The Northern Central Railway (NCRY) was a Class I Railroad in the United States connecting Baltimore, Maryland, with Sunbury, Pennsylvania, along the Susquehanna River. Completed in 1858, the line came under the control of the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) in 1861, when the PRR acquired a controlling interest in the Northern Central's stock to compete with the rival Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O).

For eleven decades, the Northern Central operated as a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad until much of its Maryland trackage was washed out by Hurricane Agnes in 1972, after which the Penn Central declined to repair destroyed sections and the remainder fell into disuse. It is now a fallen flag railway, having come under the control of Conrail and then the Norfolk Southern Railway.

The northern part in Pennsylvania is now the York County Heritage Rail Trail which connects to a similar hike/bike trail in Northern Maryland down to Baltimore, named the Torrey C. Brown Rail Trail. Trackage from Camden Station in Baltimore to Timonium, Maryland, remains in service as part of the Baltimore Light RailLink line, while much of the line in Pennsylvania is operated by the Norfolk Southern for freight service. The Northern Central Railway of York, a heritage railway, operates on former Northern Central track between New Freedom and Hanover Junction, Pennsylvania.

Early history

The Baltimore and Susquehanna Railroad Company was chartered by an act of the General Assembly of Maryland on February 13, 1828, as the second designated rail system in the state with authority to construct a railroad from Baltimore northeast to the Susquehanna River. To reach the Susquehanna at any commercially useful point, the new line would have to cross the state line into York County, Pennsylvania; however, the Pennsylvania General Assembly did not look favorably on the prospect of the trade of its southern counties being tapped for the benefit of Baltimore, instead of its own Philadelphia. In spite of the fact that Pennsylvania would have gained access to the Chesapeake Bay, its legislature would not grant a charter for a connecting railroad.

Construction of the Baltimore & Susquehanna Railroad began in 1829 and reached as far north as York Road at Cockeysville by 1831. At that time, the B&S obtained an amendment to its charter from the Maryland legislature which allowed it to be extended northwest to Westminster in Carroll County. The line would continue towards the headwaters of the Monocacy River and reach Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

New construction began at Hollins, Maryland, and ran west through the Green Spring Valley north of Baltimore. The line reached Reisterstown Road at Owings Mills on June 13, 1832. Despite fierce opposition from Philadelphia business and political interests, the Pennsylvania legislature chartered the York and Maryland Line Rail Road on March 14, 1832, authorizing it to connect the Baltimore & Susquehanna.

The Adams County Railroad was chartered on April 6, 1832, in Pennsylvania, to run from Gettysburg to the Maryland state line, but was never constructed, nor was the line to Westminster (later known as the Green Spring Branch) extended further northwest. A further amendment to the York & Maryland Line's charter in 1837, allowed it the unlimited use of the Wrightsville, York and Gettysburg Railroad, which it had aided financially.

The Baltimore & Susquehanna and York & Maryland Line completed the line from Baltimore to York by 1838. This line included the use of the Howard Tunnel near Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania, the earliest railroad tunnel in the U.S. still in use today.

In 1832, the railroad purchased its first locomotive, the Herald, and built Bolton Station in Baltimore.

In April 1840, the Wrightsville, York & Gettysburg R.R. had been completed between York and Wrightsville, Pennsylvania. There a connection was made to the Columbia-Wrightsville Bridge, allowing trains to cross the river and reach the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad and later, the Pennsylvania Railroad.

The York and Cumberland Railroad Company was chartered on April 21, 1846, to connect the York & Maryland Line with the Cumberland Valley Railroad somewhere north of Mechanicsburg. It was opened on February 10, 1851, running north from York to the Susquehanna and then following the river to Lemoyne. It was briefly operated by the Cumberland Valley, but the Baltimore & Susquehanna took over operations on June 7. Work also began on the Hanover Branch Railroad, a line connecting Hanover with the York & Maryland Line at Hanover Junction.

The Baltimore & Susquehanna system built and opened the Calvert Street Station, an Italianate-style structure of stucco-covered brick with two towers that was designed by locally-famous architect James Crawford Neilson, in Baltimore in 1850, while continuing to use Bolton Station for freight.

On April 14, 1851, the Susquehanna Railroad was chartered and authorized to build north from the York & Cumberland or the Pennsylvania Railroad up the Susquehanna through Halifax, Millersburg and Sunbury, where it would fork into two branches reaching Williamsport and Wilkes-Barre. Its charter was amended on April 24, 1852, to allow the York & Cumberland and Wrightsville and York & Gettysburg to subscribe or loan up to $500,000 () to the capital-starved company, and to permit the counties and boroughs along the way to contribute funds. The Maryland legislature authorized the City of Baltimore to contribute the same amount on May 14. The Susquehanna RR finally elected officers on June 10, and was soon embroiled in a dispute with the Sunbury and Erie Railroad over right-of-way.

Meanwhile, on May 27, the Baltimore, Carroll and Frederick Railroad (renamed the Western Maryland Railway in 1853) was incorporated to build from the end of the line at Owings Mills towards Hagerstown. On July 4, a serious accident occurred on the Baltimore & Susquehanna when a special picnic excursion collided with a York local, killing thirty-one persons. The Hanover Branch Railroad was opened to Hanover on October 22 and operated by the Baltimore & Susquehanna. On May 10, 1853, the Baltimore & Susquehanna's charter was amended to permit it to build two branches to the Patapsco River, but this was stymied by legal problems and difficulties in tunneling.

On the northward extension, the Susquehanna RR let contracts for the line from Lemoyne to Sunbury in November 1852, and construction began on February 22, 1853. A financial crisis beginning in the fall of 1853 proved a severe embarrassment to the Baltimore & Susquehanna and associated railroads, and on March 10, 1854, the Maryland legislature authorized the Baltimore & Susquehanna, York & Maryland Line, York & Cumberland, and Susquehanna Railroads to merge, writing off its investment in the lines in exchange for a mortgage on the new railroad. Construction halted on the Susquehanna RR. The Pennsylvania legislature authorized the merger on May 3, and articles of consolidation were signed on December 4 (filed December 16, 1854), forming the Northern Central Railway Company.

On April 1, 1855, the Northern Central stopped operating the Hanover Branch RR, which began independent operation. On December 20, 1855, construction resumed on the northward extension, and by December 28, 1856, the line had bridged the Susquehanna at Dauphin and reached Millersburg, connecting with the Dauphin and Susquehanna Railroad and the Lykens Valley Railroad, respectively. These were lateral lines tapping coal mines east of the Susquehanna, and the extension afforded them a direct outlet by rail rather than by canal boat. In 1857, it reached Herndon and the Trevorton Coal and Railroad Company, another mining line. On June 28, 1858, the line was opened to Sunbury, where it connected with the Shamokin Valley and Pottsville Railroad towards Shamokin and the Sunbury and Erie Railroad, and Williamsport.

In 1861, the PRR acquired a controlling interest in the Northern Central's stock to compete with the rival B&O. Thereafter, the Northern Central operated as a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad until the latter's demise in the late 20th century.

On February 23, 1861, President-elect Lincoln was scheduled to arrive at the Calvert Station as part of the inauguration whistle-stop train ride. Warned of the Baltimore Plot, Lincoln changed plans and arrived earlier at 3:30 a.m. that morning at the President Street Station downtown, thereby avoiding the suspected assassination attempt.

From 1856 to 1858, trains running north towards Sunbury were diverted across the Susquehanna River at Herndon via the Trevorton Coal Railroad bridge. From here, passengers boarded canal boats and continued the journey to Sunbury on the Pennsylvania Canal, until 1858 when the rail line was completed up the east bank of the river to Sunbury.

Consolidation and Civil War

During the Civil War, the Pennsylvania Railroad-controlled Northern Central served as a major transportation route for supplies, food, clothing, and materiel, as well as troops heading to the South from Camp Curtin and other Northern military training stations. During the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign, Confederate Major General Jubal A. Early raided the NCRY in York, burning some rolling stock and a few machine shops in the rail yard. To impair traffic between Baltimore and Harrisburg, his cavalry destroyed a large number of bridges in York County originally constructed by the B&S. They were quickly rebuilt by Herman Haupt and the U.S. Military Railroad in conjunction with the NCRY. Traffic resumed shortly thereafter, and thousands of wounded soldiers from the Battle of Gettysburg, including Union Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, were evacuated via the Northern Central to hospitals in Harrisburg, Baltimore, York, and elsewhere.

The Northern Central was attacked again on July 10, 1864, when a 130-man Confederate cavalry detachment attacked the line near Cockeysville, under orders from Gen. Bradley T. Johnson. After cutting telegraph wires along Harford Road, they encamped at Towson overnight. The next day, the Confederate cavalry skirmished with a smaller force of Union cavalry along York Road before heading west to rejoin Gen. Johnson's main force.

Abraham Lincoln traveled on the Northern Central on his way to deliver the Gettysburg Address in November 1863, changing trains in Hanover Junction, Pennsylvania. After Lincoln's assassination, his body was transported via the same rails on the funeral train's journey from Washington, D.C., to Springfield, Illinois. The nine-car train departed Washington on April 21, 1865, arriving at Baltimore's Camden Station at 10 a.m. on the B&O Railroad. After public viewing of the President's remains, the train departed Baltimore on the Northern Central at 3 p.m. and arrived at Harrisburg at 8:20 p.m., with a brief stop at York.

In 1873, the NCRY opened its Charles Street Station, and the Union Railroad of Baltimore opened a new line connecting to the station. This 9.62 mile (15.48 km) railroad gave the NCRY access to the Canton area, where it established a shipping terminal on the Inner Harbor. The line also completed a crucial link in central Baltimore between the NCRY, the PW&B and the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad. In February 1882 the Northern Central acquired the Union Railroad. The Union Railroad link enabled the PRR to operate through trains between Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, D.C. Today this PRR system is part of the Northeast Corridor.

In 1898, the NCRY built the Millersburg Passenger Rail Station.

20th century

The Pennsylvania Railroad's Northern Central line was double-tracked and equipped with block signals between Baltimore and Harrisburg by World War I. The line carried heavy passenger and freight traffic until the 1950s. On-line freight included flour, paper, milk, farm products, coal, and less-than-carload shipments between such settlements as White Hall, Parkton, Bentley Springs, Lutherville, and the city of Baltimore.

Local commuter service, referred to as the "Parkton local", operated over the  between Calvert Station in Baltimore and Parkton, Maryland. Long distance passenger trains equipped with sleepers and dining cars were also operated by the PRR over the line from Baltimore Penn Station to Buffalo, Toronto, Chicago, Illinois, and St. Louis, Missouri, with through-sleeping car service as far as Houston, Texas. Much of the PRR through freight service to points west was routed via its electrified Port Road Branch along the Susquehanna River to Enola Yard in Harrisburg, however, instead of the Northern Central line.

With the decline in rail passenger and freight service in the 1950s, accelerated by the completion of Interstate 83, the "Parkton locals" were dropped in 1959 and the line was reduced from double-track to single-track. The Red Arrow Washington section to Detroit ended service in 1960.

Some long-distance trains, such as the General (to Chicago), the Penn Texas (to St. Louis) and the Buffalo Day Express (to Buffalo), continued to operate until the late 1960s. In 1972, when Hurricane Agnes caused bridge damage and washouts along the line, all operations ceased. One of the oldest rail lines in the country at the time, it had run for a total of 134 years.

Penn Central and aftermath
In 1968, the PRR merged with the New York Central railroad, to form the Penn Central (PC). A spur of the Spirit of St. Louis (later the National Limited) ran along the Washington–Harrisburg corridor until 1979.

After sustaining damage along the main line due to Hurricane Agnes, the Penn Central petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission to allow it to abandon the railroad south of York. The section of the line between York and New Freedom was acquired by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation in June 1973.

The Penn Central filed for bankruptcy protection in 1970. It operated under court supervision until 1976, when its lines were transferred to Conrail under the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act.

Legacy today
A 13-mile segment of the former Northern Central Railway between Baltimore and Cockeysville continued to be operated by Conrail successor Norfolk Southern until 2005. Rebuilt and electrified in the late 1980s for the now double-tracked Baltimore Light Rail system, NS local freights were permitted to operate over the Light Rail line during late-night hours when no passenger trains were running by agreement with the Maryland Transit Administration.

Rail trails
 The Maryland Department of Natural Resources converted the corridor north of Cockeysville into a trail which opened to the public in 1984. Officially known as the Torrey C. Brown Rail Trail, the trail's history is reflected in its more popular name, Northern Central Railroad (NCR) Trail.  The trail continues into Pennsylvania, where it becomes the York County Heritage Rail Trail.

In York County, the Bridge 182+42, Bridge 5+92, Bridge 634, South Road Bridge, Howard Tunnel, and New Freedom Railroad Station are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Heritage railway
A heritage railway operated on the NCRY line as a dinner train in the mid-1990s to the early 2000s.

In 2013, the Northern Central Railway of York (then known as Steam Into History) began operations between New Freedom and Hanover Junction, operating a replica of a Civil War-era 4-4-0 steam locomotive.

See also

 List of defunct Maryland railroads
 List of defunct Pennsylvania railroads

Gallery

References

External links
NCRY Annual reports, 1865-1866 (11th-12th), 1869-1910 (15th-56th)
PRR Corporate History
PRR Chronology, Chris Baer

Defunct Maryland railroads
Defunct Pennsylvania railroads
Defunct New York (state) railroads
Predecessors of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
History of Maryland
History of Pennsylvania
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Railway companies established in 1854
Railway companies disestablished in 1976
Transportation in York County, Pennsylvania
1854 establishments in Pennsylvania

Northern Central Railway


Getting Home () is a 2007 Chinese comedy/drama film directed by Zhang Yang and starring Chinese comedian Zhao Benshan. It is episodic and follows two workers in their 50s, Zhao (Zhao Benshan) and Liu (Hong Qiwen). The film opens when Liu unexpectedly dies after a night of drinking and Zhao decides to fulfill a promise to his friend to get him home, beginning a long odyssey from Shenzhen to Chongqing with Liu's corpse on his back. Along the way, Zhao meets a variety of figures, played by several of China's better known character actors.

Getting Home is Zhang Yang's fifth feature film. It was produced by Filmko Entertainment of Hong Kong and the Beijing Jinqianshengshi Culture Media company of the People's Republic of China. International sales and distribution was by Fortissimo Films out of Amsterdam.

Getting Home'''s original title derives from a Chinese proverb meaning "A falling leaf returns to its roots." It is apparently based on a true story.

Cast
Zhao Benshan as Zhao a middle-age worker who decides to carry his deceased friend home
Hong Qiwen as Liu
Song Dandan as a middle-age homeless woman who sells her blood for money
Guo Degang as a ringleader of a gang of thieves who attempts to hold up the bus Zhao first uses to transport Liu's corpse
Hu Jun as a trucker who drives Zhao and Liu a part of the way
Xia Yu as a cyclist attempting to bicycle to Tibet
Wu Ma as an elderly, wealthy, lonely man who Zhao meets along his journey
Liu Jinshan as a thuggish restaurateur
Chen Ying and Guo Tao as husband and wife beekeepers who have rejected modern society

Production
Originally titled Air, Getting Home was financed by Filmko Films and Fortissimo Films and produced by Peter Loehr (of Ming Productions and the Imar Film Company) and Wouter Barendrecht of Fortissimo. This marked the first collaboration between Zhang and Filmko but the fifth with Fortissimo.

Though the film documents Zhao's journey from Shenzhen to Chongqing, the majority of shooting took place in Yunnan, a Chinese province in the southwest.

ReceptionGetting Home had its Western debut in the 2007 Berlin International Film Festival on 11 February 2007, as part of the festival's Panorama series. There it won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Since Berlin, Getting Home has made the rounds in the festival circuit, including Silk Screen Asian American Film Festival, Deauville and the New York Asian Film Festival.

Western critics, meanwhile, have embraced the film, with several noting that, while the synopsis recalls the American comedy Weekend at Bernie's, Getting Home far surpasses that film in plot, cast, and drama. One critic notes that the film is "a perfectly pitched and quite heartwarming drama about friendship and promises, with a welcome drop of dark humour." Several magazines, including Variety and that's Beijing'' praised the performance of Zhao Benshan in particular as "finely calibrated" and "vivid" respectively.

References

External links

Getting Home at the Chinese Movie Database
Getting Home from distributor Fortissimo Films

2007 films
Chinese black comedy films
2000s Mandarin-language films
2000s road movies
Films set in Shenzhen
Films directed by Zhang Yang

Getting Home


Wayne is a town in Passaic County, New Jersey.

The town is named after Anthony Wayne.

The temperature in Wayne is usually between 50 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. When it rains, the lowland areas usually flood.

Wayne has the headquarters for Toys "R" Us. Other businesses include Piermount Works, a Ford dealership, and Bally Fitness.

Towns in New Jersey

Wayne, New Jersey


Hermenegildo Ignacio Peralta (April 3, 1791 – May 9, 1874) was a Spanish settler in California, the eldest son of Luís María Peralta.

Biography
Ignacio Peralta was the owner of the Peralta Home in San Leandro, California, which was built on the southerly portion of Rancho San Antonio, the land grant his father received from Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá in 1820.

Initially, he and his wife lived in a simple adobe house on the property, constructed in 1842 along San Leandro Creek, across from the home of José Joaquín Estudillo, where he raised cattle, as well as various grains. He supplied visiting ships with rawhide and tallow in return for what he wanted in goods like saddles, fabrics, and wines.

Peralta's daughter María Antonia married W.P. Toler, an American soldier who is said to have been the person who raised the American flag at the Battle of Monterey. Toler built a two-story frame house for himself and his new bride, and Peralta looked to have his son-in-law build something fancier than their adobe residence.

After Peralta's death, his wife sold the house and moved into a smaller house the Tolers built on the land.

References

1791 births
1874 deaths
Californios
People from San Leandro, California

Ignacio Peralta


Martin Luther, Heretic was a movie made in 1983, the 500th anniversary of the birth of Martin Luther. The movie starred Jonathan Pryce as Luther and Maurice Denham as Johann von Staupitz.

Plot
The movie begins in the year 1506, while Luther was a monk. The movie ends in the year 1522, when Luther returns from his exile at Wartburg Castle to Wittenberg.

Related pages
 Luther film

Other websites

1983 movies
1980s biographical movies
1980s historical movies
British biographical movies
Movies about Martin Luther
1980s English-language movies

Martin Luther, Heretic (1983 movie)


The Grammy winning Chestnut Brass Company is a Philadelphia brass quintet founded in 1977. Since beginning as a street band in Philadelphia in 1977, they have performed in North and South America, Europe, the Caribbean, and Asia.

The chamber ensemble is active in the performance and commissioning of contemporary music, and has introduced numerous new works to audiences around the country. Composers who have written works for the Chestnut Brass Company, or have been commissioned by the Chestnut Brass Company, include Jan Krzywicki, Pulitzer Prize–winning composer Richard Wernick, Lois V. Vierk, Peter Schickele, George Hitt, Eric Stokes, Theodore Antoniou, Lawrence Siegel, and Paul Basler. The CBC has received awards for commissioning and performance from the NEA, the Pennsylvania Council on the Arts, the Pew Charitable Trust, the Presser Foundation, Chamber Music America and Meet the Composer.

Interviews and recitals of the Chestnut Brass Company have been featured on National Public Radio's All Things Considered, Fresh Air, Radiotimes and Performance Today programs; Voice of America, Radio Free Europe, Bavarian State Radio and numerous radio and television stations across the United States. The Chestnut Brass Company has been featured in performance at the Juilliard School, the Chautauqua Institute, the Ambassador Series of Los Angeles, the Boston Museum of Art, Merkin Concert Hall, Alice Tully Hall and the Yale Collection of Instruments.
As curators of the sounds of ancient and antique brasses, the Chestnut Brass Company have been at the forefront of the period-instrument revival with performances on cornetti, sackbuts, keyed bugles and saxhorns. The quintet continues to collect antique brass instruments and to research the literature and performance practice of these instruments.

Their educational program Hot Air: the Story of Brass Instruments was one of three programs selected by the Kennedy Center for the Arts for a live web broadcast.  The program was renewed for inclusion on the Kennedy Center website.  The CBC can be heard on the Sony, Newport Classic, Crystal and Musical Heritage/Musicmasters labels. Selections from CBC recordings have been included on several documentaries ranging from A House Divided for PBS, to Pinehurst, the History of Golf.

Bruce Barrie, trumpet;
John Charles Thomas, trumpet;
Marian Hesse, horn;
Larry Zimmerman, trombone;
Jay Krush, tuba

Brass quintets
Grammy Award winners
American brass bands

Chestnut Brass Company


Kurmyshsky Uyezd (Курмышский уезд) was one of the subdivisions of the Simbirsk Governorate of the Russian Empire. It was situated in the northern part of the governorate. Its administrative centre was Kurmysh.

Demographics
At the time of the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Kurmyshsky Uyezd had a population of 161,647. Of these, 52.5% spoke Russian, 25.9% Chuvash, 15.0% Tatar, 6.4% Mordvin and 0.1% Czech as their native language.

References

Uezds of Simbirsk Governorate
Simbirsk Governorate

Kurmyshsky Uyezd


Superman is a video game programmed by John Dunn for the Atari Video Computer System (later renamed Atari 2600) and released in 1979 by Atari, Inc. The player controls Superman, whose quest is to explore an open-ended environment to find three pieces of a bridge that was destroyed by Lex Luthor, capture Luthor and his criminal gang, and return to the Daily Planet building. The game world is populated by antagonists such as a helicopter that re-arranges the bridge pieces and roving kryptonite satellites that cause Superman to revert into Clark Kent.

Atari was owned by Warner Communications, which was also the parent company of Superman publisher DC Comics. Following the financial success of the film Superman (1978), Atari asked programmer Warren Robinett to adapt his prototype of Adventure (1980) into a Superman game. Robinett was not interested, but he gave some of his code to Dunn, who agreed to do the game if he could have four kilobytes of space for the cartridge, as opposed to the usual two kilobytes.

Superman received positive reviews on its release from the publications Video and The Space Gamer who proclaimed it as one of the best games from Atari while noting its high quality graphics and unique gameplay. Some retrospective reviews lamented that the game only used the character of Superman for his more action-oriented abilities, while others continued to praise the game's unique gameplay and high-quality Atari 2600 graphics.

Gameplay

Superman is a video game in which the player controls Clark Kent and his superhero alias Superman. On hearing about a bomb scare in Metropolis, Kent examines the situation and finds Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor leaving the scene as the waterfront bridge explodes. The goal is to repair the bridge, which has split into three parts, capture Luthor, and return to the Daily Planet as Kent in the shortest time possible. Superman can be damaged by kryptonite satellites; if they touch him, he loses his ability to fly and can only be revived by interacting with Lois Lane. A helicopter moves around Metropolis occasionally moving parts of the bridge around the map. To capture a crook or carry bridge pieces, the player must fly into them to grab them and release them by landing. Luthor and his henchmen are placed in jail by flying them into the jail bars while carrying them.

The game was made prior to the introduction of side-scrolling, leading to the player moving from screen to screen and arriving on the next frame for them to enter a new block of Metropolis. A miniature radar consisting of six markers representing city blocks is displayed at the top of the playfield, with the largest marker showing the proximity the player is to the potential targets of Luthor or one of his henchmen. Each of these areas is connected on four adjoining sides, which can be traversed by flying up, down, left and right through the screens. The player can traverse through different subway entrances for quicker travel. After entering, the player can traverse different exits by moving upward off screen through different colored areas and then exiting by moving off screen left, right or down.

The player can enable Superman's x-ray vision to see any of the four adjoining frames. While viewing these, Superman cannot move but can still be hit by kryptonite satellites.

Development
In 1976, Warner Communications acquired Atari for $28 million. Warner Communications also owned DC Comics, which owned the rights to the Superman character. The market for comics was shrinking during this period and for the first time, licensing the characters became more profitable, specifically in comparison to the film rentals for the 1978 film Superman. Warner Communications wanted Atari to follow their financially successful film up with a prompt video game tie-in. According to Jessica Aldred in the book Before the Crash, Superman was the first film-licensed game for the Atari VCS, while Ian Bogost and Nick Montfort in their book Racing the Beam (2009) stated that it was not clear that the game was based on the film. Carl Wilson wrote in The Superhero Multiverse that Mario Puzo's contract had mandated that his story for the Superman film was not to be adapted into any other form as well as finding that the brief plot summary of the game did not relate to any specific Superman comic story running at that period.

While developing the game Adventure (1980) in 1978, Warren Robinett was asked to shelve the game and use its design to create a game based on Superman. At the time, Robinett had a prototype of the game where the player could move a small square "cursor" from screen to screen picking up colored shapes. Robinett had passed the job on to John Dunn, who shared code to facilitated the game's development. According to the game's cover designer Judy Richter, DC Comics were not very hands on in the development of the game and did not give their input or opinions on the game's development.

The game was programmed by Dunn in 1978. Dunn took on the job with the condition that he could develop a game that had a four kilobyte ROM chip on its cartridge. With the exception of Casino (1978) and Hangman (1978), every game made for the Atari VCS had been written within two kilobytes.

For sound and graphics, the Atari 2600 had its Television Interface Adaptor (TIA) which authors Montfort and Bogost described as a programming challenge, allowing for only a relatively small number of unique features. The Atari 2600 did not allow for such services such as graphic rendering, forcing programmers to draw the entirety of each frame of the game's display. The game features no music and only simple sound effects, such as audio getting louder and quieter as Superman flies higher and lower into the air. It was one of the first video game with multicolored sprites and was among the first console games with a pause feature, following the Fairchild Channel F system.

Release
In Atari's The Atari Video Computer System Catalog from 1979, the game was listed as being available soon. Betsy Staples wrote in September 1979 in Creative Computing about playing the game at an Electronic expo, while promotional material in newspapers stated the game as arriving soon on September 13, and then being available in stock on September 28. A review in The Space Gamer also stated the game was released in the third quarter of 1979.

According to Richter, DC gave them a playbook on exactly how Superman should look as the cover art was going to be crucial as that is what people would see on the store shelves.

Reception
Bill Kunkel and Arnie Katz reviewed Superman in Video, and declared it as a game that "ushers in an exciting new era for home arcades [...] put simply, there's no game remotely similar to this one", citing that its place in a Video Arcade Hall of Fame "seems assured". Video established its Arcade Awards, nicknamed the Arkies, to recognize "outstanding achievements in the field of electronic gaming" and had their 1981 edition acknowledge the year's games. Superman was listed as their "Game of the Year", with the publication declaring it a single-player masterpiece and "the most important release" of the year. Norman Howe commented in The Space Gamer that he the found moving the character to the edge of the screen to progress to a new area "unusual". Howe proclaimed that the multiple tasks and quick travel systems made it "a fascinating challenge" with "excellent graphics" and declared it "the best Atari game I have yet seen". Among the weak points, Howe noted that it was possible to lose items near the edge of the frame and that the game had a high cost for a single scenario. Another review from Electronic Games in its "1983 Software Encyclopedia" issue gave it a nine out of ten rating, declaring the gameplay, graphics and sound as "excellent" and stating it was "outstanding" as a single-player game.

Retrospectively, Bogost and Monfort found that Superman "expunged the movie's social and emotional relationships - and those of the comic books - choosing action sequences instead. Games licensed from movies have continued to follow this early VCS game in this regard". William Wilson of Forbes stated in 2015 that Superman was exceptional by contemporary technical standards, noting its graphics being better than some of the competition, specifically comparing it to Atari's Adventure. Skyler Miller of AllGame gave the game a five out of five star rating, praising the game's re-playability, graphics, but found it not up to the standards of the games developed for the system by Activision. He also appreciated the smaller details such as the sound of flying decreasing in volume as Superman ascends and Lois Lane lifting her leg when Superman kisses her. In 2009, Michal Mozejko of Retro Gamer opined that the game was still the best Superman video game, praising its innovation with being the first to utilize multiple screens as a playing area, although he noted that travelling through the map was not intuitive.

Superman was the first published superhero to feature in a video game, followed up on the Atari 2600 by Spider-Man (1982). Following the video game crash of 1983, Warner Communications was without any video game subsidiary as they had divided and sold Atari. Once the video game market began to recover, Warner Communications began licensing out their DC Comics properties to third-party developers. The next game featuring Superman would appear in 1985 with Superman: The Game by First Star Software for the Commodore 64.

See also

 1979 in video games
 List of Atari 2600 games

References

Sources

External links
 Superman at AtariAge
 Superman manual at the Internet Archive
 Superman at Atari Mania

1979 video games
Action-adventure games
Atari 2600 games
Atari 2600-only games
Atari games
Superman video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in the United States
Single-player video games

Superman (1979 video game)


In control theory, a time-invariant (TI) system has a time-dependent system function that is not a direct function of time. Such systems are regarded as a class of systems in the field of system analysis. The time-dependent system function is a function of the time-dependent input function. If this function depends only indirectly on the time-domain (via the input function, for example), then that is a system that would be considered time-invariant. Conversely, any direct dependence on the time-domain of the system function could be considered as a "time-varying system".

Mathematically speaking, "time-invariance" of a system is the following property:

Given a system with a time-dependent output function , and a time-dependent input function , the system will be considered time-invariant if a time-delay on the input  directly equates to a time-delay of the output  function. For example, if time  is "elapsed time", then "time-invariance" implies that the relationship between the input function  and the output function  is constant with respect to time

In the language of signal processing, this property can be satisfied if the transfer function of the system is not a direct function of time except as expressed by the input and output.

In the context of a system schematic, this property can also be stated as follows, as shown in the figure to the right:

If a system is time-invariant then the system block commutes with an arbitrary delay.

If a time-invariant system is also linear, it is the subject of linear time-invariant theory (linear time-invariant) with direct applications in NMR spectroscopy, seismology, circuits, signal processing, control theory, and other technical areas. Nonlinear time-invariant systems lack a comprehensive, governing theory. Discrete time-invariant systems are known as shift-invariant systems. Systems which lack the time-invariant property are studied as time-variant systems.

Simple example

To demonstrate how to determine if a system is time-invariant, consider the two systems:

 System A:
 System B:

Since the System Function  for system A explicitly depends on t outside of , it is not time-invariant because the time-dependence is not explicitly a function of the input function.

In contrast, system B's time-dependence is only a function of the time-varying input . This makes system B time-invariant.

The Formal Example below shows in more detail that while System B is a Shift-Invariant System as a function of time, t, System A is not.

Formal example
A more formal proof of why systems A and B above differ is now presented. To perform this proof, the second definition will be used.

System A: Start with a delay of the input

Now delay the output by

Clearly , therefore the system is not time-invariant.

System B: Start with a delay of the input

Now delay the output by

Clearly , therefore the system is time-invariant.

More generally, the relationship between the input and output is

and its variation with time is

For time-invariant systems, the system properties remain constant with time,

Applied to Systems A and B above:

 in general, so it is not time-invariant,
 so it is time-invariant.

Abstract example

We can denote the shift operator by  where  is the amount by which a vector's index set should be shifted. For example, the "advance-by-1" system

can be represented in this abstract notation by

where  is a function given by

with the system yielding the shifted output

So  is an operator that advances the input vector by 1.

Suppose we represent a system by an operator . This system is time-invariant if it commutes with the shift operator, i.e.,

If our system equation is given by

then it is time-invariant if we can apply the system operator  on  followed by the shift operator , or we can apply the shift operator  followed by the system operator , with the two computations yielding equivalent results.

Applying the system operator first gives

Applying the shift operator first gives

If the system is time-invariant, then

See also
Finite impulse response
Sheffer sequence
State space (controls)
Signal-flow graph
LTI system theory
Autonomous system (mathematics)

References

Control theory
Signal processing

Time-invariant system


Symphony No. 7 (also known as A Toltec Symphony) is a 2005 symphony by Philip Glass.  The National Symphony Orchestra commissioned Glass to write it to commemorate the 60th birthday of conductor Leonard Slatkin.  Slatkin conducted the debut concert on January 20, 2005 at the Kennedy Center, which Glass attended.

Composition
The symphony is scored for piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, English horn, 2 B clarinets, E clarinet, 2 bassoons, 4 horns 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, rattle, tom-tom, wood block, glockenspiel, piano, celesta, harp, violins, violas, cellos, basses, organ, and chorus.

At 30 minutes long, it has three movements:

Inspiration
Glass said that he wrote the symphony about Mesoamerica and the life of Native Americans centuries before the arrival of European explorers.  The first movement, "The Corn," focuses on the interplay between Mother Nature and those she provides for.  "The Hikuri (the Sacred Root)" is not a root (it is a cactus) that grows in the northern and central Mexican deserts and is thought to be a gateway to the spiritual world, hikuri.  Finally, the last movement is about "the holder of the Book of Knowledge," whom every truth-seeking person must face.

Glass has integrated three transcendental concepts of ancestral culture (Huichol) : The first is the " corn " which means, desire to return to the innocence before adulthood (the connection with Mother Earth); the second, the hikuri is the sacred vision of corn and Blue Deer, and this represents the third symbolism, from this world to the hereafter can do it, because when get the blue deer, stop being ordinary, and the man will be transformed.

External links
Kennedy Center description of debut concert
Kennedy Center program notes including notes by Philip Glass

 07
2005 compositions
Philip Glass albums
Glass 07
Music for orchestra and organ
Glass 07
Music commissioned by the National Symphony Orchestra

Symphony No. 7 (Glass)


Since 2000 the Hungarian Unix Portal (HUP), founded by Gábor Micsko aka. trey, is the largest Hungarian UNIX/Linux/BSD system administrators' webpage.

HUP's aim is to join with the Hungarian free software community. Members of HUP can discuss and resolve problems about *NIX systems. The main language of HUP is Hungarian.

HUP hosts the HupWiki, which is the most important wiki about free software and *NIX systems in Hungary. HupWiki consists of over 1000 articles and documentations.

HUP (also known as: portal.fsn.hu) has been associated with the Free Software Network (aka FSN.hu) foundation.
FSN's goal is to distribute free software, to help people and organizations using them and to provide infrastructural background and other services. The best known service is the file server called ftp.fsn.hu, which is Hungary's largest (by traffic), independent free software distribution point. Its biggest daily traffic was 875 GB so far. The services of the machine can be used by anyone 24 hours a day.

See also
SIGHUP: terminal line hangup
LWN.net

References

External links
HUP
HupWiki - Hup's WikiWiki page
More info about the owner

Linux websites

Hungarian Unix Portal


A battery electric vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle, fully electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion (a hydrogen fuel cell, internal combustion engine, etc.). BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include – but are not limited to  – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, and cars.

In 2016, there were 210 million electric bikes worldwide used daily. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric car vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. , the world's top selling all-electric car in history is the Tesla Model 3, with an estimated 645,000 sales, followed by the Nissan Leaf with over 500,000 sales .

History

During the 1880s, Gustave Trouvé, Thomas Parker and Andreas Flocken built experimental electric cars, but the first practical battery electric vehicles appeared during the 1890s. Battery vehicle milk floats expanded in 1931, and by 1967, gave Britain the largest electric vehicle fleet in the world.

Terminology

Hybrid electric vehicles use both electric motors and internal combustion engines, and are not considered pure or all-electric vehicles.

Hybrid electric vehicles whose batteries can be charged externally are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and run as BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. PHEVs with a series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs), such as the Chevrolet Volt and Fisker Karma.

Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs).

The electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (aka all-combustion vehicles) belong to one of the two categories.

In China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs). However, in the United States, neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) are battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits no higher than , are usually built to have a top speed of , and have a maximum loaded weight of .

Vehicles by type
The concept of battery electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the higher oil prices and the advancement of new battery technology (lithium-ion) that have higher power and energy density (i.e., greater possible acceleration and more range with fewer batteries). Compared to older battery types such as lead-acid batteries. Lithium-ion batteries for example now have an energy density of 0.9–2.63 MJ/L whereas lead-acid batteries had an energy density of 0.36 MJ/L (so 2.5 to 7.3x higher). There is still a long way to go if comparing it to petroleum-based fuels and biofuels, however (gasoline having an energy density of 34.2 MJ/L -38x to 12.92x higher- and ethanol having an energy of 24 MJ/L -26x to 9.12x higher-). This is partially offset by higher conversion efficiency of electric motors – BEVs travel roughly 3x further than similar-size internal combustion vehicles per MJ of stored energy.

BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles.

Rail

 Battery electric railcars:

Battery electric trains in the form of BEMUs (battery electric multiple units) are operated commercially in Japan. They are charged via pantographs, either when driving on electrified railway lines or during stops at specially equipped train stations. They use battery power for propulsion when driving on railway lines that are not electrified, and have successfully replaced diesel multiple units on some such lines.

Other countries have also tested or ordered such vehicles.

 Locomotives:
 Electric rail trolley:

Electric bus

Chattanooga, Tennessee, operates nine zero-fare electric buses, which have been in operation since 1992 and have carried 11.3 million passengers and covered a distance of . They were made locally by Advanced Vehicle Systems. Two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta.

Beginning in the summer of 2000, Hong Kong Airport began operating a 16-passenger Mitsubishi Rosa electric shuttle bus, and in the fall of 2000, New York City began testing a 66-passenger battery-powered school bus, an all-electric version of the Blue Bird TC/2000. A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California, for 14 months ending in April 2004.

The 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of  with the air conditioning on. They use lithium-ion batteries, and consume about . The buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the recharging station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses.

In France, the electric bus phenomenon is in development, but some buses are already operating in numerous cities. PVI, a medium-sized company located in the Paris region, is one of the leaders of the market with its brand Gepebus (offering Oreos 2X and Oreos 4X).

In the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, California, since September 2010 at Foothill Transit. The Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes.

In 2012, heavy-duty trucks and buses contributed 7% of global warming emissions in California.

In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California's San Joaquin Valley. The bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery-electric school bus, which has four sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state.

In 2016, including the light heavy-duty vehicles, there were roughly 1.5 million heavy-duty vehicles in California.

The same technology is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles. This technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google.

Thunder Sky
Thunder Sky (based in Hong Kong) builds lithium-ion batteries used in submarines and has three models of electric buses, the 10/21 passenger EV-6700 with a range of  under 20 mins quick-charge, the EV-2009 city buses, and the 43 passenger EV-2008 highway bus, which has a range of  under quick-charge (20 mins to 80 percent), and  under full charge (25 mins). The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland.

Free Tindo
Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia. The Tindo (aboriginal word for sun) is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from a solar PV system on Adelaide's central bus station. Rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaide's public transport system.

First Fast-Charge, Battery-Electric Transit Bus
Proterra's EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a heavy-duty, fast charge, battery-electric bus. Proterra's ProDrive drive-system uses a UQM motor and regenerative braking that captures 90 percent of the available energy and returns it to the TerraVolt energy storage system, which in turn increases the total distance the bus can drive by 31–35 percent. It can travel  on a single charge, is up to 600 percent more fuel-efficient than a typical diesel or CNG bus, and produces 44 percent less carbon than CNG. Proterra buses have had several problems, most notably in Philadelphia where the entire fleet was removed from service.

Electric trucks

For most of the 20th century, the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats. The 21st century saw the massive development of BYD electric trucks.

Electric vans

In March 2012, Smith Electric Vehicles announced the release of the Newton Step-Van, an all-electric, zero-emission vehicle built on the versatile Newton platform that features a walk-in body produced by Indiana-based Utilimaster.

BYD supplies DHL with electric distribution fleet of commercial BYD T3.

Electric cars

A battery-powered electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motors.

Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed, the lower specific energy of production batteries available in 2015 compared with carbon-based fuels means that electric cars need batteries that are a fairly large fraction of the vehicle mass but still often give a relatively low range between charges. Recharging can also take significant lengths of time. For journeys within a single battery charge, rather than long journeys, electric cars are practical forms of transportation and can be recharged overnight.

Electric cars can significantly reduce city pollution by having zero emissions. Vehicle greenhouse gas savings depend on how the electricity is generated.

Electric cars are having a major impact in the auto industry given advantages in city pollution, less dependence on oil and combustion, and scarcity and expected rise in gasoline prices. World governments are pledging billions to fund development of electric vehicles and their components.

Formula E is a fully electric international single-seater championship. The series was conceived in 2012, and the inaugural championship started in Beijing on 13 September 2014. The series is sanctioned by the FIA. Alejandro Agag is the current CEO of Formula E.

The Formula E championship is currently contested by ten teams with two drivers each (after the withdrawal of Team Trulli, there are temporarily only nine teams competing). Racing generally takes place on temporary city-center street circuits which are approximately  long. Currently, only the Mexico City ePrix takes place on a road course, a modified version of the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez.

Special-purpose vehicles

Special-purpose vehicles come in a wide range of types, ranging from relatively common ones such as golf carts, things like electric golf trolleys, milk floats, all-terrain vehicles, neighborhood electric vehicles, and a wide range of other devices. Certain manufacturers specialize in electric-powered "in plant" work machines.

Electric motorcycles, scooters and rickshaws

Three-wheeled vehicles include electric rickshaws, a powered variant of the cycle rickshaw. The large-scale adoption of electric two-wheelers can reduce traffic noise and road congestion but may necessitate adaptations of the existing urban infrastructure and safety regulations.

Ather Energy from India has launched their BLDC motor powered Ather 450 electric scooter with Lithium Ion batteries in 2018. Also from India, AVERA  – a new and renewable energy company is going to launch two models of electric scooters at the end of 2018, with Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery technology.

Electric bicycles

India is the world's biggest market for bicycles at 22 million units per year. By 2024, electric two-wheelers will be a $2 billion market with over 3 million units being sold in India.

The Indian government is launching schemes and incentives to promote the adoption of electric vehicles in the country, and is aiming to be a manufacturing hub for electric vehicles within the next five years.

China has experienced an explosive growth of sales of non-assisted e-bikes including the scooter type, with annual sales jumping from 56,000 units in 1998 to over 21 million in 2008, and reaching an estimated 120 million e-bikes on the road in early 2010. China is the world's leading manufacturer of e-bikes, with 22.2 million units produced in 2009.

Personal transporters
An increasing variety of personal transporters are being manufactured, including the one-wheeled self-balancing unicycles, self-balancing scooters, electric kick scooters, and electric skateboards.

Electric boats

Several battery electric ships operate throughout the world, some for business. Electric ferries are being operated and constructed.

Technology

Motor controllers

The motor controller receives a signal from potentiometers linked to the accelerator pedal, and it uses this signal to determine how much electric power is needed. This DC power is supplied by the battery pack, and the controller regulates the power to the motor, supplying either variable pulse width DC or variable frequency variable amplitude AC, depending on the motor type. The controller also handles regenerative braking, whereby electrical power is gathered as the vehicle slows down and this power recharges the battery. In addition to power and motor management, the controller performs various safety checks such as anomaly detection, functional safety tests and failure diagnostics.

Battery pack

Most electric vehicles today use an electric battery, consisting of electrochemical cells with external connections in order to provide power to the vehicle.

Battery technology for EVs has developed from early lead-acid batteries used in the late 19th century to the 2010s, to lithium-ion batteries which are found in most EVs today. The overall battery is referred to as a battery pack, which is a group of multiple battery modules and cells. For example, the Tesla Model S battery pack has up to 7,104 cells, split into 16 modules with 6 groups of 74 cells in each. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3–4 volts, depending on its chemical composition.

Motors

Electric cars have traditionally used series wound DC motors, a form of brushed DC electric motor. Separately excited and permanent magnet are just two of the types of DC motors available. More recent electric vehicles have made use of a variety of AC motor types, as these are simpler to build and have no brushes that can wear out. These are usually induction motors or brushless AC electric motors which use permanent magnets. There are several variations of the permanent magnet motor which offer simpler drive schemes and/or lower cost including the brushless DC electric motor.

Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle's wheels.

Economy
EV battery storage is a key element for the global energy transition which is dependent on more electricity storage right now. As energy availability is the most important factor for the vitality of an economy the mobile storage infrastructure of EV batteries can be seen as one of the most meaningful infrastructure projects facilitating the energy transition to a fully sustainable economy based on renewables. A meta-study graphically showing the importance of electricity storage depicts the technology in context.

Environmental impact

Power generation
Electric vehicles produce no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in operation, but the electricity used to power them may do so in its generation. The two factors driving the emissions of battery electric vehicles are the carbon intensity of the electricity used to recharge the Electric Vehicle (commonly expressed in grams of  per kWh) and the consumption of the specific vehicle (in kilometers/kWh).

The carbon intensity of electricity varies depending on the source of electricity where it is consumed. A country with a high share of renewable energy in its electricity mix will have a low C.I. In the European Union, in 2013, the carbon intensity had a strong geographic variability but in most of the member states, electric vehicles were "greener" than conventional ones. On average, electric cars saved 50–60% of  emissions compared to diesel and gasoline fuelled engines.

Moreover, the de-carbonisation process is constantly reducing the GHG emissions due to the use of electric vehicles. In the European Union, on average, between 2009 and 2013 there was a reduction in the electricity carbon intensity of 17%. In a life-cycle assessment perspective, considering the GHG necessary to build the battery and its end-of-life, the GHG savings are 10–13% lower.

The open source VencoPy model framework can be used to study the interactions between vehicles, owners, and the electricity system at large.

Vehicle construction
GHGs are also emitted when the electric vehicle is being manufactured. The lithium-ion batteries used in the vehicle take more materials and energy to produce because of the extraction process of the lithium and cobalt essential to the battery. This means the bigger the electric vehicle, the more carbon dioxide emitted. The same size-to-emission relationship applies to manufacturing of all products.

The mines that are used to produce the lithium and cobalt used in the battery are also creating problems for the environment, as fish are dying up to  downstream from mining operations due to chemical leaks and the chemicals also leak into the water sources the people that live near the mines use, creating health problems for the animals and people that live nearby.

See also

All-electric range
Automotive battery
Battery balancing
 Capa vehicle
Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA)
Electric vehicle battery
Electric vehicle warning sounds
Global Electric Motorcars
Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
Greenpower
Hydrogen vehicle
List of electric cars currently available
List of electric-vehicle-battery manufacturers
List of production battery electric vehicles
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
Road-powered electric vehicle
Short-commute vehicles
Supercapacitor
Think Global
Tokyo Electric Power Company
Wireless charging

References

Further reading
 Witkin, Jim. Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars, The New York Times, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable batteries and the new-technology lithium ion battery.

External links
Patents
 , Emil E. Keller, Electrically Propelled Perambulator, 1894
 , Hiram Percy Maxim, Motor vehicle, 1897
 , Hiram Percy Maxim et al., Electric motor vehicle, 1904

Organizations
 Battery Vehicle Society (UK)
 Zap-Map – the UK national directory of recharging points.
 The European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE).
 Czech EV Club – (CZ) Eng. section in photogallery.
 Alternative Technology Association Electric Vehicle Interest Group.
 Australian Electric Vehicle Association.
 Electric Car Society.

News
Reasons to buy an electric car in 2013
 AeroVironment Awarded U.S. Patent For Electric Vehicle Energy Data Management And Control (Green Car Congress)
 Solar charging station for Ford Focus Electric Vehicle

Studies

Automotive technologies
Sustainable technologies

Battery electric vehicle


Major Charles Ferguson Hoey  VC MC (29 March 1914 – 16 February 1944) was a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Military career
Charles Ferguson Hoey was born on 29 March 1914, the son of Ferguson and Mary Rudyerd Hoey, of Duncan, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Grandson, through his mother, of Major General Charles Rudyerd Simpson CB, Colonel, The Lincolnshire Regiment. He started his education at Queen Margaret's School in Duncan, then attended Duncan Grammar School and Duncan High School.

Hoey went to England in 1933 in order to pursue a military career. He first enlisted in the British Army as a private soldier in the Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment, before winning a cadetship to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and went there in September 1935. He graduated in December 1936 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Lincolnshire Regiment, later the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment, on 28 January 1937. He transferred to the 1st Battalion of the Lincolns, then stationed in India, and sailed for there in September 1937. He went to Burma with the 1st Battalion in 1942 and served there until his death in February 1944. He was awarded the Military Cross (MC) in July 1943 for his outstanding service at Maungdaw during a raid on a Japanese position.

Victoria Cross
He was 29 years old, and a Temporary Major in the 1st Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment, British Army during the Second World War when the following deed took place during the Battle of Ngakyedauk for which he was awarded the VC.

On 16 February 1944 near the Ngakyedauk Pass, Arakan, Burma (now Myanmar), Major Hoey's company came under devastating machine-gun fire, but Major Hoey did not waver in his advance on the objective. Although wounded in the head and leg he went forward alone with a Bren gun and tackled a troublesome enemy strong point, destroying it and killing all the occupants, but he was mortally wounded.

The citation reads as follows:
"In BURMA, on the 16th February, 1944, Major Hoey's company formed part of a force which was ordered to capture a position at all costs. After a night march through enemy-held territory, the force was met at the foot of the position by machine gun fire. Major Hoey personally led his company under heavy machine gun and rifle fire up to the objective. Although wounded at least twice in the leg and head, he seized a Bren gun from one of his men and, firing from the hip, led his company into the objective. In spite of his wounds the company had difficulty in keeping up with him, and Major Hoey reached the enemy strong post first, where he killed all the occupants before being mortally wounded. Major Hoey's outstanding gallantry and leadership, his total disregard of personal safety and his grim determination to reach the objective resulted in the capture of this vital position."

His remains are now interred at Taukkyan War Cemetery in Burma.

The medal
His Victoria Cross is displayed in the Galleries of the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment at the Museum of Lincolnshire Life in Lincoln, England.

Charles Hoey VC Memorial Park
Charles Hoey VC Memorial Park has been dedicated in downtown Duncan, B.C. This park is located along Canada Avenue between Trunk Road and Ingram Street. The Cowichan cenotaph, located within the park, is inscribed with the names of area residents killed in the two World Wars and the war in Korea.

See also
Battle of the Admin Box
British VCs of World War 2 (John Laffin, 1997)
Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)

References

External links
 HOEY, Charles Ferguson
 Biography (in French) of Charles Ferguson Hoey
 Mysteries of Canada Biography

1914 births
1944 deaths
Royal Lincolnshire Regiment officers
British Army personnel killed in World War II
Canadian World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Canadian recipients of the Military Cross
People from Duncan, British Columbia
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross
Burials at Taukkyan War Cemetery
Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment soldiers
Canadian military personnel from British Columbia

Charles Ferguson Hoey


The Cineon System was one of the first computer based digital film systems, created by Kodak in the early 1990s. It was an integrated suite of components consisting a Motion picture film scanner, a film recorder and workstation hardware with software (the Cineon Digital Film Workstation) for compositing, visual effects, image restoration and color management.

The system was first released in September 1992 to Cinesite Hollywood. The workstations were initially built on Sun-Transputer based hardware. In July 1993 version 2.1.3 of the software was released for Silicon Graphics Inc, SGI Onyx hardware. The software was withdrawn from sale by 1997, although a number of customers continued to use it beyond that date.
As an end-to-end solution for 4K resolution, 10 bit digital film production and Digital intermediate, the system was one of the first. The three major components of the system (scanner, workstation software, and recorder) have all received separate AMPAS Scientific and Technical Awards.

The Cineon project was also responsible for the creation of the Cineon ( .cin) 10 bit log file format, designed to handle digital film frames. Although the product is no longer for sale, Cineon file format that Kodak defined was for a long time commonly used in the film visual effects world, and formed the basis for the newer SMPTE-standardised Digital Picture Exchange (DPX) format.

Cineon file format
The Cineon file format was designed specifically to represent scanned film images, and thus has some differences from other formats such as TIFF and JPEG:

 The pixel data represents "printing density", the density that is seen by the print film.  Thus, Cineon files are assumed to operate as part of a reproduction chain keeping whatever values are originally scanned from a negative or positive film.  Any negative can be reproduced on the recorder retaining the original neg's characteristics (such as color component crosstalk and gamma correction) — and thereby retaining the negative's "look" if it were directly printed.  The original Cineon color data metric printing densities were based upon 5244 intermediate film.  Conversion of Cineon Printing Density (CPD) to Status-M can be estimated with a 3x3 matrix or by using tables contained in the Kodak "Digital LAD" document.  This document shows a specific relation between Cineon Code values and Status-M densities.
 The data is stored in log format, directly corresponding to density of the original negative.  Since the scanned material is likely a negative, the data can be said to be "gamma with log encoding".
 To evaluate original scene luminances from Cineon data, the camera negative characteristics must be known. (Such characterization is known as "unbuilding.") Such characterization is aided by exposing a sensitometric strip so that the actual developing gamma can be determined.  The film can be unbuilt by using the unique per-layer contrasts of the color negative.
 In a Cineon (.cin) file, each channel (R, G, B) is 10 bits, packed 3 per 32-bit word, with two bits unused.
 Conversion to 8-bit integer format for display on computer monitors or transfer to video typically involves the notion of the "black point" and "white point" used for conversion to more limited range video signals.  Conventionally, these points are 95 and 685 on the 0-1023 scale (but should be adjusted based upon actual negative content).  Pixel values above 685 are "brighter than white", such as the sun, chrome highlights, etc.  The concept of a "soft clip" was introduced to make the rolloff of whites appear more natural.  Pixel values below 95 represent black values exposed on the negative (the clear base of the film). These values can descend in practice as low as pixel values 20 or 30.

Programs like FFmpeg and XnView report to support .cin and .dpx.

Documentation
Conversions to the Cineon format were defined in a Kodak document by Glenn Kennel. The SMPTE standardized the format further into a related format called DPX which can store more varieties of image information as well as additional header information.

The Cineon 10 bits per pixel color space provides 1024 levels of color as opposed to 256 levels of color in 8 bits per pixel color space. 10 bit YUV and 10 bit RGB are the industry standard. The standard documented and recognized by the Society Of Motion Picture Television Engineers: SMPTE 259M, SMPTE 292M, SMPTE 296M, SMPTE 372M. A .fido file is a type of Cineon Graphics Data File format.

History
From the late 1980s Glenn Kennel was the principal architect of the Cineon digital film system. Kennel led the development of the Cineon CCD film scanner and laser Film recorder (the Lightning film recorder) in Rochester NY. From February 1990, the Cineon workstation software was written by a team based at Kodak in Melbourne, Australia led by Lindsay Arnold. In early 1995, development moved to Kodak in Rochester, NY, where it was led by David Cok and Jim Minno. In about 1996, software development moved to Palo Alto, California

The initial developers of the system received a Scientific and Engineering Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in February 2012. The system as commercially used contained the contributions of many additional scientists and engineers.

Kennel helped launch Kodak's Cinesite Digital Film Center in September 1992, which became the premier test site for Cineon. In 1993 Cinesite used Cineon in the digital restoration of Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which became the first film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film. The restoration project was done entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the Cineon software to digitally remove dirt and scratches. After the end of Cineon, Glenn Kennel worked with Philips to extend the Spirit DataCine to Cineon-compatible digital file output, first applying it to the 1998 movie Pleasantville. Pleasantville was the first digital intermediate film scanned on a Spirit DataCine. This process produced the mix of B&W and color pictures.
Philips licensed some of the technology from Kodak, mainly the front end (lens, optics and CCDs).

Some books mentioning the role of Cineon in digital imaging history are:
 Stephen Prince, Digital Visual Effects in Cinema: The Seduction of Reality. p 73 notes the place of Cineon in file restoration history.
 Mark Sawicki, Filming the Fantastic: A Guide to Visual Effects Cinematography. p. 113ff.

See also
 Color grading
 Color suite
 Digital cinema
 Digital film
 Direct to Disk Recording
 Film industry
 Film stock

References

Graphics file formats
Kodak

Cineon


Second Baptist Church is a historic church building in the village of Mechanicsburg, Ohio, United States.  Constructed in the mid-19th century, it is the oldest church in the village, and it has been named a historic site.

Congregational history
Mechanicsburg was platted in 1814, and the town grew rapidly in wealth and population.  By 1840, the value of real property in the village had surpassed ten thousand dollars, and another forty years saw its value pass one-third of a million dollars.  The population likewise grew from 99 in 1830 to 258 in 1840, 682 in 1850, and 1,522 in 1880.  From its early years, Mechanicsburg was a multi-racial community; one black resident was recorded in the 1830, and after growing gradually to 53 by 1870, the black population jumped to 209 in 1880.

By the 1880s, Mechanicsburg's black population was large enough to support two separate churches: a Baptist congregation and a congregation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.  Formed in November 1872 with a charter membership of eight, only the Baptist congregation survives of the two; it uses the name "Second Baptist Church", as a white Baptist congregation had been founded in 1840.  In 1917, the membership of the congregation and of its Sunday school were recorded as seventy and fifty respectively; in its first forty-five years, the congregation was served by fourteen pastors.  One of the ministers, Elmer Curry, founded the Curry Normal and Industrial Institute at the church, modelling it after the Tuskegee Institute, but after a period of operating in Mechanicsburg, the school relocated to Urbana.

Church building
The first religious organization anywhere in Goshen Township was formed by Methodist missionaries.  Although the Mechanicsburg Methodist Episcopal Church's membership was small in the earliest years, it grew rapidly as a result of numerous revival meetings, which saw many people converted to Christianity under the preaching of men such as pioneer bishop Francis Asbury.  Between 1814 and 1839, they occupied three small church buildings in Mechanicsburg, and growth prompted them to erect a larger brick structure in 1858; they chose a lot that had been used as the village's first cemetery until another cemetery was opened and the bodies were moved to the new location.  As the membership approached four hundred by the late 1870s, a thorough renovation project was completed.  Nevertheless, growth continued, and an even larger church building was constructed in 1904 several blocks north of the previous one.  Accordingly, the congregation sold the old brick edifice to the Second Baptist Church for $2,850, which continued to improve the structure; in 1917, a local author stated that "It is nicely decorated on the interior and is fitted with electric lights."  Historically, the church boasted a peaked belfry above its entrance.  This structure was cut down in 1936 following a fire at the Culbertson Buggy Works, next door to the church, which was catastrophic enough that the tower was damaged.  The church's original bell was removed as a result of the fire and placed in the village school, although in return the smaller school bell was given to the church.

Built of brick with elements of stone, this two-story building is Mechanicsburg's oldest standing church building.  Architecturally, it differs greatly from the village's other historic churches; all of the others are Gothic Revival buildings erected around 1890, while Second Baptist is a Greek Revival building that was thirty years old when the oldest of the other buildings was constructed.  The churches are typical of Mechanicsburg's built environment; most of the village's historic structures are Gothic Revival, Italianate, or Queen Anne structures from the late nineteenth century, and the only extant significant examples of the pure Greek Revival style are Lawler's Tavern (1830) and Second Baptist Church.

Preservation
The Second Baptist Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.  It was part of a multiple property submission of approximately twenty buildings, scattered throughout the village in such a low concentration that a historic district designation was not practical.  While many of the other twenty Mechanicsburg buildings were houses, four were the village's other historic churches: the Mechanicsburg Baptist Church (formerly Methodist Protestant), St. Michael's Catholic Church, the Church of Our Saviour (Episcopalian), and the 1904-completed Methodist church building.  Like all four of the others, the Second Baptist Church qualified for inclusion on the Register because of its historically significant architecture, and it also was deemed important because of the place that it had played in Ohio's history.  Its historic status was further recognized in 2005, when the Ohio Historical Society placed a historical marker for the church along Main Street.  The early twenty-first century also saw restoration work performed on the building by the Champaign County Preservation Alliance, which by that point owned the property.

References

19th-century Baptist churches in the United States
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1858
Churches completed in 1858
African-American history of Ohio
Baptist churches in Ohio
Churches in Champaign County, Ohio
Greek Revival church buildings in Ohio
Methodist churches in Ohio
Churches in Mechanicsburg, Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Champaign County, Ohio
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio

Second Baptist Church (Mechanicsburg, Ohio)


Sharon Egretta Sutton (born 1941), is an American architect, educator, visual artist, and author. Her work is focused on community-based participatory research and design. She is a professor emerita at the University of Washington. In 1984, she became the first African American woman to become a full professor in an accredited architectural degree program while teaching at the University of Michigan. She has also taught at Parsons School of Design, and Columbia University.

Early life and education
Sharon Egretta Sutton was born on 1941 in Cincinnati, Ohio. Sutton began taking piano lessons at age 5 from the organist at her mother's church at a time when colored people were barred from going to the swimming pool, skating rink, and movie theater in her segregated Cincinnati neighborhood. She was introduced to the French horn at her college prep high school where all students had to study one of the arts alongside their academic courses.

Sutton was educated initially in music, studying French horn with Gunther Schuller first at the Manhattan School of Music in 1959; and latter at the Hartt College of Music at the University of Hartford, where she received a B.A. degree in 1963. After earning a degree in 1963, Sutton worked as a professional musician in New York City, most notably for Sol Hurok Attractions and in the original cast of Man of La Mancha. She also performed at symphony orchestras, in Radio City Music Hall, on Broadway, and had over a thousand performances in Man of La Mancha.

In 1967, Sutton enrolled in Parsons School of Design. She later studied architecture at Columbia University, where she was mentored by J. Max Bond, Jr. and Romaldo Giurgola. She earned her M.Arch. in 1973 and opened a private practice in 1976. In 1982, she received her MPhil and Ph.D. in psychology from the City University of New York (CUNY).

Career

Teaching and writing
Sutton's focus is community-based participatory research and design with a special emphasis on low-income and minority youth and other disenfranchised populations. Her research has been funded by the Ford Foundation, National Endowment for the Arts, W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Hewlett Foundation, Tukwila School District, the University of Michigan, and University of Washington, among others.

She is a distinguished visiting professor at Parsons School of Design, an adjunct professor at Columbia University, and professor emerita at the University of Washington where she served on the faculty 1998 to 2016.

Sutton is author of When Ivory Towers Were Black: A Story about Race in America's Cities and Universities (2017); Weaving a Tapestry of Resistance: The Places, Power and Poetry of a Sustainable Society (1996); and Learning through the Built Environment (1985). Additionally, she is author of numerous book chapters and journal articles, and is co-editor of The Paradox of Urban Space: Inequality and Transformation in Marginalized Communities.

Sutton is also a noted printmaker and collagist, having studied graphic art. Her work has been exhibited in and collected by galleries and museums, business enterprises, colleges, and universities, and is part of the Robert Blackburn Collection at the Library of Congress.

Dedicated to improving the living environments of disenfranchised populations, Sutton is currently ethnographic consultant to design studio instructors at Parsons School of Design. Most of Sutton's scholarship explores America's continuing struggle for racial justice.

Architecture
A registered architect, Sutton was the twelfth African American woman to be licensed to practice architecture (1976), the first to be promoted to full professor of architecture (1994), and the second to be elected a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects (1995).  The ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) honored Sutton with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award in 1995–96.  Sutton received the "Life Recognition Award" from the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame in 1997 and the national American Institute of Architects Whitney M. Young, Jr., Award in 2011. In 2014 and 2017 respectively, she received the AIA Seattle Medal of Honor and the AIA New York Medal of Honor, the highest awards chapters can confer.

Sutton's career as an architect started after she was licensed by New York State as an architect.  She started practicing architecture and fine art in a 5th Avenue loft and also started teaching at Pratt Institute and later at Columbia University.

Sutton left Columbia University for the University of Cincinnati before she was recruited to the University of Michigan where she became the first African American woman to become a full professor of architecture, the 2nd to be elevated to fellowship in the AIA, and the 1st to serve as president of the National Architectural Accrediting Board, concluding by being inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame.

Sutton eventually accepted a professorship position at the University of Washington where she was a principal investigator of Ford Foundation study civic engagement by low – income youths, this work earned her an award as the second African American woman to receive the AIA Whitney M. Young, Jr. award.

During this period, Sutton served on the Seattle Design Commission and chaired the Capitol Hill Design Review Board, public service that earned her the American Institute of Architects (AIA) Seattle Chapter Community Service award and Medal of Honor award.

Books
 Sutton, Sharon E., "Pedagogy of a Beloved Commons: Pursuing Democracy's Promise through Place-Based Activism," Fordham University Press, New York, 2023.
 Sutton, Sharon E., "When Ivory Towers Were Black: A Story about Race in America's Cities and Universities," Fordham University Press, New York, 2017.
 Sutton, Sharon E., and Kemp, Susan P., editors, The Paradox of Urban Space: Inequality and Transformation in Marginalized Communities, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011
 Sutton, Sharon E., Weaving a Tapestry of Resistance: The Places, Power, and Poetry of a Sustainable Society, Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Westport, 1996.
 Sutton, Sharon E., Learning through the Built Environment: An Ecological Approach to Child Development, Irvington Press, New York, 1985.

Book chapters and articles

 Sharon E. Sutton (2015).  Foreword; and Chapter eleven: reality-based learning in design studio education.  In Carla Jackson Bell (Ed.), Space Unveiled (pp. xvi–xvii and pp,102–112).  New York: Routledge Research in Architecture Series.
 Sharon E. Sutton (2011). Struggling for the right to housing: a critical analysis of the evolution of West Seattle's High Point. In The Paradox of Urban Space (pp. 29–51).
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2011).  Introduction: place as marginality and possibility.  In The Paradox of Urban Space, pp. 1–9.
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2011).  Place: a site of social and environmental inequity.  In The Paradox of Urban Space (pp. 13–28).
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2011).  Place: a site of individual and collective transformation.  In The Paradox of Urban Space (pp. 113–134).
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2011).  Conclusions: Standing shoulder-to- shoulder in a place-conscious society.  In The Paradox of Urban Space (pp. 259–265).
 Sharon E. Sutton (2008).  Engaging the public, seeking common ground; and Discovering the power of youth. In  Nancy B. Solomon (ed.), Architecture: Celebrating the Past, Designing the Future (pp. 64–77;and pp. 84).  New York: Visual Reference Inc.; Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects.
 Sharon E. Sutton (2007).  A social justice perspective on youth and community development: theorizing the processes and outcomes of participation.  Children, Youth, and Environments, 17 (2), 616–645.  [Available online at: http://www.colorado. edu/journals/cye].
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2006, September).  Integrated social science and design inquiry through interdisciplinary design charrettes: an approach to participatory community problem-solving.  American Journal of Community Psychology, 38 (1–2), 125–139.
 Sharon E. Sutton and Susan P. Kemp (2005).  Children's participation in constructing a social just public sphere.  In Mark Blades and Christopher Spencer (eds.), Children and Their Environments: Learning, Using, and Designing Spaces (pp. 256–276).  Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Awards and honors

 Beverly Willis Architecture Foundation Oculus
 2017 American Institute of Architects, New York Chapter Medal of Honor Award
 2014 American Institute of Architects, Seattle Chapter Medal of Honor Award
 2011 American Institute of Architects (AIA) Whitney M. Young, Jr. Award
 2006 American Architectural Foundation K-12 Architectural Education Award of Merit for CEEDS
 2005 American Institute of Architects (AIA), Seattle Chapter Community Service Award
 1999 Jeannette and David McKinley Fellowship
 Faculty Research Support
 1997 Michigan Women's Hall of Fame Life Recognition Award
 1996 Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture Distinguished Professor Award
 1995 American Institute of Architects Elevation to Fellowship
 1992 University of Michigan Regents Award for Distinguished Public Service
 1991 American Planning Association Education Award for Teaching the Public about Planning
 1989 UM School of Business Administration
 First Round Award, National Zell Lurie Fellowship
 19861989 W.K. Kellogg Foundation Group VII National Fellowship
 1983 National Endowment for the Arts Design Research Recognition Award

See also

 African-American architects
 Charles F. McAfee

Notes

External links
 Sarah Akigbogun, "In Conversation … Sharon Egretta Sutton" Parlour, 6 October 2019
https://cfa.aiany.org/index.php?section=designawardsluncheon
 AIA Seattle Honors Archive
 artdaily.org on Whitney M. Young Jr. Award
 https://www.citylab.com/design/2017/05/black-architectural-insurgency-in-the-trump-era/527316/
 http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20030128&slug=sutton28
 http://old.seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2008042591_archop10.html

1941 births
Living people
21st-century African-American academics
21st-century American academics
20th-century American architects
Architects from Seattle
American printmakers
CUNY Graduate Center alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni
Columbia University faculty
Hunter College alumni
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Parsons School of Design alumni
Pratt Institute faculty
University of Michigan faculty
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Educators from Seattle
University of Washington faculty
University of Hartford alumni
University of Cincinnati faculty
American women architects
American women printmakers
21st-century American women artists
American women academics
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American artists
African-American architects
20th-century African-American academics
20th-century American academics
20th-century African-American women
21st-century American architects

Sharon E. Sutton


The French School at Athens (, EfA;  Gallikí Scholí Athinón) is one of the seventeen foreign archaeological institutes operating in Athens, Greece.

History
Founded in 1846, the EfA is the oldest foreign institute in Athens. Its early foundation, still a source of considerable prestige, is to be seen culturally connected with French philhellenism and politically with the French East Mediterranean strategy of the time.

Facilities
It operates an active programme of research in all fields of Greek studies, but primarily in archaeology, epigraphy and Classical Studies. The EfA conducts an extensive programme of scholarships and bursaries. Its library holds 80,000 volumes, 550,000 photographs and 35,000 maps.

Educational institution
Unlike most of the other foreign institutes, the EfA has a status more akin to a university graduate school than a simple research institute. Its formal status is referred to as an Établissement public à caractère scientifique, culturel et professionnel in the French education system. Some of its sought-after scholarships are renewable for periods up to four years, providing students with the opportunity to conduct most or all of their PhD research in Athens.

Archaeological fieldwork
Since its foundation, the EFA has been involved in many important archaeological projects in Greece, including the excavations at Philippi, Dikili Tash (both in  Greek Macedonia),the  Samothrace temple complex and Thasos (in the North Aegean), Delphi (Central Greece), Argos (Peloponnese), Delos (Cyclades), Malia and Itanos (Crete), as well as Amathus in Cyprus.

Directors

 Amédée Daveluy 1846-1867
 Émile-Louis Burnouf 1867-1875
 Albert Dumont 1875-1878
 Paul Foucart 1878-1890
 Théophile Homolle 1890-1903
 Maurice Holleaux 1903-1912
 Gustave Fougères 1913-1919
 Charles Picard 1919-1925
 Pierre Roussel 1925-1935
 Robert Demangel 1936-1950
 Georges Daux 1950-1969
 Pierre Amandry 1969-1981
 Olivier Picard 1981-1992
 Roland Étienne 1992-2001
 Dominique Mulliez 2002-2011
 Alexandre Farnoux 2011-2019
 Véronique Chankowski 2019-2023

Notable alumni
Many important archaeologists, classicists and epigraphers from France and elsewhere throughout a century and a half have been members of the EfA:

 Alexandre Bertrand (1849)
 Edmond About (1851)
 Numa-Denis Fustel de Coulanges (1853)
 Léon Heuzey (1854)
 Paul Vidal de la Blache (1867)
 Charles Diehl (1883)
 Victor Bérard (1887)
 Georges Daux (1920)
 André Plassart (1922)
 Louis Robert (1927)
 Paul Lemerle (1931)
 Ernest Will (1935)
 Jean Bousquet (1936)
 Maria Ludwika Bernhard (1938)
 Roland Martin (1938)
 Jean Pouilloux (1945)
 Jean Marcadé (1946)
 Pierre Lévêque (1947)
 Jean Bingen (1952)
 Edmond Lévy (1963)
 Michel Debidour (1972)
 Jean-Yves Empereur (1978)

Bibliography
G. Radet, L'histoire et l'œuvre de l'École française d'Athènes (History and the Works of École française d'Athènes), Paris, 1901.
R. Étienne et al., L'Espace grec. Cent cinquante ans de fouilles de l'École française d'Athènes (Greek Space, A Hundred and Fifty Years of Excavation of the École française d'Athènes), Fayard, 1996.
E. Korka et al. (eds.): Foreign Archaeological Schools in Greece - 160 Years, Athens, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 2006, p. 64-73.

External links

EfA Website
EfA Library Catalogue
Complete list of French members and former members of the EfA

Educational institutions established in 1846
Foreign Archaeological Institutes in Greece
1846 establishments in Greece

French School at Athens


ViroPharma Incorporated was a pharmaceutical company that developed and sold drugs that addressed serious diseases treated by physician specialists and in hospital settings. The company focused on product development activities on viruses and human disease, including those caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. It was purchased by Shire in 2013, with Shire paying around $4.2 billion for the company in a deal that was finalized in January 2014.  ViroPharma was a member of the NASDAQ Biotechnology Index and the S&P 600.

The company had strategic relationships with GlaxoSmithKline, Schering-Plough, and Sanofi-Aventis.  ViroPharma acquired Lev Pharmaceuticals in a merger in 2008.

History
ViroPharma Incorporated was founded in 1994 by Claude H. Nash (Chief Executive Officer), Mark A. McKinlay (Vice President, Research & Development), Marc S. Collett (Vice President, Discovery Research), Johanna A. Griffin (Vice President, Business Development), and Guy D. Diana (Vice President, Chemistry Research.) None of the founders are still with the company.

In November 2014, Shire plc acquired ViroPharma for $4.2 billion.

Products

Marketed products
Vancocin Pulvules HCl: licensed from Eli Lilly in 2004. Oral Vancocin is an antibiotic for treatment of staphylococcal enterocolitis and antibiotic associated pseudomembranous colitis caused by Clostridium difficile.

Pipeline
Maribavir is an oral antiviral drug candidate licensed from GlaxoSmithKline in 2003 for the prevention and treatment of human cytomegalovirus disease in hematopoietic stem cell/bone marrow transplant patients.  In February 2006, ViroPharma announced that the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had granted the company fast track status for maribavir.

In March 2006, the company announced that a Phase II study with maribavir demonstrated that prophylaxis with maribavir displays strong antiviral activity, as measured by statistically significant reduction in the rate of reactivation of CMV in recipients of hematopoietic stem cell/bone marrow transplants. In an intent-to-treat analysis of the first 100 days after the transplant, the number of subjects who required pre-emptive anti-CMV therapy was statistically significantly reduced (p-value = 0.051 to 0.001) in each of the maribavir groups compared to the placebo group (57% for placebo vs. 15%, 30%, and 15% for maribavir 100 mg twice daily, 400 mg daily, and 400 mg twice daily, respectively).

ViroPharma conducted a Phase III clinical study to evaluate the prophylactic use for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in recipients of allogeneic stem cell transplant patients.  In February 2009, ViroPharma announced that the Phase III study failed to achieve its goal, showing no significant difference between maribavir and a placebo in reducing the rate of CMV disease.

Failed products

Oral pleconaril was ViroPharma's first compound, licensed from Sanofi in 1995. Pleconaril is active against viruses in the picornavirus family. ViroPharma's first indication was for enteroviral meningitis, but that indication was abandoned when the clinical trials did not demonstrate efficacy.

In 2001, ViroPharma submitted a New Drug Application of pleconaril to the FDA for the common cold. On 2002-03-19, the FDA Antiviral Advisory Committee recommended that the company had failed to show adequate safety, and the FDA subsequently issued a not-approvable letter.

In November 2004, ViroPharma licensed pleconaril to Schering-Plough, who are developing an intranasal formulation for the common cold and asthma exacerbations. (Schering-Plough Development Pipeline). In August 2006, Schering-Plough started a Phase II clinical trial.

References

Further references
 The Long Road Ahead for ViroPharma Motley Fool 29 September 2006

External links
 viropharma.com

Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Pharmaceutical companies established in 1994
Biotechnology companies established in 1994
Biotechnology companies of the United States
Defunct pharmaceutical companies of the United States
Health care companies based in Pennsylvania
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
Companies based in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Orphan drug companies
Life sciences industry
American companies established in 1994
1994 establishments in Pennsylvania
Pharmaceutical companies disestablished in 2014
2014 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
2014 mergers and acquisitions

ViroPharma