Salinas is a major stop on the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) circuit. The Salinas rodeo (pronounced the Spanish way: "roDAYo") began in 1911 as a Wild West Show on the site of the old race track ground, now the Salinas Sports Complex. The rodeo was inducted into the ProRodeo Hall of Fame in 2008.

California Rodeo Salinas Hall of Fame

History

Origins

The history of the California Rodeo begins in the days of the Spanish Rancheros. Cattle were semi-wild and a herd would contain animals from a variety of different owners, each with his own unique brand to distinguish his animal from his neighbor's. Round-ups, or "rodears" — the Spanish equivalent, occurred in the fall and spring. Owners would track down and herd as many animals as they could find, and bring them to a central, predetermined location—usually a valley. In the spring, the purpose of the roundup was for branding, ear-marking, and castration. In the fall, animals were slaughtered for hide and tallow. These events also served as a social gathering. They could last up to or over a week and often included barbecues, fandangos, and competitions in roping and bronco riding.

1872–1935

Sausal Park Race Track and the Beginnings of the Rodeo
The Sausal Park Race Track was the predecessor of the California Rodeo. In 1872, a racetrack, grandstand, bar, and restaurant were constructed by the Monterey County Agricultural Association on  in Salinas. The land was donated to the city by Eugene Sherwood and Richard Hellman of San Francisco, on the condition that a fair and race would be held at least once every two years. If the city did not hold to this condition, then the property would go back to its former owners. The first race was held in 1875. The Monterey Fair Association was incorporated and the racetrack was also used by the Pacific Coast Trotting Association. In 1878, the park was renamed Sherwood Park. By 1909, the popularity of the races had decreased dramatically, and the future of the property was in question, due to the condition put on it by its former owners when it was given to the city — that a race had to be held once every two years.

The solution for the city came from a group of cattlemen whose informal club went by the name of the "Salinas Coyotes." (The main activity of the club was a bull's-head BBQ with generous amounts of bourbon whiskey!) Iver "Red" Cornett thought that having bucking horses in between the races would draw more interest from the public. The first show was held in 1910 at a baseball park on West Market Street. The show was very successful and the next year was moved to the racetrack at Sherwood Park.

On August 1, 1911, the first Rodeo was held at the racetrack grounds. It was advertised as a Wild West Show. Because it ran for a week, Iver "Red" Cornett wanted to call it "Big Week." Frank Griffin wanted to call it "The California Rodeo." Both names are still used today. The founders of the rodeo, in addition to the two mentioned above, were H.E. Abbott, James E. Breen, Sam Matthews, Lawrence "Butch" Beevers, Arthur Hebbron, Julius Trescony, John Bryan, E.J. Redmond, Ed Bordieu, A.J. Zabala, P.E. Zabala and H.W. Lynch.

The first horse parade down Main Street was held in 1911. It was led by James R. Hebbron, who led every parade after that until 1926—the year he turned 97. The parade consisted of a 16-part band and about 100 horses ridden by nearby ranchers. There was another parade that was held on the evening of the closing night. It was less formal and consisted of the few cars that could be decorated, rather than horses.

The rodeo in 1912 was even more successful than the one the year before. This was the first time that cowgirls were included. This was also the first time that out of town dignitaries and politicians attended. The highlight of that year's show was the performance by the black cowboy Jesse Stahl. He competed in bronc riding twice, once facing forward, the other time facing backwards. Jesse Stahl retired in 1929 and was probably the most well-known black cowboy in history. The total attendance to the 1912 show was 4,000.

The trotting races where zoned out by 1913 and the eleven leaders of the show started trying to make the show a permanent feature. Frank Griffin became the President and Rodeo Boss, which he held until 1934. The program was extended to include over 20 events and the evening parade was formalized. It was given the name "El Colmado del Rodeo" and was sometimes called the "Colmo del Rodeo". It was eliminated in 1985, but not before it achieved the status of the largest night parade west of the Mississippi.  In 1930, a parade for children only was instituted, called the Kiddie Kapers Parade, which continues today.  The Colmo del Rodeo was re-instituted in 2010, and  is preceded by the Kiddie Kapers Parade.

In 1914, the show was incorporated under the name "California Rodeo." The war did not stop the rodeo in the years 1917 and 1918. In 1923, the rodeo paid the City of Salinas $40,000 in order to get a Quitclaim deed to the location from the Sherwood heirs. The title cleared in 1924, and the rodeo was reincorporated as "California Rodeo, Inc." A municipal bond issue in the amount of $40,000 was passed that year. It was used to build an 8,000 seat grandstand, a ½ mile racetrack, two barns, fences, and bucking chutes. It was paid off in 1944 from revenue made by the rodeo and the City of Salinas didn't make any money off of it.

The first "Queen of the Rodeo" contest was in 1926. It was won by Miss Bernice Donahue. By 1929, the contest had evolved into the "Sweetheart of the Rodeo" contest. This was won by Miss Lilian Kirschner of Santa Clara County. Also in this time, Abe Lefcowitz, a former clown in the rodeo, became the official announcer. He became known as Abe Lefton, and was the announcer from 1928 until 1950. His comical thoughts about dignitaries, politics, and the sport were loved by the fans.
By 1929, the local cowboys were becoming outnumbered by out of town professionals. But this was not due to lack of support from the locals — the parade, which WAS mostly of locals, was over a mile long! Also, in that year, the Rodeo Cowboys Association was formed. In 1936, it became the Cowboy Turtle Association, before becoming the PRCA (Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association). In 1994, the rule was passed that all competitors had to be registered with the PRCA.

1935 to present
In 1935, the grandstands were enlarged to hold 14,000 people. Brahman Bulls were used for the first time in 1939 in the bull riding contest. This was more exciting, because these bulls' behavior was less predictable than that of other bulls. Between the years 1924 and 1942, many improvements were made to the facilities. The list included: enlarging the grandstands, building new barns, corrals and fences. Around 3,600 Japanese Americans were interned on the rodeo grounds as the Salinas Assembly Center during World War II, from April to July 1942.  In July 1942 till 1945 it was used by the US Army VII Corps (United States) as the Salinas Garrison.  In 1947, the rodeo purchased  of land to the east of the grounds from Mrs. Emma Sterling. The Rodeo deeded this land to the City. In 1972, the Rodeo purchased  and also deeded it to the city. The City and the Rodeo then signed a 15-year lease that expired on Jun 30, 1999. In 1996, the grandstands were demolished and were replaced by new ones after the July rodeo. It was replaced by an 8.5 million dollar multi-use sports facility.

In 1971, team ropers Jim Olds of San Juan Bautista, California and local Bill Armour of Salinas, California set not only a time record but they also set a record to become the first High Money Winners of the California Rodeo Salinas to do so in a single event. Previously the title of "High Money Winner" had always been won by the All Around Champion, winning prize money in two or more events. Olds and Armour won 1st place in the first go-round, 2nd place in the 3rd go-round and 1st place in the average leading to a contentious debate over who would be presented with the San Francisco Chronicle Award, normally given to the "high money winner". After days of debate, the rodeo committee determined the award would be presented to the All Around Champion Jim Rodriguez Jr. instead of the High Money Winners, Jim Olds and Bill Armour. The rules would be changed thereafter to state that the award would go to the All-Around Champion.

In 1979, the California Rodeo Historical Committee was formed and given the gifts of an authentic Wells Fargo stagecoach and a building. Barbara Breen and Marge Behen were the first co-chairmen of the museum that was established. The museum is open to the public during the run of the Rodeo or by appointment.

Today, the California Rodeo Salinas is the largest and most popular rodeo in California. It is one of the top PRCA rodeos televised on The Cowboy Channel and live-streamed on The Cowboy Channel Plus application.

The 2020 edition of the California Rodeo Salinas was rescheduled from its usual July run to October because of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, after several months, the event was canceled altogether.

The PRCA's ProRodeo Tour Finale in September moved to the California Rodeo Salinas in 2021 from its previous home at the Washington State Fair in Puyallup, Washington.

In 2022, the PRCA's ProRodeo Tour was renamed as the Playoff Series. The California Rodeo Salinas returned to its usual July run and is a regular season stop on said tour, while the tour's finale returned to Puyallup, Washington in September. However, as of 2023, the Playoff Series finale now takes place in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

Other events have appeared there including monster truck shows, and a famous publicity stunt happened on May 31, 1992 at a show promoted by the late Dave Matthews where a stipulation was added to qualifying stating that the slowest qualifying truck would be dropped from a crane. Mike Welch, famous monster truck driver built a truck called Muscle Beach with no front suspension and a regular car engine specifically for the drop and purposely finished last, and the truck was hoisted and fell 20 ft off the crane as part of the gimmick.

References

Rodeos
Buildings and structures in Salinas, California
Sports in Monterey County, California
Tourist attractions in Monterey County, California
Sports in Salinas, California
1911 establishments in California
Recurring sporting events established in 1911
ProRodeo Hall of Fame inductees

California Rodeo Salinas


Bob Weiskopf (March 13, 1914 – February 20, 2001) was an American screenwriter and producer for television. He has credits for I Love Lucy which he and his writing partner Bob Schiller joined in the fifth season. They also wrote for The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour, The Lucy Show, Maude, All in the Family (for which he won a 1978 Emmy for co-writing the episode "Cousin Liz"), Archie Bunker's Place, The Red Skelton Show, the short-lived Pete and Gladys, and Sanford (the spin-off of Sanford and Son).

Life and career
Weiskopf, born in Chicago, Illinois, began writing for television in 1950, when he wrote an episode for The Colgate Comedy Hour.

Weiskopf first tried comedy writing at the suggestion of friends Norman Panama and Melvin Frank. Panama and Frank lured him to Hollywood in 1940, where he managed to sell some jokes to Bob Hope for his radio program. From there, he later wrote for radio, for Eddie Cantor's The Eddie Cantor Show, and Rudy Vallée for his Rudy Vallee's Sealtest Program, he would in later years, write comedy material for Fred Allen, Danny Thomas, Red Skelton, Phyllis Diller and Carol Burnett.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he sent his new bride, the former Eileen Ito, east to avoid the internment camps, and moved in with fellow Rudy Vallee writer Jess Oppenheimer (who 13 years later would hire his former roommate to write for I Love Lucy). Weiskopf and his wife Eileen were reunited a few months later when he moved to New York City, where he was hired to write radio comedy for the comedian-actor Fred Allen. When Weiskopf received a draft notice ordering him to report on June 1, 1942, he requested a two-week delay so that he could finish writing the last two Fred Allen shows of the season. The Draft Board summarily rejected his request, explaining, "Everybody knows Fred Allen writes his own material."

Creative partnership with Bob Schiller
The creative partnership and friendship with Bob Schiller began in 1953, when Weiskopf—who was also a comedywriter—had just relocated to Los Angeles from New York City, and his wife began searching for a school for their youngest son Kim, to attend; Schiller's first wife had recommended a school for Kim to his Weiskopf's wife, and also told her and that Schiller was looking for a partner. The two collaborated for the first time in writing a single radio script for the Our Miss Brooks show, before delving into the new media of network television together, writing for such popular 1950s shows such as Make Room for Daddy, which starred Danny Thomas, The Bob Cummings Show, I Love Lucy, the TV adaptation of the popular radio series My Favorite Husband, The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour, The Ann Sothern Show which they co-created, and Pete and Gladys.

Further success continued into the 1960s and 1970s with such series as The Lucy Show, The Red Skelton Show, The Good Guys (where they were also co-producers), The Phyllis Diller Show, The Carol Burnett Show, The Flip Wilson Show, Maude (which they also co-produced), All in the Family, and its spinoff series, Archie Bunker's Place. During their long collaboration, The writing team of Schiller and Weiskopf were honored with two Emmy Awards, a pair of Peabody Awards, a Golden Globe, and the Writers' Guild of America's Paddy Chayefsky Laurel Award for Television Achievement.
His son Kim Weiskopf was also a television writer. His other son, Walt, was not.

Death
Weiskopf died in Los Angeles on February 20, 2001; he was survived by his wife, sons Kim and Walt and their grandchildren. His son Kim Weiskopf, who followed his father into the world of television comedy writing, died of pancreatic cancer at the age of 62 at his home in Encino, California.

References

External links

1914 births
2001 deaths
American male screenwriters
American male television writers
Television producers from Illinois
Primetime Emmy Award winners
United States Army personnel
Screenwriters from Chicago
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
Writers Guild of America Award winners

Bob Weiskopf


César Cedeño Encarnación (born February 25, 1951) is a Dominican former professional baseball player and coach. He played in Major League Baseball as a center fielder from 1970 to 1986, most prominently as a member of the Houston Astros where he helped the franchise win its first-ever National League Western Division title and postseason berth in .

The four-time All-Star player combined speed and power to become one of the best all around players of his era.  Cedeño set the standards for major league outfielders in the early 1970s by winning five consecutive Gold Glove Awards between 1972 and 1976.  He became only the second player in Major League Baseball history to hit 20 home runs and steal 50 bases in one season, and the only major leaguer to do so in three consecutive seasons.  He also played for the Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers.

After his playing career, Cedeño spent several years as a minor league hitting coach for the Astros and Nationals organizations. In 2020, Cedeño was inducted into the Houston Astros Hall of Fame. Cedeño still holds the Astros team record for career stolen bases more than 40 years after last playing for the team.

Baseball career

Houston Astros

Signed by Houston as an amateur free agent in 1967, Cedeño debuted on June 20, 1970, at 19 years of age. His .310 batting average in his rookie season in , allowed him to finish 4th in the Rookie of the Year voting.  The next season, he led the major leagues in doubles.  On September 2 of that year, he hit an unusual home run: against the Los Angeles Dodgers in the Astrodome, with the bases loaded, he hit a blooper that dropped between the right fielder and second baseman, who collided with one another as the ball rolled away; Cedeno and the rest of his teammates scurried quickly to reach home plate for an inside-the-park grand slam. The following season, his third, he again led in doubles, not just his league, but in the majors. He batted .320 in both 1972 and 1973. In 1972, Cedeño hit 22 home runs, had 55 stolen bases, and again led the league in doubles. He won a Gold Glove Award that season as well. Houston manager Leo Durocher once compared Cedeño to Willie Mays, saying "At 22 Cedeño is as good or better than Willie was at the same age".

Possessing a rare combination of power, blazing speed, and good defense, Cedeño became the second man in Major League history (after Lou Brock in 1967) to hit 20 home runs and steal 50 bases in one season.  He accomplished the feat three years in a row (1972–1974), making him the only player in major league history to do so.  Further, he stole 50-plus bases the next three years (1975–1977), twice led the league in doubles (1971–1972) and collected 102 RBI in the 1974 season. He would finish in the top ten of stolen base leaders from 1971–1978 and again in 1980. His 550 stolen bases rank 27th all time as of January 2018.  A winner of five consecutive Gold Glove Awards (1972–1976), Cedeño appeared in four All-Star Games (1972–1974; 1976), and was a contender for the National League MVP in 1972. In the All-Star Game of that year, Cedeño beat out Roberto Clemente for the starting National League position. Cedeño also hit for the cycle in both 1972 and 1976.

Cedeno recorded his 1,000th career hit on July 2, 1976, against the Cincinnati Reds, doing so on a single against Pat Zachry, which was the second of four hits he would record in the game (including a 14th inning home run to help boost the Astros to a 10-7 win).

On September 9, 1981, while playing at Atlanta Stadium, Cedeño entered the stands to confront a heckler. No punches were thrown and no charges were filed, but Cedeño was ejected from the game and immediately suspended as a result. On September 11, Cedeño was fined $5,000 by National League President Chub Feeney but received no further suspension, as Cedeño apologized to the fan on the phone and in writing which Feeney cited as "mitigating circumstances".

On December 18, 1981, Cedeño was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for Ray Knight. At the time of his departure from the Astros, he was the team's all-time leader in games played, runs, hits, doubles and stolen bases.

Cincinnati Reds

Cedeño played in 138 games to begin his Reds career, batting .289 with 142 hits with 16 stolen bases while walking/striking out 41 times each. His next few years would be shaky with the Reds, as he played a combined 291 games over the next three seasons, which had peaks of a .291 batting average in 1985 and lows of .232 in 1983, and he would have more strikeouts than walks in each season as well (after doing so nine times in his 12-year career with Houston). Cedeno collected his 2,000th career hit on April 28, 1985, doing so in the fifth inning against Mike Krukow of the San Francisco Giants. This made him the fifth member of the Reds on the roster to be part of the 2,000-hit club, which included Pete Rose, Tony Pérez, Dave Concepción and Buddy Bell.

St. Louis Cardinals

On August 29, 1985, he was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals for Mark Jackson. With St. Louis he hit .434 with six home runs in 28 games, and arguably provided the necessary power for his new team to outpace the New York Mets to reach the playoffs.  With only one month left in the season, Cedeño had the Cardinals' longest hitting streak during their 1985 season.  He then played at first base to replace the injured Jack Clark in the final regular season games, and played in the outfield in the playoffs to help replace the injured Vince Coleman.

He finished his combined 1985 season by playing in 111 games while batting .291 with 14 stolen bases. Cedeno was granted free agency on November 12, 1985.

Los Angeles Dodgers

Cedeño finished his career with the Dodgers and played his final game on June 2, 1986.

Estrellas Orientales

In between, Cedeño played six seasons for the Estrellas Orientales club of the Dominican Winter League, and reinforced the Tigres del Licey in the 1972 Caribbean Series. He later played with the Gold Coast Suns of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in its 1989 inaugural season.

Career statistics

In 17 seasons, Cedeño played in 2,006 games, compiling a .285 batting average (2087-7310), with 436 doubles, 60 triples, 199 home runs, 976 RBI, 550 stolen bases, 664 walks, a .347 on-base percentage and .443 slugging percentage. In 17 post-season games, he hit only .173 (9-52). He played first base and all three outfield positions and recorded a .985 fielding percentage.

Coaching career

After retiring, Cedeño has been both a fielding and hitting coach in the Dominican and Venezuelan winter leagues. He also served as a coach for the rookie-level Gulf Coast League farm team of the Washington Nationals before being let go in 2009. After that, he served as a hitting coach for the Greeneville Astros of the Appalachian League.

Personal life
On December 11, 1973, when he was 22 years old, Cedeño was involved in an incident in his native Dominican Republic in which a gun discharged in a motel room, killing a 19-year-old woman who was in the room with him. Authorities said Cedeño and the woman were drinking and playing with a gun when the gun fired, killing the 19-year-old. He was initially charged with voluntary manslaughter and held in prison without bail, while his lawyers negotiated for a reduction of the charge to involuntary manslaughter. He was held for 20 days before he was released on bail. He was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter and fined $100. Cedeño's reputation with fans suffered greatly for the remainder of his career, and Cedeño thereafter never achieved a popularity with fans commensurate with his formidable on-field productivity.

In 1992, Cedeño was charged with battery in Orlando, Florida, in an incident involving his then-pregnant girlfriend, Pamela Lamon. This followed a 1988 incident involving Lamon in which Cedeño was charged with assault, causing bodily injury, and resisting arrest.

See also

 Houston Astros award winners and league leaders
 List of Houston Astros team records
 List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career assists as a center fielder leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a center fielder leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
 List of Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic
 List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle

References

Further reading

External links

Cesar Cedeno at SABR (Baseball Biography Project)
Cesar Cedeno at Baseball Almanac
Cesar Cedeno at César Cedeño Biography at Baseball Biography
Cesar Cedeno at Astros Daily

1951 births
Living people
Cincinnati Reds players
Cocoa Astros players
Covington Astros players
Daytona Beach Explorers players
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States
Estrellas Orientales players
Florida Instructional League Astros players
Gold Coast Suns (baseball) players
Gold Glove Award winners
Houston Astros players

Los Angeles Dodgers players
Louisville Redbirds players
Major League Baseball center fielders
Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic
Minor league baseball coaches
National League All-Stars
Oklahoma City 89ers players
Peninsula Astros players
Saraperos de Saltillo players
Baseball players from Santo Domingo
St. Louis Cardinals players
People convicted of manslaughter

César Cedeño


The sagebrush sparrow (Artemisiospiza nevadensis) is a medium-sized sparrow of the western United States and northwestern Mexico.  It used to be placed in the genus Amphispiza, but evidence from 2007 and 2009 suggested it be placed in its own genus.

Habitat
Sagebrush sparrows are indeed often tied to sagebrush habitats, although they can also be found in brushy stands of saltbush, chamise, and other low shrubs of the arid interior west.

The species breeds in the interior of the Western United States (between the Rocky Mountains and the coastal ranges such as the Cascades).  It winters in the Mexican-border states and northern Sonora and Chihuahua.

The habitat of sagebrush sparrows is frequently threatened by bush encroachment or the invasion of herbaceous plants.

Population
Although sagebrush sparrow numbers are generally strong, significant declines in sagebrush habitat in the west could be expected to decrease populations in the near future.

The sagebrush sparrow, together with the Bell's sparrow, were considered conspecific and known as the sage sparrow before being split by the American Ornithological Society in 2013.

References

 Klicka, J., and G. M. Spellman. 2007. A molecular evaluation of the North American "grassland" sparrow clade. Auk 124:537–551.
 DaCosta, J. M., G. M. Spellman, P. Escalante, and J. Klicka. 2009. A molecular systematic revision of two historically problematic songbird clades: Aimophila and Pipilo. Journal of Avian Biology 40:206–216.

sagebrush sparrow
Birds of the Great Basin
Fauna of the Colorado Desert
sagebrush sparrow
Taxa named by Robert Ridgway

Sagebrush sparrow


The folly castle in the park of Hagley Hall is a Grade II* listed building and the largest building in Hagley Park. It was designed by Sanderson Miller for George Lyllelton in the middle of the 18th century to look like a small ruined medieval castle.

Eighteenth century
The building of the castle (and another folly called the rotunda), was started in 1747 while Sir Thomas Lyttelton was still alive (he died in 1751) so he was not opposed to the modernisation of his park with suitable fashionable ornamental follies, but the credit for its creation is usually given to his son and heir George Lyttelton (the future 1st Lord Lyttelton).

The Gothic Revival castle is rectangular with a round tower at each corner. Only the tower in the north-west is complete to a height of four storeys and an attached adjoining taller stair turret both topped with battlements. The top floor of the completed tower has large pointed windows, it has a "domed ceiling with Gothic plaster decoration, cusped pointed
niches alternating with the windows and above the door is a quatrefoil containing a coat of arms". The floors below have smaller rectangular and Lancet windows (some of them cusped).

The other towers are one or two storeys high with small rectangular windows and built to look as if they are ruined, (this effect was achieved by building the parts of the walls furthers from the castle's bailey higher than those closest allowing sloped roofs invisible to an observer outside the bailey).

The curtain walls are also built to look as if they are ruins. The west wall is the most complete with three tall windows two of which are complete enough to contain Gothic arches. Below the middle window is a Gothic arched doorway which are three shield reliefs.

The towers and curtain walls are faced with sandstone some of which may well have been taken from the ruins of Halesowen Abbey.

Nineteenth century
In the nineteenth century a single story building with a hipped slate roof was built next to the north-west tower. On the south side the entrance is through a gabled rustic timber porch; to its right there is a three-light casement window with four-centered head and latticed lights.

See also
 Clent Castle another folly castle close to this one.

Notes

References
 Cites: CL articles (mainly vol 122, p 545 & 608); VCH 3 (i), p 131; BoE, p 178).

External links

1747 establishments in England
Infrastructure completed in 1747
18th-century fortifications
Folly castles in England
Castles in Worcestershire
Grade II* listed buildings in Worcestershire
Grade II* listed castles
Hagley Hall
Gothic Revival architecture in Worcestershire

Castle in Hagley Park


Marine Corps University is a military education university system of the United States Marine Corps. It is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award Master's Degrees.

History
Marine Corps University (MCU) was founded on 1 August 1989 by order of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Alfred M. Gray.  The University can trace its roots back to World War I and the birth of the modern Marine Corps. General Gray's decision to establish MCU was a logical extension of the historical legacy of many famous Marine leaders who valued the importance of education, as well as a natural extension of the contemporary shift of the Corps' warfighting doctrine to one of "maneuver warfare," with its concomitant demand for leaders who can think critically and act decisively in the face of ambiguity, fog, friction, and chance.

The Marine Corps University's history dates back to 1891 when 29 company officers attended the School of Application. This facility became the Officers Training School in 1909, and later relocated to Marine Corps Base Quantico. In 1919, Major General John A. Lejeune ordered the creation of the Marine Corps Officers Training School. Brigadier General Smedley D. Butler established the Field Officers Course in October 1920 and the Company Grade Officers Course in July 1921.

World War I was pivotal in Major General Lejeune's decision to ensure Marines of all ranks were educated in the art and science of war. Brigadier General Butler later built upon General Lejeune's concepts by developing two additional courses of instruction. The first, called the Field Officers School, welcomed its inaugural class in October 1920. The second, the Company Grade Officers School, convened its first class in July 1921. These two courses, along with the basic Marine Corps Officer Training School, soon renamed The Basic School, formed the foundation for what General Lejeune termed "Marine Corps Schools." It was this beginning that formed the basis of the Marine Corps University that exists today.

Between World War I and World War II, Marine Corps education began focusing on its future fight, specifically the study and development of amphibious warfare. In the late 1920s, comprehensive instruction in amphibious operations was developed and implemented in anticipation of the demanding requirements of this new mission. Acknowledging that not all Marine Corps officers would have the opportunity to attend resident courses, the Marine Corps began implementing correspondence courses to reach a wider breadth of potential students.

Beginning in 1930, Brigadier General James C. Breckinridge led a comprehensive redesign of the entire curriculum of all Marine Corps Schools, emphasizing amphibious warfare and close air support.  Breckinridge required his officers to not only become specialists in this new "Marine Corps Science," he also demanded they become skilled instructors. He formed special groups from selected Field Officers School graduates and students to work on amphibious doctrine and requirements. In fact, General Breckinridge temporarily discontinued Field Officers School classes so that the staff and students could devote their full attention to developing the new doctrine.

Over the next several decades, Marine Corps education would consolidate and evolve. Brigadier General Breckinridge led efforts to re-designate company and field grade courses as "Amphibious Warfare" courses. In 1946, the Marine Corps revisited using its previous, three-tiered system, incorporating lessons learned from World War II. In the 1950s, the curricula began to reflect new technologies such as vertical envelopment. On 1 August 1964, the Amphibious Warfare Senior Course was re-designated as the Command and Staff College (CSC). At the same time, the Amphibious Warfare Junior Course became the Amphibious Warfare School (AWS).

Recognizing the need for enhanced enlisted education, on 16 February 1971, the Marine Corps convened the first course of the Staff Noncommissioned Officer Academy at Quantico, Virginia. This was the first of many additions to the Marine Corps professional military education continuum. Ten years later, in 1981, the Noncommissioned Officer Basic Course at 18 sites and a "Senior Course" for Staff Sergeants at Quantico, Virginia were also established. Finally, in 1982, an "Advanced Course" for First Sergeants and Master Sergeants was implemented at Quantico, Virginia.

On 6 March 1989, FMFM-1 (later, MCDP-1) Warfighting was published. This foundational document would cement the Marine Corps' commitment to maneuver warfare and initiate a modernization of the professional military education system. Thus, General Gray ordered the consolidation of five independent Marine Corps schools into a single Marine Corps University.

Now that Marine Corps University was a single entity, the institution underwent several growths in the 1990s. The Marine Corps War College (MCWAR) was established as the senior-level officer professional military education school, the Advanced Course was moved down to Gunnery Sergeants, and a new First Sergeants course was established. Additionally, a Commanders' Course for all Lieutenant Colonels and Colonels slated for command was instituted, along with annual E-8 Seminars and E-9 Symposiums. Lastly, in 1997, the College of Continuing Education was created to house all officer and enlisted distance education programs under one roof.

In 1999, MCU marked a major milestone in the maturation of its educational programs as the University was accredited by the prestigious Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC) to award a master's degree at the Command and Staff College. This was followed shortly thereafter by accreditation of the master's degrees of both the Marine Corps War College (2001) and the School of Advanced Warfighting (2003).

In 2002, the Amphibious Warfare School and the Command and Control Systems Course merged to become the Expeditionary Warfare School (EWS). The following year the Senior Leader Development Program (SLDP) was created to manage General Officer education. The SLDP later evolved to become the Executive Education Program (EEP) under the auspices of a new entity at MCU – the Lejeune Leadership Institute (LLI) – which is responsible for the development of leadership programs across the Marine Corps.

In 2005, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools reaffirmed the regional accreditation of MCU's three graduate degrees. This was followed in 2010 by the successful submission of the University's Fifth Year Interim Report to the Commission. In December 2015 the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools once again reaffirmed the regional accreditation of MCU's three graduate degrees.

Recent changes at MCU include the establishment of the Brute Krulak Center for Innovation and Future Warfare, or the "Krulak Center" for short, and the re-designation of the Enlisted Professional Military Education (EPME) directorate as the College of Enlisted Military Education (CEME).

Degree programs
 Marine Corps War College: On 1 August 1989, the 29th Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Alfred M. Gray, Jr., instituted the Art of War Studies program under the Marine Corps Command and Staff College. Today the mission of the Marine Corps War College is to develop, deliver, and evaluate professional military education and training through resident and nonresident programs to prepare leaders for the national security environment  and to preserve, promote, and display the history and heritage of the Marine Corps. Its graduates are prepared for senior leadership positions of increasing complexity through the study of national military strategy, theater strategy and plans, and military support to those strategies within the context of national security policies and decision-making. Graduates receive a Master of Strategic Studies (MSS) degree.
 Marine Corps Command and Staff College: including the study of history, language and culture, CSC educates and trains its joint, multinational, and interagency professionals in order to produce skilled warfighting leaders for 21st Century security challenges. Command and Staff College offers students the option of completing the requirements for a Master of Military Studies (MMS) degree.
 School of Advanced Warfighting: The School of Advanced Warfighting provides a follow-on, graduate-level professional military education for selected field grade officers who have completed the Marine Corps or sister service command and staff college course. The course develops complex problem solving and decision making skills for the operational level of war. Graduates receive a Master of Operational Studies (MOS) degree.

Schools, programs and courses

Expeditionary Warfare School
Formerly Amphibious Warfare School (AWS), the mission of the Expeditionary Warfare School (EWS) is to provide Marine captains career-level professional military education and oversee their professional military training in command and control, MAGTF operations ashore, and naval expeditionary operations. This is intended to enable them to command or serve as primary staff officers in their MOS, integrate the capabilities resident within their element of the MAGTF, integrate their element within the MAGTF, and understand the functions of the other elements of the MAGTF.

Marine Corps Command and Staff College (CSC)
The Marine Corps Command and Staff College provides graduate level education and training to develop critical thinkers, innovative problem solvers, and ethical leaders to serve as commanders and staff officers in service, joint, interagency, intergovernmental, and multinational organizations. The Command and Staff College is a ten-month program for majors, lieutenant commanders, allied foreign officers, and U.S. government civilian professionals that fulfills Joint Professional Military Education Phase I requirements. Students come from all branches of the US Armed Forces. Students have the option of completing the requirements for a Master of Military Studies (MMS) degree. MCU-CSC is also known for its civilian faculty members, many of whom conduct research into national security issues.

Marine Corps War College (MCWAR)

School of Advanced Warfighting

The mission of the School of Advanced Warfighting (SAW) is to develop lead planners and future commanders with the will and intellect to solve complex problems, employ operational art, and design and execute campaigns .

Enlisted Professional Military Education
The mission of the Enlisted Professional Military Education branch is to provide progressive educational opportunities to improve leadership, critical thinking capability and sound tactical skills for enlisted Marines.

School of MAGTF Logistics
The mission of the School of Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) Logistics (SOML) is to provide the logistics education for the Marine Corps, and to manage the logistics education programs in order to increase the combat effectiveness of Marine Corps operating forces, Marine Forces Reserve, the supporting establishment, and Headquarters Marine Corps.

Other programs
 College of Distance Education and Training
 Professional Development Division includes the Commanders' Program, Professional Reading, and Senior Leader Development Program
 Staff Non-commissioned Officer Academy
 Center for Regional and Security Studies

Marine Corps University Press
Marine Corps University Press is a university press affiliated with Marine Corps University. It is located in Quantico, Virginia. The press is currently a member of the Association of University Presses.

See also

Air University
Army University
Center for Advanced Operational Culture Learning

References

External links

Marine Corps University
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Universities and colleges established in 1989
Staff colleges
1989 establishments in Virginia
Military education and training
Military education and training in the United States
Education government agencies of the United States
Public university systems in the United States
Department of Defense Education Activity

Marine Corps University


Mario González Lozano (born April 18, 1969) is a Mexican luchador, or professional wrestler, who works as an exótico for the Mexican Lucha Libre AAA World Wide promotion and Lucha Underground under the ring name Pimpinela Escarlata. As Escarlata he is a former AAA Reina de Reinas Champion, Mexican National Middleweight Champion and AAA World Mixed Tag Team Champion. His ring name is Spanish for "The Scarlet Pimpernel" and is taken from the fictional character of the same name.

Professional wrestling career
González began his professional wrestling career in 1988, initially working under the ring name Pantera Rosa (Spanish for "the Pink Panther") and later on briefly worked as Fly Boy. González was a fan of such Exotico wrestlers as Adorable Rubí and Sergio El Hermoso growing up and decided to become an Exotico himself. He chose the name "Pimpinela Escarlata" ("The Scarlet Pimpernel") and started to wrestle dressed more like a woman, complete with make-up while acting more effeminate towards his male competitors. González's Pimpinela Escarlata character is credited with bringing the Exotico gimmick back to the spotlight after years of obscurity. In the early 1990s he began working for Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL) but EMLL's very conservative view on wrestling coupled with Escarlata's Exotico character cut the EMLL tenure short. In 1992 EMLL booker Antonio Peña left EMLL to form Lucha Libre AAA World Wide, a wrestling promotion that was less conservative than CMLL. While Escarlata was not part of AAA from the very beginning he did make his AAA debut less than a year after it was created.

In AAA Escarlata often teamed with or feuded against other Exotico wrestlers including as May Flowers. His first appearance at a major AAA show came on May 27, 1994 at Triplemanía II-C when he teamed up with Flowers and Rudy Reyna, only to lose to the trio of Super Amigo, El Plumo, and Depredator in the opening match. The following year Escarlata and May Flowers teamed up with the rúdo (bad guy) group Los Destructores (Tony Arce, Vulcano, Rocco Valente) to defeat a team known as Los Power Raiders (patterned after the Power Rangers; Raider Rojo, Raider Blanco, Raider Negro and Raider Azur) during Triplemanía III-C. González's in-ring skills and overall charisma meant that the Pimpinela Escarlata character became more successful than most Exotico characters. At Triplemanía IV-B he was one of the participants in a Torneo cibernetico for the newly created AAA Campeon de Campeones Championship, meant to be the highest ranking title in AAA. The match also included Perro Aguayo, Konnan, Juventud Guerrera, El Pantera, Psicosis, Villano III, and the eventual winner Pierroth, Jr. On May 20, 1996, Pimpinela Escarlata defeated La Parka to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship, making him the first Exotico to win a major Mexican title since Adorable Rubí won the Mexican National Middleweight Championship in 1976. His reign was short lived as Latin Lover won the title from him on September 9, 1996.

In 2000 Escarlata formed a group called Los Exoticos, the first all-Exotico stable in AAA, which consisted of himself, Sexy Francis, May Flowers, and Polvo de Estrellas. On April 27, 2001, Escarlata defeated Espectro, Jr. to win the Mexican National Middleweight Championship. At Triplemanía IX Exoticos Escarlata, May Flowers and Polvo de Estrellas defeated Blue Demon, Jr., Hijo del Solitario, and Oscar Sevilla in the second match of the night. During the summer of 2001 Pimpinela Escarlata began a storyline with female wrestler Tiffany, a feud that saw the two face off in the first "Exotico vs. female" Lucha de Apuesta, hair vs. hair match. The match took place at the 2001 Verano de Escandalo and ended in a draw, which meant both had their hair shaved off after the match. At the 2001 Guerra de Titanes event Pimpinela Escarlata wrestled in one of the first ever Relevos Atómicos de locura match (Spanish for "Eight-man madness match"), a match that featured two teams of four, each comprising a male wrestler, a female wrestler, an Exotico wrestler and a Mini-Estrella each. Escarlata, El Zorro (Male), Octagóncito (Mini), and Lady Apache (Female) defeated Electroshock (Male), Polvo de Estrellas, Mini Psicosis (Mini) and Tiffany (Female). On August 13, 2002, after an almost 16-month reign Escarlata lost the Mexican National Middleweight title to Psicosis II. After teaming with fellow Exotico Cassandro for a number of years the two split up and began feuding, resulting in a match at Triplemanía XIV in which the team of Escarlata, La Fiera, Mocho Cota, and Sangre Chicana went to a no contest with Casandro, El Brazo, Espectro, Jr. and Pirata Morgan due to the match being too out of control. On September 3, 2007, Pimpinela Escarlata was one of the AAA representatives that travelled to Japan to wrestle on a joint AAA/Pro Wrestling Noah event called TripleSEM. He teamed up with El Oriental and Chikayo Nagashima to defeat Cassandro, Takashi Sugiura and Faby Apache. In mid-2009 Pimpinela Escarlata developed a storyline interest in wrestler Gato Eveready, making several romantics overtures toward him, with Gato Eveready quickly backing away from Escarlata, stating that he had no romantic interests in another man. The storyline played out over several months on AAA television, until it was abruptly dropped late in the year. At AAA's Heroes Inmortales III, held on September 26, 2009, Escarlata was one of 13 men who participated in the Copa Antonio Peña Battle Royal, but was eliminated early in the match.

Pimpinela's attention turned from Gato Eveready towards Dr. Wagner, Jr., although his interest was less "personal"; instead he wanted to join Dr. Wagner, Jr.'s group Los Wagnermaniacos, a group that besides Wagner himself consisted of Silver King, Electroshock, and Último Gladiador. Los Wagnermaniacos did not want Escarlata to be a part of their group, attacking Escarlata after Los Wagnermaniacos lost a match to Escarlata, Extreme Tiger, and El Elegido at the 2009 Guerra de Titanes. At the following event Los Wagnermaniacos agreed to let Pimpinela Escarlata join his team if he could find two partners and defeat Dr. Wagner, Jr., Silver King and Último Gladiador. With the help of La Hermandad 187 (Nicho and Joe Líder) Escarlata pinned Último Gladiador to earn a spot in Los Wagnermaniacos. Following Rey de Reyes, the rest of Los Wagnermaniacos turned on Dr. Wagner, Jr. to form their own group Los Maniacos. Dr. Wagner, Jr. finally accepted the help of Pimpinela Escarlata and together with Octagón formed a new version of Los Wagnermaniacos. On October 1, 2010, at Héroes Inmortales IV Escarlata and Faby Apache defeated Alex Koslov and Christina Von Eerie to win the AAA World Mixed Tag Team Championship. They lost the title to Alan Stone and Jennifer Blake on March 13, 2011.

On July 31, 2011, at Verano de Escándalo, Escarlata defeated seven women to win the AAA Reina de Reinas Championship, AAA's women's championship. On August 19, four other exoticos, Nygma, Pasión Cristal, Polvo de Estrellas, and Yuriko, jealous over Escarlata's recent success, formed an alliance by attacking him after a match. On October 9 at Héroes Inmortales, the group once again attacked Escarlata, before being chased out of the ring by the returning Cassandro. On November 5, Escarlata and Cassandro were joined by El Brazo, who debuted his exotico persona "La Braza". On December 16 at Guerra de Titanes, Escarlata lost the Reina de Reinas Championship to Sexy Star in a lumberjack match. On March 18 at Rey de Reyes, Escarlata took part in a twelve-person steel cage Hair vs. Mask match, which eventually came down to him and Sexy Star. In the end, Sexy Star managed to escape the cage, forcing Escarlata to have his head shaved.  On November 27, Escarlata took part in a special event co-produced by AAA and Japan's Pro Wrestling Wave in Korakuen Hall in Tokyo. During the event, Escarlata teamed with Fénix and Lolita in a six-person tag team match, where Ayako Hamada, Bachiko, and Cima defeated them.

On December 3, 2014 on Lucha Underground, Escarlata defeated Son of Havoc with the help of Mascarita Sagrada.

Championships and accomplishments
Lucha Libre AAA World Wide
AAA Reina de Reinas Championship (1 time)
AAA World Mixed Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Faby Apache
Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Mexican National Middleweight Championship (1 time)
Copa Antonio Peña: 2016 and 2021
International Wrestling Revolution Group
Guerra de Empresas (April 2011) – with Nicho el Millonario
Mexican independent circuit
Pista Arena Revolucion Welterweight Championship (1 time)
IWA Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
RGR Lucha Libre
RGR Exotico Championship (1 time, current)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him #265 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2000

Luchas de Apuestas record

See also
 List of exóticos

Footnotes

References

External links
AAA profile

1969 births
Living people
Mexican male professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from Torreón
Professional wrestlers from Coahuila
Exóticos
AAA Reina de Reinas Champions
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
Mexican National Middleweight Champions
Mexican National Light Heavyweight Champions

Pimpinela Escarlata


Richard D. Steuart (1880–1951) was a journalist in Baltimore, Maryland known as Carroll Dulaney, the name he used for his Day by Day column in the Baltimore News-Post. Steuart was also an historian focusing mainly on Maryland history and the role that Maryland played during the American Civil War. He maintained a vast collection of Civil war era firearms and assorted artifacts, many collected personally from the battlefields he visited. Much of his collection of Confederate-made edged weapons, long arms, side arms, projectiles and fuses, and accouterments were donated to the Virginia Historical Society in 1948.

Richard Steuart also contributed indirectly to the formation of Time Magazine. While he was contributing editor of the Baltimore News Post Mr. Steuart employed a young journalist by the name of Briton Hadden. Mr. Hadden had the idea to start news magazine of his own so Mr. Steuart granted him a leave of absence from the Baltimore News-Post with the promise that if the magazine should not work out that he could return to Baltimore and have his position back.

Upon his death, Richard D. Steuart was eulogized by both Maryland's Governor Theodore McKeldin and Baltimore City's Mayor Thomas D'Alessandro. His vast collection of news clippings and historical library was donated to the Maryland Historical Society.

Work Cited:

References

1880 births
1951 deaths
American male journalists
Journalists from Baltimore
Richard

Richard D. Steuart


18th-century American piracy of British literature refers to the practice of reprinting British books in the United States without the permission of the original author or publisher.

Plagiarism is traditionally defined as "the process of copying another person's idea or written work and claiming it as original" This definition applies to many aspects of written work in today's world and has serious consequences if found guilty of committing it, but this idea has not always been in place. During the 18th century, it was extremely common for British Literature to be reprinted across the Atlantic Ocean in America without any acknowledgment or payment given to the original author. This form of plagiarism, referred to as literary piracy, was not an easy action to control because of the immense distance between the two countries, and the lack of any real international law which would work to protect the original authors in England. It was not until 1988 that these international laws were truly set in place and able to be enforced with any form of consistency.

Early piracy
Although it is now believed to be a crime, plagiarism has not always been considered a negative action. Thoughts, ideas, and writing were considered public property, not something an individual was able to claim as their own The "borrowing" from others was thought of as a form of learning and was encouraged as an opportunity to enhance one's work. It was used as a stepping stone during the creative process. In order to create new stories, plots, and characters for a narrative, it was only natural for authors to look at what others before them had done. The difference between this recycling of ideas and copying is that an author will add original material to the inspiration, not simply recopy what came prior. Borrowing was deemed acceptable if it is only part of the final result and has a distinct twist from the original piece.  A prime example of accepted plagiarism can be found in Shakespeare, who "borrowed" from other authors and playwrights of his day in order to create almost all of his now famous plays. The term plagiarism originally comes from the Latin word for thief, in this case, a literary thief.

Establishment of copyright laws
London was the first city where authors were able to rightly protect themselves and their ideas after the first copyright law, known as the Statute of Anne,  passed in 1710. The specific purpose of this statute was "the encouragement of learned men to compose and write useful books". This act not only protected authors in Britain, it also worked to protect the authors who had works being brought across the Atlantic to be reprinted without receiving any compensation for their literature. In 1880 the first international copyright laws were proposed by Mr. Edward Thorton in order to prevent this piracy from occurring and establishing consequences if it did (5). This treaty gave British authors protection in America and vice versa, allowing for consequences to follow the rules for the country of original publication. Pirated copies of novels and musical pieces were prohibited. It took over 100 years after these laws were proposed for the United States to fully cooperate with them.

International piracy
During the 18th century, the plagiarists and literary thieves (pirates) would bring British novels back to America, reprint them (with the original author's name in order to escape incrimination, but still using another author's work for their own personal gain), and yet never give the original author any compensation for their work. This system fell into place largely because the nation did not have any real individual literary identity at that point in time. During that period, the United States was still in the early stages of its independent development as a nation and most of what the new American public was comfortable with involved British culture and ideas. These pirated novels had already established a reputation and success in England and were therefore not a risk to publishers in the States, who already knew that there would likely be a success in the New World. In some cases, these pirated novels were more accessible in America than they were to the British where they were originally printed. Although novels were a large portion of the pirated works from England, magazines, and newspapers were included in the stolen works as well.

One primary example can be seen in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, a magazine that was aimed at women and attempted to create a patriotic attitude in the developing nation. Harper's ideas and strategies involved exposing these women to the British form of "elevated" culture in an effort to increase the standard and quality of the new American literature, which would result from the British inspiration they provided in their magazine. It was formerly believed that because of America's lack of a social class system, there would be no real need for a strong literary tradition. Harper's tried to expose the British tradition in order to facilitate growth for the American tradition. They sold for a low cost because there was no compensation being paid to the original authors back in England for the sole purpose of exposing every educated person in the new American public to "the unbounded treasures of the periodical literature of the present day".

The important thing was not the actual content of the magazines or their national origin but more about how much circulation and exposure these pieces received. This feeling of inspiration eventually backfired when the American authors were intimidated by the intense connection and dependence on British authors and did not produce many. Eventually, the resentment for the lack of Americanism led to a change in Harper's to include more national, not international, authors. This change never really paid off and the magazine did not see the same amount of success and profit that it received from the British pirated material.

Notes and references

Further reading
The International Copyright Union. Thorvald Solberg. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Nov., 1926), pp. 68–111. Published by: The Yale Law Journal Company, Inc.
Escaping from the Pirates: History, Literary Criticism, and American Copyright. Laura J. Murray. American Literary History 16.4 (2004) 719-727

Plagiarism
History of printing
18th century in the United States
Printing in the United States
British literature
United Kingdom–United States relations


The Salomons Museum is a museum north of Tunbridge Wells, in the county of Kent, southeast England. It preserves the country house of Sir David Salomons, the first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, and of his nephew, Sir David Lionel Salomons, a scientist and engineer. Originally called Broomhill, the house is now called Salomons. The museum is managed by Markerstudy Group.

Architecture
The house was built in the 1830s by Decimus Burton. It features an extremely tall water tower, stables, a private science lecture theatre and Sir David Lionel's laboratories. Major additions were made in 1854, 1863, 1908, 1910 and 1913. The house is a Grade II listed building.

Collections
The museum preserves the bench from which David Salomons rose to speak in 1851, becoming the first Jew ever to speak in Parliament.

The first Jew elected to Parliament was Baron Lionel de Rothschild. Elected in 1847, he refused to swear his oath of office using the phrase "on the true faith of a Christian." Unable, therefore, to serve, he stood down but was again elected M.P. for the City of London in 1850. He took his oath leaving out the crucial phrase. A Parliamentary debate ensued, the conclusion of which was that a non-Christian could not take a seat in Parliament. David Salomons was elected MP for Greenwich in an 1851 by-election. He arrived at Parliament on 18 July 1851, and, like Rothschild, took his oath omitting the words "on the true faith of a Christian". He sat on the bench in the museum's collection, but when requested to leave a second time he stood and departed. He returned three days later and again took his seat. A heated debate ensued. A fellow MP for the Liberal Party turned to Salomons and inquired what he intended to do. Salomons stood and spoke, the first Jew to ever speak in Parliament. He said that he had been elected by a large majority, and that he was carrying out the wishes of the people in being there. He voted three times before he was removed by the Serjeant-at-Arms. Salomons was fined £500 for voting illegally. The law requiring Members of Parliament to swear an oath "on the true faith of a Christian" was changed in 1858. Lionel de Rothschild, who had been elected yet again in 1857, became the first Jewish MP, taking his seat as soon as the law was changed. David Salomons was elected for Greenwich in 1859 and continued to sit in Parliament until his death in 1873.

Items in the museum include Sir David Lionel Salomons' collections of hot air ballooning memorabilia, early automobiles, a Welte Philharmonic-Organ and writings on electrical and scientific subjects. There is also a collection of Judaica, which includes the tablets of the Ten Commandments from the Salomons family's private Roof-top synagogue in Brighton.

References

Sources
 David Salomons House; catalogue of mementos, Malcolm Denis Brown, printed privately by T. and A. Constable, 1968.
 The Story of Three David Salomons at Broomhill, James William Parkes, 1950
 Catalogue of the Library at Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells: The Property of Sir David Lionel Salomons, Bt., by Sir David Salomons, Edition 3, 1903

External links

 Salomons Estate: Museum

Grade II listed buildings in Kent
Jews and Judaism in England
Buildings and structures in Royal Tunbridge Wells
Jewish English history
Historic house museums in Kent
Biographical museums in Kent
Jewish museums in the United Kingdom
Transport museums in England
Science museums in England
Canterbury Christ Church University
University museums in England
Science and technology in Kent

Salomons Museum


Ely do Amparo (14 May 1921 – 9 March 1991) is a former Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team. Regarded as one of the best players in the history of the Vasco da Gama club. He was known for being a strong player who stood out for his leadership and tackling opponents.

Club career
Eli began his career in the America club in 1939, and a year later he moved to the Canto do Rio club from the city of Niteroi , for which he played for 5 years.

In 1945, Eli moved to the Vasco da Gama club, where he became one of the leaders of the team, which was nicknamed the "Victoria Express", which won 5 state championships and the Libertadores Cup in 1948, Eli formed the central midfield axis in this team, along with Danilo and Jorge, who was considered one of the strongest in those years in Brazilian football. In 1955, Eli was bought by the president of the Sport Recife club, Adelmar da Costa Carvalho, the club celebrated its 50th anniversary that year and the Brazilian football star was supposed to help the club win the state championship. "Sport", together with " Nautico ""finished the championship with the same number of points, it was decided, by mutual agreement, to hold three decisive matches, in the first "Sport" won 2:0, and in the second with a score of 0:0, Eli was seriously injured - Ivanildo hit his head above the eye, as a result of which his face was covered with blood, the doctor of "Sport" suggested the player to go to the locker room, but the player refused and courageously played the match to the end. In the third game, Ivanildu, with a score of 1: 1, again injured the best player of "Sport" Eli, breaking his head with his elbow, he could not even play for some time, but soon returned to the field with a bandage on his head and finished the match, in the end, with the score 2:2, scoring the winning goal. After the game, Sport fans carried Eli in their arms.

International career
Ely do Amparo made his international debut for the Brazilian national team on 3 April 1949 in the opening game of the 1949 Copa America, a 9–1 win against Ecuador. As the tournament progressed, he made four more appearances, mostly alongside Danilo and Noronha, including in the decider to win the title, when a 7-0 win against Paraguay won the continental championship for the third time. A year later, Ely was part of the Brazilian squad for the World Cup on home soil. During the tournament in which the title was in the last and decisive group game, the Maracanaço went down in history was lost to Uruguay, Ely only featured in the preliminary round in a 4-0 win over the Mexicans. A month before the tournament started, he was a regular when Uruguay were defeated in three games in the Copa Río Branco.

Two years later, Ely took part with the national team in the inaugural Pan American Championship and even acted as captain in the game against Panama. In the 4-2 win against archrival Uruguay he was sent off the field for the only time in his international career. This competition was also won by Brazil with a 3-0 win in the last group match against Chile. Ely's last international appearances came in the 1953 Copa América, but he did not play in the decider against Paraguay, which ended in a 3-2 defeat. At the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland Ely was again in the Brazil squad, but was not used during the tournament by national coach Zezé Moreira. The Brazilian team lost 4-2 to Hungary in the quarter-finals in the Battle of Bern . After a total of 19 senior international matches and numerous other appearances in unofficial games, his international career was over.

Death
Ely died on March 9, 1991 at the of 69 due lung infection.

References

1921 births
1991 deaths
Brazilian footballers

Ely (footballer)


A movement to fight for women's right to vote in the United Kingdom finally succeeded through acts of Parliament in 1918 and 1928. It became a national movement in the Victorian era. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. In 1872 the fight for women's suffrage became a national movement with the formation of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and later the more influential National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). As well as in England, women's suffrage movements in Wales, Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom gained momentum. The movements shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906. It was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).

The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led to a suspension of party politics, including the militant suffragette campaigns. Lobbying did take place quietly. In 1918 a coalition government passed the Representation of the People Act 1918, enfranchising all men over 21, as well as all women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications. This act was the first to include almost all adult men in the political system and began the inclusion of women, extending the franchise by 5.6 million men and 8.4 million women. In 1928 the Conservative government passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 equalizing the franchise to all persons, male and female, over the age of 21.

Background
Until the 1832 Great Reform Act specified 'male persons', a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare. In local government elections, women lost the right to vote under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Unmarried women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women, making over 729,000 women eligible to vote in local elections in England and Wales. By 1900, more than 1 million women were registered to vote in local government elections in England. Women were also included in the suffrage on the same terms as men (i.e., all parishioners over 21) in the unique set of  border polls carried out from 1915 to 1916 under the Welsh Church Act 1914. These were held to determine whether the residents of parishes which straddled the political border between England and Wales wished their ecclesiastical parishes and churches to remain with the Church of England or to join the disestablished Church in Wales when it was set up. The Welsh Church Act 1914 had required the Welsh Church Commissioners to ascertain the views of the "parishioners", and they decided "to allow a voice to all persons, male or female, of 21 years of age or over". The polls are therefore one of the earliest examples, if not the earliest, of an official poll being carried out in the United Kingdom under a system of universal adult suffrage, though also permitting non-resident ratepayers of either gender to vote.

Both before and after the 1832 Reform Act there were some who advocated that women should have the right to vote in parliamentary elections. After the enactment of the Reform Act, the MP Henry Hunt argued that any woman who was single, a taxpayer and had sufficient property should be allowed to vote. One such wealthy woman, Mary Smith, was used in this speech as an example.

The Chartist Movement, which began in the late 1830s, has also been suggested to have included supporters of female suffrage. There is some evidence to suggest William Lovett, one of the authors of the People's Charter wished to include female suffrage as one of the campaign's demands but chose not to on the grounds that this would delay the implementation of the charter. Although there were female Chartists, they largely worked toward universal male suffrage. At this time most women did not have aspirations to gain the vote.

There is a poll book from 1843 that clearly shows thirty women's names among those who voted. These women were playing an active role in the election. On the roll, the wealthiest female elector was Grace Brown, a butcher. Due to the high rates that she paid, Grace Brown was entitled to four votes.

Lilly Maxwell cast a high-profile vote in Britain in 1867 after the Great Reform Act of 1832. Maxwell, a shop owner, met the property qualifications that otherwise would have made her eligible to vote had she been male. In error, her name had been added to the election register and on that basis she succeeded in voting in a by-election – her vote was later declared illegal by the Court of Common Pleas. The case gave women's suffrage campaigners great publicity.

Outside pressure for women's suffrage was at this time diluted by feminist issues in general. Women's rights were becoming increasingly prominent in the 1850s as some women in higher social spheres refused to obey the gender roles dictated to them. Feminist goals at this time included the right to sue an ex-husband after divorce (achieved in 1857) and the right for married women to own property (fully achieved in 1882 after some concession by the government in 1870).

The issue of parliamentary reform declined along with the Chartists after 1848 and only reemerged with the election of John Stuart Mill in 1865. He stood for office showing direct support for female suffrage and was an MP in the run up to the second Reform Act.

Early suffragist societies
In the same year that John Stuart Mill was elected (1865), the first ladies' discussion society, Kensington Society, was formed, debating whether women should be involved in public affairs. Although a society for suffrage was proposed, this was turned down on the grounds that it might be taken over by extremists.

Later that year Leigh Smith Bodichon formed the first Women's Suffrage Committee and within a fortnight collected nearly 1,500 signatures in favour of female suffrage in advance to the second Reform Bill.

The Manchester Society for Women's Suffrage was founded in February 1867. Its secretary, Lydia Becker, wrote letters both to Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and to The Spectator. She was also involved with the London group, and organised the collection of more signatures. Lydia Becker reluctantly agreed to exclude married women from the "Married Women's Property Act" reform demand.

In June the London group split, partly a result of party allegiance, and partly the result of tactical issues. Conservative members wished to move slowly to avoid alarming public opinion, while Liberals generally opposed this apparent dilution of political conviction. As a result, Helen Taylor founded the London National Society for Women's Suffrage, which set up strong links with Manchester and Edinburgh. In Scotland one of the earliest societies was the Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage.

Although these early splits left the movement divided and sometimes leaderless, it allowed Lydia Becker to have a stronger influence. The suffragists were known as the parliamentarians.

In Ireland, Isabella Tod, an anti-Home Rule Liberal and campaigner for girls education, established the North of Ireland Women's Suffrage Society in 1873 (from 1909, still based in Belfast, the Irish WSS) Determined lobbying by the WSS ensured the 1887 Act creating a new municipal franchise for Belfast (a city in which women predominated due to heavy employment in mills) conferred the vote on "persons" rather than men. This was eleven years before women elsewhere Ireland gained the vote in local government elections. The Dublin Women's Suffrage Association was established in 1874. As well as campaigning for women's suffrage, it sought to advance women's position in local government. In 1898, it changed its name to the Irish Women's Suffrage and Local Government Association.

Early legislative efforts
In 1868, John Stuart Mill brought to Parliament a petition for female suffrage with 21,557 signatures. In 1870, Bright's introduced the Women's Disabilities Removal Bill which would have extended the parliamentary franchise to women on the same terms as men. In May 1871, the bill was defeated in the Commons by a division of 220 to 151. With varying degrees cross-party support, private member's bills caused the subject to be debated in the House of Commons again in 1872, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84 (twice), 86, 92, 97, and 1904. From 1886 onwards, every vote taken had shown the majority of MPs in favour of women's suffrage, but without government support, and with opposition in the Lords, the bills were crowded out of the legislative agenda.

In 1910, 1911, and 1912, there were three "Conciliation bills" which, suffrage equality, offered women a more restrictive property-qualified vote. The 1912 bill was defeated by 208 to 222. The Women's Social and Political Union blamed Prime Minister Asquith, as the eight members of the Liberal Government whose votes against the measure sealed its fate.

Formation of a national movement

Women's political groups
Although women's political party groups were not formed with the aim to achieve women's suffrage, they did have two key effects. Firstly, they showed women who were members to be competent in the political arena and as this became clear, secondly, it brought the concept of female suffrage closer to acceptance.

Primrose League
The Primrose League (1883–2004) was set up to promote Conservative values through social events and supporting the community. As women were able to join, this gave females of all classes the ability to mix with local and national political figures. Many also had important roles such as bringing voters to the polls. This removed segregation and promoted political literacy among women. The League did not promote women's suffrage as one of its objectives.

Women's Liberal Associations
Although there is evidence to suggest that they were originally formed to promote female franchise (the first being in Bristol in 1881), WLAs often did not hold such an agenda. They operated independently from the male groups, and did become more active when they came under the control of the Women's Liberal Federation, and canvassed all classes for support of women's suffrage and against domination.

There was significant support for woman suffrage in the Liberal Party, which was in power after 1905, but a handful of leaders, especially H. H. Asquith, blocked all efforts in Parliament.

Pressure groups
The campaign first developed into a national movement in the 1870s. At this point, all campaigners were suffragists, not suffragettes. Up until 1903, all campaigning took the constitutional approach. It was after the defeat of the first Women's Suffrage Bill that the Manchester and London committees joined together to gain wider support. The main methods of doing so at this time involved lobbying MPs to put forward Private Member's Bills. However such bills rarely pass and so this was an ineffective way of actually achieving the vote.

In 1868, local groups amalgamated to form a series of close-knit groups with the founding of the National Society for Women's Suffrage (NSWS). This is notable as the first attempt to create a unified front to propose women's suffrage, but had little effect due to several splits, once again weakening the campaign.

Up until 1897, the campaign stayed at this relatively ineffective level. Campaigners came predominantly from the landed classes and joined together on a small scale only. In 1897 the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) was founded by Millicent Fawcett. This society linked smaller groups together and also put pressure on non-supportive MPs using various peaceful methods.

Pankhursts and suffragettes

Founded in 1903, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was tightly controlled by the three Pankhursts, Emmeline Pankhurst (1858–1928), and her daughters Christabel Pankhurst (1880–1958) and Sylvia Pankhurst (1882–1960). It specialized in highly visible publicity campaigns such as large parades. This had the effect of energizing all dimensions of the suffrage movement. While there was a majority of support for suffrage in parliament, the ruling Liberal Party refused to allow a vote on the issue; the result of which was an escalation in the suffragette campaign. The WSPU, in contrast to its allies, embarked on a campaign of violence to publicize the issue, even to the detriment of its own aims.

The Cat and Mouse Act was passed by Parliament in an attempt to prevent suffragettes from becoming martyrs in prison. It provided for the release of those whose hunger strikes and forced feeding had brought them sickness, as well as their re-imprisonment once they had recovered. The result was even greater publicity for the cause.

The tactics of the WSPU included shouting down speakers, hunger strikes, stone-throwing, window-smashing, and arson of unoccupied churches and country houses. In Belfast, when in 1914 the Ulster Unionist Council appeared to renege on an earlier commitment to women's suffrage, the WSPU's Dorothy Evans (a friend of the Pankhursts) declared an end to "the truce we have held in Ulster." In the months that followed WSPU militants (including Elizabeth Bell, the first woman in Ireland to qualify as a doctor and gynaecologist) were implicated in a series of arson attacks on Unionist-owned buildings and on male recreational and sports facilities. In July 1914, in a plan hatched with Evans, Lillian Metge, who was previously part of a 200-strong deputation that charged George V as he entered Buckingham Palace, bombed Lisburn Cathedral.

Historian Martin Pugh says, "militancy clearly damaged the cause." Whitfield says, "the overall effect of the suffragette militancy, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage." Historian Harold Smith, citing historian Sandra Holton, has argued that by 1913 WSPU gave priority to militancy rather than obtaining the vote. Their battle with Liberals had become a "kind of holy war, so important that it could not be called off even if continuing it prevented suffrage reform. This preoccupation with the struggle distinguished the WSPU from that by the NUWSS, which remained focused on obtaining women's suffrage."

Smith concludes:
Although non-historians often assumed the WSPU was primarily responsible for obtaining women's suffrage, historians are much more skeptical about its contribution. It is generally agreed that the WSPU revitalized the suffrage campaign initially, but that its escalation of militancy after 1912 impeded reform. Recent studies have shifted from claiming that the WSPU was responsible for women's suffrage to portraying it as an early form of radical feminism that sought to liberate women from a male-centered gender system.

First World War
The greater suffrage efforts halted with the outbreak of World War I. While some activity continued, with the NUWSS continuing to lobby peacefully, Emmeline Pankhurst, convinced that Germany posed a danger to all humanity, persuaded the WSPU to halt all militant suffrage activity.

Parliament expands suffrage 1918
During the war, a select group of parliamentary leaders decided on a policy that would expand the suffrage to all men over the age of 21, and propertied women over the age of 30. Asquith, an opponent, was replaced as prime minister in late 1916 by David Lloyd George who had, for his first ten years as an MP, argued against women having the franchise.

During the war there was a serious shortage of able-bodied men and women were able to take on many of the traditionally male roles. With the approval of the trade unions, "dilution" was agreed upon. Complicated factory jobs handled by skilled men were diluted or simplified so that they could be handled by less skilled men and women. The result was a large increase in women workers, concentrated in munitions industries of highest priority to winning the war. This led to a increased societal understanding of what work women were capable of. Some believe that the franchise was partially granted in 1918 because of a decline in anti-suffrage hostility caused by pre-war militant tactics. However, others believe that politicians had to cede at least some women the vote so as to avoid the promised re-resurgence of militant suffrage action. Many of the major women's groups strongly supported the war effort. The Women's Suffrage Federation, based in the east end and led by Sylvia Pankhurst, did not. The federation held a pacifist stance and created co-operative factories and food banks in the East End to support working class women throughout the war. Until this point suffrage was based on occupational qualifications of men. Millions of women were now meeting those occupational qualifications, which in any case were so old-fashioned that the consensus was to remove them. For example, a male voter who joined the Army might lose the right to vote. In early 1916, suffragist organizations privately agreed to downplay their differences, and resolve that any legislation increasing the number of votes should also enfranchise women. Local government officials proposed a simplification of the old system of franchise and registration, and the Labour cabinet member in the new coalition government, Arthur Henderson, called for universal suffrage, with an age cutoff of 21 for men and 25 for women. Most male political leaders showed anxiety about having a female majority in the new electorate. Parliament turned over the issue to a new Speakers Conference, a special committee from all parties from both houses, chaired by the Speaker. They began meeting in October 1916, in secret. A majority of 15 to 6 supported votes for some women; by 12 to 10, it agreed on a higher age cut off for women. Women leaders accepted a cutoff age of 30 in order to get the vote for most women.

Finally in 1918, Parliament passed an act granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who were householders, the wives of householders, occupiers of property with an annual rent of £5, and graduates of British universities. About 8.4 million women gained the vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected into the House of Commons. By 1928 the consensus was that votes for women had been successful. With the Conservative Party in full control in 1928, it passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act that extended the voting franchise to all women over the age of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as men, although one Conservative opponent of the bill warned that it risked splitting the party for years to come.

Women in prominent roles

Emmeline Pankhurst was a key figure gaining intense media coverage of the women's suffrage movement. Pankhurst, alongside her two daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded and led the Women's Social and Political Union, an organisation that was focused on direct action to win the vote. Her husband, Richard Pankhurst, also supported women suffrage ideas since he was the author of the first British woman suffrage bill and the Married Women's Property Acts in 1870 and 1882. After her husband's death, Emmeline decided to move to the forefront of the suffrage battle. Along with her two daughters, Christabel Pankhurst and Sylvia Pankhurst, she joined the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). With her experience with this organisation, Emmeline founded the Women's Franchise League in 1889 and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. Frustrated with years of government inactivity and false promises, the WSPU adopted a militant stance, which was so influential it was later imported into suffrage struggles worldwide, most notably by Alice Paul in the United States. After many years of struggle and adversity, women finally gained suffrage but Emmeline died shortly after this.

Another key figure was Millicent Fawcett. She had a peaceful approach to issues presented to the organisations and the way to get points across to society. She supported the Married Women's Property Act and the social purity campaign. Two events influenced her to become even more involved: her husband's death and the division of the suffrage movement over the issue of affiliation with political parties. Millicent, who supported staying independent of political parties, made sure that the parts separated came together to become stronger by working together. Because of her actions, she was made president of the NUWSS. In 1910–1912, she supported a bill to give vote rights to single and widowed females of a household. By supporting the British in World War I, she thought women would be recognised as a prominent part of Europe and deserved basic rights such as voting. Millicent Fawcett came from a radical family. Her sister was Elizabeth Garrett Anderson an English physician and feminist, and the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain. Elizabeth was elected mayor of Aldeburgh in 1908 and gave speeches for suffrage.

Emily Davies became an editor of a feminist publication, Englishwoman's Journal. She expressed her feminist ideas on paper and was also a major supporter and influential figure during the twentieth century. In addition to suffrage, she supported more rights for women such as access to education. She wrote works and had power with words. She wrote texts such as Thoughts on Some Questions Relating to Women in 1910 and Higher Education for Women in 1866. She was a large supporter in the times where organisations were trying to reach people for a change. With her was a friend named Barbara Bodichon who also published articles and books such as Women and Work (1857), Enfranchisement of Women (1866), and Objections to the Enfranchisement of Women (1866), and American Diary in 1872.

Mary Gawthorpe was an early suffragette who left teaching to fight for women's voting rights. She was imprisoned after heckling Winston Churchill. She left England after her release, eventually emigrating to the United States and settling in New York. She worked in the trade union movement and in 1920 became a full-time official of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union. In 2003, Mary's nieces donated her papers to New York University.

Male suffragists
Males were also present in the suffrage movement.

Laurence Housman
Laurence Housman was a male feminist who devoted himself to the suffrage movement. Most of his contributions were through creating art, such as propaganda, with the intent of helping women in the movement to better express themselves, influencing people to join the movement and informing people about particular suffrage events such as the 1911 Census protest. He and his sister, Clemence Housman, created a studio called the Suffrage Atelier which aimed to create propaganda for the suffrage movement. This was significant because he produced a space for women to create propaganda to better aid the suffrage movement and, at the same time, earn money by selling the art. Also, he created propaganda such as the Anti-Suffrage Alphabet, and wrote for many women's newspapers. Additionally, he also influenced other men to aid the movement. For example, he formed the  Men's League for Women's Suffrage with Israel Zangwill, Henry Nevinson and Henry Brailsford, hoping to inspire other men to participate in the movement.

Legacy
Whitfield concludes that the militant campaign had some positive effects in terms of attracting enormous publicity, and forcing the moderates to better organise themselves, while also stimulating the organization of the antis. He concludes:
The overall effect of the suffragette militancy, however, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage. For women to gain the right to vote it was necessary to demonstrate that they had public opinion on their side, to build and consolidate a parliamentary majority in favour of women's suffrage and to persuade or pressure the government to introduce its own franchise reform. None of these objectives was achieved.

The Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial in London was first dedicated to Emmeline Pankhurst in 1930, with a plaque added for Christabel Pankhurst in 1958.

To commemorate the 100th anniversary of Women being given the right to vote, a statue of Millicent Fawcett was erected in Parliament Square, London in 2018. The photo colouriser Tom Marshall released a series of photos to mark the 100th anniversary of the vote, including an image of suffragettes Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurst, which appeared on The Daily Telegraph front page on 6 February 2018.

Timeline

 1818: Jeremy Bentham advocates female suffrage in his book A Plan for Parliamentary Reform. The Vestries Act 1818 allowed some single women to vote in parish vestry elections.
 1832: Great Reform Act – confirmed the exclusion of women from the electorate.
 1851: The Sheffield Female Political Association is founded and submits a petition calling for women's suffrage to the House of Lords.
 1864: The first Contagious Disease Act is passed in England, which is intended to control venereal disease by having prostitutes and women believed to be prostitutes locked away in hospitals for examination and treatment. When information broke to the general public about the shocking stories of brutality and vice in these hospitals, Josephine Butler launched a campaign to get it repealed. Many have since argued that Butler's campaign destroyed the conspiracy of silence around sexuality and forced women to act in protection of others of their sex. In doing so, clear linkages emerge between the suffrage movement and Butler's campaign.
 1865: John Stuart Mill elected as an MP showing direct support for women's suffrage.
 1867: Second Reform Act – Male franchise extended to 2.5 million.
 1869: Municipal Franchise Act gives single women ratepayers the right to vote in local elections.
 1883: Conservative Primrose League formed.
 1884: Third Reform Act – Male electorate doubled to 5 million.
 1889: Women's Franchise League established.
 1894: Local Government Act (women could vote in local elections, become District Councillors [though not their Chairmen], Poor Law Guardians, act on School Boards)
 1894: The publication of C.C. Stopes's British Freewomen, staple reading for the suffrage movement for decades.
 1897: National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies NUWSS formed (led by Millicent Fawcett).
 1903: Women's Social and Political Union WSPU is formed (led by Emmeline Pankhurst)
 1904: Militancy begins. Emmeline Pankhurst interrupts a Liberal Party meeting.
 February 1907: NUWSS "Mud March" – largest open air demonstration ever held (at that point) – over 3000 women took part. In this year, women were admitted to the register to vote in and stand for election to principal local authorities.
 1907: The Artists' Suffrage League founded
 1907: The Women's Freedom League founded
1908: Actresses Franchise League founded
1908: Women Writers' Suffrage League founded
 1908: in November of this year, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, a member of the small municipal borough of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, was selected as mayor of that town, the first woman to so serve.
 1907, 1912, 1914: major splits in the WSPU
 1905, 1908, 1913: Three phases of WSPU militancy (Civil Disobedience; Destruction of Public Property; Arson/Bombings)
 5 July 1909: Marion Wallace Dunlop went on the first hunger strike – was released after 91 hours of fasting
 1909 The Women's Tax Resistance League founded
 September 1909: Force feeding introduced to hunger strikers in English prisons
 1910: Lady Constance Lytton disguised herself as a working-class seamstress, Jane Wharton, and was arrested and endured force feeding that cut down her life span considerably
 February 1910: Cross-Party Conciliation Committee (54 MPs). Conciliation Bill (that would enfranchise women) passed its 2nd reading by a majority of 109 but H. H. Asquith refused to give it more parliamentary time
 November 1910: Asquith changed the Bill to enfranchise more men instead of women
 18 November 1910: Black Friday
 October 1912: George Lansbury, Labour MP, resigned his seat in support of women's suffrage
 February 1913: David Lloyd George's house blown up by WSPU despite his support for women's suffrage.
 April 1913: Cat and Mouse Act passed, allowing hunger-striking prisoners to be released when their health was threatened and then re-arrested when they had recovered. The first suffragist to be released under this act was Hugh Franklin and the second was his soon-to-be wife Elsie Duval
 4 June 1913: Emily Davison walked in front of, and was subsequently trampled and killed by, the King's Horse at The Derby.
 13 March 1914: Mary Richardson slashed the Rokeby Venus painted by Diego Velázquez in the National Gallery with an axe, protesting that she was maiming a beautiful woman just as the government was maiming Emmeline Pankhurst with force feeding
 4 August 1914: World War declared in Britain. WSPU activity immediately ceased. NUWSS activity continued peacefully – the Birmingham branch of the organisation continued to lobby Parliament and write letters to MPs.
 1915–16: Border polls under Welsh Church Act 1914 held under universal adult suffrage.
 6 February 1918: The Representation of the People Act of 1918 enfranchised women over the age of 30 who were either a member or married to a member of the Local Government Register. About 8.4 million women gained the vote.
 21 November 1918: the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to be elected to Parliament.
 1928: Women in England, Wales and Scotland received the vote on the same terms as men (over the age of 21) as a result of the Representation of the People Act 1928.
 1968–1969: The Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) and the Representation of the People Act 1969 removed the property franchise requirements making all men and women over 18 in the United Kingdom eligible to vote on equal terms, regardless of gender or class.
 1973: The fully enfranchised Northern Irish local elections of May 1973 see the first time all government elected officials across the UK were elected under universal suffrage.

See also

 Feminism in the United Kingdom
 Lobbying in the United Kingdom
 The Women's Library (London)
 List of suffragists and suffragettes
 List of women's rights activists
 Timeline of women's suffrage
 Women's suffrage activism in  Leigh
 Women's suffrage in Scotland
Suffragette bombing and arson campaign
 List of suffragette bombings
 Women in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
 Anti-suffragism
 Suffrage jewellery
 Women's suffrage in the Cayman Islands
 Women's suffrage in India

References

Further reading

 Arnstein, Walter L. "Votes For Women: Myths and Reality." History Today (Aug 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 8, pp 531–539; online; covers 1860 to 1918.

  Fletcher, Ian Christopher, et al eds.  Women's Suffrage in the British Empire: Citizenship, Nation and Race (2000),

 Jenkins, Lyndsey. Lady Constance Lytton: Aristocrat, Suffragette, Martyr (Biteback Publishing, 2015).
 Judge, Tony. Margaret Bondfield: First Woman in the Cabinet (Alpha House, 2018)

 Mayhall, Laura E. Nym. The Militant Suffrage Movement: Citizenship and Resistance in Britain, 1860–1930 (Oxford UP, 2003)  online

 Pugh, Martin.  The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914 (Oxford UP, 2000) online

 ; 12 essays by scholars

Historiography and memory
 Clark, Anna. "Changing Concepts of Citizenship: Gender, Empire, and Class," Journal of British Studies 42.2 (2003): 263-270.
 DeVries, Jacqueline R. "Popular and smart: Why scholarship on the women's suffrage movement in Britain still matters." History Compass 11.3 (2013): 177-188. online
 DiCenzo, Maria. "Justifying Their Modern Sisters: History Writing and the British Suffrage Movement." Victorian Review  31.1 (2005): 40-61. online

 Purvis, June, and June Hannam. "The women's suffrage movement in Britain and Ireland: new perspectives." Women's History Review (Nov 2020) 29#6 pp 911–915

 Smitley, Megan. "'inebriates', 'heathens', templars and suffragists: Scotland and imperial feminism c. 1870-1914." Women's History Review 11.3 (2002): 455-480. online

Primary sources

 Lewis, J., ed. Before the Vote Was Won: Arguments for and Against Women's Suffrage (1987)
 McPhee, C., and A. Fitzgerald, eds. The Non--Violent Militant: Selected Writings of Teresa Billington-Greig (1987)
 Marcus, J., ed. Suffrage and the Pankhursts (1987)

External links

 The struggle for democracy – information on the suffragettes at the British Library learning website
 https://www.sheffield.gov.uk/libraries/archives-and-local-studies/research-guides/womens-suffrage.html Sources for the Study of Women's Suffrage in Sheffield, UK produced by Sheffield City Council's Libraries and Archives.

 William Murphy: Suffragettes, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
 Nicoletta F. Gullace: Citizenship (Great Britain), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.

Women's rights in the United Kingdom
Political history of the United Kingdom
First-wave feminism in the United Kingdom
Emmeline Pankhurst

Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom