The General Maritime Treaty of 1820 was initially signed between the rulers of Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Great Britain in January 1820, with the nearby island state of Bahrain acceding to the treaty in the following February. Its full title was the "General Treaty for the Cessation of Plunder and Piracy by Land and Sea, Dated February 5, 1820".

The treaty was signed following decades of maritime conflict in the Gulf, with British, French, and Omani flagged ships involved in a series of disputes and actions that were characterized by officials of the British East India Company as acts of piracy on the part of the dominant local maritime force, the Qawasim. It was to lead to the establishment of the British protectorate over the Trucial States, which would endure until the independence of the United Arab Emirates on 2 December 1971.

British expedition

The treaty followed the fall of Ras Al Khaimah, Rams and Dhayah to a punitive British expedition mounted from Bombay in 1819, principally targeting the fleet of the Qawasim, a seafaring tribe who had been accused by the British of "piracy and plunder." Ras Al Khaimah fell to the force on 9 December 1819, with Dhayah falling on 22 December.

The British expeditionary force then blew up the town of Ras Al Khaimah and established a garrison there of 800 sepoys and artillery, before visiting Jazirat Al Hamra, which was found to be deserted. They went on to destroy the fortifications and larger vessels of Umm Al Qawain, Ajman, Fasht, Sharjah, Abu Hail, and Dubai. Ten vessels that had taken shelter in Bahrain were also destroyed. The Royal Navy suffered no casualties during the action.

With the Sheikhs of these communities either in captivity or choosing to give themselves up, a treaty was proposed in order to govern peaceful relationships in the future. The treaty opens, 'In the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate! Praise be to God, who hath ordained peace to be a blessing to his creatures.'

Under the auspices of the UK's representative Sir William Keir Grant, the treaty prohibited piracy in the Persian Gulf, banned some forms of slavery and required all usable ships to be registered with British forces by flying distinctive red and white flags which exist today as the flags of the respective emirates.

The treaty was part of the UK's strategic policy of ensuring an open lines of communication between the British Raj and home islands, by excluding rival European powers from the Persian Gulf region, notably Russia  and France. Britain also sought to pacify the Persian Gulf by preserving the independence of Qajar Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and the Emirate of Nejd.

Preliminary agreements
Many of the Sheikhs signatory to the 1820 treaty had made prior agreements with the British. The Ruler of Ras Al Khaimah ceded the town itself and the area of Maharah to the British for use as a garrison, and most other coastal Sheikhs ceded boats and armaments in return for an undertaking that the British would not enter or lay waste to their towns. Ajman, Umm Al Qawain and Sharjah all came under one preliminary agreement signed with Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr, while others were undertaken with the Rulers of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Khatt and Falayah. Like the 1820 treaty itself, this last preliminary agreement was signed by Hassan bin Rahma Al Qasimi, formerly Sheikh of Ras Al Khaimah.

Agreements
The first article of the treaty asserts: "There shall be a cessation of plunder and piracy by land and sea on the part of the Arabs, who are parties to this contract, for ever." It then goes on to define piracy as being any attack that is not an action of "acknowledged war". The "pacificated Arabs" agree, on land and sea, to carry a flag being a red rectangle contained within a white border of equal width to the contained rectangle, "with or without letters on it, at their option". This flag was to be a symbol of peace with the British government and each other.

The vessels of the "friendly Arabs" were to carry a paper (register), signed by their chief and detailing the vessel. They should also carry a documented port clearance, which would name the "Nacodah" (today generally spelled nakhuda), crew and number of armed men on board as well as the port of origin and destination. They would produce these on request to any British or other vessel which requested them.

The treaty also makes provision for the exchange of envoys, for the "friendly Arabs" to act in concert against outside forces and to desist from putting people to death after they have given up their arms or to carry them off as slaves. The treaty prohibits slaving "from the coasts of Africa or elsewhere" or the carrying of slaves in their vessels. The "friendly Arabs", flying the agreed flag, would be free to enter, leave and trade with British ports and "if any should attack them, the British Government will take notice of it."

Signatories

The treaty was issued in triplicate and signed at mid-day on 8 January 1820 in Ras Al Khaimah by Major-General Keir Grant together with Hassan bin Rahma Al-Qassimi, Sheikh of 'Hatt and Falna' ('Hatt' being the modern day village of Khatt and 'Falna' being the modern day suburb of Ras Al Khaimah, Fahlain near the location of Al Falayah Fort) and Rajib bin Ahmed Al-Zaabi, Sheikh of 'Jourat al Kamra' (Jazirah Al Hamra). A translation was prepared by Captain JP Thompson.

The treaty was then signed on 11 January 1820 in Ras Al Khaimah by Sheikh Shakbout of 'Aboo Dhebbee' (Abu Dhabi) and on 15 January by Hassan bin Ali, Sheikh of Rams and Al Dhaya (named on the treaty document as 'Sheikh of 'Zyah').

The treaty was subsequently signed in Sharjah by Saeed bin Saif of Dubai (on behalf of Mohammed bin Haza bin Zaal, the Sheikh of Dubai was in his minority) on 28 January 1820 and then in Sharjah again by Sultan bin Suggur, Sheikh of Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah (at Falayah Fort) on 4 February 1820. On 15 March 1820 Rashid bin Humaid, Sheikh of Ajman and Abdullah bin Rashid, Sheikh of Umm Al Qawain both signed at Falayah.

As seen above, the treaty bears some quaint spellings of the names of the signatories ('Abdoola bin Rashid'), the dates ('the month of Rubee-oos-Sanee') and the territories ('Aboo Dhebbee', Shargah, Ejman and Umm ool Keiweyn'). Nevertheless, it was to lead to the recognition by the British of the Trucial States and to a series of further treaties formalising the British Protectorate over the UAE and eventually to the process leading to the formation of the modern United Arab Emirates on 2 December 1971.

Bombay reaction
The treaty having been signed by Grant and all of the Trucial Rulers, the Government in Bombay made clear that while it was happy with Grant's management of the military expedition, it was most dissatisfied with his leniency over the coastal tribes and desired, 'if it were not too late, to introduce some conditions of greater stringency'. The release of Husain bin Ali, the Wahhabi leader and chief of Rams and Dhayah, was particularly regretted. In Bombay's opinion, the treaty should have forbade the building of coastal fortifications, restricted shipbuilding and stipulated powers of search and confiscation as well as empowering British forces to destroy any construction undertaken in the face of the prohibition. Grant's response was spirited, pointing out that to have enforced extreme measures would have meant pursuing the chiefs into the interior rather than accepting their voluntary submission. This would have contravened Grant's instructions. In the end, Bombay allowed the treaty to stand.

Aftermath
The treaty, or perhaps more accurately the memory of the punitive actions that had preceded its signing, virtually eliminated piracy on the coast as a profession and, although there were occasional incidents, the level of maritime conflict – particularly against foreign vessels – dropped dramatically. The Government in Bombay continued to press for more stringent measures against the coastal Sheikhs, including an incident in 1823 when a tower erected in Ras Al Khaimah was forcibly demolished. With the garrison in Ras Al Khaimah withdrawing to Qishm and then giving way to a policy of maritime patrol and the establishment of a native Political Agent in Sharjah in 1823, British actions were reduced to occasional visits to enforce the rule of law along the coast. A brief resurgence in excursions from the boats of the newly established community in Dubai in 1834 was quelled by a demonstration of British naval power in 1835.

Meanwhile, the town of Ras Al Khaimah, devastated in the 1819 campaign, did not start to re-emerge with new buildings until 1828.

Following treaties
The 1820 treaty was followed by the 1847 'Engagement to Prohibit Exportation of Slaves From Africa on board of Vessels Belonging to Bahrain and to the Trucial States and the Allow Right of Search of April–May 1847'. By this time, some of the smaller Sheikhdoms had been subsumed by their larger neighbours and signatories were Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr of Ras Al Khaimah; Sheikh Maktoum of Dubai; Sheikh Abdulaziz of Ajman, Sheikh Abdullah bin Rashid of Umm Al Quwain and Sheikh Saeed bin Tahnoun of Abu Dhabi.

Perpetual Maritime Truce

In 1853, the Perpetual Maritime Truce of 4 May 1853 prohibited any act of aggression at sea and was signed by Abdulla bin Rashid of Umm Al Quwain; Hamed bin Rashid of Ajman; Saeed bin Butti of Dubai; Saeed bin Tahnoun ('Chief of the Beniyas') and Sultan bin Saqr ('Chief of the Joasmees'). A further engagement for the suppression of the slave trade was signed in 1856 and then in 1864, the 'Additional Article to the Maritime Truce Providing for the Protection of the Telegraph Line and Stations, Dated 1864'. An agreement regarding the treatment of absconding debtors followed in June 1879.

Exclusive Agreement
Signed in 1892, the 'Exclusive Agreement' bound the Rulers not to enter into 'any agreement or correspondence with any Power other than the British Government' and that without British assent, they would not 'consent to the residence within my territory of the agent of any other government' and that they would not 'cede, sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation any part of my territory, save to the British Government.

The agreement came at a time when commercial interest was being shown in the Trucial States by other nations, including Germany, Turkey and France. Immediately prior to the signing of the agreement, a representative of the Persian Government had attempted to establish a Persian claim to the territory, obviating any British interest. The 1892 agreement brought the adventure to an early conclusion.

See also

Persian Gulf campaign of 1809
British residency of the Persian Gulf
Pax Britannica

References

1820 treaties
Treaties of Bahrain
Treaties of Qatar
Treaties of the Trucial States
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Bahrain–United Kingdom relations
Qatar–United Kingdom relations
United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations
Ottoman Empire–United Kingdom relations
1820 in Asia

General Maritime Treaty of 1820


Douglas Stubbs (1927–2008) was an Australian artist. Born in the country town of Leongatha in South Gippsland, Victoria he arrived in Melbourne as a young man to study at art school. Stubbs studied at the National Gallery School in Melbourne. Best known for his colourful surrealist paintings, frequently of birds, he held the first of several exhibitions in Melbourne in 1964.Sometimes described as "naive art", his highly imaginative works have been displayed in galleries all over the country. Stubbs is considered to be an under-recognised artist.

References

 World Encyclopedia of NAIVE ART published by # Chartwell Books Inc, USA 1984
 Encyclopedia of Australian Art Vol 2 by Alan NcCulloch published by # Hutchinson Group Pty Ltd 1984
 Australian Artists Today by Graeme Norris published by # Graeme Norris (1st edition 1974, 2nd edition 1979, 3rd edition 1984)

1927 births
2008 deaths
People from Leongatha
20th-century Australian male artists
Australian male painters
Australian mid-20th century modern painters

Douglas Stubbs


The Duchy of Sandomierz was a district principality and a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland. It was formed in 1138 from the territories of the Kingdom of Poland, following its fragmentation, that was started by the testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth. The Duchy existed until 1320 when it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland. Its capital was the city of Sandomierz. The territory was centred around Sandomierz Land in the southeastern corner of Poland, between the rivers of Pilica, Vistula, San, and Dunajec.

History
The period of fragmentation of Poland began in 1138, after the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty. According to the testament, Duke Henry of Sandomierz was granted the Land of Sandomierz. Since the duke was too young, the newly created province was temporarily ruled by High Duke Władysław II the Exile. In 1146, after another conflict with the junior dukes, Wladyslaw II was forced to flee abroad, and the Duchy of Sandomierz was transferred to Henry.

Henry died in 1166, killed by the Old Prussians. Since he was childless and had no wife, part of his province, with Wislica, was inherited by his youngest brother, Casimir II the Just, while Sandomierz was seized by Bolesław IV the Curly. The province remained divided until 1173, when Casimir II the Just reunited it. Casimir II died in 1194, and the Duchy of Sandomierz was inherited by Leszek I the White, and his younger brother, Konrad I of Masovia. In c. 1200 the brothers divided their properties, with Konrad receiving Mazovia and Kujawy, while Leszek remained in Sandomierz. In 1205, the two brothers united their forces, defeating Roman the Great in the Battle of Zawichost.

In the 13th century, the Duchy of Sandomierz was several times raided by the Mongol hordes (see, e.g., Sack of Sandomierz (1241) and Sack of Sandomierz (1260)). In the late 1280s, Duke Władysław I the Elbow-high took control over Sandomierz, but in 1292, he was forced by Wenceslaus II of Bohemia to abandon the province. In 1304, Lokietek returned, capturing Wislica, and after the death of Wenceslaus (1305), he seized the whole province. During the reign of Lokietek, the Duchy of Sandomierz was turned into Sandomierz Voivodeship.

The Duchy of Sandomierz had twelve castellanies, located in the following towns: Łuków, Lublin, Sieciechów, Radom, Skrzynno, Żarnów, Małogoszcz, Czchów, Wislica, Połaniec, Zawichost and Sandomierz.

The Dukes of Sandomierz
 Henry of Sandomierz (1146-1166)
 Bolesław IV the Curly (1166-1173)
 Casimir II the Just (1173-1194)
 Leszek the White (1194-1227)
 Konrad I of Masovia (1194-1200)
 (as regent) Helen of Znojmo (1194-1200)
 Bolesław V the Chaste (1227-1279)
 Bolesław I of Masovia (1229-1232)
 Leszek II the Black (1279-1288)
 Bolesław II of Masovia (1288-1289)
 Konrad II of Masovia (1289)
 Władysław I the Elbow-high (1289-1292)
 Wenceslaus II of Bohemia (1292-1304)
 Władysław I the Elbow-high (1304-1333)

Notes

Bibliography
 Genealogia Piastów by O. Balzer. Kraków. 1895.
 Dzieje Polski piastowskiej (VIII w.-1370) by J. Wyrozumski. Fogra. Kraków. 1999. ISBN 83-85719-38-5, OCLC 749221743.

Former countries in Europe
Former monarchies of Europe
Duchies of Poland
History of Poland during the Piast dynasty
12th-century establishments in Poland
14th-century disestablishments in Poland
History of Greater Poland
States and territories established in 1138
States and territories disestablished in 1320
History of Lesser Poland
Fiefdoms of Poland

Duchy of Sandomierz


Agnes Miegel (9 March 1879 – 26 October 1964) was a German author, journalist and poet. She is best known for her poems and short stories about East Prussia, but also for the support she gave to the Nazi Party.

Biography
Agnes Miegel was born on 9 March 1879 in Königsberg into a Protestant family. Her parents were the merchant Gustav Adolf Miegel and Helene Hofer.

Miegel attended the Girls' High School in Königsberg and then lived between 1894 and 1896 in a guest house in Weimar, where she wrote her first poems. In 1898 she spent three months in Paris. In 1900 she trained as a nurse in a children's hospital in Berlin. Between 1902 and 1904 she worked as an assistant teacher in a girls' boarding school in Bristol, England. In 1904 she attended teacher training in Berlin, which she had to break off because of illness. She also did not complete a course at an agricultural college for girls near Munich. In 1906 she had to return to Königsberg to care for her sick parents, especially her father, who had become blind. Her mother died in 1913, her father in 1917.

As early as 1900 her first publications had drawn the attention of the writer Börries von Münchhausen. Her first bundle of poems was published thanks to his financial support. In later years he was still an untiring promoter of her work.

She lived in Königsberg until just before it was captured in 1945, and wrote poems, short stories and journalistic reports. She also made a few journeys. During the Third Reich she revealed herself as an ardent supporter of the regime. She signed the Gelöbnis treuester Gefolgschaft, the 1933 declaration in which 88 German authors vowed faithful allegiance to Adolf Hitler. In the same year she joined the NS-Frauenschaft, the women's wing of the Nazi Party. In 1940 she joined the Nazi party itself. In August 1944, in the final stages of World War II, she was named by Adolf Hitler as an "outstanding national asset" in the special list of the most important German artists who were freed from all war obligations.

In February 1945 she fled by ship from the approaching Red Army and reached Denmark. After Denmark's liberation on 5 May 1945 she stayed in the Oksbøl Refugee Camp until November 1946. In 1946 she returned to Germany, where she was under a publication ban until 1949. In that year a denazification committee issued a declaration of no objection.

At first she stayed in Apelern with relations of her former patron Börries von Münchhausen, who had committed suicide in 1945. In 1948, being a refugee, she was assigned a house in Bad Nenndorf, where she kept writing until her death.

Agnes Miegel now mainly wrote poems and short stories about East Prussia, the land of her youth. She was considered the voice of the Heimatvertriebene, the German-speaking people who had lived before the war in Czechoslovakia and Poland and in parts of Germany annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union after the war, who had to leave when Nazi Germany was defeated. Miegel received the honorary title Mutter Ostpreußen ("Mother East Prussia") from her admirers.

She died on 26 October 1964 in a hospital in Bad Salzuflen.

Literary career

Miegel's first bundle of poems appeared in 1901 and was called Gedichte. By 1945 she had published 33 books of poems, short stories and plays. She also regularly wrote for newspapers (especially the Ostpreußische Zeitung) and magazines. In her early career she mainly wrote about universal themes like man's course of life, nature, life in the countryside, the relationship with God and the past (especially the German past). A minority of these poems and stories were set in East Prussia, and these became her most popular works. Her most famous early poem was Die Frauen von Nidden ("The Women of Nidden", 1907), in which the village of Nidden (present-day Nida in Lithuania) falls victim to a bubonic plague epidemic. The seven women who survive the plague let themselves be buried alive by the drifting sand dunes near the village.

During the Third Reich National Socialist themes appear in her work: complaints about the "heavy yoke" borne by cities like Memel and Danzig, which had been separated from Germany after the First World War; glorification of the war; glorification of the mothers who bear German children. But as early as her 1920 poem "Über der Weichsel drüben" ("On the other side of the Vistula") (republished in Ostland) she propagated fear of the Poles, who, she suggested, wanted to overrun East Prussia. She wrote two odes to Adolf Hitler. The first of these, Dem Führer, was published in 1936 and cited in Werden und Werk (1938), a study of Miegel's life and works. The second poem, An den Führer, is, in Tauber's words, an "hysterical adulation" of Hitler, published as a kind of preface in Ostland. In the Soviet occupation zone in Germany after the Second World War both Werden und Werk and Ostland were forbidden books. To her credit it may be said that her works were free from antisemitism, although by no means free from the Nazis' Blut und Boden ideology.

After her publication ban had been lifted in 1949, she mainly wrote about East Prussia as she remembered it. The title of her first bundle of poems after the war is characteristic: Du aber bleibst in mir ("You however stay within me"). Her best known stories and poems are melancholic reflections on her Heimat (homeland) that had been destroyed and was now forever out of reach. This is certainly true of her most famous poem, Es war ein Land ("That was a country", 1949). Blackbourn shows that this was "exactly the idealized image that the expellee organisations cultivated – as if all had been pastoral harmony until the Red Army marched west, as if the mass flight of Germans had fallen out of a clear blue sky."

She was not vindictive towards the Russians and Poles who had taken possession of East Prussia. In a poem from 1951 she urged her readers nichts als den Haß zu hassen ("to hate nothing but hate").

She refused to account for her doings during the Nazi era. The only thing she was willing to say was: Dies habe ich mit meinem Gott alleine abzumachen und mit niemand sonst ("I have to settle this with my God and with no one else").

Publications of her works in Germany after 1945 usually omit her works between 1933 and 1945, propagating the myth of an apolitical author.

Miegel's poems usually consist of lines of unequal length, some rhyming and some not.

Marcel Reich-Ranicki included three of her poems (Die Schwester, Die Nibelungen and Die Frauen von Nidden) in his anthology of exemplary German literature Kanon lesenswerter deutschsprachiger Werke (Part Gedichte, 2005).

Reputation

During her lifetime Agnes Miegel received several marks of honour. In 1916 she received the Kleist Prize for lyrics and in 1924 was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Königsberg.

During the Nazi era she was overloaded with marks of honour. In 1933 she joined the writers' section of the Akademie der Künste in Berlin, together with prominent Nazis such as Hanns Johst. They filled the vacancies that had arisen because some members, amongst them Alfred Döblin and Thomas Mann, had to give up their seats for not being loyal to the Nazi regime. In 1935 she received the "honorary ring" of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Sprachverein and in 1936 the Johann-Gottfried-von-Herder-Preis (the predecessor of the Herder Prize). In 1939 she was made an honorary citizen of Königsberg; in the same year she received the Golden Decoration of the Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth). In 1940 she received the Goethe Prize of the city of Frankfurt. In 1944 Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels put together a "Gottbegnadeten-Liste" of the most important artists of the Third Reich. A separate list, the Sonderliste der Unersetzlichen Künstler ("special list of irreplaceable artists"), put together by Hitler himself, mentioned those 25 people whom the Nazi leaders considered as the Third Reich's greatest artists. Agnes Miegel was (with Gerhart Hauptmann and Hanns Johst, among others) ranked as one of the six greatest German writers. The artists on the special list were freed from all war obligations.

After the Second World War she received, inter alia, the Westfälischer Kulturpreis (1952), the Großer Literaturpreis of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste (Bavarian academy of fine arts) (1959) and the Kulturpreis der Landsmannschaft Westpreußen (1962). In 1954 she became an honorary citizen of Bad Nenndorf, her place of residence.

After her death her house in Bad Nenndorf was rechristened the Agnes-Miegel-Haus. It is now a museum, dedicated to her life and works, and situated in the Agnes-Miegel-Platz ("Agnes Miegel Square"). In several places in Germany, streets received the name Agnes-Miegel-Straße. A few schools were named Agnes-Miegel-Schule. In 1979 the Deutsche Bundespost issued a postage stamp in honour of her 100th birthday.

There is a monument dedicated to Agnes Miegel in Wunstorf. A monument in Bad Nenndorf has been removed in 2015. In Filzmoos near Salzburg there is a plaque dedicated to the Hofers, Miegel's mother's family, who had their roots there. On 26 October 1992 a plaque was put on her former dwelling house in Königsberg, now Kaliningrad, with texts in German and Russian.

Miegel's reputation was badly damaged when her poems to Hitler were rediscovered and published on the internet in the 1990s. Much discussion arose about her Nazi past. As a result, all the schools and many streets that had been named after her have been renamed. For instance, Agnes-Miegel-Schule in Willich was renamed Astrid-Lindgren-Schule in 2008 and the Agnes-Miegel-Straße in St. Arnold in the Steinfurt district was renamed Anne-Frank-Straße in 2010. After a lengthy dispute about whether the Miegel monument in Bad Nenndorf should be kept or removed, it was removed in February 2015.

Works

Poems, short stories, plays
1901: Gedichte, Cotta, Stuttgart.
1907: Balladen und Lieder, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1920: Gedichte und Spiele, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1925: Heimat: Lieder und Balladen, Eichblatt, Leipzig.
1926: Geschichten aus Alt-Preußen, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1926: Die schöne Malone: Erzählungen, Eichblatt, Leipzig.
1927: Spiele, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1928: Die Auferstehung des Cyriakus: Erzählungen, Eichblatt, Leipzig.
1930: Kinderland: Erzählungen, Eichblatt, Leipzig.
1931: Dorothee: Erzählungen, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1932: Der Vater: Erzählungen, Eckhart, Berlin.
1932: Herbstgesang: Gedichte, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1933: Weihnachtsspiel, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1933: Kirchen im Ordensland: Gedichte, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1934: Gang in die Dämmerung: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1935: Das alte und das neue Königsberg, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1935: Deutsche Balladen, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1936: Unter hellem Himmel: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1936: Kathrinchen kommt nach Hause: Erzählungen, Eichblatt, Leipzig.
1936: Noras Schicksal: Erzählungen, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1937: Das Bernsteinherz: Erzählungen, Reclam, Leipzig.
1937: Audhumla: Erzählungen, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1937: Herden der Heimat: Erzählungen mit Zeichnungen von Hans Peters, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1938: Und die geduldige Demut der treuesten Freunde: Versdichtung, Bücher der Rose, Langewiesche-Brandt, Schäftlarn.
1938: Viktoria: Gedicht und Erzählung, Gesellschaft der Freunde der deutschen Bücherei, Ebenhausen.
1939: Frühe Gedichte (reissue of the 1901 collection), Cotta, Stuttgart.
1939: Herbstgesang, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1939: Die Schlacht von Rudau: Spiel, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1939: Herbstabend: Erzählung, published by herself in Eisenach.
1940: Ostland: Gedichte, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1940: Im Ostwind: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1940: Wunderliches Weben: Erzählungen, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1940: Ordensdome, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1944: Mein Bernsteinland und meine Stadt, Gräfe und Unzer, Königsberg in Preußen.
1949: Du aber bleibst in mir: Gedichte, Seifert, Hameln.
1949: Die Blume der Götter: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.
1951: Der Federball: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.
1951: Die Meinen: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.
1958: Truso: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.
1959: Mein Weihnachtsbuch: Gedichte und Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln (a new, extended edition appeared in 1984).
1962: Heimkehr: Erzählungen, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.

Selections and collected works
1927: Gesammelte Gedichte, Eugen Diederichs, Jena.
1952: Ausgewählte Gedichte, Eugen Diederichs, Köln.
1952-1955: Gesammelte Werke, Eugen Diederichs, Köln (six volumes).
1983: Es war ein Land: Gedichte und Geschichten aus Ostpreußen, Eugen Diederichs, München (reprinted by Rautenberg, Leer in 2002).
1994: Spaziergänge einer Ostpreußin, Rautenberg, Leer (journalism 1923–1924).
2000: Wie ich zu meiner Heimat stehe, Verlag S. Bublies, Schnellbach (journalism 1926–1932).
2002: Die Frauen von Nidden: Gesammelte Gedichte von unserer 'Mutter Ostpreußen', Rautenberg, Leer.
2002: Wie Bernstein leuchtend auf der Lebenswaage: Gesammelte Balladen, Rautenberg, Leer.

Books about Agnes Miegel
Walther Hubatsch, Ostpreussens Geschichte und Landschaft im dichterischen Werk von Agnes Miegel, Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft, Minden, 1978.
Harold Jensen, Agnes Miegel und die bildende Kunst, Rautenberg, Leer, 1982.
Marianne Kopp, Agnes Miegel: Leben und Werk, Husum Druck- und Verlagsgesellschaft, Husum 2004.
Agnes Miegel, Werden und Werk, mit Beiträgen von Professor Dr. Karl Plenzat, Hermann Eichblatt Verlag, Leipzig, 1938. (This is what the title page says. In fact this is a study by Plenzat about Miegel's work, with a foreword by Miegel herself and many citations from her work.)
Anni Piorreck: Agnes Miegel. Ihr Leben und ihre Dichtung. Eugen Diederichs, München, 1967 (a corrected edition appeared in 1990).
Alfred Podlech (editor), Agnes-Miegel-Bibliographie, Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft, Minden, 1973.
Annelise Raub, Nahezu wie Schwestern: Agnes Miegel und Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, Grundzüge eines Vergleichs, Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft, Bad Nenndorf, 1991.
Ursula Starbatty, Begegnungen mit Agnes Miegel, Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft, Bad Nenndorf, 1989.

References

External links (all in German)
 Literature about Agnes Miegel in the Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
 Website of the Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft
 Agnes Miegel in the 'Literaturatlas Niedersachsen'
 About Agnes Miegel's Nazi sympathies
 The Agnes-Miegel-Gesellschaft about Agnes Miegel's Nazi sympathies
 Detlev Beyer-Peters about Agnes Miegel
 Report on the renaming of the Agnes-Miegel-Straße in Münster

1879 births
1964 deaths
Writers from Königsberg
Writers from East Prussia
Nazi Party members
German women journalists
German women poets
20th-century German women
Kleist Prize winners

Agnes Miegel


The Mozilla Public License (MPL) is a free and open source software license developed and maintained by the Mozilla Foundation. It is a weak copyleft, characterized as a middle ground between permissive free software licenses and the GNU General Public License (GPL), that seeks to balance the concerns of proprietary and open source developers. As such, it allows re-licensing. MPL software can thus be converted into a copyleft license such as the GPL, or to a proprietary license (example:KaiOS).

It has undergone two revisions, a minor update to version 1.1, and a major update to version 2.0 with the goals of greater simplicity and better compatibility with other licenses.

The MPL is the license for Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, and most other Mozilla software, but it has been used by others, such as Adobe to license their Flex product line, and The Document Foundation to license LibreOffice 4.0 (also on LGPL 3+). Version 1.1 was adapted by several projects to form derivative licenses like Sun Microsystems' own Common Development and Distribution License.

The MPL license was approved as an Open Source software license by the Open Source Initiative also as a Free Software license by the Free Software Foundation.

Version 1.0 was created by Mitchell Baker when she was working as a lawyer at Netscape Communications Corporation and version 1.1 when she was working at the Mozilla Foundation.

Related pages
 List of software licenses

References

Software licences
Mozilla

Mozilla Public License


According to the Native Administration Act, 1927 (Act No. 38 of 1927; subsequently renamed the Bantu Administration Act, 1927 and the Black Administration Act, 1927), the Governor-General of South Africa could "banish" a 'native' or 'tribe' from one area to another whenever he deemed this 'expedient or in the general public interest'.

This Act set up a separate legal system for the administration of African law and made the proclaimed Black areas subject to a separate political regime from the remainder of the country, ultimately subject only to rule by proclamation, not parliament.

The central imperative behind the Act was to establish a strong enough system of national 'native administration' to contain the political pressures that were likely to result from the legislative measures necessary for the implementation of territorial segregation. It was, together with the Native Affairs Act, 1920, part of a process of transferring power over the regulation of African life from Parliament to the executive.

Moreover, it included a clause which stated: "Any person who utters any words or does any other act or thing whatever with intent to promote any feeling of hostility between Natives and Europeans, shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to imprisonment not exceeding one year or to a fine of one hundred pounds or both", thus it became popularly known as the "hostility law".

Repeal
Many provisions of the act became unconstitutional on the introduction of the Interim Constitution of South Africa on 27 April 1994, which invalidated all laws which unfairly discriminated on the basis of race. The remaining provisions of the act have been repealed, or will be repealed on a future date, by the Repeal of the Black Administration Act and Amendment of Certain Laws Act, 2005.

See also
 :Category:Apartheid laws in South Africa
 Apartheid in South Africa

References

External links
 African History: Apartheid Legislation in South Africa
 Remaining provisions of the act presently in force

Apartheid laws in South Africa
1927 in South African law
Censorship in South Africa

Native Administration Act, 1927


In microeconomics an oligopsony is a market form where there are few buyers. There may be many sellers, but because there are few buyers, the decision each buyer makes influences the whole market. Therefore this is an example of imperfect competition.

Oligopsony works just like oligopoly involving a few number of sellers. This market has a few big buyers willing to buy a product or service. The number being limited enables the purchasers to have a sense of control over the sellers, and lets them negotiate with product prices.

One example of this is the market for cocoa: Three companies (Cargill, Archer Daniels Midland and Callebaut) buy most of the world production, usually from small farmers. Other examples are that of tobacco or that of bananas. By extension the "market for work" also has this characteristic: there are few companies (employers, "buying work") and many people "offering to work".

References

Bhaskar, V., A. Manning and T. To (2002) 'Oligopsony and Monopsonistic Competition in Labor Markets,' Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16, 155–174.
Bhaskar, V. and T. To (2004) 'Oligopsony and the Distribution of Wages,' European Economic Review, 47, 371-399.

Market forms

Oligopsony


Dean Stalham (born c. 1963) is a British self-taught artist, playwright and community activist from North London. He has spent time in prison for handling stolen artworks.

Whilst serving time in Wandsworth Prison he won a prize for his art from the Koestler Trust.

He founded the Art Saves Lives charitable organisation in 2007.

In 2010 he wrote a play, God Don't Live on a Council Estate, and staged it using a tiny budget in an old council office building in New Cross. WhatsonStage.com described it as "an emotionally gripping and riveting production", while theguardian.com called it "different" and "of high quality".

References

Living people
1960s births
Year of birth missing (living people)
Artists from London
Founders of charities

Dean Stalham


Charles II (10 October 1332 – 1 January 1387), known as the Bad, was King of Navarre beginning in 1349, as well as Count of Évreux beginning in 1343, holding both titles until his death in 1387.

Besides the Kingdom of Navarre nestled in the Pyrenees, Charles had extensive lands in Normandy, inherited from his father, Count Philip of Évreux, and his mother, Queen Joan II of Navarre, who had received them as compensation for resigning her claims to France, Champagne, and Brie in 1328. Thus, in Northern France, he possessed Évreux, Mortain, parts of Vexin, and a portion of Cotentin. Charles was a major player at a critical juncture in the Hundred Years' War between France and England, repeatedly switching sides in order to further his own agenda. He was accidentally burned alive in 1387.

Life

Early life
Charles was born in Évreux, the son of Philip of Évreux and Joan II of Navarre. His father was first cousin to King Philip VI of France, while his mother, Joan, was the only child of King Louis X. Charles of Navarre was 'born of the fleur-de-lys on both sides', as he liked to point out, but he succeeded to a shrunken inheritance as far as his French lands were concerned. Charles was raised in France during childhood and up to the moment he was declared king at 17, so he probably had no command of the Romance language of Navarre at the moment of his coronation.

In October 1349, Charles's mother died. In order to take his coronation oath and be anointed, he visited his kingdom in summer 1350. For the first time, the oath was taken in a language other than the customary Latin or Occitan, i.e. Navarro-Aragonese. Apart from short visits paid the first 12 years of his reign, Charles spent his time almost entirely in France; he regarded Navarre principally as a source of manpower with which to advance his designs on the throne of France. He hoped for a long time for recognition of his claim to the crown of France (as the heir-general of Philip IV through his mother, and a Capetian through his father). However, he was unable to wrest the throne from his Valois cousins, who were senior to him by agnatic primogeniture.

Murder of Charles de la Cerda and relations with John II (1351–1356)
Charles II served as Royal Lieutenant in Languedoc in 1351 and commanded the army which captured Port-Sainte-Marie on the Garonne in 1352. The same year he married Joan of Valois, the daughter of King John II of France.  He soon became jealous of the Constable of France, Charles de La Cerda, who was to be a beneficiary of the fiefdom of Angoulême. Charles of Navarre felt he was entitled to these territories as they had belonged to his mother, the Queen of Navarre, but they had been taken from her by the French kings for a paltry sum in compensation.

After publicly quarrelling with Charles de la Cerda in Paris at Christmas 1353, Charles arranged the assassination of the Constable, which took place at the village of l'Aigle on 8 January 1354, with his brother Philip, Count of Longueville leading the murderers. Charles made no secret of his role in the murder, and within a few days was intriguing  with the English for military support against his father-in-law King John II, whose favourite the Constable had been. John was preparing to attack his son-in-law's territories, but Charles's overtures of alliance to King Edward III of England led John to  instead make peace with Charles with the Treaty of Mantes, enacted on 22 February 1354, by which Charles enlarged his possessions and was outwardly reconciled with John. The English, who had been preparing to invade France for a joint campaign with Charles against the French, felt they had been double-crossed: not for the last time, Charles had used the threat of an English alliance to wrest concessions out of the French king.

Relations between Charles and John once more deteriorated; in late 1354, John invaded Charles's territories in Normandy, while Charles intrigued with the Duke of Lancaster, serving as emissary for Edward III, at fruitless peace negotiations between England and France held in the winter of 1354–55 at Avignon. Once again, Charles changed sides: the threat of a renewed English invasion forced John to make a new agreement of reconciliation with him, which was ultimately sealed by the Treaty of Valognes on 10 September 1355.

This agreement, too, did not last. Charles befriended and was thought to be trying to influence the Dauphin—the future Charles V—and was apparently involved in a botched coup d'état in December 1355, whose purpose appears to have been to replace John with the Dauphin. John amended matters by making his son Duke of Normandy, but Charles of Navarre continued to advise the Dauphin how to govern that province.

There were also continued rumours of his plots against the king, and on 5 April 1356 John II and a group of supporters burst unannounced into the Dauphin's castle at Rouen, arrested Charles of Navarre and imprisoned him. Four of his principal supporters—two of whom had been among de la Cerda's assassins—were beheaded, and their bodies suspended from chains. Charles was taken to Paris, and once there he was moved from prison to prison for greater security.

Versus the Dauphin (1356–1358)
After John was captured by the English following his defeat at the Battle of Poitiers, Charles remained in prison. However, many of his partisans were active in the Estates General, which endeavoured to govern and reform France in the power vacuum created by the imprisonment of the king, while much of the country degenerated into anarchy. They continually pressed the Dauphin to release him. Meanwhile his brother Philip of Navarre threw in his lot with the invading English army of the Duke of Lancaster, and made war on the Dauphin's forces throughout Normandy. Eventually, on 9 November 1357, Charles was sprung from his prison in the castle of Arleux by a band of 30 men from Amiens led by Jean de Picquigny. Greeted as a hero when he entered Amiens, he was invited to Paris by the Estates General. He entered Paris with a large retinue, and was 'received like a newly-crowned monarch'.

He addressed the populace on 30 November, listing his grievances against those who had imprisoned him. Étienne Marcel led a 'demand for justice for the King of Navarre' which the Dauphin was unable to resist. Charles demanded an indemnity for all damage done to his territories while he had been imprisoned, free pardon for all his crimes and those of his supporters, and honourable burial for his associates executed by John II at Rouen. He also demanded the Dauphin's own Duchy of Normandy and the County of Champagne, which would have made him the effective ruler of northern France.

The Dauphin was virtually powerless, but he and Charles were still in negotiations when news reached them that Edward and John were reaching a peace agreement. Knowing this could only be to his disadvantage, Charles had all the prisons in Paris opened to create anarchy, and left Paris to build up his strength in Normandy. In his absence the Dauphin tried to assemble a military force of his own. Charles meanwhile gave his executed followers a solemn state funeral in Rouen Cathedral on 10 January 1358 and effectively declared civil war, leading a combined Anglo-Navarrese force against the Dauphin's garrisons.

Revolution in Paris and the Jacquerie (1358)

Meanwhile Paris was in the throes of revolution. On 22 February the Dauphin's chief military officers, the marshals Jean de Conflans and Robert de Clermont were murdered before his eyes by a mob led by Etienne Marcel, who made the Dauphin a virtual prisoner and invited Charles of Navarre to return to the city, which he did on 26 February with a large armed retinue. The Dauphin was forced to agree to many of Charles's territorial demands and to promise to finance for him a standing army of 1,000 men for his personal use. However illness prevented Charles from escorting the Dauphin to meetings demanded by the nobility at Senlis and Provins, and the Dauphin was thus able to escape his Parisian and Navarrese guardians and open a campaign from the east against Charles and against revolutionary Paris.

Etienne Marcel implored Charles to intercede with the Dauphin but he achieved nothing and the land around Paris began to be plundered both by Charles's forces and by the Dauphin's. In the last days of May the peasant rebellion of the Jacquerie erupted to the north of Paris as a spontaneous expression of hatred for the nobility that had brought France so low. Etienne Marcel publicly declared Parisian support for the Jacquerie. Unable to get help from the Dauphin, the knights of northern France appealed to Charles of Navarre to lead them against the peasants.

Although he was allied with the Parisians, Charles was no lover of the peasantry and felt Marcel had made a fatal mistake. He could not resist the chance to appear as a leader of the French aristocracy and led the suppression of the Jacquerie at the Battle of Mello, 10 June 1358 and the subsequent massacres of rebels. He then returned to Paris and made an open bid for power urging the populace to elect him as 'Captain of Paris'.

This move lost Charles the support of many of the nobles who had supported him against the Jacquerie, and they began to abandon him for the Dauphin while he recruited soldiers—mainly English mercenaries—for the 'defence' of Paris, though his men, picketed outside the city, raided and plundered far and wide. Realizing the Dauphin's forces were much stronger than his, Charles opened negotiations with the Dauphin, who made him substantial offers of cash and land if he could induce the Parisians to surrender. They, however, distrusted this deal between princes and refused the terms outright; Charles agreed to fight on as their captain but demanded that his troops be billeted in the city.

Before long there were anti-English riots in the city and Charles, with Etienne Marcel, was forced by the mob to lead them against the marauding garrisons to the north and west of the city—against his own men. He led them (no doubt deliberately) into an English ambush in the woods near the bridge of Saint-Cloud and about 600 Parisians were killed.

Capitulation (1359–60)
After this debacle Charles stayed outside Paris at the Abbey of St Denis and left the city to its fate while the revolution burned itself out, Etienne Marcel was killed, and the Dauphin regained control of Paris. Meanwhile he opened negotiations with the English King, proposing that Edward III and he should divide France between themselves: if Edward would invade France and help him defeat the Dauphin, he would recognize Edward as King of France and do homage to him for the territories of Normandy, Picardy, Champagne and Brie. But the English king no longer trusted Charles and both he and the captive John II regarded him as an obstacle to peace. On 24 March 1359, Edward and John concluded a new treaty in London whereby John would be released back to France on payment of a huge ransom and would make over to Edward III large tracts of French territory—including all of Charles of Navarre's French lands. Unless Charles submitted and accept suitable (undefined) compensation elsewhere, the Kings of England and France would jointly make war on him. However the Estates General refused to accept the treaty, urging the Dauphin to continue the war. At this Edward III lost patience and decided to invade France himself. Charles of Navarre's military position in Northern France had deteriorated under attacks from the Dauphin's forces throughout the spring, and with the news of Edward's impending invasion Charles decided he must reach an accommodation with the Dauphin. After protracted haggling the two leaders met near Pontoise on 19 August 1359; on the second day Charles of Navarre publicly renounced all his demands for territory and money, saying he wanted nothing more than what he had at the beginning of hostilities and 'wanted nothing more than to do his duty to his country'. It is unclear whether he was actuated by patriotism in the face of an imminent English invasion, or had decided to bide his time until a more favourable juncture to renew his campaign. After the comparative failure of Edward's campaign in the winter of 1359–60—the Dauphin did not offer battle, instead pursuing a 'scorched earth' policy, with the populace seeking shelter inside walled towns while the English endured terrible weather—a final peace treaty was agreed between Edward and John at Brétigny, while John II concluded a separate peace with Charles of Navarre at Calais. Charles was forgiven his crimes against France and restored to all his rights and properties; 300 of his followers received a royal pardon. In return, he renewed his homage to the French crown and promised to help clear the French provinces of the marauding companies of Anglo-Navarrese mercenaries, many of which he had been responsible for unleashing in the first place.

Burgundian inheritance and the loss of Normandy (1361–1365)
In 1361, after the death of his second cousin the young Duke Philip I of Burgundy, Charles claimed the Duchy of Burgundy by primogeniture. He was the grandson of Margaret, eldest daughter of Duke Robert II of Burgundy (d. 1306). However, the duchy was taken by King John II, who was son of Joan, second daughter of Duke Robert II, who claimed it in proximity of blood, and made provision that after his death it would pass to his favourite son Philip the Bold.

To have become Duke of Burgundy would have given Charles the position at the centre of French politics that he had always craved, and the abrupt dismissal of his claim provoked fresh bitterness. After the failure of an attempt to win Pope Innocent VI to his claim, Charles returned to his kingdom of Navarre in November 1361. He was soon plotting afresh to become a power in France. A planned rising of his supporters in Normandy in May 1362 was an abject failure, but in 1363 he evolved an ambitious plan to form two armies in 1364, one of which would go by sea to Normandy and the other, under his brother Louis, would join forces with the Gascons operating with the Great Company in Central France and invade Burgundy, thus threatening the French King from both sides of his realm. In January 1364 Charles met Edward, the Black Prince, at Agen in order to negotiate the passage of his troops through the English-held duchy of Aquitaine, to which the Prince agreed perhaps because of his friendship with Charles's new military adviser Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch, who had been betrothed to Charles' sister and was to lead his army to Normandy. In March 1364 the Captal marched towards Normandy to secure Charles's domains.

John II of France had returned to London to negotiate with Edward III, and the defence of France was once more in the hands of the Dauphin. There was already a royal army in Normandy besieging the town of Rolleboise, nominally commanded by the Count of Auxerre but actually generalled by Bertrand du Guesclin. Charles's designs were well known in advance and in early April 1364 this force seized many of Charles's remaining strongholds before the Captal de Buch could reach Normandy. When he arrived he started concentrating his forces around Évreux, which still held out for Charles. He then led his army against the royal forces to the east. On 16 May 1364 he was defeated by du Guesclin at the Battle of Cocherel. John II had died in England in April, and news of the victory of Cocherel reached the Dauphin on 18 May at Rheims, where on the following day he was crowned Charles V of France. He immediately confirmed his brother Philip as Duke of Burgundy.

Undeterred by this resounding defeat, Charles of Navarre persisted in his grand design. In August 1364 his men began a fight back in Normandy while a small Navarrese army under Rodrigo de Uriz sailed from Bayonne to Cherbourg. Meanwhile Charles's brother Louis of Navarre led an army augmented by contingents pledged by the captains of the Great Company and the freebooter Seguin de Badefol through the Black Prince's territories and across France, evading the French royal forces sent to intercept him and arrived in Normandy on 23 September. Hearing of the collapse of the civil war in Brittany after the Battle of Auray on 29 September, Louis abandoned his design to invade Burgundy and instead set about reconquering the Cotentin for Charles. Meanwhile Séguin de Badefol and his fellow-captains captured the town of Anse on the Burgundian border, but only to use it as a centre for raiding and plundering far and wide. They did Charles of Navarre's cause no discernible good, and Pope Urban V excommunicated Séguin. Although Charles offered Bernard-Aiz V, Lord of Albret, huge sums to take over the command of his forces around Burgundy, he finally realized he could not prevail against the King of France and must come to an accommodation with him. In May 1365, in Pamplona, he agreed to a treaty by which there was to be a general amnesty for his supporters, the remains of Navarrese executed and displayed for treason were to be returned to their families, prisoners would be mutually released without ransom. Charles was allowed to keep his conquests of 1364, except for the citadel of Meulan, which was to be razed to the ground. In compensation Charles received Montpellier in Bas-Languedoc. His claim to Burgundy was to be referred to the arbitration of the Pope. The Pope never in fact pronounced on the matter. It was an ignominious end to Charles's 15 years of struggle to create a major territory for himself and his line in France. Henceforth he resided mainly in his kingdom.

At the end of 1365 Séguin de Badefol arrived in Navarre to claim the considerable sums Charles had pledged to pay him for his services in Burgundy, even though he had achieved nothing of substance. Charles was not pleased to see him, received him in private and poisoned him with a crystallised pear.

Charles and the Spanish Wars (1365–1368)
The cessation of war in France left vast numbers of French, English, Gascon and Navarrese soldiers and freebooters in search of mercenary employment, and many of these soon became involved in the wars of Castille and Aragon, both of which bordered Navarre. Charles typically tried to exploit the situation by making agreements with both sides that would enlarge his territory while leaving Navarre itself relatively untouched. Officially he was ally of Peter of Castile, but at the end of 1365 he concluded a secret agreement with Peter IV of Aragon to allow the marauding army led by Bertrand du Guesclin and Hugh Calveley invade Castile through southern Navarre in order to depose Pedro I and supplant him with his half-brother Henry of Trastámara. He then reneged on his agreements to both sides and attempted to hold the Navarrese borders intact, but was unable to do so and instead paid the invaders a large sum to keep their plundering to a minimum.

After Henry of Trastámara successfully seized the throne of Castile, Pedro I fled to the court of the Black Prince in Aquitaine, who began to plot his restoration by sending an army across the Pyrenees. In July 1366 Charles himself came to Bordeaux to consult with Pedro I and the Prince and agreed to keep the mountain passes of Navarre open for the passage of the army, for which he would be rewarded with the Castilian provinces of Guipúzcoa and Álava as well as additional fortresses and a large cash payment. Then in December he met Henry of Trastámara on the Navarrese border and promised instead to hold the passes closed, in return for the border town of Logroño and more cash. Hearing of this the Black Prince ordered Hugh Calveley to invade Navarre from northern Castile and enforce the original agreement. Charles at once capitulated, claiming he had never been sincere in his dealings with Henry, and opened the passes to the Prince's army. Charles accompanied them on their journey but, not wanting to take part in the campaign personally, got Olivier de Mauny to stage an ambush in which Charles was 'captured' and held until the reconquest of Castile was over. The ruse was so transparent it made Charles a laughing-stock in Western Europe.

Last French possessions lost and the humbling of Navarre (1369–79)
With the resumption of war between France and England in 1369 Charles saw fresh opportunities to increase his status in France. He left Navarre and met Duke John V of Brittany in Nantes, where they agreed to come to each other's aid if either was attacked by France. Basing himself in Cherbourg, the principal town in what remained of his territories in Northern Normandy, he then sent ambassadors to Charles V of France and Edward III of England. He offered to aid the French King if he would restore his former territories in Normandy, recognize his claim to Burgundy and bestow the promised lordship of Montpellier. To the English king he offered an alliance against France, whereby Edward III could use his territories in Normandy as a base to attack the French. As on previous occasions, Charles did not really want an English army on his lands; he wanted the threat of one to put pressure on Charles V. But Charles V refused his demands outright. On the strength of Charles of Navarre's offers, Edward III despatched an expeditionary force to the Seine estuary under Sir Robert Knolles in July of 1370. He invited Charles to come to England in person—which he did during that same month. Charles of Navarre entered into secret negotiations with Edward III at Clarendon Palace, but committed himself to very little. Simultaneously he continued to negotiate with Charles V, who feared the King of Navarre would throw in his lot with Knolles's army now operating in Northern France. Though Edward III sealed a draft treaty with Navarre on 2 December 1370 it was a dead letter after the destruction of Knolles's army at the Battle of Pontvallain a few days later. During March of 1371, seeing no option left, Charles of Navarre had a series of meetings with Charles V and did homage to him.

Having gained little or nothing from these activities, he returned to Navarre in early 1372. He was subsequently involved in at least two attempts to have Charles V poisoned and encouraged various plots by others against the French King. He next entered into negotiations with John of Gaunt, who was aiming to make himself King of Castile by virtue of his marriage to Pedro I's daughter Constanza. But in 1373 Henry of Trastámara, now firmly installed as King of Castile and victorious in war against England's ally Portugal, forced Charles to agree to a marriage alliance, to surrender the disputed border fortresses he had held on to since the Castilian civil war, and to close his borders to any army of John of Gaunt. Nevertheless in March 1374 Charles met John of Gaunt in Dax in Gascony and agreed to let him use Navarre as a base for invading Castile on condition he recapture the towns surrendered to Henry. Gaunt's sudden decision only a few days later to abandon his plans and return to England Charles took as a personal betrayal. In order to placate the Castilian King he now agreed for his eldest son, the future Charles III of Navarre, to marry Henry of Trastámara's daughter Leonora in May 1375.

In 1377 he proposed to the English that he would return to Normandy and put the harbours and castles he still controlled there at their disposal for a joint attack on France; he also proposed that his daughter should be married to the new English king, the young Richard II. But the threat of an attack by Castile forced Charles to remain in Navarre. Instead he sent off his eldest son to Normandy, with a number of officials, including his chamberlain Jacques de Rue, who were to prepare his castles to receive the English, as well as a servant whose mission was to insinuate himself into the royal kitchens in Paris and poison the King of France. Meanwhile he urgently appealed for the English to send him reinforcements from Gascony to help him fight the Castilians. But in March 1378 all his plots finally unravelled. On their way to Normandy the Navarrese delegation were arrested at Nemours. The draft treaties and correspondence with the English found in their baggage, along with Jacques de Rue's confessions under interrogation, were all that Charles V needed to send an army into northern Normandy to capture all the King of Navarre's remaining domains there (April–June 1378). Only Cherbourg held out: Charles of Navarre begged the English to send him reinforcements there but instead they seized it for themselves and garrisoned it against the French. Charles's son submitted to the French King and became a protégé of the Duke of Burgundy, fighting in the French armies. Jacques de la Rue and other prominent Navarrese officials in France were executed.

From June–July 1378 the armies of Castile, commanded by John of Trastámara, invaded Navarre and laid the country waste. Charles II retreated over the Pyrenees to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and in October he made his way to Bordeaux to plead for military aid from Sir John Neville, the Lieutenant of Gascony. Neville despatched a small force to Navarre under the knight Sir Thomas Trivet, but the English achieved little over the winter and in February Henry of Trastámara announced his son would re-invade Navarre in the spring. Having no options or allies left Charles II asked for a truce, and by the Treaty of Briones on 31 March 1379 agreed to Henry's demands that he agree to be bound in perpetual military alliance with Castile and France against the English, and to surrender 20 fortresses of southern Navarre, including the city of Tudela, to Castilian garrisons.

Charles of Navarre's remarkably slippery and devious political career was at an end. He retained his crown and his country but he was effectively a humiliated client of his enemies, he had lost his French territories and his Pyrenean realm was devastated and impoverished by war. Though he continued to scheme and even still to consider himself the rightful King of France, he was essentially neutralized and impotent for the years that remained until his gruesome death.

Marriage and children
He married Joan of France (1343–1373), daughter of King John II of France. He had the following children by Joan:
 Marie (1360, Puente la Reina – aft. 1400), married in Tudela on 20 January 1393 Alfonso d'Aragona, Duke of Gandia
 Charles III of Navarre (1361–1425)
 Bonne (1364 – aft. 1389)
 Pedro, Count of Mortain (c. 31 March 1366, Évreux – , Bourges), married in Alençon on 21 April 1411 Catherine of Alençon (1380–1462), daughter of Peter II of Alençon. He had a son out of wedlock named Pedro Perez de Peralta 1400-1451.
 Philip (b. 1368), d. young
 Joanna of Navarre (1370–1437), married firstly John IV, Duke of Brittany, married secondly Henry IV of England
 Blanche (1372–1385, Olite)

Death
Charles died in Pamplona, aged 54.  His horrific death became famous all over Europe, and was often cited by moralists, and sometimes illustrated in illuminated manuscript chronicles. There are several versions of the story, varying in the details. This is Francis Blagdon's English account, of 1803:

John Cassell's moralistic version states:

Family tree

Notes

References

Sources

External links

Britannica Entry

1332 births
1387 deaths
14th-century Navarrese monarchs
People from Évreux
Navarrese infantes
House of Évreux
Navarrese monarchs
Counts of Évreux
Accidental deaths in France
Deaths from fire
14th-century peers of France
Sons of kings

Charles II of Navarre


The Championnat National 3, commonly referred to as simply National 3 and formerly known as  Championnat de France Amateur 2, is a football league competition. The league serves as the fifth division of the French football league system behind Ligue 1, Ligue 2, Championnat National, and the Championnat National 2. Usually contested by 154 clubs, the Championnat National 3 operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the Championnat National 2 and the regional leagues of the Division d'Honneur, the sixth division of French football. Seasons run from August to May, with teams in eleven groups playing 26 games each totalling 2002 games in the season. Most games are played on Saturdays and Sundays, with a few games played during weekday evenings. Play is regularly suspended the last weekend before Christmas for two weeks before returning in the second week of January.

The competition was founded in 1993 as National 3 and lasted for five years before being converted to Championnat de France Amateur 2 in 1998. In 2017 the FFF reorganised amateur football and the restructured 5th level again became Championnat National 3. Some clubs that participate in the league are semi-professional. The matches in the league attract on average between 200 and 400 spectators per match.

History and format

The amateur championship of France was created in 1993 under the name National 3, replacing the former Division 4. The league's debut coincided with the creation of the Championnat National, the third division of French football, which is commonly known as National. For the first three years of the competition, an amateur champion was crowned in France regardless of whether the club was amateur or a reserve team.

In 1998 the competition was renamed Championnat de France Amateur 2 as part of a restructuring of Amateur football. In this guise, the competition saw 112 clubs participate, split into eight parallel groups of 14 with their group affiliation being based on the regional location of the club. The league became open to reserve teams in France and amateur clubs in France and both were eligible for promotion to the Championnat de France Amateur.

2017 to 2023 format

In 2017 the FFF reorganised amateur football along the lines of the 2016 reorganisation of the Regions of France, creating Championnat National 2 and Championnat National 3 to replace CFA and CFA2. For National 2 this was in effect just a change of name, whilst National 3 saw a major restructure. This new competition sees 168 clubs participating, in twelve parallel groups directly aligned to the thirteen new regions (Corsica is merged with Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur to form a Méditerranee-Corse group). The administration of the league is devolved to the regional leagues on a group by group basis, with the exception of the Méditerranee-Corse group, which is directly managed by the FFF.

During the course of a season, usually from August to May, each club plays the others in their respective group twice, once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents, for a total of 26 games. Teams are ranked by total points. Ties between clubs with equal points are resolved by: a) points gained in games between the two (or more) clubs, b) goal difference in games between the two (or more) clubs, c) overall goal difference, d) goals scored, e) best disciplinary record, f) drawing of lots.

At the end of each season, the winner of each group is promoted to Championnat National 2. If a group winner is prevented from being promoted, or elects not to be promoted, they are replaced by the next best team in the group who are eligible. At least the bottom three teams in each group are relegated to the Regional league's top division. In the case of groups which start a season with more than 14 teams, extra relegation places will ensure the league conforms to 14 teams for the following season. Extra relegation places will also be added depending on which regional groups the teams relegated from Championnat National 2 will enter the following season.

Uncompleted seasons

Two consecutive seasons, 2019–20 and 2020–21, were not completed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France. Standings of the 2019–20 season were finalised based on points per game, whilst the 2020–21 season was declared void.

Restructuring
As part of the restructuring of the French football league system by the French Football Federation between 2022 and 2026, the league was gradually restructured over three seasons from the pre-2023 structure of 168 teams (12 groups of 14) to 154 teams (11 groups of 14) in 2023–24. Future seasons will see 140 teams (10 groups of 14) in 2024–25 and 112 teams (8 groups of 14) in 2025–26.

This change in structure moved the competition away from groups that directly related to the regional leagues that feed Championnat National 3, and also brought the competition back under the direct control of the FFF.

External links
Official FFF site

References

5
Sports leagues established in 1993
1993 establishments in France
Fra

Championnat National 3


Olive Sarah Gilbert (22 November 1898 – 19 February 1981) was a British singer and actress, who, in a career spanning seven decades, performed first in opera and then in many of Ivor Novello's musicals in London's West End.

After the First World War, Gilbert sang contralto and mezzo-soprano roles with the Carl Rosa Opera Company for more than a decade. She moved into musical theatre in 1935, appearing in Novello's Glamorous Night.  She also had roles in his Careless Rapture (1936), Crest of the Wave (1937), The Dancing Years (1939), Arc de Triomphe (1943), Perchance to Dream (1945) and King's Rhapsody (1949).

From 1961 to 1966, she played Sister Margaretta in The Sound of Music, and she appeared as the housekeeper in Man of La Mancha in 1968.  She continued to perform into the 1970s.

Biography
Gilbert was born in Carmarthen, Wales. By 1919, she began her professional career in contralto and mezzo-soprano roles with the Carl Rosa Opera Company, such as Carmen, Delilah, Mignon, Nicklaus and Suzuki.  She performed for many years with that company, receiving warm reviews.  Of her Fricka in Wagner's The Valkyrie in 1929, The Times wrote, "The greatest individual performance last night was that of Miss Olive Gilbert, who conveyed the cold fury of Fricka in spirited singing which always remained full-toned".

Gilbert debuted in musical theatre in May 1935, in Ivor Novello's Glamorous Night at London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.  She remained with Novello, taking featured or starring roles in all of his musicals thereafter until his death in 1951. She also acted as his personal assistant and housekeeper, living in the flat below his.  At Drury Lane, she starred in Novello's Careless Rapture (1936), Crest of the Wave (1937) and The Dancing Years (1939).  She was the contralto voice in the unusual female duet from The Dancing Years, "The Wings of Sleep".  Mary Ellis sang the soprano part. She later repeated the role of Frau Kurt in the 1950 film adaptation of The Dancing Years.

Next, Gilbert appeared in his musical Arc de Triomphe (1943) at the Phoenix Theatre, Perchance to Dream (1945) at the London Hippodrome, and King's Rhapsody (1949) at the Palace Theatre.  One of her most famous performances was in the long-running Perchance to Dream, in which she sang "We'll Gather Lilacs in the Spring".  She sang the song at Novello's cremation.

In 1961 at the Palace Theatre, she first played Sister Margaretta in The Sound of Music, remaining in that show for its entire five-year London run.  She played the housekeeper in Man of La Mancha in 1968 at the Piccadilly Theatre.  In the early 1970s, she toured in Bless the Bride, as Ernestine in Perchance to Dream, and as Countess Vera in King's Rhapsody.

Gilbert died in 1981, in Hove, Sussex, at the age of 82.

Notes

References
Tanitch, Robert. London Stage in the 20th Century, Haus Publishing
Jackson, Arthur. The Book of Musicals, Mitchell Beazley

External links
"Wings of Sleep", a recording of Gilbert

Singers from Carmarthenshire
Welsh musical theatre actresses
Welsh film actresses
20th-century Welsh women singers
1898 births
1981 deaths
20th-century British actresses
British mezzo-sopranos
20th-century British women opera singers

Olive Gilbert


Actual idealism is a form of idealism developed by philosopher
Giovanni Gentile

Simpler explanations are always correct. Gentile theorizes that thoughts can only be formed on the basis of incomplete information within the bounds of known reality. Abstract thinking does not exist.

Actual idealism initially began as the "philosophy of fascism".  Giovanni Gentile used his theory to support the formation of Mussolini's fascist state in Italy.

Philosophical movements and positions

Actual idealism


A unionized co-operative is a co-operative which is beholden to active legal involvement by trade unions in the representation of the worker-owners' interests.

While they may be considered unnecessary in most cases, trade union involvement and membership may be welcomed by some co-operatives, be it to show voluntary solidarity with the organized labor movement's own history of struggle or to allow workers to negotiate collectively for the furtherance of workers' special interests within the more democratic and representative co-operative.

The labor contract negotiated becomes the baseline of benefits due to  the membership and guarantees to the community that the working  conditions are not unfavorable.  Union  membership for worker co-operatives gives the enterprise a legitimate  standard of operations.

Firms converting to worker ownership may benefit from union membership because a union provides an experienced structure for integrating the  needs of business with democratic influence from workers on management  decisions.

Difference from Union-backed ESOPs
ESOPs are not the same as full-fledged worker co-operatives, as ESOPs still retain a structure which is a mixture of private and co-operative elements.

References

Trade unions
Cooperatives

Union co-op model


The Tubbataha Natural Park, also known as the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (), is a protected area of the Philippines located in the middle of the Sulu Sea. The marine and bird sanctuary consists of two huge atolls (named the North Atoll and South Atoll) and the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef covering a total area of . It is located  southeast of Puerto Princesa, the capital of Palawan. The uninhabited islands and reefs are part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo, located roughly  to the northeast of the reef.

In December 1993, the UNESCO declared the Tubbataha Reefs National Park as a World Heritage Site as a unique example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons and two coral islands. In 1999, Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the wetlands of international importance. In 2008, the reef was nominated at New7Wonders of Nature.

The national park and the rest of the Philippine archipelago is part of the Coral Triangle, recognized as a center of marine biodiversity containing 75% of the described coral species and 40% of the world's reef fish. The area is under a grave threat due to overfishing and destructive fishing practices. Research of scientists visiting the reefs since the 1980s revealed that the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park contains no less than 600 fish species, 360 coral species, 11 shark species, 13 dolphin and whale species, and 100 bird species. The reefs also serve as a nesting ground for Hawksbill and Green sea turtles.

Geography
The natural park is located near the middle of Sulu Sea,  southeast of Puerto Princesa, covering a total of .

Jessie Beazley Reef
The smaller Jessie Beazley Reef is located about  north of the two atolls.

Geology

The Tubbataha Reef is situated on the Cagayan Ridge, composing of extinct underwater volcanoes.  Being a true atoll structure, it is believed that the atolls of Tubbataha were formed thousands of years ago as fringing reefs and volcanic islands.  This is based on Charles Darwin's theory that atolls are formed when a volcano erupts and afterwards an island is born. When the volcanoes became extinct and the islands subsided over a long time, only the corals remain, growing towards the sunlight.  The very big corals seen today surrounding the lagoons are originally the fringing reefs.

History

Etymology
The word tubbataha is a combination of two Sama-Bajau words: tubba and taha, which together means "a long reef exposed at low tide".  Historically, Sama-Bajau peoples, who have a nomadic lifestyle, visit the reef from time to time.  Although people from the islands of Cagayancillo are frequent visitors of the reef.  They used the native vessel banka to sail and fish on "Gusong", their local name for the Tubbataha.

Protection

Tubbataha's isolation, located in the middle of the Sulu Sea far from inhabitants of the nearest populated islands, had preserved its marine resources from over-exploitation over the years.  The two islets in Tubbataha have no source of freshwater thus preventing habitation.

In the 1980s, fishermen reaching Tubbataha increased in numbers with the advent in motorized bangkas, instead of the traditional sailboats. Fish had declined in other fishing grounds because of overfishing and soon Tubbataha became a fishing destination because of its abundant marine life.  Many fishermen used destructive fishing techniques like cyanide and dynamite fishing to maximize their catch.

Scuba divers and environmentalists campaigned to make the reefs a national marine park.  With the endorsement of the Provincial Government of Palawan, on August 11, 1988, President Corazon Aquino signed Proclamation no. 306 establishing the two Tubbataha Reefs as a national marine park with an area of .  This was the first time that the Philippines had declared a marine area as a national park.

In the early years of law enforcement by the Presidential Task Force, the rangers were housed in a simple canvas tent.  In 1996 a wooden structure was built but shifting sand soon rendered its foundations unstable. At present, the marine park rangers are housed in a styrofoam-reinforced concrete structure on the Southeast Islet on Tubbatha's North Atoll.

The National Marine Park was enlarged in 2006 to include the Jessie Beazley Reef. President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo signed Proclamation no. 1126 on August 23, which increased the boundaries of the park by 200% to . The national park was also reclassified as a natural park. It is guarded by armed rangers 24 hours/7 days a week.

In 2013, during the 25th anniversary of the Tubbataha Reef's national park declaration, the World Wildlife Fund announced plans to construct a modernized ranger station on a different site to effectively monitor and deal with illegal poaching activities. The said project would cost PHP50 million.

Recognition
It was declared a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in December 1993 and falls under the protective management of the Department of National Defense (DND) of the Philippines. It is currently under technical supervision by the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).

In 1999, Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the Wetlands of International Importance because of the variety of its marine life species and valuable role as a habitat for various animals.

The Tubbataha Reef Natural Park was nominated by New7Wonders Foundation in the New 7 Wonders of Nature in 2007 but lost.

In November 2015, Tubbataha was declared by the ASEAN's Centre for Biodiversity as the 35th ASEAN Heritage Park.

On July 25, 2017, the Tubbataha Reef was designated as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA)—and an "area to be avoided"—by the International Maritime Organization.

Management
Although the reefs are geographically part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo, Palawan, located roughly  to the northeast of the reef, the park is managed by the Tubbataha Management Office (TMO) in Puerto Princesa. The islands are uninhabited except for the rotating 10 – 12 park rangers at the Ranger's Station located at the southernmost tip of the North Atoll.  The combined team from the Philippine Navy, Philippine Coast Guard, Municipality of Cagayancillo and the TMO. Stationed for two months at a time, their job is to protect the park from illegal activities including fishing and collection of other marine life.

Ecology
Over 1000 species of marine life inhabit the reef with many considered endangered. Animal species found include manta rays, lionfish, sea turtles, clownfish, and sharks.  Tubbataha has become a popular site for seasoned sport divers because of its coral "walls" where the shallow coral reef abruptly ends giving way to great depths. These "walls" are also habitats for many colonies of fish. Giant trevally (jacks), hammerhead sharks, barracudas, manta rays, palm-sized Moorish idols, napoleon wrasse, parrotfish, and moray eels live in the sanctuary. There also have been reported sightings of whale sharks and tiger sharks. Tubbataha is even home to cetaceans and the hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) which are critically endangered species. Being a UNESCO World Heritage site, all living organisms are protected.

Vivid corals cover more than two-thirds of the area and the waters around the reef are places of refuge for numerous marine lives. The seemingly diverse ecosystem of this sanctuary rivals the Great Barrier Reef – having 350 coral species and 500 fish species. In June 2009 an outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish was observed, possibly affecting the ecological functioning of this relatively pristine coral reef.

Tourism
Tubbataha is considered one of the best dive sites in the world according to CNN Travel. Trips to Tubbataha National Marine Park from Puerto Princesa operate during the diving season from mid-March to mid-June, the period where the waves are calmest, skies clear and water visibility of about . The park is about ten hours by boat from the city. All trips are vessel-based or "liveaboard" as there are no accommodation facilities. Visitors stay on the yacht/boat throughout their stay in the park. During the diving season, ships dedicated for diving are usually booked years in advance especially during Easter and the Asian holidays called "Golden Week".

As of March 2011, the park entrance fee for individuals is pegged at US$75.00 or PHP3,000.00. In September 2010, Palawan governor Abraham Kahlil Mitra announced that local residents of Palawan province can enter the Tubbataha Reef without paying the conservation fee. Divers are advised to book their trips towards the middle or end of April as calm seas from April to June have a short window.

Although the sand bars around Tubbataha are considered off limits to human beings, tourists are allowed to set foot at the Ranger Station where they can purchase souvenirs and tour the facility.

₱1000 bill- The park is featured on the reverse side of the 2010 series of the Philippine one thousand peso bill.

Ship grounding incidents

Rainbow Warrior
On October 31, 2005, the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior ran aground on Tubbataha Reef accidentally damaging approximately  of reef for which they paid a fine of about $7,000.  Greenpeace blamed the accident on inaccurate charts provided by the Philippine government.  The BBC quoted Greenpeace official Red Constantino as saying "The chart indicated we were a mile and a half" from the coral reef when the ship ran aground.  Greenpeace paid a fine.

USS Guardian

On January 17, 2013, the US Navy minesweeper USS Guardian ran aground at Tubbataha Reef.  The U.S. Government initially blamed the grounding on faulty maps.  Between 2011 and January 2013, before the grounding of the USS Guardian, there were eleven incidents involving ships, including two Philippine ships. The U.S. Navy concluded that towing the ship off the reef would cause more damage and decided to dismantle the ship in place.  On March 30, the last section of the ship was removed from the reef. No evidence of fuel leakage from the grounded vessel were found.

On April 8, 2013 the U.S. Navy turned over digital navigation charts and other relevant documents and data of the Guardian to the Philippine Maritime Casualty Investigating Team (MCIT) and responded to various technical and substantive queries.  The MCIT conducted its own independent investigation and made recommendations on how to avoid such incidents in the future.

The U.S. Government apologized for the incident and relieved five officers from duty. The initial investigation clearly indicated that these officers did not adhere to standard US Navy navigation procedures.

The World Wide Fund for Nature–Philippines and the Tubbataha Management Office, measured the damage area at .  The U.S. Federal Government was assessed a fine of 24,000 Philippine pesos (about US$600) per square meter. On January 20, 2015, the United States Government paid to the Philippine government a total of 87 million Philippine pesos, or US$1.97 million – 59 million Philippine pesos for the damage and another 29 million pesos to reimburse for services provided by the Philippine Coast Guard.

F/V Min Long Yu
On April 8, 2013, the F/V Min Long Yu, a Chinese fishing vessel, ran aground some  nautical miles east of the Tubbataha Reef ranger station. The fishing vessel had 12 crew members and was suspected of illegal fishing.  On board, what was found instead were 400 boxes of frozen pangolins of unknown origin.

See also
List of World Heritage Sites in the Philippines
List of protected areas of the Philippines
List of reefs
ASEAN Heritage Parks
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
Apo Reef
Verde Island Passage

References

External links

Tubbataha Reef Marine Park – UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park – The Official Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park Website
Palawan Council for Sustainable Development
Sulu Sea. Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. P.Saundry & C.J.Cleveland. Washington DC by C.Michael Hogan. 2011.
Tubbataha Reef- Cagayancillo  – . Tubbataha Reef is recognised as one of the most remarkable coral reefs on our planet.

Islands of Palawan
Landforms of the Sulu Sea
World Heritage Sites in the Philippines
ASEAN heritage parks
Coral reefs
Marine sanctuaries
Ramsar sites in the Philippines
Natural parks of the Philippines
Underwater diving sites in the Philippines
Reefs of the Pacific Ocean
Tourist attractions in Palawan
Reefs of the Philippines

Tubbataha Reef


Joel Breton is an American video game producer, video game designer, film producer and entrepreneur. He has worked as a producer on multiple award-winning video games, including Unreal PC, Bomberman Live, and Pirates of the Caribbean. In 2016, Breton became the head of virtual reality content for HTC Vive, where he manages both internal and external content development for the HTC Vive virtual reality platform. In October 2018, Breton premiered the world's first feature length VR film, 7 Miracles, at the Raindance Film Festival, where it won the VR Film of the Festival award. Joel Breton is a member of the Steering Committee for the Academy of International Extended Reality (AIXR), where he works to advance AR/VR technology in the global marketplace.

Breton is a video game industry veteran who began his career in 1994 when he landed a role at Sega of America in Product Development. Since then, he has produced, designed and created more than 250 video games across 22 console platforms. He has also created more than 100 online games that have been played more than a billion times across the web.

Joel's first role as a video game producer was for GT Interactive, where he produced Duke Nukem: Land of the Babes, Unreal, Blood 2, Anno 1602, Baseball mogul, Deer Hunter, along with several other video games.  While at GT, Breton successfully green-lit and launched the development cycle for No One Lives Forever.

Breton produced several games for Bethesda Softworks, a game publisher based in Bethesda, Maryland. He worked as a producer on Sea Dogs, Echelon, and IHRA Drag Racing, while serving as Producer and Studio Head of Bethesda West Studios in Olympia, Washington.

Joel then moved to Moscow, Russia, to create and manage Bethesda's European development operations. While stationed in Moscow, he worked as a producer on Pirates of the Caribbean for the Xbox which was the first U.S. console game developed in Russia.

Breton founded the game development company Kozmo Games to develop casual games for the global market.  Kozmo Games has since developed and released Ice Cream Tycoon and War Chess for the casual game market.

Breton returned to California in 2005 where he joined Take Two Interactive and worked as a producer on World Poker Tour for the PS2, PlayStation Portable, Xbox, and Game Boy Advance platforms.  He also worked as a producer on Amped 3, a launch title for the Xbox 360. He led the Major League Baseball 2K6 team and produced the PlayStation Portable version of the exclusive Major League Baseball game which was released in Spring of 2006.

Joel next appeared as a Senior Producer with Hudson Entertainment in 2006 and produced Bomberman Live among several other console titles for the U.S. division of Hudson Soft.

From 2007 until 2010 Joel held the position of Director of Content for AddictingGames.com, MTV Network's leading website with more than 30 million monthly visitors.  During that time he established the site as an original game IP factory, creating and launching more than 100 original game franchises and publishing more than 800 new games on the site.

Joel is a frequent speaker at game industry conventions and he represented MTV Networks and AddictingGames by speaking at the Casual Connect conference in Kiev in 2008. Joel was a speaker and on the steering committee for the Flash Gaming Summit in 2009, at Casual Connect Seattle 2010.

Breton also pioneered the production of viral news games and he designed and created more than 10 viral news games that were each played millions of times.  Hero On The Hudson was one of the first viral news games he launched, celebrating the heroism of Captain Sully Sullenberger's perfect plane landing on the Hudson River. Oiligarchy, was another viral news game which examined the oil industry for the first time in a video game. Joel and his team at AddictingGames also produced Where's the Naughty Governor, a news game that was highlighted by the LA Times in the article "Web games, ripped from the healdines".

In August 2010, Joel was appointed Executive Vice President of North America for Zattikka Ltd., a social game company focused on the high growth platforms of social, mobile and online games.

From 2012 to 2015, Joel moved to the global video game publisher, 505 Games, where he served as Senior Vice President of Product Development. During his time as head of 505 Games' product development division, the company launched a string of highly rated and successful games, including Payday 2, Terraria, Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons, How To Survive, Gems of War, and Battle Islands.

In January 2016, Breton was appointed Vice President of Virtual Reality Content at HTC Vive, where he and the HTC Vive content team are responsible for creating virtual reality content across ten categories, including healthcare, education, cinematic/live video, gaming, design, real-estate, retail, media, social, & theme-park experiences.  Joel believes that game players are going to be blown away by the full immersion that they can experience in virtual reality games on the HTC Vive platform.

Biography

Sega of America
Joel began his video game career at Sega in 1994 where he worked in the Product Development division on many of SEGA's games including Virtua Fighter, and World Series Baseball.   During his time at Sega, Joel worked on games that were published across seven console platforms including – Genesis, CD, Game Gear, 32X, Pico, Saturn, and Nomad.

Headgames Inc.
Breton then joined Headgames, a game development company in San Francisco where he worked as a designer on Killwheel and Sirens for the PC and PlayStation platforms.

GT Interactive
In 1997, Joel moved to GT Interactive and began producing front-line games for the powerhouse PC game publisher. He worked as a producer on several first-person shooting (FPS) games during his three years at GT Interactive including, Duke Nukem: Land of the Babes, and Blood 2. During his time at GT Interactive, Breton also produced Anno 1602, Baseball Mogul, and Deer Hunter.

Bethesda Softworks
Breton was hired as Game Producer and later promoted to Studio Head for Bethesda Softworks in Olympia, Washington. Joel then moved to Russia to establish Bethesda Softworks East in the heart of Moscow.  While stationed in Russia he first established relations with the leading Russian game development studios and signed contracts with the top teams to develop AAA games for Bethesda Softworks to publish globally. During his 3 years in Russia, Breton produced Pirates of the Caribbean (video game) on the Xbox - the first U.S. console game developed in Russia.

Kozmo Games
Breton founded the game development company Kozmo Games in 2004, to develop casual games for the global market. Kozmo Games developed and released Ice Cream Tycoon and War Chess for the casual game market.

Take-Two Interactive
In 2005, Breton joined Take Two Interactive where he was the External Producer for 2K Sports.  During his time there he produced World Poker Tour, Major League Baseball 2k6, and Amped 3 which was an Xbox 360 launch title.

Hudson Entertainment
Joel then joined Hudson Entertainment, the US division of Hudson Soft, the storied Japanese game publisher.  While at Hudson he focused on creating the highest rated version of Bomberman for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 console platforms. Joel worked closely with the North American development team and the Japanese Hudson Soft team to create Bomberman Live—the highest rated and top selling version of Bomberman released in the US market.  He also produced several other console and mobile games while at Hudson Entertainment, including Bonk's Adventure, Diner Dash, and Military Madness.

AddictingGames.com /MTV Networks
In 2007, Breton joined MTV Networks as Director of Content for AddictingGames.com, and helped to grow the site to become the number one game site in the U.S. in terms of unique monthly visitors.  During his three years at AddictingGames, he was responsible for the development and release of more than one hundred games that have been played billions of times at AddictingGames and around the web.  Breton was also in charge of creating new IP and game franchises for AddictingGames. He worked with development teams to create many of the top online game franchises including—Sniper Assassin, The Heist, Bad Boys, Moto Rush, and Stick Hero. While at AddictingGames, he was responsible for the site's game development, licensing, sponsorship, publishing, and promotion.  Breton was also responsible for licensing hit game franchises to be published across platforms including online, social networks, iPhone, iPod, iPad, Android, and other mobile platforms.

Games
Ready Player One: Oasis Beta (2018), Vive Studios
Knockout League (2017), Vive Studios
Super Puzzle Galaxy (2017), Vive Studios
TrueScale (2017), Vive Studios
Amazon Odyssey (2017), Vive Studios
Virtual Sports (2016), Vive Studios
Arcade Saga (2016), Vive Studios
Chef Emma (2015), 505 Games
Fashion Week Live (2013), 505 Games
Wicked: The Game (2014), 505 Games
Gems of War (2014), 505 Games
Battle Islands (2013), 505 Games
Sniper Elite III (2014), 505 Games
Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons (2013),505 Games
How To Survive (2013), 505 Games
Terraria (2014), 505 Games
Payday 2 (2013), 505 Games
MotoRush World (2010), MTV Networks
Stick Hero (2010), MTV Networks
Sniper Assassin (2010), MTV Networks
Oiligarchy (2009), MTV Networks
Mix Master (2009), MTV Networks
The Heist (2008), MTV Networks
Bomberman Live (2007), Hudson Entertainment
Amped 3 (2005), 2K Sports
World Poker Tour (2006), 2K Sports
Major League Baseball 2k6 (2006), 2K Sports
Pirates of the Caribbean (video game) (2003), Bethesda Softworks
Sea Dogs (video game) (2000), Bethesda Softworks
Echelon (2001), Bethesda Softworks
IHRA Drag Racing (2000), Bethesda Softworks
Duke Nukem: Land of the Babes (2000), GT Interactive
Unreal (1998), GT Interactive
Anno 1602 (1998), GT Interactive
Blood II: The Nightmares (1999), GT Interactive
Baseball Mogul (1999), GT Interactive
Duke Nukem Forever (1998), GT Interactive
Sonic & Knuckles (1994), Sega
Doom 32X (1994), Sega
Virtua Fighter (1995), Sega
X-men 2: Clone Wars (1995), Sega
Daytona USA (1995), Sega
Shining Force II (1995), Sega
Nightmare Circus (1996), Sega
The Adventures of Batman & Robin (video game) (1995), Sega
Wacky Worlds Creativity Studio (1994), Sega

References

External links
 Joel Breton at MobyGames

Web games, ripped from the headlines "LA Times"
 Zattikka's new US Representative talks -Inside Social Games
 Going Japanese - Hudson Entertainment
 Joel Breton at the FlashMindMeld project
 Games Academy Instructors - The Games Academy
 Zattikka nabs MTV's Breton - MCVUK
 Joel Breton gets zattikka evp position - gamesmediapro
 Bomberman live developer interview - jordashe
 FlashGamingSummit 2010 Speakers - FlashGamingSummit
 Joel Breton AddictingGames at FlashGamm Kyiv - FlashGamm Kyiv
 Joel Breton talks Sea Dogs 2 at E-3 2002 - Subsim review
 Pirates of the Caribbean credits - GameSpot
 World Poker Tour credits - Answers.com
 Joel Breton on achievement junkie podcast - achievement junkie podcast
 Webgames ripped from the headlines - current.com
 Joel Breton at Flash Gaming Summit - Bender Helper
 FlashGamingSummit Speakers 2010 - FlashGamingSummit
 FlashGamingSummit Speakers
 How to develop blockbuster online games - Casual Connect
 Virtual Goods Get Addicting - Casual Connect Seattle 2010
 Flash Games Coming to Xbox and Wiiware - gamedaily
 World Poker Tour 2k6 Developer interview at Gamespot
 Hudson's Joel Breton talks Bomberman Live at Digg
 Bomberman Live Major Nelson Joel Breton interview
 Bomberman at XBLarcade
 Hudson drops bombs with Bomberman Live at IGN
 Joel breton talks Bomberman live on OXM podcast
 Bomberman live producer Joel Breton interview at X360plex
 Bomberman at Electric Chaos
 Bomberman at Mondoxbox

Video game producers
American video game designers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Joel Breton