all was ranked number three on YouTube during a livestream covering Ian's landfall on September 29.

Photos and videos of the hurricane were posted throughout social media with a large amount seen on TikTok where videos posted under the hashtag #HurricaneIan had about 3.5 billion views by September 28, while on Instagram there were more than 65,000 posts with the same hashtag. Others provided livestream feeds of their homes and surrounding areas during the hurricane. Many Floridians who posted about the storm to social media found humor while discussing preparing for the hurricane, the storm, and its aftermath. Some people who sheltered in place at Walt Disney World documented or livestreamed their experiences and the storm, and in some cases monetized the videos which drew criticism from many. In one case a Floridian YouTuber's video was disliked more than double the number of times it was liked on the platform.

Many asked for help on social media looking for loved ones after losing contact with them or getting pleas from them for aid. While Florida authorities urged Floridians to use official emergency channels to report emergencies and to limit personal information that could be shared, many discovered informal digital structures or relied on ones from previous disasters to help provide aid or finding missing individuals.

Retirement

On March 29, 2023, at the 45th Session of the RA IV Hurricane Committee, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Ian from its rotating name lists due to the extreme damage and loss of life it caused, particularly in the state of Florida, and it will never be used again for another Atlantic hurricane. It will be replaced with Idris for the 2028 season.

See also

 Weather of 2022
 Tropical cyclones in 2022
 List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes
 List of Florida hurricanes (2000–present)
 Timeline of the 2022 Atlantic hurricane season
 List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes

Historic comparisons to Ian
 1846 Havana hurricane – large and intense hurricane that took a similar track to Ian
 1928 Okeechobee hurricane – A destructive Category 5 hurricane that killed approximately 2,500 people in Florida
 September 1948 Florida hurricane – Category 4 hurricane which tracked across Cuba and made landfall in Southwest Florida
 Hurricane Donna (1960) – Category 4 hurricane that took a similar track through Florida
 Hurricane Gladys (1968) – Category 2 hurricane with a similar track to Ian
 Hurricane Charley (2004) – Category 4 hurricane that took a near-identical track to Ian and rapidly intensified similarly
 Hurricane Wilma (2005) – Category 5 hurricane which is also caused widespread damages over Florida.
 Hurricane Irma (2017) – Category 5 hurricane which also severely affected Southwest Florida
 Hurricane Nicole (2022) – Category 1 hurricane that further affected Florida in the areas that were already affected by Ian a month later.
 Hurricane Idalia (2023) – Category 4 hurricane that made landfall in Florida after hitting Cuba eleven months after Ian.

Notes

References

External links

 The National Hurricane Center's advisory archive on Hurricane Ian
 How to help victims of Hurricane Ian in Florida by Gabriel Pietrorazio, published by PBS (2022-09-29)
 Category 3 Hurricane Ian Hits Western Cuba – Sept. 27, 2022 huracán Ian en Cuba
 Category 4 Hurricane Ian Hits Southwest Florida – Sept. 28, 2022
 Category 4 Hurricane Ian Hits Southwest Florida – Sept. 28, 2022 Part 2
 Aftermath of Category 4 Hurricane Ian in Southwest Florida
 Category 4 Hurricane Ian Hits Southwest Florida – Sept. 28, 2022 Part 3

Ian
Ian

2022 in Cuba
2022 in Florida
2022 in Jamaica
2022 in the Cayman Islands
September 2022 events in North America
Ian 2022
Ian 2022
Ian 2022
Hurricanes in South Carolina
Ian 2022
Ian
Ian
2022 natural disasters in the United States
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Fort Myers, Florida
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Disasters in Florida
Disasters in Cuba
Disasters in the Bahamas
September 2022 events in the United States
October 2022 events in the United States
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Hurricane Ian


Eugène Ruffy (2 August 1854, in Lutry – 25 October 1919) was a Swiss politician.

He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 14 December 1893 and resigned on 31 October 1899. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.

During his time in office he headed the following departments:
 Department of Justice and Police (1894)
 Department of Home Affairs (1895)
 Department of Justice and Police (1895)
 Department of Home Affairs (1896–1897)
 Political Department (1898)
 Military Department (1899)
He was President of the Confederation in 1898.

His father, Victor Ruffy (1823-1869), was a member of the Federal Council in 1868/1869. The younger Ruffy was the only person to succeed his father as a member of the council until the election of Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf in 2007.

External links

1854 births
1919 deaths
People from Lavaux-Oron District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni

Eugène Ruffy


James Thomson (10 September 1763 – 1832) was a Scottish weaver poet of Currie, near Edinburgh, whose poetry in the Scottish vernacular was published in Leith in the early 19th century. He is remembered by the Poet's Glen in Currie, a wooded dell with a scenic riverside path which is a right of way, and by a number of street names (Thomson Road, Thomson Drive, Thomson Crescent) in the east of Currie.

Early life
When James Thomson was born on 10 September 1763 in Edinburgh, his parents were too poor to bring him up and when he was four months old they sent him to be brought up by his mother's parents in the small village of Kenleith in the parish of Currie, where his grandfather was a weaver. The name Kenleith comes from Killeith, the chapel of the Water of Leith. The farm where Thomson lived lies higher up the Kinleith Burn to the south of Currie Kirk, and is now known as Mid Kinleith.

When six years old, Thomson was sent to the parish school but after he caught smallpox his grandmother kept him at home and he was taught to read by his grandmother and an aunt. He was given the duty of herding, and each day took his grandfather's cow to the field with ballads or a book of songs in his pocket. He particularly liked the songs of Allan Ramsay, and learnt The Gentle Shepherd by heart.

He was apprenticed as a weaver when 13 years old, learning from his grandfather so well that business which had suffered from his grandfather's failing eyesight soon picked up. Thomson also returned to school to learn to write, but his handwriting remained untidy. He was able to buy a fiddle and became a musician, entertaining his friends with music and with his poems. He married a young woman from the same village. His grandfather fell ill and died, and for a while Thomson and his wife lived in the parish of Colinton before returning to Kenleith. His weaving supported his family and his grandmother.

Thomson and his wife had seven daughters and one son. They lived on Mid Kinleith farm in a small cottage which they named after Mount Parnassus. During the day he worked as a weaver, and in the evenings composed songs and poems, depicting local characters and places. He became known for useful skills, including trimming the beards of locals, and for his poetry. A new minister in the parish needed his razors sharpened, and when he sent them to Thomson they were returned well sharpened along with suitable verses for the occasion.

Works
With the minister's encouragement, a book of Poems, in the Scottish dialect by James Thomson, Weaver in Kinleith, was published in 1801, printed by J. Fillans & Sons, Edinburgh, and published by W. Reid, Leith, for the Author. This opened with An Account of the Author, giving his life story, and a Dedication to the Merchants of Leith. The contents include a sharp epigram:

A set of four love songs describes the author being too bold in the first, then in the second bidding farewell to buchts, or sheep-folds, he had become excessively shy. The tune "Logan Water" as well as the first verse of the poem itself refer to the Logan Burn. In the chorus he laments no longer taking pleasure in the singing of the laverock, the skylark.

He gained the patronage of General Scott of Malleny, and dedicated to him Poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect (Leith, 1819). Thomson also published A poem, chiefly in the Scottish dialect, on raising and selling the dead, and the melancholy spectacle which was presented to the inhabitants of Currie, on their taking two dead bodies from a cart in its way from Lanark to Edinburgh (Leith, 1821).

Thomson lived until 1832, in reasonable prosperity.

Commemoration
The Kinleith Burn below Thomson's house has been named the "Poet's Burn", after James Thomson, the "Weaver Poet", and it runs down the steeply sloping "Poet's Glen" down to near Currie Kirk where it flows into the Water of Leith after passing under a bridge of the Water of Leith Walkway.

His cottage still stands at Mid Kinleith farm, with "Mount Parnassus" still inscribed over the entrance door.

References

See also
List of 18th-century British working-class writers

1763 births
1832 deaths
18th-century Scottish poets
19th-century Scottish poets
Writers from Edinburgh

James Thomson (weaver poet)


Manzanita is a common name for many species of the genus Arctostaphylos. They are evergreen shrubs or small trees present in the chaparral biome of western North America, where they occur from Southern British Columbia and Washington to Oregon, California, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the United States, and throughout Mexico. Manzanitas can live in places with poor soil and little water. They are characterized by smooth orange or red bark and stiff, twisting branches. There are 105 species and subspecies of manzanita, 95 of which are found in the Mediterranean climate and colder mountainous regions of California, ranging from ground-hugging coastal and mountain species to small trees up to 20 feet (6m) tall. Manzanitas bloom from winter to early spring and carry berries in spring and summer. The berries and flowers of most species are edible.

The word manzanita is the Spanish diminutive of manzana (apple). A literal translation would be little apple. The name manzanita is also sometimes used to refer to species in the related genus Arbutus, which is known by that name in the Canadian area of the tree's range, but is more usually known as madroño, or madrone in the United States.

Uses

Folk medicine

Native Americans in Northern California make a tisane from manzanita leaves to treat poison oak rash. The leaves contain chemicals with a mildly disinfectant quality and can be used for mild urinary tract infections.

The tree's berries can be turned into a cider by mashing, pouring an equal amount of water over the paste, and then straining it. In Native American cultures, this cider is then used to treat stomach ailments and promote appetite. The berries have also been used to treat bronchitis and kidney problems.

The leaves of the manzanita also have many medicinal purposes. Chewing the leaves of the manzanita tree into a poultice can treat open sores and ease headaches after application. Chewing on the leaves, without ingestion, can cure stomach issues such as cramps and aches. Infusions of the leaves can also treat ailments such as diarrhea and severe colds.

Culinary use

The berries are good food, as they can be harvested en masse and stored. Once stored and dried, the berries can be ground into a coarse meal. The berries can be eaten ripe (when red) or green for a slightly sour taste. They are good eaten alone or used as a thickener or sweetener in other dishes. Native Americans use the fresh berries to make cider and use the leaves as toothbrushes.

Landscape use
Manzanitas are extremely useful as ornamental plants in gardens in the western United States and similar climate zones. They are evergreen, highly drought-tolerant, have picturesque bark and attractive flowers and berries, and occur in many sizes and growth patterns.

Arctostaphylos columbiana, for example, is hardy enough for highway landscaping in western Oregon and Washington. A. 'Emerald Carpet', A. uva-ursi (the bearberry), and other low-growing manzanitas are extremely valuable evergreen groundcovers for dry slopes. Larger varieties, such as Arctostaphylos. 'Dr. Hurd,' can be grown as individual specimens and pruned to emphasize the striking pattern and colors of the branches. They prefer light, well-drained soil, although the low-growing ground covers will tolerate heavier soils.

Decorative use
Manzanita branches are popular as decoration due to their unique shape, color, and strength when dried. Florists sometimes use them as centerpieces at wedding receptions and other events, often adding hanging votive candles, beaded gems, and small flowers.

The wood is notoriously hard to cure, mostly due to cracking against the grain, giving it few uses as lumber. The slow growth rate and many branchings further decrease the sizes available. Some furniture and art employ whole round branches, which reduces cracking and preserves the deep red color.

The dead wood decays slowly and can last for many years, on and off the plant. Sunlight smooths and bleaches manzanita to light grey or white, rendering it superficially akin to animal bones. Because of this and the stunted growth of many species, manzanita is often collected in its more unusual shapes, giving it the nickname "mountain driftwood".

Manzanita wood is also used as perches for parrots and other large pet birds. The branches of the larger species are extremely long-lasting for this purpose.

Some aquarium keepers use sandblasted manzanita as driftwood in planted aquaria because of its attractive forked growth and its chemical neutrality. It holds up well over extended periods of submersion if properly cleaned and cured. The wood is also resistant to the leaching of tannins into the water column, a problem often found with other aquarium driftwoods. When used as driftwood, manzanita must usually be weighted down for several weeks or soaked first to counteract the wood's natural buoyancy when dried and cured. The green wood does not float.

Manzanita wood, when dry, is excellent for burning in a campfire, barbecue, fireplace, or stove. It is dense and burns at a high temperature for long periods. However, caution should be exercised because the high temperatures can damage thin-walled barbecues and even crack cast iron stoves or cause chimney fires.

Other uses
During World War II, manzanita root burls were used as a suitable native material to make smoking pipes due to its relation and similar fire-resistant properties to then-unavailable imported briar. It was labeled as "mission briar" and harvested for the remainder of the war, stopping soon after when supplies of imported briar once again became available.

Rarity and endemics
Some manzanita species are among the rarest plants in the world.

Arctostaphylos hookeri ravenii (Presidio manzanita), an endemic species, is the most endangered and restricted plant in the mainland United States. In 1987 only one specimen remained at a secret location in the Presidio of San Francisco National Historic Landmark District in San Francisco, California. This plant has since been successfully cloned.

Arctostaphylos franciscana (Franciscan manzanita), a species native to San Francisco, had not been seen growing wild since 1947 until it was spotted growing in the Presidio of San Francisco in October 2009. Caltrans transplanted this specimen on 23 January 2010 to make way for the Doyle Drive Replacement Project. Transplanting costs were funded in part by Federal Highways Administration, Caltrans, The Presidio of San Francisco, and private donors. "Arctostaphylos hookeri, subspecies franciscana", a scrubby, thin-twigged bush, riddled with the webs of miniature spiders, resides in a corner of the California section of The Strybing Arboretum.

An as yet unclassified and unidentified manzanita found growing on San Francisco's Parker Avenue presents a test case for San Francisco's landmark tree ordinance.

Arctostaphylos gabrielensis is a "critically imperiled" species of manzanita endemic to a tiny area in the San Gabriel Mountains, in Los Angeles County, California.

Genus evolution
Genus evolution is relatively recent, but in Hogan's tracing of the genus evolutionary history: "convergent evolution patterns appear to complicate cladistic constructions for certain portions of the genus cladogram. In any case, fossil ancestors of the genus Arctostaphylos have been suggested to have occurred in the Middle Miocene, with modern species beginning to take shape in the Late Tertiary."

See also
 Artemisia californica (California sagebrush)
 Chamise
 Baccharis pilularis (coyote brush)
 Bearberry
 Arctostaphylos
 Category: Arctostaphylos
 Xylococcus bicolor (mission manzanita)

References

External links
 ITIS 23467 ITIS species list
 Manzanita in Central Arizona Good photo of the copper-colored bark.
 An Inconvenient Plant author Joe Eskenazi, SF Weekly 16 April 2008, cover story about the Manzanita

Arctostaphylos
Flora of the Western United States
Flora of California
Flora of Canada
Flora of British Columbia
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Plants used in Native American cuisine
Pre-Columbian California cuisine
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Plant common names
Garden plants of North America
Bird food plants
Drought-tolerant plants
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Manzanita


Stella Brooks (born October 24, 1910, Seattle, Washington – December 13, 2002, San Francisco, California) was an American jazz vocalist.

Brooks began singing in San Francisco early in the 1930s. She moved to New York City in 1937, where she sang in the ensembles of Art Hodes, Sidney Bechet, Joe Sullivan, Georg Brunis and Frank Newton among others. She played at the New York Town Hall in 1946. During this time she befriended Tennessee Williams and Billie Holiday; she was sometimes called "The white Billie Holiday". Williams wrote about Brooks in his memoirs.

Brooks's career faded in the 1950s, during which time she played locally in clubs in New York. In 1962, she left the music industry and moved back to San Francisco. In 1981, Folkways Records released some of her material on Songs of the 1940s: Diverse Songs and Moods.

References

1910 births
2002 deaths
American women jazz singers
American jazz singers
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers

Stella Brooks


Paadam () is a 2018 Indian Tamil-language drama film written and directed by Rajasekhar and produced by Gipin P.S. The film stars newcomers Karthik and Mona as school students, Vijith, Nagendran in the lead roles while Yashika Aannand and Jangiri Madhumita provide pivotal roles in the film. The music is scored by Ganesh Raghavendra. The film was released on 27 May 2018.

Plot
A school boy named Jeeva, who is the son of police officer Kottai Perumal, questions the inabilities and defects in the Indian educational system and also shows his frustration towards studying lessons in English instead of Tamil. On the other hand, Jeeva's father also hesitates and feels afraid to speak in English. If Jeeva hears even a single English word, he becomes frustrated. One day, Kottai Perumal was sent on a transfer to Chennai after his unruly behaviour with a higher police officer who did not know to speak in Tamil. At the same time, Jeeva is excited as he thinks that he can avoid learning English by leaving the village to Chennai. But Jeeva is compelled by his father to study in English as his father desired him to be fluent in the language. Jeeva attended the high school and started to learn English, but his English master, is punitive toward students who have difficulty with English. But Jeeva gets support and advice from his Hindi language teacher and escapes from the school. When his father learns of this, he politely requested his son to study in English medium. Finally after his father's request, he changes and learns English.

Cast
 Karthik as Jeeva
 Mona as Jeeva's friend
 V. R. Nagendran as Kottai Perumal, Jeeva's father,
 Jangiri Madhumita as Jeeva's mother
 Vijith as an English master in Chennai high school
 Yashika Aannand as Hindi teacher

References

External links

Indian drama films
2018 drama films
2018 films
2010s Tamil-language films

Paadam


In cryptography, the Iraqi block cipher was a block cipher published in C source code form by anonymous FTP upload around July 1999, and widely distributed on Usenet. It is a five round unbalanced Feistel cipher operating on a 256 bit block with a 160 bit key.

The source code shows that the algorithm operates on blocks of 32 bytes (or 256 bits). That's four times larger than DES or 3DES (8 bytes) and twice as big as Twofish or AES (16 bytes).
It also shows that the key size can vary from 160 to 2048 bits.

A detailed analysis of the source code of the algorithm shows that it uses a 256-byte S-Box that is key-dependant (as on Blowfish, it uses a first fixed S table that will generate, with the key, the second S-Box used for encryption/decryption). The algorithm also uses a 16-column x 16-row P-Box, which is also key-dependent and also initialized from a fixed P table. Each round uses one row from P-Box and 16 columns, which means that the algorithm can use up to 16 rounds.

A comment suggests that it is of Iraqi origin. However, like the S-1 block cipher, it is generally regarded as a hoax, although of lesser quality than S-1. Although the comment suggests that it is Iraqi in origin, all comments, variable and function names and printed strings are in English rather than Arabic; the code is fairly inefficient (including some pointless operations), and the cipher's security may be flawed (no proof).

Because it has a constant key schedule the cipher is vulnerable to a slide attack. However, it may take 264 chosen texts to create a single slid pair, which would make the attack unfeasible. It also has many fixed points, although that is not necessarily a problem, except possibly for hashing modes. No public attack is currently available. As with S-1, it was David Wagner who first spotted the security flaws.

References

External links
 Source code for the cipher
 File encryption with IBC in ECB and CBC Mode
 Source code of the Iraqi block cipher ECB Mode
  Source code for Microsoft Visual C++ 5.0 ECB Mode
 Compiled code (Console Application) ECB Mode
 Source code of the Iraqi block cipher CBC Mode
 Source code for Microsoft Visual C++ 5.0 CBC Mode
 Compiled code (Console Application) CBC Mode

Block ciphers
Internet hoaxes
1999 hoaxes

Iraqi block cipher


Aureliano de Beruete (27 September 1845, Madrid – 5 January 1912, Madrid) was a Spanish landscape painter, art critic and social activist.

Biography
Born in Madrid into a wealthy family from the minor nobility, he followed his family's wishes, received his Doctorate in Law at the University of Madrid in 1867 and served as a Deputy in the Cortes for two sessions; 1871 and 1872.

He was more inclined to art, however, and had his first lessons at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, where he studied with Carlos de Haes. His ample income allowed him to devote himself entirely to painting. One of his first works was a depiction of "Orbajosa"; an imaginary village created by Benito Pérez Galdós for his novel Doña Perfecta, which Beruete gave to the author as a gift. Later, he made a trip to Paris, where he was introduced to plein-air painting by Martín Rico.

For many years, he was a professor at the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (which he helped to create) and is often associated with the Generation of '98 or its political movement, Regenerationism. He also supported scientific conferences and excursions, which included a crossing of the Sierra de Guadarrama that he participated in and used as inspiration for many of his works. Throughout his life, he remained an avid traveller and enthusiastic exhibitor. He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic in 1900.

During the last years of his life, he wrote several brief treatises on painting and painters, including one of the first monographs on Diego Velázquez, which was published in Paris in 1898. In fact, he numbered most of the great Spanish artists of the day among his friends. After his death in 1912 in Madrid, Joaquín Sorolla organized the first retrospective of Beruete's works, held at Sorolla's mansion.

His son, Aureliano de Beruete y Moret, a critic and art historian, served as Director of the Museo del Prado from 1918 to 1922.

Writings
 Velázquez, translated by Sir Hugh Edward Poynter, Methuen & Co. (Classics of Art series) 1906.

Selected paintings

References

Further reading
 Aureliano de Beruete. 1845–1912 (Exhibition catalog), Barcelona, Obra Social de la Caja de Pensiones, 1983.
 Aureliano de Beruete (Exhibition catalog), Madrid, Sociedad Española de Amigos del Arte, 1941.
 Francisco Calvo Serraller, "Aureliano Beruete y la cultura artística de la Restauración", in Pintores españoles entre dos fines de siglo (1880–1990), de Eduardo Rosales a Miquel Barceló, Madrid, Alianza Editorial, 1990

External links

Ciudad de la pintura: Brief biography and more paintings.

1845 births
1912 deaths
Painters from Madrid
Members of the Congress of Deputies (Spain)
19th-century Spanish painters
Spanish male painters
Landscape painters
20th-century Spanish painters
20th-century Spanish male artists
Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando alumni
19th-century Spanish male artists

Aureliano de Beruete


"Baby You Don't Wanna Know" is the second single from Sum 41's fifth studio album Screaming Bloody Murder, officially released as a Canadian radio single on June 15, 2011, and later worldwide, along with a music video, on August 3, 2011.

Background

As confirmed on Sum 41's Screaming Bloody Murder making of documentary Don't Try This at Home, "Baby You Don't Wanna Know", along with "Time for You to Go", was one of the two songs that were written and recorded by the band at the last minute, on April 7, 2010, at EastWest Studios in Hollywood, California. The song, co-written by Matt Squire, was added to the album at the last minute and its recording was funded by Deryck Whibley himself, as the label refused to pay for any more songs for the album.

As said by Todd Morse on Don't Try This at Home, the song's style was more in the vein of classic rock and "straight-up-rock and roll", taking influence from the Rolling Stones and the Beatles, as opposed to all the other songs that were written during 2008–2009, that resulted in a more "dark" alternative rock style.

In an interview with the band during their European tour in July 2011, the band has commented that they considered releasing either "Blood in My Eyes" or "Back Where I Belong" as the second single, but opted to release "Baby You Don't Wanna Know" instead, as it was more radio friendly.

Music video
On June 28, 2011, Sum 41's Twitter has announced that the band shot a music video for "Baby You Don't Wanna Know" during a day off in Germany, to be released in the coming month. In July 2011, band assistant Matt Whibley has confirmed that the music video was shot with a local German crew and is low budget. On August 3, 2011, the band premiered the music video for the song exclusively on German website Myvideo.de. A day later, it premiered on VEVO and YouTube, for worldwide audiences.

Live performances
The band performed the song live for the first time on June 22, 2011, in Angers, France, during the band's summer European leg of the Screaming Bloody Murder Tour. The song was since then performed at various other concerts, and although being an official single, the band does not perform it on every date. It was performed on and off until August 2011, and hasn't been played again when the band resumed the tour in 2012.

Promotional use
It is also on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Green Lantern.

Track listing

Charts

Release history

References

External links

2011 singles
Sum 41 songs
Songs written by Deryck Whibley
Songs written by Matt Squire
Island Records singles

Baby You Don't Wanna Know


David Aldrich (November 4, 1907 – September 13, 2002) was an American watercolor painter and architect from Rhode Island. The landscapes and cityscapes that he painted were not painted with literal realism but rather with freedom and spontaneity in an attempt to capture the essence of the scene.

Early life
Born in 1907 to John Gladding Aldrich and Margaret Putnam Calder. Aldrich's love of art began in his childhood home in Providence, Rhode Island, where his parents both painted and were influential in the creation of the Providence Art Club. The family often took painting vacations to Glocester, Rhode Island and to Little Compton, Rhode Island where they painted with their good friends, the Burleighs (local artist Sydney Burleigh was known to Aldrich as Uncle Tid). Later the Aldriches traveled to Europe and the Caribbean, taking every opportunity to stop by the side of the road to paint when coming upon an inspiring view.

He attended and graduated from the Gordon School, the Moses Brown School. And then went on to college at Brown University, graduating in 1929 with a bachelor's degree in philosophy and Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation graduating in 1933 with a master's degree in architecture. During World War II he served in the Army Air Corps in North Africa and Iran, using his architectural training.

Work
Aldrich's artistic career began as an architect in New York City, New York in 1933 with his uncle, Chester Holmes Aldrich, at Delano & Aldrich.  After his time in New York, he spent two years in Washington DC at the US Treasury Department.  In 1937 he became a partner in the architectural firm of Kent & Aldrich in Providence, RI.  He later opened a private architectural firm and became the head city planner for the City of Providence.

He retained his interest in watercolor painting throughout his life, studying at the O'Hara School, the Positano Workshop, the Rhode Island School of Design and attending figure study classes every week at the Providence Art Club, where he was a life member.  In the 1960s he was owner and director of Art Unlimited, a gallery on Thayer Street in Providence, Rhode Island that exhibited contemporary art from artists such as Hazel Belvo, Lawrence Kupferman, and Baburao Sadwelkar. Aldrich had numerous one-man exhibitions, notably at the Providence Art Club, the Rhode Island Watercolor Society, and the Gallery on the Commons in Little Compton, Rhode Island.  He also exhibited in many group shows in those galleries as well as the Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Rhode Island Arts Festival, DeCordova Museum, Virginia Lynch Gallery, Wheeler Gallery and others.  His work received many awards and is represented in numerous private and corporate collections. A watercolor he did of the Gordon School's campus still graces that school's diplomas. Up until his death he devoted himself entirely to his painting.

As one critic wrote:  "His view is always fresh and unhackneyed, his brush is deft, his strokes swift and colors translucent and unmuddied – the paper often does the majority of the work…a sort of artistic shorthand that can make water color really exciting." Aldrich said that his work was "an expression of the essence of my feelings toward the subject in color, line, and space."

References

External links
 Art League of Rhode Island 2003 Publication

1907 births
2002 deaths
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Architects from Providence, Rhode Island
People from Little Compton, Rhode Island
Artists from Providence, Rhode Island
Brown University alumni
Painters from Rhode Island
Rhode Island School of Design alumni
Burials in Rhode Island
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Moses Brown School alumni
20th-century American male artists

David Aldrich


Jacques Pierre Joseph Rode (16 February 1774 – 25 November 1830) was a French violinist and composer.

Life and career
Born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, France, Pierre Rode traveled in 1787 to Paris and soon became a favourite pupil of the great Giovanni Battista Viotti, who found the boy so talented that he charged him no fee for the lessons. Rode inherited his teacher's style, to which he added more mildness and a more refined tone. It is also recorded that he made extensive use of portamento. He collaborated with Baillot and Kreutzer on the official Violin Method of the Conservatoire de Paris, published in 1802.

Rode served as violin soloist to Napoleon and toured extensively in the Netherlands, Germany, England and Spain, staying with François-Adrien Boieldieu in Saint Petersburg from 1804 until 1809, and later spending much time in Moscow.

When he returned to Paris, he found that the public no longer responded with much enthusiasm to his playing. Spohr, who heard him both before and after his Russian sojourn, wrote that Rode's playing had become "cold and full of mannerism". However, according to some sources, he suffered from a lymphatic infection caused by streptococcus bacteria that affected his right arm, reducing his ability to bow with any force or rapidity.

Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his last violin sonata (Op. 96) for Rode when the violinist was visiting Vienna. He also performed chamber music, but the backbone of his repertoire was formed by Viotti's concertos, which served as models for his own concertos. These, as well as the 24 Caprices in all the major and minor keys, were written from 1814 to 1819 when he lived in Berlin.

In 1828 Rode made a last attempt at a public concert in Paris. It was such a fiasco that it was widely believed (as reported by Schuenemana, in citation above) that it hastened his death, on 25 November 1830 at Château de Bourbon near Damazan, Lot-et-Garonne, in his native Aquitaine.

Compositions

In all, Pierre Rode composed 13 violin concertos and many other works for violin, including at least four Quatuors brillants for violin and string trio. Although Rode's violin concertos have some significance in the development of the Romantic concerto, they are nowadays rarely performed. His major enduring contribution to the literature are his 24 Caprices, which are a standard part of the repertoire for advanced study of the violin. He also had a major influence on younger violinists, such as Louis Spohr, who adopted his style and developed it further.

French bibliography
 Joann Élart, "Circulation des quatre symphonies oeuvre VII de Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel de l'Allemagne à Rouen : un itinéraire singulier du goût musical entre 1770 et 1825", Studien zu den deutsch-französischen Musikbeziehungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, bericht über die erste gemeinsame Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft für Musikforschung und der Société française de musicologie Saarbrücken 1999 (Hildesheim : Georg Olms Verlag, 2002), .
 Joann Élart and Patrick Taïeb, "La Complainte du Troubadour de Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823)", Les Orages, No. 2, L'imaginaire du héros (Besançon : Apocope, May 2003), pp. 137–168.
 Joann Élart, "La mobilité des musiciens et des répertoires : Punto, Garat et Rode aux concerts du Musée", Le Musée de Bordeaux et la musique 1783–1793, ed. Patrick Taïeb, Natalie Morel-Borotra and Jean Gribenski (Rouen : PURH, 2005), .
 Joann Élart, "Les origines du concert public à Rouen à la fin de l'Ancien Régime", Revue de musicologie, No. 93/1 (2007), .

References

External links

1774 births
1830 deaths
18th-century classical composers
18th-century French composers
Composers for violin
19th-century French male classical violinists
19th-century classical composers
String quartet composers
French Romantic composers
18th-century French male classical violinists
19th-century French composers
French male classical composers
Musicians from Bordeaux
Pupils of Giovanni Battista Viotti

Pierre Rode


Crime fiction, detective story, murder mystery, mystery novel, and police novel are terms used to describe narratives that centre on criminal acts and especially on the investigation, either by an amateur or a professional detective, of a crime, often a murder. It is usually distinguished from mainstream fiction and other genres such as historical fiction or science fiction, but the boundaries are indistinct. Crime fiction has multiple subgenres, including detective fiction (such as the whodunit), courtroom drama, hard-boiled fiction, and legal thrillers. Most crime drama focuses on crime investigation and does not feature the courtroom. Suspense and mystery are key elements that are nearly ubiquitous to the genre.

History

The One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) contains the earliest known examples of crime fiction. One example of a story of this genre is the medieval Arabic tale of "The Three Apples", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the Arabian Nights. In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the Tigris River, and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who then has the chest broken open, only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails his assignment. The story has been described as a "whodunit" murder mystery with multiple plot twists. The story has detective fiction elements.

Two other Arabian Nights stories, "The Merchant and the Thief" and "Ali Khwaja", contain two of the earliest fictional detectives, who uncover clues and present evidence to catch or convict a criminal, with the story unfolding in normal chronology and the criminal already being known to the audience. The latter involves a climax where titular detective protagonist Ali Khwaja presents evidence from expert witnesses in a court. "The Hunchback's Tale" is another early courtroom drama, presented as a suspenseful comedy.

The earliest known modern crime fiction is E. T. A. Hoffmann's 1819 novella "Mademoiselle de Scudéri". Also, Thomas Skinner Sturr's anonymous Richmond, or stories in the life of a Bow Street Officer is from 1827; another early full-length short story in the genre is The Rector of Veilbye by Danish author Steen Steensen Blicher, published in 1829. A further example of crime detection can be found in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's story The Knife, published in 1832, although here the truth remains in doubt at the end.

Better known are the earlier dark works of Edgar Allan Poe. His brilliant and eccentric detective C. Auguste Dupin, a forerunner of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes, appeared in works such as "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841), "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" (1842), and "The Purloined Letter" (1844). With his Dupin stories, Poe provided the framework for the classic detective story. The detective's unnamed companion is the narrator of the stories and a prototype for the character of Dr. Watson in later Sherlock Holmes stories.

Wilkie Collins' epistolary novel The Woman in White was published in 1860, while The Moonstone (1868) is often thought to be his masterpiece. French author Émile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq (1868) laid the groundwork for the methodical, scientifically minded detective.

The evolution of locked-room mysteries was one of the landmarks in the history of crime fiction. The Sherlock Holmes mysteries of  Doyle's are said to have been singularly responsible for the huge popularity of this genre. A precursor was Paul Féval, whose series Les Habits Noirs (1862–67) features Scotland Yard detectives and criminal conspiracies. The best-selling crime novel of the 19th century was Fergus Hume's The Mystery of a Hansom Cab (1886), set in Melbourne, Australia.

The evolution of the print mass media in the United Kingdom and the United States in the latter half of the 19th century was crucial in popularising crime fiction and related genres. Literary 'variety' magazines, such as Strand, McClure's, and Harper's, quickly became central to the overall structure and function of popular fiction in society, providing a mass-produced medium that offered cheap, illustrated publications that were essentially disposable.

Like the works of many other important fiction writers of his day—e.g. Wilkie Collins and Charles Dickens—Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories first appeared in serial form in the monthly Strand in the United Kingdom. The series quickly attracted a wide and passionate following on both sides of the Atlantic, and when Doyle killed off Holmes in "The Final Problem", the public outcry was so great, and the publishing offers for more stories so attractive, that he was reluctantly forced to resurrect him.

In Italy, early translations of English and American stories and local works were published in cheap yellow covers, thus the genre was baptized with the term libri gialli or yellow books. The genre was outlawed by the Fascists during WWII, but exploded in popularity after the war, especially influenced by the American hard-boiled school of crime fiction. A group of mainstream Italian writers emerged, who used the detective format to create an antidetective or postmodern novel in which the detectives are imperfect, the crimes are usually unsolved, and clues are left for the reader to decipher. Famous writers include Leonardo Sciascia, Umberto Eco, and Carlo Emilio Gadda.

In Spain, The Nail and Other Tales of Mystery and Crime was published by Pedro Antonio de Alarcón in 1853. Crime fiction in Spain (also curtailed in Francoist Spain) took on some special characteristics that reflected the culture of the country. The Spanish writers emphasized the corruption and ineptitude of the police, and depicted the authorities and the wealthy in very negative terms.

In China, crime fiction is a major literary tradition, with works dating to the Song and Ming dynasties. Modern Chinese crime fiction emerged from the 1890s, and was also influenced by translations of foreign works. Cheng Xiaoqing, considered the "Grand Master" of 20th-century Chinese detective fiction, translated Sherlock Holmes into classical and vernacular Chinese. In the late 1910s, Cheng began writing his own detective fiction series, Sherlock in Shanghai, mimicking Conan Doyle's style, but relating better to a Chinese audience. During the Mao era, crime fiction was suppressed and mainly Soviet-styled and anticapitalist. In the post-Mao era, crime fiction in China focused on corruption and harsh living conditions during the Mao era (such as the Cultural Revolution).

Golden Age
The Golden Age, which spanned from the 1920s to 1954, was a period of time featuring the creation of renowned works by several authors. Many of these authors were British. Agatha Christie wrote works such as The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926) and The Murder at the Vicarage (1930). These novels commonly prioritized the allure of exploring mysteries in the plot over in-depth character development. Dorothy L. Sayers contributed the Wimsey novels. Her work focused on the spectacle of crime deduction. She also displayed an exaggerated form of aristocratic society, straying from a more realistic story. Other novelists tapped into this setting, such as Margery Allingham and Henry Christopher Bailey.

The Golden Age also had its roots in the US. As used by S. S. Van Dine, fictional character Philo Vance also took advantage of an inflated personality and a high-class background in a plethora of novels. In 1929, Father Ronald Knox wrote the 'Detective Story Decalogue,' mentioning some conditions of the era. Early foreshadowing and functioning roles for characters were discussed, as well as other items. Ellery Queen was featured in several novels written by Frederic Dannay and Manfred Lee, serving as both a character and pen name. In such novels, clues may be analyzed by the protagonist in tandem with the viewer, generating the possibility of understanding the narrative before it is revealed in the book.

Hard-Boiled Age
Past the Golden Age, events such as the Great Depression and the transition between World Wars ushered in a change in American crime fiction. There was a shift into hard-boiled novels and their depictions of realism. Dashiell Hammett and his work, including Red Harvest (1929), offered a more realistic social perspective to crime fiction, referencing events such as the Great Depression. James M. Cain contributed The Postman Always Rings Twice (1934). This novel includes a married woman trying to murder her own husband with the assistance of a potential suitor. This theme extends to his other work, Double Indemnity (1934). Such elements of the book were a reference to the Gray and Snyder trial. Raymond Chandler was a significant author who managed to see some works made into films. In 1944, he argued for the genre to be seen critically in his essay from 'The Simple Art of Murder.'

Psychology
Crime fiction provides unique psychological impacts on readers and enables them to become mediated witnesses through identifying with eyewitnesses of a crime. Readers speak of crime fiction as a mode of escapism to cope with other aspects of their lives. Crime fiction provides distraction from readers' personal lives through a strong narrative at a comfortable distance. Forensic crime novels have been referred to as "distraction therapy", proposing that crime fiction can improve mental health and be considered as a form of treatment to prevent depression.

Categories
 Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—either professional, amateur, or retired—investigates a crime, often murder.
 The cozy mystery is a subgenre of detective fiction in which profanity, sex, and violence are downplayed or treated humorously.
 The whodunit, the most common form of detective fiction, features a complex, plot-driven story in which the reader is provided with clues from which the identity of the perpetrator of the crime may be deduced before the solution is revealed at the end of the book.
 The historical whodunit is also a subgenre of historical fiction. The setting of the story and the crime have some historical significance.
 The locked-room mystery is a specialized kind of a whodunit in which the crime is committed under apparently impossible circumstances, such as a locked room, which no intruder could have entered or left.
 The American hardboiled school is distinguished by the unsentimental portrayal of sex and violence; the sleuth usually also confronts danger and engages in violence.
 The police procedural is a story in which the detective is a member of the police, thus the activities of a police force are usually convincingly depicted.
 Forensic crime fiction is similar to the police procedural. The investigator whom the reader follows is usually a medical examiner or pathologist; they must use the forensic evidence left on the body and at the crime scene to catch the killer. This subgenre was first introduced by Patricia Cornwell.
 In a legal thriller, the major characters are lawyers and their employees, and they become involved in proving their cases.
 In spy novels, the major characters are spies, usually working for an intelligence agency.
 The caper story and the criminal novel are stories told from the point of view of the criminals.
 The psychological thriller or psychological suspense, a specific subgenre of the thriller, also incorporates elements from detective fiction, as the protagonist must solve the mystery of the psychological conflict presented in these stories.
 The parody or spoof uses humor or sarcasm.
 The crime thriller has the central characters involved in crime, either in its investigation, as the perpetrator, or less commonly, a victim.
 The "nocturnal picaresque" explores the secrets obscured in a city at nighttime.
 The city mystery showcases the investigation of nefarious circumstances within a city.
 The gothic mystery incorporates paranormal activity into the story, including other beings such as ghosts and vampires.
 In the gallows subgenre, the story revolves around the hanging of potential criminals at hand.
 In the criminal confession subgenre, character motives and admittance are discussed.

Pseudonymous authors
In the history of crime fiction, some authors have been reluctant to publish their novels under their real names. More recently, some publish pseudonymously because of the belief that since the large booksellers are aware of their historical sales figures, and command a certain degree of influence over publishers, the only way to "break out" of their current advance numbers is to publish as someone with no track record.

In the late 1930s and 1940s, British County Court Judge Arthur Alexander Gordon Clark (1900–1958) published a number of detective novels under the alias Cyril Hare, in which he made use of his profoundly extensive knowledge of the English legal system. When he was still young and unknown, award-winning British novelist Julian Barnes (born 1946) published some crime novels under the alias Dan Kavanagh. Other authors take delight in cherishing their alter egos; Ruth Rendell (1930–2015) writes one sort of crime novels as Ruth Rendell and another type as Barbara Vine; John Dickson Carr also used the pseudonym Carter Dickson. Author Evan Hunter (which itself was a pseudonym) wrote his crime fiction under the name of Ed McBain.

Tropes
As crime fiction has expanded, there have been many common tropes that emerge from this category of fiction. Such occurrences can appear in a variety of subgenres and media.

While the format may vary across different forms of crime fiction, there are many elements that are generally consistent throughout the genre. Many stories often begin when the crime has already occurred. Such fiction also tends to draw from the cultural aspects in which the work originated, whether from recent events or from a general consensus and viewpoints. The use of serial killers and unreliable narrators exists in a decent variety of crime fiction as well.

The plot-puzzle formula, which was frequent in the Golden Age, makes use of potential hints and solutions to drive a story forward in order to unravel mysteries. Likewise, the feature of detectives was popularized by Edgar Allan Poe and Conan Doyle. Hard-boiled detective stories attracted a decent amount of attention to the genre in America and France as well.

Within crime fiction, it can also be common to use dark themes from real life, such as slavery, organized crime, and more. Aside from general themes, referencing instances of crime in real life is also common in several works of crime fiction. These reflections of reality can be expressed in many ways. For instance, crime fiction in Spain expressed grievances with authority, which was opposite to the instances in Japan that credited the government's functionality.

Espionage is another prominent inclusion in many works of crime fiction. It includes the use of political intrigue, morality, and the existence of spies. Prior media used the Cold War for inspiration and provided commentary on such events. Examples include numerous works by John le Carré and Gorky Park (1981), which was written by Martin Cruz Smith.

Inspiration can be drawn from the legal system around the world, with varying degrees of realism. In these cases, a sense of morality and the more dubious parts of society are explored based on the rules that the work provides. Melville Davisson Post's Rudolph Mason: The Strange Schemes (1896) and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) are notable examples. Additionally, stories like Double Indemnity (1934) are based on cases from reality.

Availability

Classics and bestsellers
Furthermore, only a select few authors have achieved the status of "classics" for their published works. A classic is any text that can be received and accepted universally, because they transcend context. A popular, well-known example is Agatha Christie, whose texts, originally published between 1920 and her death in 1976, are available in UK and US editions in all English-speaking nations. Christie's works, particularly featuring detectives Hercule Poirot or Miss Jane Marple, have given her the title the Queen of Crime, and made her one of the most important and innovative writers in the development of the genre. Her most famous novels include Murder on the Orient Express (1934), Death on the Nile (1937), and the world's best-selling mystery And Then There Were None (1939).

Other less successful, contemporary authors who are still writing have seen reprints of their earlier works, due to current overwhelming popularity of crime fiction texts among audiences. One example is Val McDermid, whose first book appeared as far back as 1987; another is Florida-based author Carl Hiaasen, who has been publishing books since 1981, all of which are readily available.

Revivals
From time to time, publishing houses decide, for commercial purposes, to revive long-forgotten authors, and reprint one or two of their more commercially successful novels. Apart from Penguin Books, which for this purpose have resorted to their old green cover and dug out some of their vintage authors. Pan started a series in 1999 entitled "Pan Classic Crime", which includes a handful of novels by Eric Ambler, but also American Hillary Waugh's Last Seen Wearing .... In 2000, Edinburgh-based Canongate Books started a series called "Canongate Crime Classics" —both  whodunnits and roman noir about amnesia and insanity—and other novels. However, books brought out by smaller publishers such as Canongate Books are usually not stocked by the larger bookshops and overseas booksellers. The British Library has also (since 2012) starting republishing "lost" crime classics, with the collection referred to on their website as "British Library Crime Classics series".

Sometimes, older crime novels are revived by screenwriters and directors rather than publishing houses. In many such cases, publishers then follow suit and release a so-called "film tie-in" edition showing a still from the movie on the front cover and the film credits on the back cover of the book—yet another marketing strategy aimed at those cinemagoers who may want to do both: first read the book and then watch the film (or vice versa). Recent examples include Patricia Highsmith's The Talented Mr. Ripley (originally published in 1955), Ira Levin's Sliver (1991), with the cover photograph depicting a steamy sex scene between Sharon Stone and William Baldwin straight from the 1993 movie, and again, Bret Easton Ellis's American Psycho (1991). Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, though, have launched what they call "Bloomsbury Film Classics"—a series of original novels on which feature films were based. This series includes, for example, Ethel Lina White's novel The Wheel Spins (1936), which Alfred Hitchcock—before he went to Hollywood—turned into a much-loved movie entitled The Lady Vanishes (1938), and Ira Levin's (born 1929) science-fiction thriller The Boys from Brazil (1976), which was filmed in 1978.

Older novels can often be retrieved from the ever-growing Project Gutenberg database.

See also

 The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time
 Detective fiction
 Murder mystery game
 Mystery fiction
 Mystery film
 List of crime writers
 List of female detective characters
 Art theft
 Crime Writers' Association
 Crime comics
 Giallo
 Scandinavian noir
 Western

References

Further reading
 The Crown Crime Companion. The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time Selected by the Mystery Writers of America, annotated by Otto Penzler, compiled by Mickey Friedman (New York, 1995, )
 De Andrea, William L: Encyclopedia Mysteriosa. A Comprehensive Guide to the Art of Detection in Print, Film, Radio, and Television (New York, 1994, )
 Duncan, Paul: Film Noir. Films of Trust and Betrayal (Harpenden, 2000, )
 The Hatchards Crime Companion. 100 Top Crime Novels Selected by the Crime Writers' Association, ed. Susan Moody (London, 1990, )
 Hitt, Jim: Words and Shadows. Literature on the Screen (New York, 1992, )
 Mann, Jessica: Deadlier Than the Male (David & Charles, 1981. Macmillan,N.Y, 1981)
 McLeish, Kenneth and McLeish, Valerie: Bloomsbury Good Reading Guide to Murder. Crime Fiction and Thrillers (London, 1990, )
 Ousby, Ian: The Crime and Mystery Book. A Reader's Companion (London, 1997).
 Symons, Julian: Bloody Murder. From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel: A History (Harmondsworth, 1974).
 Waterstone's Guide to Crime Fiction, ed. Nick Rennison and Richard Shephard (Brentford, 1997).
 Willett, Ralph: The Naked City. Urban Crime Fiction in the USA (Manchester, 1996).

External links
 World's Best Detective, Crime, and Murder Mystery Books
 Short reviews of the best crime fiction books
 Crime and Crime Fiction at the British Library

Adventure fiction

Crime fiction