Admiral George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB (bap. 13 February 1718 – 24 May 1792), was a British naval officer.  He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence, particularly his victory over the French at the Battle of the Saintes in 1782. It is often claimed that he was the commander to have pioneered the tactic of breaking the line.

Rodney came from a distinguished but poor background, and went to sea at the age of fourteen. His first major action was the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1747. He made a large amount of prize money during the 1740s, allowing him to purchase a large country estate and a seat in the House of Commons of Great Britain. During the Seven Years' War, Rodney was involved in a number of amphibious operations such as the raids on Rochefort and Le Havre and the Siege of Louisbourg. He became well known for his role in the capture of Martinique in 1762. Following the Peace of Paris, Rodney's financial situation stagnated. He spent large sums of money pursuing his political ambitions. By 1774 he had run up large debts and was forced to flee Britain to avoid his creditors. He was in a French jail when war was declared in 1778. Thanks to a French benefactor, Rodney was able to secure his release and return to Britain where he was appointed to a new command.

Rodney successfully relieved Gibraltar during the Great Siege and defeated a Spanish fleet during the 1780 Battle of Cape St. Vincent, known as the "Moonlight Battle" because it took place at night. He then was posted to the Jamaica Station, where he became involved in the controversial 1781 capture of Sint Eustatius. Later that year he briefly returned home suffering from ill health. During his absence the British lost the crucial Battle of the Chesapeake leading to the surrender at Yorktown.

To some, Rodney was a controversial figure, accused of an obsession with prize money. This was brought to a head in the wake of his taking of Saint Eustatius, for which he was heavily criticised in Britain. Orders for his recall had been sent when Rodney won a decisive victory at the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782, ending the French threat to Jamaica. Rodney accompanied the future King William IV on his royal visit (April 1783) to Captain General Luis de Unzaga to reach the preliminaries of peace agreements and which would later recognise the birth of the United States of America. On his return to Britain, Rodney was made a peer and was awarded an annual pension of £2,000. He lived in retirement until his death in 1792.

Early life
George Brydges Rodney was born either in Walton-on-Thames or in London, though the family seat was Rodney Stoke, Somerset. He was most likely born sometime in January 1718. He was baptised in St Giles-in-the-Fields on 13 February 1718. He was the third of four surviving children of Henry Rodney and Mary (Newton) Rodney, daughter of Sir Henry Newton. His father had served in Spain under the Earl of Peterborough during the War of the Spanish Succession, and on leaving the army served as captain in a marine corps which was disbanded in 1713. A major investment in the South Sea Company ruined Henry Rodney and impoverished the family. In spite of their lack of money, the family was well-connected by marriage. It is sometimes claimed that Henry Rodney had served as commander of the Royal Yacht of George I and it was after him that George was named, but this had been discounted more recently.

George was educated at Harrow School, and left as one of the last King's letter boys to join the Royal Navy, having been appointed, by warrant dated 21 June 1732, a junior officer on board .

Early career
After serving aboard Sunderland, Rodney switched to Dreadnought where he served from 1734 to 1737 under Captain Henry Medley who acted as a mentor to him. Around this time he spent eighteen months stationed in Lisbon, a city he would later return to several times. He then changed ships several times, taking part in the navy's annual trip to protect the British fishing fleet off Newfoundland in 1738.

He rose swiftly through the ranks of the navy helped by a combination of his own talents and the patronage of the Duke of Chandos.
While serving on the Mediterranean station he was made lieutenant in , his promotion dating 15 February 1739. He then served on Namur, the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief Sir Thomas Mathews.

Captain
The War of the Austrian Succession had broken out by this point, and in August 1742, Rodney had his first taste of action when he was ordered by Matthews to take a smaller vessel and launch a raid on Ventimiglia, where the Spanish army had stockpiled supplies and stores ready for a planned invasion of Britain's ally the Republic of Genoa, which he successfully accomplished. Shortly after this, he attained the rank of post-captain, having been appointed by Matthews to  on 9 November. He picked up several British merchantmen in Lisbon to escort them home, but lost contact with them in heavy storms. Once he reached Britain his promotion was confirmed, making him one of the youngest Captains in the navy.

After serving in home waters learning about convoy protection he was appointed to the newly built Ludlow Castle which he used to blockade the Scottish coast during the Jacobite Rebellion in 1745. Two of Rodney's midshipman aboard Ludlow Castle were Samuel Hood, later to become a distinguished sailor, and Rodney's younger brother James Rodney. In 1746 he obtained command of the 60-gun . After some time spent blockading French-occupied Ostend and cruising around the Western Approaches, where on 24 May he took his first prize a 16-gun Spanish privateer, Eagle was sent to join the Western Squadron.

Battle of Cape Finisterre

The Western Squadron was a new strategy by Britain's naval planners to operate a more effective blockade system of France by stationing the Home Fleet in the Western Approaches, where they could guard both the English channel and the French Atlantic coast.

Eagle continued to take prizes while stationed with the Squadron being involved directly, or indirectly, in the capture of sixteen enemy ships. After taking one of the captured prizes to Kinsale in Ireland, Eagle was not present at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre when the Western Squadron commanded by Lord Anson won a significant victory over the French. While returning from Ireland, Eagle fell in with a small squadron under Commodore Thomas Fox which sighted a French merchant convoy heading for the Bay of Biscay. In total around 48 merchantmen were taken by the squadron, although Rodney ignored an order of Fox by pursuing several ships which had broken away from the rest in an attempt to escape managing to capture six of them. Afterwards Eagle rejoined the Western Squadron now under the command of Edward Hawke.

On 14 October 1747 the ship took part in the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre, a victory off Ushant over the French fleet. The French were trying to escort an outgoing convoy from France to the West Indies and had eight large ships-of-the-line while the British had fourteen smaller ships. Rodney was at the rear of the British line, and Eagle was one of the last British ships to come into action engaging the French shortly after noon. Initially Eagle was engaged with two French ships, but one moved away. Rodney engaged the 70-gun Neptune for two hours until his steering wheel was struck by a lucky shot, and his ship became unmanageable. Rodney later complained that Thomas Fox in Kent had failed to support him, and testified at Fox's court martial. The British took six of the eight French ships, but were unable to prevent most of the merchant convoy escaping, although much of it was later taken in the West Indies.

The two Battles of Cape Finisterre had proved a vindication of the Western Squadron strategy. Rodney later often referred to "the good old discipline" of the Western Squadron, using it as an example for his own views on discipline. For the remainder of the war Rodney took part in further cruises, and took several more prizes. Following the Congress of Breda, an agreement was signed at the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ending the war. Rodney took his ship back to Plymouth where it was decommissioned on 13 August 1748. Rodney's total share of prize money during his time with Eagle was £15,000 giving him financial security for the first time in his life.

Commander
On 9 May 1749 he was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of Newfoundland, with the rank of Commodore, it being usual at that time to appoint a naval officer, chiefly on account of the fishery interests. He was given command of  and had two smaller ships under his overall command. It was extremely difficult for naval officers to secure commands in peacetime, and Rodney's appointment suggests that he was well regarded by his superiors. Rodney's role as Governor was rather limited. Each summer a large British fishing fleet sailed for Newfoundland, where it took part in the valuable cod trade. The fleet then returned home during the winter. Rodney oversaw three such trips to Newfoundland between 1749 and 1751.

Around this time Rodney began to harbour political ambitions and gained the support of the powerful Duke of Bedford and Lord Sandwich. He stood unsuccessfully in a 1750 by-election in Launceston. He was elected MP for Saltash, a safe seat controlled by the Admiralty, in 1751. After his third and final trip to Newfoundland in the summer of 1751, Rodney sailed home via Spain and Portugal, escorting some merchantmen. Once home he fell ill, and was then unemployed for around ten months. During this time he oversaw the development of an estate at Old Alresford in Hampshire, which he had bought with the proceeds of his prize money.

In 1753 he married his first wife, Jane Compton (1730–1757), sister of Charles Compton, 7th Earl of Northampton. He had initially been undecided whether to marry Jane or her younger sister Kitty whom he had met in Lisbon during his various visits to the city, where their father Charles Compton was consul. The marriage proved happy, and they had three children together before she died in January 1757. From 1753 Rodney commanded a series of Portsmouth guard ships without actually having to go to sea before the onset of the Seven Years' War.

Seven Years' War

The first fighting broke out in North America in 1754, with competing British and French forces clashing in the Ohio Country. Despite this fighting formal war wasn't declared in Europe until 1756 and opened with a French attack on Minorca, the loss of which was blamed on Admiral John Byng who was court-martialled and executed. He was shot on the quarterdeck of , which until recently had been commanded by Rodney. Rodney excused himself from serving on the court martial by pleading illness. While Rodney disapproved of Byng's conduct, he thought the death sentence excessive and unsuccessfully worked for it to be commuted.

Louisbourg

Rodney had in 1755 and 1756, taken part in preventive cruises under Hawke and Edward Boscawen. In 1757, he took part in the expedition against Rochefort, commanding the 74-gun ship of the line . After an initial success, the expedition made no serious attempt on Rochefort and sailed for home. Next year, in the same ship, he was ordered to serve under Boscawen as part of an attempt to capture the strategic French fortress of Louisbourg in North America. He was given the task of carrying Major General Jeffery Amherst, the expedition's commander to Louisbourg. On the way Rodney captured a French East Indiamen, and took it into Vigo. This action saw the beginning of criticism of Rodney that he was obsessed with prize money ahead of strategic importance, with some claiming he spent two weeks or more in Vigo making sure of his prize money instead of carrying Amherst to Louisbourg. This appears to be untrue, as Rodney sailed within four days from Vigo.

Rodney and his ship played a minor role in the taking of Louisburg, which laid the way open for a British campaign up the St Lawrence River the following year, and the fall of Quebec. In August 1758 Rodney sailed for home in charge of six warships and ten transports carrying the captured garrison of Louisbourg who were being taken to Britain as prisoners of war.

Le Havre

On 19 May 1759 he became a rear admiral, and shortly afterwards he was given command of a small squadron. The admiralty had received intelligence that the French had gathered at Le Havre, at the mouth of the River Seine, a large number of flat-bottomed boats and stores which were being collected there for an invasion of the British Isles. After drawing up plans for an attack on Le Havre, Lord Anson briefed Rodney in person. The operation was intended to be a secret with it being implied that Rodney's actual destination was Gibraltar. This soon became impossible to maintain as Rodney tried to acquire pilots who knew the Normandy coast.

Rodney received his final orders on 26 June, and by 4 July he was off Le Havre. His force included six bomb-vessels which could fire at a very high trajectory. In what become known as the Raid on Le Havre, he bombarded the town for two days and nights, and inflicted great loss of war-material on the enemy. The bomb ships fired continuously for fifty two hours, starting large fires. Rodney then withdrew to Spithead, leaving several ships to blockade the mouth of the Seine. Although the attack hadn't significantly affected French plans, it proved a morale boost in Britain. In August Rodney was again sent to Le Havre with similar orders but through a combination of weather and improved French defences he was unable to get his bomb-vessels into position, and the Admiralty accepted his judgement that a further attack was impossible. The invasion was ultimately cancelled because of French naval defeats at the Battle of Lagos and Battle of Quiberon Bay.

From 1759 and 1761 Rodney concentrated on his blockade of the French coast, particularly around Le Havre. In July 1760, with another small squadron, he succeeded in taking many more of the enemy's flat-bottomed boats and in blockading the coast as far as Dieppe.

Martinique

Rodney was elected MP for Penryn in 1761. Lord Anson then selected him to command the naval element of a planned amphibious attack on the lucrative and strategically important French colony of Martinique in the West Indies, promoting him over the heads of a number of more senior officers. A previous British attack on Martinique had failed in 1759. The land forces for the attack on Martinique were to be a combination of troops from various locations including some sent out from Europe and reinforcements from New York City, who were available following the Conquest of Canada which had been completed in 1760. During 1761 Martinique was blockaded by Sir James Douglas to prevent reinforcements or supplies from reaching it. In 1762 he was formally appointed commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands Station.

Within the first three months of 1762, Monckton and he had reduced the important island of Martinique, while both Saint Lucia and Grenada had surrendered to his squadron. During the siege of Fort Royal (later Fort de France) his seamen and marines rendered splendid service on shore. Afterwards Rodney's squadron, amounting to eight ships of the line joined the British expedition to Cuba bringing the total number of ships of the line to 15 by the end of April 1762. However he was later criticised for moving his ships to protect Jamaica from attack by a large Franco-Spanish force that had gathered in the area, rather than waiting to support the expedition as he had been ordered.

Following the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Admiral Rodney returned home having been during his absence made Vice-Admiral of the Blue and having received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In the peace terms Martinique was returned to France.

Years of peace

In 1764, Rodney was created a baronet, and the same year he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From 1765 to 1770, he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Jamaica Station in 1771, he lost his Greenwich post, but a few months later received the office of Rear-Admiral of Great Britain. Until 1774, he held the Jamaica command, and during a period of quiet, was active in improving the naval yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica, and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election expenses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered his fortune, and he could not secure payment of the salary as Rear-Admiral of Great Britain. In February 1778, having just been promoted Admiral of the White, he used every possible exertion to obtain a command to free himself from his money difficulties. By May, he had, through the splendid generosity of his Parisian friend Marshal Biron, effected the latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his children. The debt was repaid out of the arrears due to him on his return. The story that he was offered a French command is fiction.

American War of Independence

In London, he suggested to Lord George Germain that George Washington could "certainly be bought – honours will do it".

Moonlight Battle

Rodney was appointed once more commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands Station late in 1779. His orders were to relieve Gibraltar on his way to the West Indies. He captured a Spanish convoy of 22 vessels off Cape Finisterre on 8 January 1780. Eight days later at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent he defeated the Spanish Admiral Don Juan de Lángara, taking or destroying seven ships. He then brought some relief to Gibraltar by delivering reinforcements and supplies.

Battle of Martinique

On 17 April he fought an action off Martinique with the French Admiral Guichen which, owing to the carelessness of some of Rodney's captains, was indecisive.

Capture of St Eustatius

Following the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War between Britain and the Dutch Republic Rodney, acting under orders from London, captured the valuable Dutch island of St Eustatius on 3 February 1781. Rodney had already identified several individuals on the island who were aiding the Americans, such as "... Mr Smith at the House of Jones – they (the Jews of St. Eustatius, Caribbean Antilles) cannot be too soon taken care of – they are notorious in the cause of America and France..." The island was also home to a Jewish community who were mainly merchants with significant international trading and maritime commercial ties. The Jews were estimated to have been at least 10% of the permanent population of St. Eustatius.

Rodney immediately arrested and imprisoned 101 Jews in the warehouses of the lower city. He treated them harshly, summarily deporting 31 heads of families without mercy or word to their dependents. Rodney looted Jewish personal possessions and even tore out the linings of the clothes of his captives in search of hidden valuables; this alone yielded him 8,000 pounds. When Rodney realised that the Jews might be hiding additional treasure, he dug up the Jewish cemetery.
Even large quantities of non-military trading goods belonging to English merchants on the island were arbitrarily confiscated. This resulted in Rodney being entangled in a series of costly lawsuits for the rest of his life. Still, the wealth Rodney stole on St. Eustatius exceeded his expectations.

Controversy and Yorktown
Rodney wrote to his family with promises of a new London home; to his daughter "the best harpsichord money can purchase". He confidently wrote of a marriage settlement for one of his sons and a soon-to-be purchased commission in the Foot Guards for another son. Rodney also wrote of a dowry for his daughter to marry the Earl of Oxford and noted he would have enough to pay off the young prospective bridegroom's debts.

Other Royal Navy officers scathingly criticised Rodney for his actions. In particular, Viscount Samuel Hood suggested that Rodney should have sailed to intercept a French fleet under Rear Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse, travelling to Martinique. The French fleet instead turned north and headed for the Chesapeake Bay of Virginia and Maryland.

Rodney's delay at St. Eustatius was not the first time he had taken the opportunity to capture prizes over the immediate and expeditious fulfillment of his military duties. During the Seven Years' War Rodney had been ordered to Barbados to link up with Admiral Sir George Pocock and the Earl of Albemarle for an attack on Cuba. Instead, Rodney sent valuable ships off in search of prizes. In 1762, Rodney, after the fall of Martinique, quarreled with the army over prize money. During Rodney's command in Jamaica, 1771–1774, the Earl of Sandwich feared that Rodney might provoke a war with Spain to obtain prize money.

Plundering the wealth of St. Eustatius and capturing many prizes over a number of months, Rodney further weakened his fleet by sending two ships-of-the-line to escort his treasure ships to England, though both were in need of major repair. Nevertheless, he is both blamed and defended for the subsequent disaster at Yorktown. His orders as naval commander in chief in the eastern Caribbean were not only to watch de Grasse but also to protect the valuable sugar trade. Rodney had received intelligence earlier that de Grasse would send part of his fleet before the start of the hurricane season to relieve the French squadron at Newport and to co-operate with Washington, returning in the fall to the Caribbean. The other half of de Grasse's fleet, as usual, would escort the French merchantmen back across the Atlantic. Rodney accordingly made his dispositions in the light of this intelligence. Sixteen of his remaining twenty-one battleships would go with Hood to reinforce the squadron at New York under Sir Thomas Graves, while Rodney, who was in ill health, returned to England with three other battleships as merchant escorts, leaving two others in dock for repair. Hood was well satisfied with these arrangements, informing a colleague that his fleet was "fully equal to defeat any designs of the enemy." What Rodney and Hood could not know was that at the last moment de Grasse decided to take his entire fleet to North America, leaving the French merchantmen to the protection of the Spanish. The result was a decisive French superiority in battleships during the subsequent naval campaign, when the combined fleets of Hood and Graves were unable to relieve the British army of Charles Cornwallis, who was then establishing a base on the York River. This left Cornwallis no option but to surrender, resulting a year later in British recognition of American Independence. Although Rodney's actions at St. Eustatius and afterwards contributed to the British naval inferiority in the Battle of the Chesapeake, the real reason for the disaster at Yorktown was the inability of Britain to match the resources of the other naval powers of Europe.

Battle of the Saintes

After a few months in England, restoring his health and defending himself in Parliament, Sir George returned to his command in February 1782, and a running engagement with the French fleet on 9 April led up to his crowning victory at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica, when on 12 April with thirty-five sail of the line he defeated the Comte de Grasse, who had thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was more than counterbalanced by the greater size and superior sailing qualities of their ships, yet four French ships of the line were captured (including the flagship) as well as one destroyed after eleven hours' fighting.

This important battle saved Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled Rodney to write: "Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals." A long and wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the manoeuvre of "breaking the line" in this battle, but the merits of the victory have never seriously been affected by any difference of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the French line of battle, and the British ships took advantage of this by crossing in two places; many were taken prisoner including the Comte de Grasse.

From 29 April to 10 July he sat with his fleet at Port Royal, Jamaica while his fleet was repaired after the battle.

Recall
In a 15 April letter to Lord George Germain, who unknown to Rodney had recently lost his position, he wrote "Permit me most sincerely to congratulate you on the most important victory I believe ever gained against our perfidious enemies, the French". The news of Rodney's victories reached England on 18 May 1782 via HMS Andromache and boosted national morale in Britain and strengthened the pro-war party, who wished to carry on the fight. George III observed to the new Prime Minister Lord Shelburne that he "must see that the great success of Lord Rodney's engagement has so far roused the nation, that the peace which would have been acquiesced in three months ago would now be a matter for complaint".

Rodney was preparing to sail to meet the enemy off Cape Haitien when  arrived from England, not only relieving him of duty, but also bringing his replacement: Admiral Hugh Pigot. This bizarre exchange was largely the result of changing politics in Britain: Rodney was a Tory placed in charge of the fleet by a Tory government... but the Whigs were now in power. That said, at 64 years of age, he was perhaps due for retirement. However, Pigot and the command to retire was dispatched on 15 May, three days before the news of the victory at the Battle of the Saintes reached the Admiralty. A cutter sent by the Admiralty on 19 May failed to catch the Jupiter so Rodney's fate was sealed.

Rodney quietly quit his quarters on the Formidable and returned to England in more modest quarters on .

Later life

Nepotism and self-interest
Rodney was unquestionably a most able officer, but he was also vain, selfish and unscrupulous, both in seeking prize money, and in using his position to push the fortunes of his family, although such nepotism was common (not to say normal) at the time. He made his son a post-captain at fifteen, and his assiduous self-interest alienated his fellow officers and the Board of Admiralty alike. Naval historian Nicholas A. M. Rodger describes Rodney as possessing weaknesses with respect to patronage "which destroyed the basis of trust upon which alone an officer can command." It must be remembered that he was then prematurely old and racked by disease.

Retirement and death
Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded honour from his country. He had already been created Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of 19 June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension of £2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life until his death in London. He was succeeded as 2nd Baron by his son, George (1753–1802).

In 1782 Rodney was presented with the Freedom of the City of Cork, Ireland.  The National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, holds the gold presentation box that the City of Cork gave him on 16 September 1782.

Rodney died in 1792, and was buried in the church of St Mary the Virgin, Old Alresford, in Hampshire, which adjoins his family seat. There is a memorial to him within St Paul's Cathedral.

Legacy

In February 1783, the government of Jamaica commissioned John Bacon, a renowned British sculptor, to create a statue of Admiral Lord Rodney, as an expression of their appreciation. The Assembly spent $5,200 on the statue alone and a reputed $31,000 on the entire project. Bacon sourced the finest marble from Italy to create the Neo-classical sculpture of the Admiral, dressed in a Roman robe and breastplate. On its completion, the statue was fronted with cannons taken from the French flagship, Ville de Paris, in the battle. The truly huge monument, known as the Rodney Temple stands in Spanish Town, Jamaica, next to the Governor's House.

In late 1782 and early 1783 a large number of existing taverns renamed themselves "The Admiral Rodney" in admiration of the victory.
Admiral Rodney's Pillar was constructed on the peak of Breidden Hill to commemorate his victories.

In St. Paul's Cathedral crypt, there is a memorial to Rodney designed by Charles Rossi.

At least four serving warships of the Royal Navy have been named  in his honour.

Two British public schools, Churcher's College and Emanuel School, have houses named after him.

Due to his popularity with citizens of Newfoundland as governor, small round-bottomed wooden boats, propelled by oars and/or sails, are often referred to as a "Rodney" up to the present day in Newfoundland.

In 1793, following Rodney's death, Scotland's Bard, the poet Robert Burns (1759–1796), published a poem "Lines On The Commemoration Of Rodney's Victory" commemorating the Battle of the Saintes. The poem opens with the lines:
"Instead of a Song, boy's, I'll give you a Toast;
"Here's to the memory of those on the twelfth that we lost!-
"That we lost, did I say?-nay, by Heav'n, that we found;
"For their fame it will last while the world goes round. "

Places named after Rodney

 Rodney Street, Liverpool
 Rodney Street, Edinburgh
 Rodney Bay, Saint Lucia, the Caribbean
 Rodney County, New Zealand
 Rodney Gardens, Perth, Scotland
 Cape Rodney, North Island, New Zealand
 Rodney, Ontario, Canada
 Admiral Rodney – Pub, Worcestershire
 Admiral Rodney - Pub, Criggion Lane, Powys
 Admiral Lord Rodney - Pub, Colne, Lancashire
 Admiral Rodney - Hotel, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
 Admiral Rodney - Pub, Sheffield
 Rodney Inn - Pub, Helston, Cornwall
 The Admiral Rodney Inn - Criggion, Powys (in sight of Rodney's Pillar monument on Breidden Hill)
 The Admiral Rodney Inn - Pub, Hartshorne, Swadlincote, Derbyshire.
 The Admiral Rodney - Pub, Prestbury, Cheshire
 The Lord Rodney - Pub, Keighley, West Yorkshire
 The Admiral Rodney - Pub, Calverton, Nottinghamshire
 The Rodney Hotel - Hotel, Clifton, Bristol
 Admiral Rodney - Pub, Wollaton, Nottinghamshire

References

Bibliography

 The Naval Chronicle, Volume 1 1799, J. Gold, London. (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010.

 Fleming, Thomas. The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival After Yorktown. First Smithsonian books, 2008.
 Hannay, David life of Rodney 1891, Macmillan, London.
 Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution Through British Eyes. Avon Books, 1990.
 Rodger, N. A. M. Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. Penguin Books, 2006.
 Stewart, William. Admirals of the World: A Biographical Dictionary 1500 to the Present. McFarland, 2009.
 Trew, Peter Rodney and the Breaking of the Line 2006 Pen and Sword
 Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Rebellion in America, 1775–1783. Simon & Schuster, 2005.
 David Spinney, Rodney, (1969) Allen & Unwin
 O'Shaunhassey, Andrew Jackson, The Men Who Lost America, (2013), Yale Press
 General Mundy, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney (2 vols, 1830);
 Rodney letters in 9th Report of Hist. manuscripts Coin., pt. iiL; "Memoirs," in Naval Chronicle, i. 353–93; and Charnock, Biographia Navalis, v. 204–28. Lord Rodney published in his lifetime (probably 1789)
 Letters to His Majesty's Ministers, etc., relative to St Eustatius, etc., of which there is a copy in the British Museum. Most of these letters are printed in Mundy's Life, vol. ii., though with many variant readings.

Further reading
 Arbell, Mordechai. The Jewish Nation of the Caribbean, The Spanish-Portuguese Jewish Settlements in the Caribbean and the Guianas (2002) Geffen Press, Jerusalem
 Bernardini, P. & Fiering, N. (editors). The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800 (2001), Berghan Press
 Charnock, John. Biographia Navalis volume, 5 pg 204–228. 1797, London.
 Ezratty, Harry. 500 Years in the Jewish Caribbean – The Spanish and Portuguese Jews in the West Indies (1997) Omni Arts, Baltimore
 Macintyre, Donald. Admiral Rodney (1962) Peter Davies, London.
 Middleton, Richard. The War of American Independence, 1775–1783. Pearson. London, 2012
 Mundy, Godfrey Basil. Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney, Vols 1 and 2 1830
 Syrett, David. The Rodney Papers: selections from the correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney 2007, Ashgate Publishing Ltd
 Hartog, J. History of St. Eustatius (1976) Central USA Bicentennial Committee of the Netherlands Antilles
 Attema, Y. A Short History of St. Eustatius and its Monuments (1976) Wahlberg Pers

External links

 Government House The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador

 "Retribution:Admiral Rodney and the Jews of St. Eustatius", by Louis Arthur Norton
 Chapter III, Rodney: The Form in , by A. T. Mahan

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, also known as Oni Karashi is a type of mustard used as a condiment or as a seasoning in Japanese cuisine. Karashi is made from the crushed seeds of Brassica juncea (brown mustard) and is usually sold in either powder or paste form. Karashi in powder form is prepared by mixing with lukewarm water to a paste and leaving it covered for a few minutes.

Karashi is often served with tonkatsu, oden, nattō, and shumai. It can be used as part of a dipping sauce when mixed with mayonnaise, called karashi mayonnaise or with vinegar and miso, called karashi su miso.

It is also used to make pickled Japanese eggplant, called karashi-nasu.

One of Kumamoto's best-known meibutsu (regional specialities) is karashi renkon: lotus root stuffed with karashi-flavoured miso, deep fried, and served in slices.

Gallery
Karashi is served with various dishes. It is considerably stronger than American or French mustard, so a small amount is enough.

References

Japanese condiments

Karashi


Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (30 March 1818 – 11 March 1888) was a German mayor and cooperative pioneer. Several credit union systems and cooperative banks have been named after Raiffeisen, who pioneered rural credit unions.

Life
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen was born March 30, 1818, at Hamm/Sieg, Westerwald region. He was the seventh of nine children. His father Gottfried Friedrich Raiffeisen was a farmer and also served as the  mayor of Hamm. His family's origins trace back to the 16th century in the Swabian-Franconian region. The family of his mother, Amalie Christiane Susanna Maria, born Lantzendörffer, came from the Siegerland region. Leaving school at the age of 14 he received three years of education from a local pastor before entering the military at the age of 17. His career in the military led him to Cologne, Koblenz, and Sayn. After an eye disease forced him to resign from military service in 1843 he entered public service. He served as the mayor of several towns: from 1845 he was the mayor of Weyerbusch/Westerwald; from 1848 the mayor of Flammersfeld/Westerwald; and the mayor of Heddesdorf from 1852 until late 1865, when, at the age of 47, his worsening health cut his career short. He had contracted typhus in 1863 during an epidemic which took his wife's life. As his small pension was not sufficient to meet the needs of Raiffeisen's family he initially started a small cigar factory and later a wine business.

In 1867, he married the widow Maria Panseroth. She outlived him by 12 years and their marriage remained childless. He died on 11 March 1888 in Neuwied-Heddesdorf, shortly before his 70th birthday.

Work

Raiffeisen conceived of the idea of cooperative self-help during his tenure as the young mayor of Flammersfeld. He was inspired by observing the suffering of the farmers who were often in the grip of loan sharks. He founded the first cooperative lending bank, in effect the first rural credit union in 1864.

Motivated by the misery of the poor during the winter famine of 1846/47 he founded the "Verein für Selbstbeschaffung von Brod und Früchten" (Association for Self-procurement of Bread and Fruits). He bought flour with the help of private donations. The bread was baked in a community-built bakery and distributed on credit to the poorest amongst the population. A bread society as well as an aid society were founded in 1849 in Flammersfeld, and a benevolent society was created in 1854 in Heddesdorf. The societies were pre-cooperative organizations based on the principle of benevolent assistance.

To ensure  liquidity equalization between the small credit banks, in 1872 Raiffeisen created the first rural central bank at Neuwied, the "Rheinische Landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsbank" (Rhenish Agricultural Cooperative Bank). In 1881, Raiffeisen created a printing house in Neuwied that still exists today, carries his name and was merged in 1975 with the German cooperative publishing house "Deutscher Genossenschafts-Verlag".

Philosophy
Raiffeisen stated that there is a connection between poverty and dependency. To fight poverty one should fight dependency first. Based on this idea he came up with the three 'S' formula: self-help, self-governance, and self-responsibility (in the original German: Selbsthilfe, Selbstverwaltung, and Selbstverantwortung). When put into practice, the necessary independence from charity, politics, and loan sharks could be established.

Organizations named for Raiffeisen
Several credit unions are named after Raiffeisen:
Raiffeisen Zentralbank, RZB, a cooperative bank based in Austria, and operating in Eastern Europe.
The Kosovo subsidiary of RZB sponsors the soccer Raiffeisen Superleague of Kosovo.
Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken, a federation of Raiffeisen cooperatives in Germany.
Raiffeisen (Switzerland), the federation of Raiffeisen cooperative banks in Switzerland.
Federazione Raiffeisen (Alto Adige - Sudtirol, Italia), the federation of Raiffeisen cooperative banks in the autonome province of Bozen, Sudtirol.
Raiffeisen Bank (Romania), a branch of the Raiffeisen Zentralbank.
Rabobank, officially Coöperatieve Centrale Raiffeisen-Boerenleenbank B.A., cooperative banking system in the Netherlands.
Banque Raiffeisen, Luxembourg.
KBC Bank, the C stands for Cera (Centrale Raiffeisenkas, meaning Central Raiffeisen Bank).

See also
 Bond of association
 Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch
 History of credit unions
 Microfinance

References

External links
Deutscher Raiffeisenverband e.V.
International Raiffeisen Union, dedicated to promoting the life, work and ideals of Herr Raiffeisen and his cooperative movement's ideals.

1818 births
1888 deaths
People from Altenkirchen (district)
People from the Rhine Province
German Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Mayors of places in Rhineland-Palatinate
German cooperative organizers
Rural community development
Cooperative theorists

Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen


Fritz Gustav Anton Kraemer (July 3, 1908 – September 8, 2003) was an American military educator and advisor. He was Senior Civilian Advisor to the Army Chief of Staff. He is often credited with discovering Henry Kissinger, with whom he maintained a close relationship, and Alexander Haig.

Early years
Kraemer was born in Essen, Germany, the eldest child of Jewish parents Georg Kraemer (born Berlin 1872, died Theresienstadt 1942)  and Anna Johanna (Jennie) Kraemer, née Goldschmidt (born Essen 1886, died Washington DC 1971) and studied at the famous Arndt Gymnasium in Berlin, the London School of Economics and the Universities of Geneva and Frankfurt before earning a doctorate in law at the University of Frankfurt in 1931 and a doctorate in Political Science at the University of Rome in 1934.

League of Nations
During most of the 1930s he was Senior Legal Advisor to the League of Nations at the League's Legal Institute in Rome. In 1933, he married his wife, Britta Bjorkander, a Swedish citizen.

World War II
Kraemer, a Lutheran with a dislike for Nazis, escaped Nazi Germany for America in 1939, leaving behind his wife and son. He was drafted and became a U.S. citizen as an inductee and joined the United States Army in April 1943 ("with two PhDs and one monocle") as an infantryman in the 84th Infantry Division (the "Railsplitter"). His time served at Camp Ritchie classifies him as one of the thousands of Ritchie Boys.

Kraemer fought in the Battle of the Bulge and in the battles of the Ruhr and Rhineland, earning a Battlefield Commission and a Bronze Star in the liberation of his former homeland. In 1945 Kraemer was reunited with his wife and son and returned to Washington, DC, in 1947. He left active duty in 1948 and retired from the Army Reserve in 1963 with the rank of lieutenant colonel.

University teacher, Pentagon strategist, and White House advisor
A gifted talent scout and teacher, in 1944 he discovered young Henry Kissinger, whom Kraemer had recruited into Army division. Kraemer persuaded Kissinger to attend Harvard University. "Kraemer shaped my reading and thinking, influenced my choice of college, awakened my interest in political philosophy and history, inspired both my undergraduate and graduate theses and became an integral and indispensable part of my life" Kissinger said.

In 1961 Kraemer also discovered Alexander Haig, and in 1969 Kraemer recommended Haig as the Military Assistant to then National Security Advisor Kissinger. Sven Kraemer, Fritz G. A. Kraemer's son, also served in the Nixon-Kissinger National Security Council.

From the early 1950s until 1978, when Kraemer retired from civil service, he served as Senior Civilian Advisor to the U.S. Army Chief of Staff in the Pentagon and influenced the Department of Defense during the Cold War. During his time at the Pentagon, he also influenced Secretaries of Defense James R. Schlesinger and Donald Rumsfeld. He served on the White House national security staff under 10 presidents.

Kraemer was described as the father of the neo-conservative movement in US foreign policy. Kraemer was unswerving in his contempt for "provocative weakness", warning that U.S. military weakness invites aggression by America's enemies. He also railed against forsaking one's principles through compromise or conciliation.

A graduate of the U.S. National War College, Kraemer advised, taught, and inspired generations of officers, officials, American Presidents, as well as private citizens.

Kraemer was described as the real Dr Strangelove and Kissinger's Kissinger. He was always flamboyant and eccentric. Kraemer wore a monocle and it became his trademark. Through the cumulative force of his personality, intellect, experience, and encyclopedic knowledge of history and current events, Kraemer shaped the thinking of military leaders and policy makers in the United States and overseas for over half a century. His unbending distrust of Soviet communism influenced the toughened anticommunist policies of the Reagan administration that helped to end the cold war.

In 2001, Kraemer and Dr Hubertus Hoffmann founded The World Security Network Foundation, a think-tank for global affairs in New York, with 22 generals and admirals. The WSN became one of the largest think-tanks in global affairs.

Death
Kraemer died at the age of 95 on September 8, 2003, in Washington, D.C., and was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery on October 8. He was honored by former Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger and his former students Henry Kissinger and Alexander Haig. "He stimulated my thoughts because he had all these experiences and insights," Schlesinger said. Former Secretary of Defence Donald Rumsfeld referred Kraemer as "a true keeper of the flame". Kissinger said that Kraemer was "the greatest single influence of my formative years. An extraordinary man who will be part of my life as long as I draw breath."

Publications
 True Keeper of the Holy Flame - The Legacy of Pentagon Strategist and Mentor Dr Fritz Kraemer, by Hubertus Hoffmann with contributions from Henry Kissinger, Alexander Haig, Donald Rumsfeld, and others. 384 pages, Verlag Inspiration Un Limited, London/Berlin 2012, .
 Fritz Kraemer on Excellence, by Hubertus Hoffmann with contributions from Henry Kissinger, Alexander Haig, Donald Rumsfeld, and others. New York: World Security Network Foundation, 2004.
 The Forty Years War, by Len Colodny and Tom Shachtman. New York: Harper/Collins, 2009.

References

Further reading
 Ideology of Fritz Kraemer at the Heart of Wartime Policy from Vietnam to the Present. Nixontapes.org. Retrieved 2022-28-8.
 Strategic Weapons in Changing World. C-SPAN. Retrieved 2022-28-8.
 Fritz Kraemer on Excellence. The World Security Network Foundation. Retrieved 2022-28-8.

1908 births
2003 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
American Lutherans
Jurists from North Rhine-Westphalia
United States Army personnel of World War II
Ritchie Boys
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Protestants in the German Resistance
Military personnel from Essen
People from the Rhine Province
Military personnel from Washington, D.C.
Writers from Washington, D.C.
20th-century Lutherans
United States Army colonels
United States Army reservists

Fritz G. A. Kraemer


A pack hunter or social predator is a predator belonging to the animal kingdom, which has evolved to hunt its prey by working together with other members of its species.  Normally animals hunting in this way are closely related. Except where only males normally hunt (humans and chimpanzees), all individuals in a family group will contribute to hunting. The most commonly known pack hunter is the gray wolf. The wolf is the closest wild relative of all breeds of domesticated dog. Humans and their closest-living relatives chimpanzees are also pack hunters. Other pack hunting mammals include dolphins, lions and spotted hyenas. A number of avian social predators exist. These include the Harris's hawk, butcherbirds, three of four kookaburra species and many helmetshrikes. There are a few cold-blooded pack hunters. Forexample, simple arthropods such as army ants. Another example is the yellow saddle goatfish Occasionally crocodiles are pack hunters. Hunting in packs allows smaller predators to hunt larger prey.

References

Animals by eating behaviors
Ethology

Pack hunter


Mersey Chambers was built in 1878 for the Harrison Shipping Line in Liverpool, England. it was designed by G.E. Grayson. It is a Grade II listed building.

It fronts St. Nicholas' churchyard, which was laid out as a public garden in 1891 in memory of James Harrison, a partner in the company.

The rear elevation to Covent Garden is a functional design with rows of oriel windows to admit maximum light. Inside, the offices are arranged around a glazed court.

There is a splendid panelled boardroom of around 1920, in classical style.

At the top of the building sits the 'third Liver bird', a smaller version of its more famous relatives.

See also
Architecture of Liverpool

References

History of Liverpool

Mersey Chambers


This is a list of Kenyan first-class cricketers. First-class cricket matches are those between international teams or the highest standard of domestic teams in which teams have two innings each. Generally, matches are eleven players a side but there have been exceptions. Today all matches must be scheduled to have at least three days' duration; historically, matches were played to a finish with no pre-defined timespan. This list is not limited to those who have played first-class cricket for Kenya and may include Kenyan players who played their first-class cricket elsewhere. The list is in alphabetical order.

See also
Kenya national cricket team
List of Kenyan ODI cricketers

References
Kenyan players at CricketArchive
East African players at Cricket Archive

First-class

List of Kenyan first-class cricketers


The NZSA Janet Frame Memorial Award was an award for mid-career fiction or poetry writers. It was named after New Zealand writer Janet Frame, who died in 2004, and funded by a gift from the Janet Frame Literary Trust. It was awarded biennially from 2008 to 2016.

History
The NZSA Janet Frame Memorial Award was an award for New Zealand writers of poetry and imaginative fiction.

Janet Frame was a member of the writers' organisation that is now called the New Zealand Society of Authors, or NZSA (then named the NZ PEN Centre) and had been greatly helped by being awarded the Hubert Church Memorial Award in 1951 for her first book, The Lagoon and other stories. This award was made possible by a bequest to the NZ PEN Centre from Hubert Church's widow in 1945.

A few years after Janet Frame's death, in August 2007, the Janet Frame Literary Trust gave the NZSA a gift to fund an award in her name, to be given to an author of literary or imaginative fiction, or poetry.

The award was first made in 2008 and the fifth and final award was made in 2016. It carried a monetary value of $3,000.

List of winners by year
 2008: Emma Neale
 2010: Tim Jones
 2012: Diane Brown
 2014: Elizabeth Smither
 2016: Laurence Fearnley

See also
 List of New Zealand literary awards

References

New Zealand literary awards
2008 establishments in New Zealand

NZSA Janet Frame Memorial Award


Orazio "Bimbo" Arancio (born 15 November 1967 in Catania) is a former Italian rugby union player and a current coach and sports director. He played as a flanker.

Career
Arancio first played at Fiamma Catania, moving to Amatori Catania in 1986/87, where he would remain until 1995/96. He played for a season at Amatori Rugby Milano, in 1996/97, moving afterwards to the French side of RC Toulonnais, where he played in 1997/98. Returning to Italy, he played at Benetton Treviso for two seasons, from 1998/99 to 1999/2000, being Italian Champion in 1998/99. Arancio played two seasons at Rugby Bologna 1928 (2000/01-2001/02). He then returned to Amatori Catania, where he would play for four seasons, from 2002/03 to 2005/06. His final team would be San Gregorio Rugby, from 2006/07 to 2009/10, finishing his career aged 43 years old. He became player and head coach at the season of 2008/09. He was in charge of the team until 2011/12.

Arancio had 34 caps for Italy, from 1993 to 1999, scoring 2 tries, 10 points in aggregate. He was called for the 1995 Rugby World Cup, playing three games, and for the 1999 Rugby World Cup, playing two games.

He was team manager of the Italy national rugby sevens team, federal counselor of the Italian Rugby Federation and member of the federal counsel of the Italian National Olympic Committee. He was awarded the Golden Star of the INOC in 2006.

External links

1967 births
Living people
Italian rugby union players
Italy international rugby union players
Italian rugby union coaches
Rugby union flankers
Sportspeople from Catania
1995 Rugby World Cup players
1999 Rugby World Cup players

Orazio Arancio


Brian McClendon (born 1964) is an American software designer, developer, and engineer. He was a co-founder and angel investor in Keyhole, Inc.. Keyhole is a geospatial data visualization company that was purchased by Google in 2004. Google bought it so they could create Google Earth. He was inducted into the National Academy of Engineering in 2015.

Early life
McClendon grew up in Lawrence, Kansas. His childhood home, Meadowbrook Apartments in Lawrence, is the default center point of Google Earth. He graduated from Lawrence High School in 1982. He graduated from the University of Kansas in 1986 with a degree in electrical engineering.

Career

Technology
McClendon became a vice president at Google in 2004. This was when Google purchased Keyhole. Keyhole's main application suite, Earth Viewer, formed the basis of Google Earth.

He left Google to join Uber in June 2015. He did this to work on mapping.

In March 2017, he quit Uber (though was still an adviser) to return to his hometown. He said he was interested in Kansas politics.

Politics

In January 2018, he said he would run for Kansas Secretary of State as a Democrat. He had no opponent in the primary election. He was selected as the Democratic candidate. He was defeated in the general election by the Republican candidate Scott Schwab.

References

Other websites
 Website
 NAE Profile

1964 births
Living people
Kansas Democrats
People from Lawrence, Kansas
Google people
American software engineers

Brian McClendon


Yamato Japan and the Gaya Confederacy, which were located directly across the Korea Strait from one another, had very close diplomatic and commercial ties since prehistory until the conquest of Gaya by Silla in 562 AD.

Until recently Japanese historians had believed that Gaya, once called Mimana in Japanese, was controlled by Japan for most of its existence as an overseas colonial possession. Though this theory has been largely refuted since the 1970s, it remains a sensitive and re-occurring issue in modern-day Korea–Japan relations.

Gaya and Japan
Around 300 BC the introduction into Japan of agriculture and metallurgy from the regions of Korea which would later become Gaya helped bring a transition from the   hunter-gatherer Jōmon culture into the Yayoi culture, though it is unclear whether this transition occurred due to a large-scale or small-scale invasion by a mainland Asian group or by the adoption of imports by the native inhabitants of the Japanese islands. As the nations of Yayoi Japan gradually unified, Gaya was the first foreign country with which they established relations and by the beginning of the Kofun period around 250 AD Gaya remained the country with which Japan had the closest links. Many Japanese archaeological sites dating from the Yayoi and the subsequent Kofun period testify to these contacts, with one holding artifacts that were 70% of Gayan origin.

Commerce and migration
A thriving bilateral trade existed between Gaya and Japan. Gaya exported pottery, horse tack, and most crucially, iron and iron products, to Japan, and among the items Japan sent back to Gaya were bronze implements and jade magatama produced at Itoigawa. For most of its existence Gaya enjoyed a monopoly on major trade routes both between Japan and China and between Japan and the rest of Korea, and was thus an important intermediary between Japan and other Asian countries.

Due to its proximity to China the Gaya Confederacy was also politically and technologically ahead of Japan and played an important role in Japan's development as a nation. Mass migrations of Gayans to Japan, often to escape strife between Gaya and neighboring Korean states, allowed Japan to produce on its own some of the products it had previously needed to import. Japan's sue pottery style and its first iron production were founded by Gayan immigrants, and Gayan warriors and officials were widely employed by the Japanese government.

Military alliance
In 399 AD Japan formed a military alliance with Gaya and Baekje in opposition to the growing power of Goguryeo and Silla and from then on the Japanese often dispatched military forces to protect Gaya's territorial integrity, possibly in exchange for iron or other goods. The defeat of one such Japanese expedition to Gaya is described on the Gwanggaeto Stele constructed in 414 AD. Japanese mercenaries were also allowed to serve in Korea, and the characteristically Japanese keyhole-shaped burial mounds which started to appear in Gaya and Paekche at the end of the 5th century are believed to be the tombs of those who died in Korea. While the unity of the Gaya Confederacy was falling apart under pressure from neighboring states, one of the Gayan states, Ara Gaya, even formed a joint military mission with Japan in 540 AD which was staffed by Japanese officers.

In 554 AD Japanese soldiers fought alongside the armies of Gaya and Paekche at the Battle of Kwansan Fortress. The defeat of this alliance by Silla sealed the fate of Gaya which was conquered by Silla in 562 AD. By this time Paekche had already broken Gaya's monopoly on trade with Japan and would replace Gaya as Japan's most important conduit for foreign trade and mainland Asian culture.

"Mimana" historical debate
The Nihon Shoki, an ancient text of Japanese history, states that Empress Jingū led a military expedition on the Korean peninsula which defeated the forces of Gaya, Paekche, and Silla, and made Gaya, which was referred to as Mimana, into a colony under the control of a Japanese administrative office called "Mimana Nihon Fu". By the calculation of Japanese historians, it was said that this event took place in either 249 AD or 369 AD, and that Japan's domination of Mimana lasted until 562 AD. Though scholars had doubts about some aspects of this story, it was accepted as historical fact in both Japan and in Western countries that Japan had indeed possessed a colony called Mimana on the Korea peninsula between these dates. This theory was particularly popular in Japan prior to and during Japan's occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945 and was used as a justification for it. However, the theory continued to be supported well after 1945, including in the works of such influential Western Japanologists as George Sansom, John Whitney Hall, and Edwin Reischauer.

Apart from the Nihon Shoki, evidence which was cited at the time to prove Japan's conquest of Gaya/Mimana included the exhuming of contemporary Japanese weaponry and armor from archeological sites in Korea, the inscription on the Gwanggaeto Stele which indicates that Japanese forces were occupying Gaya, and the titles received by Japanese monarchs from China's Liu Song dynasty acknowledging Japan's control over southern Korea. Today however, Japanese artifacts in Korea are seen as evidence of Japanese armies and mercenaries dispatched at the request of Gaya and Paekche, the inscription on the Gwanggaeto Stele is regarded as an exaggeration to justify Kokuryo's attacks, and the titles granted by China are considered to be most likely purely symbolic. Historians have also called into question the historical reliability of the Nihon Shoki's account of events, as Japan was far behind Gaya technologically and still politically fractious at the time when Empress Jingu was alleged to have successfully invaded Korea.

In 1963 North Korean historian Kim Sŏk-hyŏng became the first scholar to call into question the existence of a Japanese colony in ancient South Korea. He instead put forward the so-called "branch kingdom theory", stating that "Mimana" was not in Korea at all but was a settlement of Gayan immigrants on the Japanese mainland in modern-day Okayama Prefecture which was eventually absorbed into Yamato Japan. Though Kim's theory is today not widely accepted outside of North Korea, it did spur other historians to pursue further research in this field. Hideo Inoue, the first Japanese historian to propose an alternative to the Japanese colonial theory, argued in a 1972 book that Mimana was actually a small self-governing settlement of Japanese immigrants living in Korea, though this idea is likewise not widely supported among academics.

The theory which is today dominant among both Korean and Japanese historians is the "diplomatic delegation theory", originally put forward by Masayuki Ukeda in 1974, which proposes that "Mimana Nihon Fu" as described in the Nihon Shoki was actually a sort of Japanese embassy handling diplomatic relations between the independent states of Gaya and Japan.

Rurarz describes five main theories about Mimana, the first of which was proposed by Suematsu. A second theory about Mimana was proposed by North Korean scholar Gim Seokhyeong, who suggested that Mimana was a political entity from the Korean Peninsula (possibly Gaya) who had a colony on the Japanese islands, somewhere around the modern-day city of Ōyama, Ōita in Ōita Prefecture; thus Nihongi should be understood as referring only to the Japanese islands and Jingū's conquest a description of a migration to a land in the Japanese Archipelago, not the Korean Peninsula. This is related to the so-called horserider invasion theory in which horse riders from the Korean Peninsula are hypothesized to have successfully invaded Japan, and in so doing introduced horses, not native to the islands, to Japan. A third theory has been proposed by Japanese scholar Inoue Hideo, who argued that ancient Japanese Wa people might have settled a region in the Korean peninsula as long ago as around the Neolithic, and the Mimana state was an enclave of this group. A fourth theory was put forward by South Korean scholar Cheon Gwan-u, who argued that the events present a history of the Korean Baekje state, which was allied with Yamato Japan, and whose leaders fled there after Baekje's fall in the 7th century. In this version, Mimana would refer to Baekje, or some poorly understood fragment of that state, that fought against Gaya. The fifth theory, which Rurarz describes as a "compromise version of recent young Japanese and Korean scholars" argues that there never was a Mimana state as such, and the term refers to Japanese diplomatic envoys active in the Korean peninsula in that era.

According to Han Yong-u, Yamato Japan could have established an office in Gaya in order to export iron to Japan; this theory suggests that Mimana was a diplomatic embassy, and Jingū's conquest would be a dramatization of efforts undertaken to establish that embassy.

In 2010, a joint study group of historians sponsored by the governments of Japan and South Korea agreed that Gaya had never been military colonized by ancient Japan, but Japanese were active in the 6th century, a declaration deemed by the newspaper Chosun Ilbo to be a turning point in relations between the two countries.

The "Mimana" controversy as an international issue
Scholar Mark Peterson has stated, "Today nothing offends the Korean sense of nationalism and resurrects the images of the brutal Japanese takeover more than to hear of one of its former kingdoms referred to by the Japanese name, Mimana – it has become one of the symbols of Japanese abuses in Korea over the centuries."

Still, the debate among historians on the status of Mimana did not become a source of tension between Korea and its neighbors until the Japanese textbook controversy of 1982 which catapulted the way the Japanese viewed their history into the international spotlight. The crisis was sparked by allegations that Japan's Ministry of Education had been changing the word used in grade school history textbooks to describe Japan's overseas conquests from "invasion" to the more innocuous "advance". However, the controversy expanded to other issues, including the fact that the textbooks still discussed ancient Japan's conquest and rule of Mimana. The South Korea government formally protested the books, condemning their descriptions of Mimana as "distorted and offensive" and eventually Japan agreed to check the books for errors within two years time.

Since then the issue of Mimana has been a reoccurring issue in Korea's international relations. Bill Gates recalled in 1997 that the release of the Korean edition of Microsoft Encarta which mentioned Japan's domination of Mimana was greeted with mass outrage in South Korea with one major newspaper calling for a boycott of Microsoft products.

Another major eruption of the controversy occurred in April 2001 when the Japanese government approved for use in schools a history textbook written by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform which endorsed the theory of Japan's colonial occupation of Mimana. South Korea issued a strongly worded protest the following month which was rebuffed by Japan on the grounds that complaints about textbooks had to be issued during the approval process rather than after it. Though the textbook was not widely adopted by schools, when it came up for re-certification one year later the Japanese government requested that references to Japan's "base of operations" in Mimana be deleted "in view of scholarly opinions at this time concerning historic relations between Japan and Korea".

Shortly thereafter, during the controversy over the Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the South Korean government also reacted angrily to the government of China which had posted a summary of Korean history on the Foreign Ministry's website which implied that ancient Japan had controlled the southern Korean Peninsula. China responded by deleting its entire description of Korean history prior to 1945.

References

Japan–Korea relations
Gaya confederacy
Kofun period

Relations between Gaya and ancient Japan


An autoimmune disease is a condition that results from an anomalous response of the adaptive immune system, wherein it mistakenly targets and attacks healthy, functioning parts of the body as if they were foreign organisms. It is estimated that there are more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, with recent scientific evidence suggesting the existence of potentially more than 100 distinct conditions. Nearly any body part can be involved.

Autoimmune diseases are a separate class from autoinflammatory diseases. Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or, fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases are different. A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.

Symptoms of autoimmune diseases can significantly vary, primarily based on the specific type of the disease and the body part that it affects. Symptoms are often diverse and can be fleeting, fluctuating from mild to severe, and typically comprise low-grade fever, feeling tired, and general malaise. However, some autoimmune diseases may present with more specific symptoms such as joint pain, skin rashes (e.g., urticaria), or neurological symptoms.

The exact causes of autoimmune diseases remain unclear and are likely multifactorial, involving both genetic and environmental influences.  While some diseases like lupus exhibit familial aggregation, suggesting a genetic predisposition, other cases have been associated with infectious triggers or exposure to environmental factors, implying a complex interplay between genes and environment in their etiology.

Some of the most common diseases that are generally categorized as autoimmune include celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Graves' disease, inflammatory bowel diseases (such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata, Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Diagnosing autoimmune diseases can be challenging due to their diverse presentations and the transient nature of many symptoms.

Treatment modalities for autoimmune diseases vary based on the type of disease and its severity.  Therapeutic approaches primarily aim to manage symptoms, reduce immune system activity, and maintain the body's ability to fight diseases. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and immunosuppressants are commonly used to reduce inflammation and control the overactive immune response. In certain cases, intravenous immunoglobulin may be administered to regulate the immune system. Despite these treatments often leading to symptom improvement, they usually do not offer a cure and long-term management is often required.

In terms of prevalence, a UK study found that 10% of the population were affected by an autoimmune disease. Women are more commonly affected than men. Autoimmune diseases predominantly begin in adulthood, although they can start at any age. The initial recognition of autoimmune diseases dates back to the early 1900s, and since then, advancements in understanding and management of these conditions have been substantial, though much more is needed to fully unravel their complex etiology and pathophysiology.

Signs and symptoms

Autoimmune diseases represent a vast and diverse category of disorders that, despite their differences, share some common symptomatic threads. These shared symptoms occur as a result of the body's immune system mistakenly attacking its own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. However, due to the broad range of autoimmune diseases, the specific presentation of symptoms can significantly vary based on the type of disease, the organ systems affected, and individual factors such as age, hormonal status, and environmental influences. An individual may simultaneously have more than one autoimmune disease (known as polyautoimmunity), further complicating the symptomatology.

Symptoms that are commonly associated with autoimmune diseases include:
 fatigue
 low-grade fever
 malaise (a general feeling of discomfort or unease)
 muscle aches
 joint pain
 skin rashes

These symptoms often reflect the body's systemic inflammatory response. However, their occurrence and intensity can fluctuate over time, leading to periods of heightened disease activity, referred to as flare-ups, and periods of relative inactivity, known as remissions.

The specific presentation of symptoms largely depends on the location and type of autoimmune response. For instance, in rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease primarily affecting the joints, symptoms typically include joint pain, swelling, and stiffness. On the other hand, type 1 diabetes, which results from an autoimmune attack on the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas, primarily presents with symptoms related to high blood sugar, such as increased thirst, frequent urination, and unexplained weight loss.

Commonly affected areas in autoimmune diseases include blood vessels, connective tissues, joints, muscles, red blood cells, skin, and endocrine glands such as the thyroid gland (in diseases like Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease) and the pancreas (in type 1 diabetes). The impacts of these diseases can range from localized damage to certain tissues, alteration in organ growth and function, to more systemic effects when multiple tissues throughout the body are affected.

The appearance of these signs and symptoms can not only provide clues for the diagnosis of an autoimmune condition, often in conjunction with tests for specific biological markers, but also help monitor disease progression and response to treatment. Ultimately, due to the diverse nature of autoimmune diseases, a multidimensional approach is often needed for the management of these conditions, taking into consideration the variety of symptoms and their impacts on individuals' lives.

Types

While it is estimated that over 80 recognized types of autoimmune diseases exist, this section provides an overview of some of the most common and well-studied forms.

Coeliac disease
Coeliac disease is an immune reaction to eating gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye.  For those with the disease, eating gluten triggers an immune response in the small intestine, leading to damage on the villi, small fingerlike projections that line the small intestine and promote nutrient absorption.  This explains the increased risk of gastrointestinal cancers, as the gastrointestinal tract includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus, all areas that the ingested gluten would traverse in digestion. The incidence of gastrointestinal cancer can be partially reduced or eliminated if a patient removes gluten from their diet. Additionally, coeliac disease is correlated with lymphoproliferative disorders.

Graves' disease
Graves' disease is a condition characterized by development of autoantibodies to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors (TRAb). The binding of TRAb autoantibodies to TSH receptor results in unregulated production and release of thyroid hormone, which can lead to stimulatory effects such as rapid heart rate, weight loss, nervousness, and irritability. Other symptoms more specific to Graves' disease include bulging eyes and swelling of the lower legs.

Inflammatory bowel disease
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) encompasses conditions characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In both cases, individuals with IBD lose immune tolerance for normal bacteria present in the gut microbiome. Symptoms include severe diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue, and weight loss. IBD is associated with cancers of the gastrointestinal tract and some lymphoproliferative cancers.

Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease in which the immune system attacks myelin, a protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, causing communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body. Symptoms can include fatigue, difficulty walking, numbness or tingling, muscle weakness, and problems with coordination and balance.  MS is associated with an increased risk of central nervous system cancer, primarily in the brain.

Rheumatoid arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) primarily targets the joints, causing persistent inflammation that results in joint damage and pain. It's often symmetrical, meaning that if one hand or knee has it, the other one does too. RA can also affect the heart, lungs, and eyes. Additionally, the chronic inflammation and over-activation of the immune system creates an environment that favors further malignant transformation of other cells, perhaps explaining the associations with cancer of the lungs and skin as well as the increased risk of other hematologic cancers, none of which are directly affected by the inflammation of joints.

Psoriasis and Psoriatic arthritis
Psoriasis is a skin condition characterized by the rapid buildup of skin cells, leading to scaling on the skin's surface. Inflammation and redness around the scales is common. Some individuals with psoriasis also develop psoriatic arthritis, which causes joint pain, stiffness, and swelling.

Systemic lupus erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), referred to simply as lupus, is a systemic autoimmune disease that affects multiple organs, including the skin, joints, kidneys, and the nervous system. It is characterized by a widespread loss of immune tolerance. The disease is characterized by periods of flares and remissions, and symptoms range from mild to severe. Women, especially those of childbearing age, are disproportionately affected.

Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is a condition resulting from the immune system attacking insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels. Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, and unexplained weight loss. It's most commonly diagnosed in children and young adults.

Causes
The exact causes of autoimmune diseases remain largely unknown; however, research has suggested that a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors, as well as certain infections, may contribute to the development of these disorders.

The human immune system is equipped with several mechanisms to maintain a delicate balance between defending against foreign invaders and protecting its own cells. To achieve this, it generates both T cells and B cells, which are capable of reacting with self-proteins. However, in a healthy immune response, self-reactive cells are generally either eliminated before they become active, rendered inert via a process called anergy, or their activities are suppressed by regulatory cells.

Genetics
A familial tendency to develop autoimmune diseases suggests a genetic component. Some conditions, like lupus and multiple sclerosis, often occur in several members of the same family, indicating a potential hereditary link. Additionally, certain genes have been identified that increase the risk of developing specific autoimmune diseases.

Genetic predisposition
Evidence suggests a strong genetic component in the development of autoimmune diseases. For instance, conditions such as lupus and multiple sclerosis frequently appear in multiple members of the same family, signifying a potential hereditary link. Furthermore, certain genes have been identified that augment the risk of developing specific autoimmune diseases.

Experimental methods like genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have proven instrumental in pinpointing genetic risk variants potentially responsible for autoimmune diseases. For example, these studies have been used to identify risk variants for diseases such as Type 1 diabetes and Rheumatoid arthritis.

In twin studies, autoimmune diseases consistently demonstrate a higher concordance rate among identical twins compared with fraternal twins. For instance, the rate in multiple sclerosis is 35% in identical twins compared to 6% in fraternal twins.

Balancing infection and autoimmunity
There's increasing evidence that certain genes selected during evolution offer a balance between susceptibility to infection and our capacity to avoid autoimmune diseases. For example, variants in the ERAP2 gene provide some resistance to infection even though they increase the risk of autoimmunity (positive selection). In contrast, variants in the TYK2 gene protect against autoimmune diseases but increase the risk of infection (negative selection). This suggests the benefits of infection resistance may outweigh the risks of autoimmune diseases, particularly given the historically high risk of infection.

Several experimental methods such as the genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been used to identify genetic risk variants that may be responsible for diseases such as Type 1 diabetes and Rheumatoid arthritis.

Similarly, in twin studies, autoimmune diseases consistently demonstrate a higher concordance rate among identical twins compared with fraternal twins, e.g. 35% vs. 6% in multiple sclerosis.

Environmental factors
A significant number of environmental factors have been implicated in the development and progression of various autoimmune diseases, either directly or as catalysts. Current research suggests that up to seventy percent of autoimmune diseases could be attributed to environmental influences, which encompass an array of elements such as chemicals, infectious agents, dietary habits, and gut dysbiosis. However, a unifying theory that definitively explains the onset of autoimmune diseases remains elusive, emphasizing the complexity and multifaceted nature of these conditions.

Various environmental triggers are identified, some of which include:
 Impaired oral tolerance
 Gut dysbiosis
 Increased gut permeability
 Heightened immune reactivity

Chemicals, which are either a part of our immediate environment or found in drugs, are key players in this context. Examples of such chemicals include hydrazines, hair dyes, trichloroethylene, tartrazines, hazardous wastes, and industrial emissions.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has been implicated as a potential causative factor in the development of autoimmune diseases, such as dermatomyositis. Furthermore, exposure to pesticides has been linked with an increased risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Vitamin D, on the other hand, appears to play a protective role, particularly in older populations, by preventing immune dysfunctions.

Infectious agents are also being increasingly recognized for their role as T cell activators  a crucial step in triggering autoimmune diseases. The exact mechanisms by which they contribute to disease onset remain to be fully understood. For instance, certain autoimmune conditions like Guillain-Barre syndrome and rheumatic fever are thought to be triggered by infections. Furthermore, analysis of large-scale data has revealed a significant link between SARS-CoV-2 infection (the causative agent of COVID-19) and an increased risk of developing a wide range of new-onset autoimmune diseases.

Hormonal factors
Autoimmune diseases disproportionately affect women, suggesting a possible role for hormonal factors. For example, some autoimmune diseases tend to flare during pregnancy, when hormone levels are high, and improve after menopause, when hormone levels decrease. However, the precise role hormones play in the development of these conditions remains a subject of ongoing research.

Infections
Certain viral and bacterial infections have been linked to autoimmune diseases. For instance, research suggests that the bacterium that causes strep throat, Streptococcus pyogenes, might trigger rheumatic fever, an autoimmune response affecting the heart. Similarly, some studies propose a link between the Epstein-Barr virus, responsible for mononucleosis, and the subsequent development of multiple sclerosis or lupus.

Dysregulated immune response
Another area of interest is the immune system's ability to distinguish between self and non-self, a function that's compromised in autoimmune diseases. In healthy individuals, immune tolerance prevents the immune system from attacking the body's own cells. When this process fails, the immune system may produce antibodies against its own tissues, leading to an autoimmune response.

Negative selection and the role of the thymus
The elimination of self-reactive T cells occurs primarily through a mechanism known as "negative selection" within the thymus, an organ responsible for the maturation of T cells. This process serves as a key line of defense against autoimmunity. If these protective mechanisms fail, a pool of self-reactive cells can become functional within the immune system, contributing to the development of autoimmune diseases.

Molecular mimicry

Some infectious agents, like Campylobacter jejuni, bear antigens that resemble, but are not identical to, the body's self-molecules. This phenomenon, known as molecular mimicry, can lead to cross-reactivity, where the immune response to such infections inadvertently results in the production of antibodies that also react with self-antigens. An example of this is Guillain–Barré syndrome, in which antibodies generated in response to a C. jejuni infection also react with the gangliosides in the myelin sheath of peripheral nerve axons.

Diagnosis
Diagnosing autoimmune disorders can be complex due to the wide range of diseases within this category and their often overlapping symptoms. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies. Generally, the diagnostic process involves a combination of medical history evaluation, physical examination, laboratory tests, and, in some cases, imaging or biopsies.

Medical history and examination

The first step in diagnosing autoimmune disorders typically involves a thorough evaluation of the patient's medical history and a comprehensive physical examination. Clinicians often pay close attention to the patient's symptoms, family history of autoimmune diseases, and any exposure to environmental factors that might trigger an autoimmune response. The physical examination can reveal signs of inflammation or organ damage, which are common features of autoimmune disorders.

Laboratory tests

Laboratory testing plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases. These tests can identify the presence of certain autoantibodies or other immune markers that indicate a self-directed immune response.

 Autoantibody testing: Many autoimmune diseases are characterized by the presence of autoantibodies. Blood tests can identify these antibodies, which are directed against the body's own tissues. For example, antinuclear antibody (ANA) testing is commonly used in the diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other autoimmune diseases.
 Complete Blood Count (CBC): A CBC can provide valuable information about the number and characteristics of different blood cells, which can be affected in some autoimmune diseases.
 C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR): These tests measure the levels of inflammation in the body, which is often elevated in autoimmune disorders.
 Organ-specific tests: Certain autoimmune diseases target specific organs, so tests to evaluate the function of these organs can aid in diagnosis. For example, thyroid function tests are used in diagnosing autoimmune thyroid disorders, while a biopsy can diagnose celiac disease by identifying damage to the small intestine.

Imaging studies

In some cases, imaging studies may be used to assess the extent of organ involvement and damage. For example, chest x-rays or CT scans can identify lung involvement in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus, while an MRI can reveal inflammation or damage in the brain and spinal cord in multiple sclerosis.

Differential diagnosis

Given the variety and nonspecific nature of symptoms that can be associated with autoimmune diseases, differential diagnosis—determining which of several diseases with similar symptoms is causing a patient's illness—is an important part of the diagnostic process. This often involves ruling out other potential causes of symptoms, such as infections, malignancies, or genetic disorders.

Multidisciplinary approach

Given the systemic nature of many autoimmune disorders, a multidisciplinary approach may be necessary for their diagnosis and management. This can involve rheumatologists, endocrinologists, gastroenterologists, neurologists, dermatologists, and other specialists, depending on the organs or systems affected by the disease.

In summary, the diagnosis of autoimmune disorders is a complex process that requires a thorough evaluation of clinical, laboratory, and imaging data. Due to the diverse nature of these diseases, an individualized approach, often involving multiple specialists, is crucial for an accurate diagnosis.

Treatment
Treatment depends on the type and severity of the condition. The majority of the autoimmune diseases are chronic and there is no definitive cure, but symptoms can be alleviated and controlled with treatment.
Standard treatment methods include:
 Vitamin or hormone supplements for what the body is lacking due to the disease (insulin, vitamin B12, thyroid hormone, etc.)
 Blood transfusions if the disease is blood related
 Physical therapy if the disease impacts bones, joints, or muscles

Traditional treatment options include immunosuppressant drugs to reduce the immune response against the body's own tissues, such as:
 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce inflammation
 Glucocorticoids to reduce inflammation
 Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) to decrease the damaging tissue and organ effects of the inflammatory autoimmune response

Because immunosuppressants weaken the overall immune response, relief of symptoms must be balanced with preserving the patient's ability to combat infections, which could potentially be life-threatening.

Non-traditional treatments are being researched, developed, and used, especially when traditional treatments fail. These methods aim to either block the activation of pathogenic cells in the body, or alter the pathway that suppresses these cells naturally. These treatments aim to be less toxic to the patient and have more specific targets. Such options include:
 Monoclonal antibodies that can be used to block pro-inflammatory cytokines
 Antigen-specific immunotherapy which allows immune cells to specifically target the abnormal cells that cause autoimmune disease
 Co-stimulatory blockade that works to block the pathway that leads to the autoimmune response
 Regulatory T cell therapy that utilizes this special type of T cell to suppress the autoimmune response
 Thymoquinone, a compound found the flower Nigella sativa, has been studied for potential in treating several autoimmune diseases due to its effects on inflammation.

Epidemiology
The first estimate of US prevalence for autoimmune diseases as a group was published in 1997 by Jacobson, et al. They reported US prevalence to be around 9 million, applying prevalence estimates for 24 diseases to a US population of 279 million. Jacobson's work was updated by Hayter & Cook in 2012. This study used Witebsky's postulates, as revised by Rose & Bona, to extend the list to 81 diseases and estimated overall cumulative US prevalence for the 81 autoimmune diseases at 5.0%, with 3.0% for males and 7.1% for females. The estimated community prevalence, which takes into account the observation that many people have more than one autoimmune disease, was 4.5% overall, with 2.7% for males and 6.4% for females. National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys conducted in the US from the 1980s to present day, have shown an increase of antinuclear antibodies, a common biomarker for autoimmune diseases. This shows that there has been an increase in the prevalence of autoimmune diseases in recent years pointing to a stronger influence of environment factors as a risk factor for autoimmune diseases.

Prevalence
Prevalence  of some common autoimmune diseases, which varies geographically, is listed below.

Research
In both autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, the condition arises through aberrant reactions of the human adaptive or innate immune systems. In autoimmunity, the patient's immune system is activated against the body's own proteins. In chronic inflammatory diseases, neutrophils and other leukocytes are constitutively recruited by cytokines and chemokines, resulting in tissue damage.

Mitigation of inflammation by activation of anti-inflammatory genes and the suppression of inflammatory genes in immune cells is a promising therapeutic approach. There is a body of evidence that once the production of autoantibodies has been initialized, autoantibodies have the capacity to maintain their own production.

Stem-cell therapy

Stem cell transplantation is being studied and has shown promising results in certain cases.

Medical trials to replace the pancreatic β cells that are destroyed in type 1 diabetes are in progress.

Altered glycan theory

According to this theory, the effector function of the immune response is mediated by the glycans (polysaccharides) displayed by the cells and humoral components of the immune system. Individuals with autoimmunity have alterations in their glycosylation profile such that a proinflammatory immune response is favored. It is further hypothesized that individual autoimmune diseases will have unique glycan signatures.

Hygiene hypothesis
According to the hygiene hypothesis, high levels of cleanliness expose children to fewer antigens than in the past, causing their immune systems to become overactive and more likely to misidentify own tissues as foreign, resulting in autoimmune or allergic conditions such as asthma.

Vitamin D influence on immune response
Vitamin D is known as an immune regulator that assists in the adaptive and innate immune response. A deficiency in vitamin D, from hereditary or environmental influence, can lead to a more inefficient and weaker immune response and seen as a contributing factor to the development of autoimmune diseases. With vitamin D present, vitamin D response elements (VDRE) are encoded and expressed via pattern recognition receptors (PRR) responses and the genes associated with those responses. The specific DNA target sequence expressed is known as 1,25-(OH)2D3. The expression of 1,25-(OH)2D3 can be induced by macrophages, dendritic cells, T-cells, and B-cells. In the presence of 1,25-(OH)2D3, the immune system's production of inflammatory cytokines are suppressed and more tolerogenic regulatory T-cells are expressed. This is due to vitamin D's influence on cell maturation, specifically T-cells, and their phenotype expression. Lack of 1,25-(OH)2D3 expression can lead to less tolerant regulatory T-cells, larger presentation of antigens to less tolerant T-cells, and increased inflammatory response.

See also
 List of autoimmune diseases

References

Further reading

External links

Medical lists
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Autoimmune disease