The Panamanian coat of arms is a heraldic symbol for Panama. These arms were adopted provisionally and then definitively by the same laws that adopted the Panamanian flag.

The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), the Panamanian national bird, is the species of eagle on this coat of arms.

Description
The center section contains the Isthmus of Panama. The chief or top part of the coat of arms comprises two quarters. The top left over a field of silver a sword and a rifle. In 1904, the arms were made official by Law 64 of 4 June 1904 signed by the President of Assembly Genaro Ortega, and sanctioned by the President the Republic, Manuel Amador Guerrero.

The official description of the heraldic design is as follows:

"It rests on a green field, symbol of the vegetation; it is of pointed form and it is intervened as far as the division. The center shows the Isthmus with its seas and sky, in which the moon begins to rise above the waves and the sun begins to hide behind the mountain, marking thereby the solemn hour of the declaration of our independence. The head is divided in two quarters: in the one of the right hand, in the silver field, a sword and a gun are hung meant as abandonment for always to the civil wars, causes of our ruin; in the one of the left-hand side, and on field of gules, a crossed shovel and a grub hoe are shown shining, to symbolize the work."
"The end of the coat of arms also is divided in two quarters: the one of the right-hand side, in blue field, shows a cornucopia, emblem of the wealth; and the one of the left-hand side, in field of silver, the winged wheel, symbol of the progress. Behind the shield and covering it with his opened wings, is the eagle, emblem of the sovereignty, the head turned towards the left, and takes in the tip a silver tape, which hangs from right to left. On the tape the following motto is printed "Pro Mundi Beneficio."
"On the eagle, in arc form, ten gold stars go in representation of the provinces in which the Republic is divided. Like decorative accessories, to each side of the coat of arms two gathered national flags go on the other hand below."

For thirty-seven years the coat of arms of the Republic of Panama was not changed until the Constitution of 1941 was promulgated. The National Assembly dictated in March of that year Law 28 on the coat of arms, in which the following reforms were introduced: the saber and the gun are meant as "attitude of alert in defense of our sovereignty" in place of "abandonment to mean goodbye to the civil wars". 311 projects appeared to change the motto and the Jury named to make the selection decided in favor of: "Solo Dios sobre Nosotros" (Only God Above Us). Nevertheless, the National Assembly when approving the Law 28 already referred to, rejected it and preferred the one of "Justice, Honor and Freedom".  Five years later, in 1946, Panama returned to the old symbol with the well-known motto of "Pro Mundi Beneficio".

The formal adoption and regulation of the use of the national flag, anthem and coat of arms were decreed by law 34 of 1949.

Harpy Eagle Law

Law 34 of 1949 stated, as noted above, that an eagle was to be on the top of the coat of arms. However, it did not specify what species of eagle, even though in most schools the harpy eagle was the eagle species on top of the coat of arms.

Law 18 of 2002 made the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) the national bird; and to specify what species of eagle was to be on the coat of arms, on May 17, 2006, law 50 was approved by the national Assembly to modify law 18 of 2002, and add that the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was the species of eagle that appears on the coat of arms of the Republic of Panama.

See also
Flag of Panama

References

External links

Panama
National symbols of Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama
Panama

Coat of arms of Panama


Slideshow means a show of slides. It is a display of several slides  for information or for artistic purposes.

Slideshows are presented using a tool, such as a slide projector, an overhead projector  or in more recent years, a computer running presentation software. The word comes from the use of slides which have been around for many years. Slides originally were projected on movie theater screens by magic lanterns as part of early movie house shows.

The word slideshow does not appear in the Webster's New Twentieth Century Unabridged Dictionary (1973 edition), but is accepted as correct spelling in Microsoft Word in both Office 2000 and Office XP editions.

Other websites
myPicPals - Online Sideshow Builder
Myspace Slideshow  - Reviews of online slideshows
Example of a show of objects of art

Photography

Slideshow


Uroš Predić's Studio (, ) is located at 27 Svetogorska Street in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It was built in 1908 for a famous merchant Josif Predić. His brother Uroš Predić, one of the most important Serbian Realist painters, moved in the house in 1909 and used it as his studio (atelier) until his death in 1953.

Due to its specific small pink façade in the Vienna Secession style, it has been described as a bomboniere. As of 2018, it is the oldest preserved atelier in Belgrade. It has been declared a cultural monument and protected by law in 1987.

Location

The house is located at 27 Svetogorska Street, at the mid-section of the street. It is situated in the south-east part of the municipality of Stari Grad. The neighbourhood was known as the Dva Bela Goluba ("Two White Doves"), after the famous kafana in the neighborhood. The house is located among several other cultural monuments in the neighbourhood: Jevrem Grujić's House (17 Svetogorska St, built 1896, protected 1961), House of Dr. Stanoje Stanojević (32 Svetogorska St, built 1899, protected 1984), Commercial Academy Building (48 Svetogorska St, built 1926, protected 1992), Artisans Club Building in Belgrade (2 Hilandarska St, built 1933, protected 1984) and Building of Ljubomir Miladinović (6 Hilandarska St, built 1938, protected 2001). Also in the vicinity is the theatre house Atelje 212.

Building

The house was built in 1908 as a family, one-storey house for Josif Predić, according to the design of a prominent architect Nikola Nestorović. The house is shaped after an elongated floor plan, with free side façades. The elongation of the house to the inside was a forced solution, due to the shape of the parcel on which it was projected. Hence, all the house rooms (living rooms, bedrooms, kitchen, dining room, pantries) are located in the direction of the objects depth. The main salon was located along the street.

The design of the front façade is ornamented in the Art Nouveau style, as a uniform surface with dynamic plastic decoration. The still distinct traditional impact of the Academism is noticeable in the treatment of the apertures and cornice.

Richly decorated front façade of the house, with the friezes of the grape vine, floral wreaths twisted around the medallions, is one of the most interesting examples of implementation of the Vienna secession in Belgrade architecture from the beginning of the 20th century. The smallish canvas of the façade is conceptualized without standard Academic divisions of the space and presented an array of new stylish elements. Gradation of the relief plastic in the vertical direction, which is so typical for the secession, was applied in this case to the letter. The yard cart gate is placed laterally to the façade and has stylized wooden door and stained glass above it. Until the late 1950s it was possible to see all the way to the Danube and the Banat plain across the river, but since then the neighbouring highrise encircled the old house and closed the view.

The studio itself was additionally built next to the already existing building on the inner, yard side. It is of a modest size with huge glass windows and a small balcony. It was specifically built as an atelier, which makes it one of the first in Belgrade, and intended as a gift from Josif to his brother Uroš. It covers an area of  and hasn't been expanded since it was built.

The studio is approached via a yard's cart door and has its own, separate entrance. As much as the outer façade is ornamented with the Secession decorations, that much is the "painter's entry" plain and simple. The studio was built above the Uroš Predić's apartment in the house, and the two are connected by a spiral staircase. As it was originally planned to be an artist's atelier, the room is still fully functional for its purpose, though it was neglected in time. The atelier is  tall and the entire front wall is actually a glass panel, so that there is enough light.

History

The house was finished in 1908. A year later, Uroš Predić moved in, upon his arrival from his birthplace Orlovat, near Zrenjanin, at the time part of Austria-Hungary. He remained in the house for the next 44 years and died in the house on 11 February 1953. Some of his most important works were created in the atelier. As Predić never married and had no children, according to his will, majority of his belongings was transferred from his studio to the National Museum in Zrenjanin. They included his personal objects, paintings, easel, correspondence, etc. Some of his personal possessions are kept by the members of his wider family.

After Predić's death, another well known artist, Miodrag B. Protić, a painter and a manager of the Belgrade's Museum of Contemporary Art, moved in the house. He was a tenant from the autumn of 1954 to 1957. While Predić was known for his historically and religiously realistic paintings, Protić, on the other hand, was a representative of an abstract art. As some art historians noted, "different kind of paintings were now created in Predić's atelier. Abstraction inherited realism". Protić, however, didn't stay long in the atelier, so the studio was vacant for a while.

Painter  was the next tenant. After being awarded with the 1958 October Award for graphics, he used the prize money to buy the house. Ćelić later became dean of the Artistic Academy and member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He introduced some minor changes, adding a toilet and the kitchenette. By the time Ćelić purchased the house, spiral staircase which connected the atelier and the apartment below were already closed. Being in downtown but secluded in the inner yard, the atelier was especially popular meeting place while Ćelić lived in it. So much, that he had to set two days in a week when he was receiving guests. Frequent visitors who participated in lively debates included painters (Mladen Srbinović), authors (Slobodan Selenić, Boris Heljd, , ), sculptors (), journalists (Zoran Žujović), art historians (Irina Subotić). The only person who was allowed to visit unannounced was Ćelić's longtime friend, theatrical director . When he would get fed up by the guests in the house, Ćelić was known to say "I wouldn't bother you any more", even though he was the host. He died on 30 April 1992.

After being vacant for eight years after Ćelić's death, painter Đorđe Ivačković purchased the house in 2000. He acquired the house to preserve the memory on Uroš Predić, as he mostly lived in Paris where he had a prosperous international career. Ivačković died in 2012 and his family inherited the house. Some of his paintings are still in the atelier which has been maintained to a certain level, but it is not used as a painting atelier anymore.

Importance

In general, the house is one of major representatives of the Vienna Secession style in Belgrade architecture of the early 20th century, with discrete, but visible, touches of Academism.

Uroš Predić's studio, as the space the great artist used to live and create in, along with the artistic legacy, is part of the special monumental values of the memorial character in Belgrade. Hence, the house was declared a cultural monument in 1987. The explanation of the Institute for the protection of the monuments said: "Uroš Predić's Atelier is located in the building which was built in 1908, on a design by architect Nikola Nestorović, as a family house of Uroš's brother Josif Predić. In this atelier he (Uroš) spent 44 years, since 1909 when he moved in, to his death in 1953. In it, he created his most important paintings, which in great measure set the direction of the development of the Serbian painting in the first decade of the 20th century".

References

Buildings and structures in Belgrade

Stari Grad, Belgrade

Uros Predic's Studio


Slave patrols—also known as patrollers, patterrollers, pattyrollers or paddy rollers—were organized groups of armed men who monitored and enforced discipline upon slaves in the antebellum U.S. southern states. The slave patrols' function was to police slaves, especially those who escaped or were viewed as defiant. They also formed river patrols to prevent escape by boat.

Slave Patrols were first established in South Carolina in 1704 and the idea spread throughout the colonies before their use ended following the Civil War.

Formation of slave patrols
Slave patrols first began in South Carolina in 1704 and spread throughout the thirteen colonies, lasting well beyond the American Revolution. As colonists enslaved more Africans and the population of enslaved people in South Carolina grew, especially with the invention of the cotton gin, so did the fear of slave uprisings. They developed slave patrols when other means of slave control failed to quell enslaved people's resistance. Their biggest concern was how to keep enslaved people on the plantations being held against their will, since that is where enslaved populations were highest. Initially, slave owners offered incentives to the non slave owning whites, such as tobacco and money, to urge them to be more vigilant in the capture of runaway slaves. When this approach failed, slave patrols were formally established. Legislators introduced laws that enlisted white people in the regulation of enslaved people's activities and movement. Black people were subjected to questioning, searches, and other harassment. Slaves who were encountered without passes from their white "master" were expected to be returned to their owners, as stated in the slave code. If caught by patrols and returned to their masters, punishments included whippings and other physical violence, and the threat of being placed on the auction block and sold away from their families, an option for masters who no longer wanted to deal with  "non-compliant" slaves.

State militias as patrollers

Slave owners feared gatherings held by enslaved people would allow them to trade or steal goods, and had the potential for organizing a revolt or rebellion. South Carolina and Virginia selected patrols from state militias.  State militia groups were also organized from among the cadets of the Southern military academies, of The Citadel and the Virginia Military Institute, which were founded to provide a military command structure and discipline within the slave patrols and to detect, encounter, and crush any organized slave meetings that might lead to revolt or rebellion.

Slave codes and fugitive slave laws

The Fugitive Slave Laws helped enforce the necessity for slave patrols to abide by the law. Although these laws were initially created to keep tensions low between the north and the south, it caused the physical formation of slave patrols. During the Civil War, the theory of Contraband prevented the return of Southern slaves who reached Union-held territory.  This helped limit the role of slave patrols/catchers and changed the war. Another form of help for slaves was the Underground Railroad, which aided slaves in their escape to Northern states. Outside of the Underground Railroad, enslaved Black people went further south to ensure their freedom. Black people also formed their own organized networks and means of escape from slavery to Florida, where Black people negotiated with Native Americans and the Spanish government, and were able to live self-determined and free lives. Formerly enslaved people formed their own towns, military, and merged with the Florida population as Seminoles. Formerly imprisoned Europeans, Irish immigrants, and other former institutionalized Europeans were immigrated through race-based policies to found the state of Georgia. They were partially recruited to form a buffer state to stop enslaved Black people from escaping from the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia to Florida. Slave patrols in Georgia were formed for this purpose. Free Black cities and armed and trained Black militaries in Florida were a direct challenge to White dominance and profits in slave-owning states. The concept of self-determined freedom was also a direct challenge to the concept that Whites should rule and to the institution of slavery. Slave patrols and plantation police were organized by Whites as legal and extra-legal means to stop this from occurring.

The use and physical formation of slave patrols came to its end in 1865 when the Civil War ended. This end, however, is linked to post-Civil War groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, which continued to terrorize and threaten the black community.
In South Carolina, colonists began to write laws that constricted slaves long before slave patrols were alive and well. Laws implemented set in motion curfews for slaves, strengthening their militia, preventing slaves from bartering goods, and establishing the Charleston town watch. These are examples of some of the laws and ideas that molded what we know as slave codes.

Patrollers' duties

Slave patrollers had their own characteristics, duties, and benefits, apart from slave owners and overseers. Patrollers were often equipped with guns and whips and would exert force in order to bring slaves back to their owners.

At times, black people developed many methods of challenging slave patrolling, occasionally fighting back violently. The American Civil War developed more opportunities for resistance against slave patrols and made it easier for enslaved people to escape. Slave patrol duties started as breaking up slave meetings.

Slave meetings included religious ones. Laws were passed, particularly around the 1820's and 1830's, that made religious gatherings of slaves and free blacks "unlawful assemblies." For example, Virginia passed a law in 1819 that banned any nighttime meetings of free blacks and slaves. South Carolina's law, by 1840, banned meetings at night for "mental instruction or religious worship," whether whites were present or not. In 1831, Mississippi made it unlawful for free blacks or slaves to "preach the gospel."

These slave meetings occurred on holidays, in which they would plan revolts and uprisings. Eventually, slave patrols expanded to be year-round, not just on holidays. Slowly, new duties and rights of patrollers became permitted, including: "apprehending runaways, monitoring the rigid pass requirements for Blacks traversing the countryside, breaking up large gatherings and assemblies of blacks, visiting and searching slave quarters randomly, inflicting impromptu punishments, and as occasion arose, suppressing insurrections."

Slave patrols consisted mostly of white citizens. Most people in slave patrols came from working and middle-class conditions. In some southern states, the militia and army served as slave patrols. In other southern states, slave patrols came about from colonial or state government legislation. Slave patrols typically rode on horseback in groups of four or five, sometimes even in family groups. They often worked sun-up to sun-down and varied their times and locations of patrol, to lower the chances of slaves escaping. They used no special equipment. Their chief tools, instead, were whips and intimidation..

Some states required every white man to arrest and chastise any slave found away from his home without proper authorization. In colonial South Carolina, failure to do so incurred a fine of forty shillings. Recaptured slaves were returned to their masters. In some instances, white men encouraged slaves to escape in order to collect rewards for catching them. In some areas, killing a slave was not considered a crime by the courts or community.

Slave patrollers were compensated in several ways, including exemption from public, county, and parish taxes and fees during their terms of service. In addition, some patrollers were paid additional sums with surplus money.

Also, regardless of the power patrollers held, they had limitations. For example, although whippings and beatings were permitted, a deterrent also existed. This was that, if whipped or beaten too severely, the slave was then of no use to their masters as laborers the next day. As a consequence, overly-brutal patrollers could expect retaliation from slave owners.

Diminishing use of slave patrols

American Civil War
The Civil War, which lasted four years, directly threatened the very existence of slavery and, in turn, slave patrols. The first year after the Civil War began, slave patrols increased. Confederates were expecting slave revolts, which inspired them to appoint more patrols. As the war dragged on, more and more White men were being called upon to serve in the Confederate army. White men who would have served in slave patrols had they remained in their communities, went to serve in the Confederate army. Some young men who were turned away by the army, mostly for medical reasons, ended up taking places within the slave patrols. As slave owners entered the Confederate army, some slaves lost the shield they once had to protect them from the harsh and brutal beatings.

After the Emancipation Proclamation, the increasing number of White men being called to the militias of the South in 1862 and 1863 resulted in many slave patrols simply not having enough men to be as active as they once were. As the Union army moved into local areas and communities, the likelihood that enslaved people that could flee to the areas controlled by the Union increased. Slaves who were considered obedient started to disappear in the night, running toward the Union army to emancipate themselves.

Reconstruction
With the war lost, Southern Whites' fears of African Americans increased in 1865 due to Reconstruction governments that were perceived as oppressive to the South. Even though slavery and patrols were legally ended, the patrol system still survived. Almost immediately in the aftermath of the war, informal patrols sprang into action. Later, city and rural police squads, along with the help of Union army officers, revived patrolling practices among free men. During the post-Civil War Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, old-style patrol methods resurfaced and were enforced by postwar Southern police officers and also by organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan.

See also
Law enforcement in the United States
Slave catcher
Kidnapping into slavery in the United States
Treatment of slaves in the United States
Underground Railroad

References

Further reading

Time Warner Unchained Memories: Readings From the Slave Narratives

Slavery in the United States
Law enforcement in the United States
Defunct law enforcement agencies of the United States

Slave patrol


Silas Albertson Underhill was an orthodox Quaker, an attorney, and later an assistant clerk in the New York Supreme Court, Brooklyn. He also served in the Civil War, and later was a member of the Grant Post of the Grand Army of the Republic. As Secretary of the Underhill Society of America, he played an important role in the erection of a monument to honor his ancestor Captain John Underhill at the Underhill Burying Ground.

Biography
Silas Albertson Underhill (1840-1906) was born the son of Alexander Underhill (1810–1891) and Phebe W. Albertson (1818–1847) in a frame house on the north-east corner of Park and Bedford Avenues in Brooklyn, New York, that is no longer extant. His father Alexander Underhill was born in house Major John Andre was captured on the highway from Peekskill to Somerstown. When Alexander was a young man he came to Brooklyn and engage in the mil business with Delmonico Farm—the largest dairy in and around Brooklyn.

He was one of twelve students to receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts from Haverford College during commencement exercises in 1860. Following that study, he went on to Harvard University where he studied law and graduated in 1862 with the degree of Bachelor of Laws.

As a member of the Society of Friends the Society was opposed to war, though Underhill himself believed in defensive war. Ultimately he decided to give his services and was enlisted in the Regiment of Colonel Stewart L. Woodford. The Regiment was stationed on Staten Island. Soon he was sent to the front in Virginia. Engaged as a private soldier, he never participated in a battle, though was part in three or four skirmishes. He was certain of the fact that he never killed a man because he could not shoot straight enough. By virtue of joining the war he resigned from the Society of Friends of which he was a member.

General Steward L. Woodford recognized he was a college man and selected him as one of his secretaries to write in his headquarters. Underhill maintained this position until the end of the war. He remained with General Woodford including when he became the Military Governor of Charleston, South Carolina.

The fact that Underhill survived the war is no small feat. One account of Underhill follows:
No less conspicuous was Silas A. Underhill... I mostly see him towering above all others in the fray of the shinny ground, or resting watchfully on his long shinny, awaiting the ball which was sure to go home with his well-directed blow. Enlisting as a private soldier, and continuing such from principle throughout the entire Rebellion, he survived its vicissitudes and dangers.

After the war Underhill returned to New York and found employment in a law office. Following the war he applied and was reinstated into the Society of Friends in May 1868. He also became a member of the Ulysses S. Grant Post #327 of the Grand Army of the Republic.

Underhill took an active interest in the Friends'; First Day School in 1866. He remained Superintendent for nearly twenty years. He also served as Clerk of Friends' Monthly Meeting.

Late in life Silas A. Underhill married Frances Gertrude Lowerre, the daughter of Benjamin and Anna Lowerre, who already had a son and daughter. She had three children by way of her first husband Samuel Willis Rushmore.

He lived at 119 Montague Street in Brooklyn, New York. Underhill studied law and practiced for several years before he became attached to the Supreme Court. Following the death of Silas Underhill, his wife Frances Gertrude Underhill appears to have moved to 335 Clinton Avenue in Brooklyn.

Underhill was actively involved in efforts to erect a memorial for his Colonial era ancestor Captain John Underhill at the Underhill Burying Ground in Lattingtown, New York, and is named on the dedicatory plaque on the monument. He also served as Recording Secretary of the Underhill Society of America between 1892 and 1896.

Silas Albertson Underhill died December 24, 1906, in the office of the Brooklyn Union Gas Company. His death was recounted as follows in one source: "Went into an office to pay a gas bill. Sat on a settee. His head partly fell. Asked if he was sick. Breathing heavy. In ten minutes he was dead."

A Memorial Address on Silas Albertson Underhill was made at a meeting of the Underhill Society of America on February 16, 1907.

The role of Silas Underhill in the dedication ceremony for the Captain John Underhill monument at the Underhill Burying Ground was recognized in a re-enactment that took place in 2008.

References

1838 births
1906 deaths
Harvard Law School alumni
Haverford College alumni
New York Supreme Court
People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn
American Quakers

Silas Albertson Underhill


Messent Conservation Park, formerly the Messent National Park and the Messent Wildlife Reserve, is a protected area in the Australian state of South Australia located in the state's south-east in the gazetted localities of Colebatch and Deepwater about  south-east of the state capital of Adelaide and about  north-east of the town centre in Salt Creek.

The conservation park consists of land in sections 1 and 65 of the cadastral unit of the Hundred of Colebatch and Sections 1 and 10 in the cadastral unit of the Hundred of Messent.  Section 1 in the Hundred of Messent first acquired protected area status as a wild-life reserve proclaimed under the Crown Lands Act 1929.  On 9 November 1967, this land was proclaimed as the Messent National Park under the National Parks Act 1966.  On 18 June 1970, section 1 in the Hundred of Colebatch was added to the national park.  On 27 April 1972, the national park was reconstituted as the Messent Conservation Park under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972.  On 6 December 1979, section 65 in Hundred of Colebatch and section 19 in Hundred of Messent were added to the conservation park.  As of 2018, it covered an area of .

In 1980, the conservation park was described as follows:
Messent Conservation Park conserves a large area of open scrub, open heath and tussock sedgeland, which include seven rare plant species.  These associations, in turn, provide valuable habitat for western grey kangaroos, wombats, echidnas, ash-grey mice, emus, mallee fowl and a variety of waterbirds…
This park is an extensive area of sand plain overlain by stabilized sand dunes.  Sedge flats, swamps and a lake occur in the interdunal depressions.  The vegetation is primarily Eucalyptus diversifolia open scrub with relatively large areas of open heath and tussock sedgeland…

Messent is currently recovering (regenerating) from a recent bushfire (1977).  The swamps and lake do not fill to the same level as they used to in the past and this may be attributed (at least in part) to the drainage of swampy land further to the south…

The conservation park is categorised as an IUCN Category III protected area  In 1980, it was listed on the now-defunct Register of the National Estate.

See also
Protected areas of South Australia

References

External links
Webpage for the Messent Conservation Park on the Protected Planet website

Conservation parks of South Australia
Naracoorte woodlands
Protected areas established in 1964
1964 establishments in Australia
South Australian places listed on the defunct Register of the National Estate

Messent Conservation Park


Oak Park is a park and surrounding neighborhood in the Souris Valley in Minot, North Dakota.  The wooded park is over 50-acres in size.  In addition to the namesake oak trees, ash and elm trees are also commonly found in the park.  The Souris Valley Birding Club meets regularly at the park to watch hooded mergansers, wood ducks, Canada geese, kingfishers, Great blue herons, and other birds. The eastern edge of the park borders the Souris River, also called the Mouse River.  A small oxbow lake is also located in the park.  Oak Park has numerous walking/biking trails, both paved and unpaved; a splash pad; and volleyball court.  The park is home to concerts in the park run by the Minot Area Council of Arts, through their Arts in the Park program.  On Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays from July to October, a farmers market also operates out of Oak Park.  In 2011, the farmers market at the park was temporarily moved to the North Hill Soccer Complex because of the 2011 Souris River flood.   On August 4, 2010, a man was found dead in the park from an apparent suicide.   Oak Park was the winner of the 2011 America's Favorite Park Contest sponsored by Coca-Cola and is set to receive a $100,000 grant.

The Oak Park Theater sits across from Oak Park.  It is currently the only independent operating movie theater in the city of Minot.  The theater opened in 1961, but was closed in 1980.  It operated as a pool hall until 2000, when it was converted back to a theater specializing in second run films.  In 2011, the theater was damaged in the Souris River flood.

References

External links
Oak Park Theater
Minot Parks District

Parks in North Dakota
Protected areas of Ward County, North Dakota
Tourist attractions in Minot, North Dakota
Neighborhoods in Minot, North Dakota

Oak Park, Minot, North Dakota


Mikhail Botvinnik  (17 August 1911 – 5 May 1995) was a Soviet Russian grandmaster and three-time World Chess Champion.

He was an electrical engineer, one of the few chess masters who achieved distinction in another career while playing top-class competitive chess.

Botvinnik was the first world-class player to develop within the Soviet Union. This put him under some political pressure, but also gave him considerable influence within Soviet chess. He played a major role in the design of the World Chess Championship system after World War II. After his retirement as a player he coached a few select pupils. They included three future World Champions Anatoly Karpov, Garry Kasparov and Vladimir Kramnik.

Life & career

Early years

Mikhail Moiseyevich Botvinnik was born near St. Petersburg into a Jewish family. His father was a dental technician, and a cantor (hazzan) in the local synagogue. His mother was a dentist, which allowed the family to live outside the Pale of Settlement to which most Jews in Russia were restricted at the time. As a result, Mikhail Botvinnik grew up in Saint Petersburg's Nevsky Prospekt.

His father forbade the speaking of Yiddish at home, and Mikhail and his older brother Issy attended Soviet schools. Mikhail Botvinnik later said, "I am a Jew by blood, Russian by culture, Soviet by upbringing".p178

To test the strength of Soviet chess masters, Nikolai Krylenko organized the Moscow 1925 chess tournament. On a rest day during the event,  world champion José Raúl Capablanca gave a simultaneous exhibition in Leningrad. Botvinnik was selected as one of his opponents, and won their game.

Botvinnik was admitted in 1928 to Leningrad University's Mathematics Department. In January 1929, he played for Leningrad in the student team chess championship against Moscow. Leningrad won and the team manager got Botvinnik a transfer to the Polytechnic's Electromechanical Department.

His early progress was fairly rapid. He won the Leningrad Masters' tournament in 1930 with 6½/8, following this up the next year by winning the Championship of Leningrad by 2½ points over former Soviet champion Peter Romanovsky.

Soviet champion

In 1931, at the age of 20, Botvinnik won his first Soviet Championship in Moscow, scoring 13½ out of 17. In late summer 1931, he graduated with a degree in Electrical Engineering. In 1933, he repeated his Soviet Championship win, in his home city of Leningrad, with 14/19.

Soon afterwards Ilyin-Genevsky, one of the older masters and a member of the Soviet embassy in Prague, arranged a match between Salo Flohr and Botvinnik. Botvinnik fell two games behind by the end of the first six, played in Moscow. However, aided by his old friend Viacheslav Ragozin and coach Abram Model, he levelled the score in Leningrad and the match was drawn. When describing the post-match party, Botvinnik wrote that at the time he danced the foxtrot and charleston to a professional standard.

In his first tournament outside the USSR, the Hastings International Chess Congress 1934–35, Botvinnik achieved only a tie for 5th-6th places, with 5/9. He wrote that, in London after the tournament, Emanuel Lasker said his arrival only two hours before the first round began was a serious mistake and that he should have allowed ten days for acclimatization. Botvinnik wrote that he did not make this mistake again.

Botvinnik came first equal with Flohr, ½ point ahead of Lasker and one point ahead of José Raúl Capablanca, in Moscow's second International Tournament, held in 1935. After consulting Capablanca and Lasker, Krylenko proposed to award Botvinnik the title grandmaster, but Botvinnik objected that "titles were not the point". However, he accepted a free car and a 67% increase in his postgraduate study grant, both provided by the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry.

An even stronger double-round tournament was played in Moscow in June 1936, and Botvinnik finished second, one point behind Capablanca and 2½ ahead of Flohr.

In early winter, 1936, Botvinnik was invited to play in a tournament at Nottingham, England. Krylenko authorized his participation and, although his Soviet rivals forecast disaster for him, he scored an undefeated shared first place (+6 =8) with Capablanca, ½ point ahead of the then World Champion Max Euwe and rising American stars Reuben Fine and Samuel Reshevsky, and 1 point ahead of ex-champion Alexander Alekhine. This was the first tournament victory by a Soviet master outside his own country. When the result reached Russia, Krylenko drafted a letter to be sent in Botvinnik's name to Stalin. On returning to Russia Botvinnik discovered he had been awarded the "Mark of Honour". Later, in 1937, Botvinnik drew a match of thirteen games against Grigory Levenfish.

Botvinnik won further Soviet Championship titles in 1939, 1944, 1945, and 1952, bringing his total to six  – a record he shares with Mikhail Tal. In 1945 he dominated the tournament, scoring 15/17;  in 1952 he tied with Mark Taimanov and won the play-off match. In post-Soviet Russia the championship is somewhat less strong, as entrants from the non-Russian countries are lacking. All the same, it is still the strongest national championship in the world, and Peter Svidler has won it six times.

World Champion
Botvinnik influenced the design of the system which would be used for World Championship competition from 1948 to 1963. Viktor Baturinsky wrote "Now came Botvinnik's turn to defend his title in accordance with the new qualifying system which he himself had outlined in 1946".

On the basis of his strong results during and just after World War II, Botvinnik was one of five players to contest the World Chess Championship 1948, which was held at The Hague and Moscow. He won the tournament convincingly, with a score of 14/20, three points clear, becoming the sixth World Champion. Botvinnik then held the title, with two brief interruptions, for the next fifteen years, during which he played seven world championship matches.

Botvinnik played no formal competitive games after winning the 1948 match tournament until he defended his title. In 1951, he drew with David Bronstein over 24 games in Moscow, +5 =14 -5, keeping the world title. He struggled to draw this match with Bronstein, and had (by his standards) weak tournament results. Botvinnik did not play in the Soviet team that won the 1952 Chess Olympiad in Helsinki: the players voted for the line-up and placed Botvinnik on second board, with Keres on top board; Botvinnik protested and refused to play. Keres' playing record from 1950 to early 1952 had been outstanding.

In 1954, he drew with Vasily Smyslov over 24 games at Moscow, +7 =10 -7, again retaining the title. In 1957, he lost to Smyslov by 9½–12½ in Moscow, but the rules then in force allowed him a rematch without having to go through the Candidates' Tournament, and in 1958 he won the rematch in Moscow; Smyslov said his health was poor during the return match. In 1960, Botvinnik was convincingly beaten 8½-12½ at Moscow by Tal, now 23 years old, but again exercised his right to a rematch in 1961, and won by 13–8 in Moscow. Botvinnik's play was better than in the 1960 match, mainly due to thorough preparation. Botvinnik changed his style in the rematch, avoiding the tactical complications in which Tal excelled and aiming for closed positions and endgames, where Tal's technique was not so outstanding. Also, Tal's health was variable. Finally, in 1963, he lost the title to Tigran Petrosian, by 9½-12½ in Moscow. FIDE had by then changed the rules, and he was not allowed a rematch. The rematch rule had been nicknamed the "Botvinnik rule", because he twice benefited from it.

Later life
In 1970, Botvinnik retired from competitive chess, and he worked on chess-playing software. There was no significant result from this, but his work as a coach to top young players bore fruit. He died of pancreatic cancer in Moscow.

References

1911 births
1995 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Jewish sportspeople
Russian chess players
Russian Jews
Soviet chess players

Mikhail Botvinnik


Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts is a group of building in New York city used for showing performing arts. It is a  complex of buildings. The Lincoln Center is located in the Lincoln Square neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Henry Timms is the president. The Lincoln Square neighborhood was named for United States President Abraham Lincoln.

History and facilities
A group of civic leaders led by John D. Rockefeller III built Lincoln Center. It was part of the "Lincoln Square Renewal Project" during Robert Moses's program of urban renewal in the 1950s and 1960s. Respected architects were contracted to design the major buildings on the site. Over the next thirty years the area around Lincoln Center became a new cultural hub.

Rockefeller was Lincoln Center's first president in 1956. He became its chairman in 1961. Rockefeller is credited with raising more than half of the $184.5 million in private funds needed to build the complex.  The center's three buildings, Avery Fisher Hall (formerly Philharmonic Hall), David H. Koch Theater (formerly the New York State Theater) and the Metropolitan Opera House were opened in 1962, 1964 and 1966, respectively.

The center may have been named because it was located in the Lincoln Square neighborhood. It is unclear whether the area was named as a tribute to U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. The name was bestowed on the area in 1906 by the New York City Board of Aldermen. The records give no reason for choosing that name.

References

Landmarks in Manhattan
Buildings and structures in Manhattan
New York City Designated Landmarks

Lincoln Center


Sailas Ng'onga better known by his musical name as Saizi , was born on Tuesday 26th August, 2003, in Finkuli village, Mpika District, Muchinga province by then it was in Northern province. He is a Zambian rapper who majors in drill music , known on facebook as Saizi Zambia. He is partial known for his two songs "Mafia kid " which featured Biney Zambia and Tex and "Support your local Zambia " which was produced by DJ inno.

LIFETIME
Saizi has lived all his life in Mpika and Chozi before in kasama. He completed his primary and basic education level at Chozi day secondary school, and proceed to Mungwi technical secondary school one of the Zambia's best high schools for his senior secondary education .He studied pure sciences.
He has since completed school, writing grade 12 final examinations and making some good grades for himself .It is clear Saizi will immediately enrol in an university as he focused on pursuing music full time.

CAREER
The rapper before music enjoyed music but thus was not fully developed as some of his family members ,affectionately admonished him against releasing songs in studios. They feared that maybe Saizi would fail an exam .
Saizi would go into music in 2020 ,he was doing dancehall ridims and traps .After honing his rap skills, the rapper ventured into drill music after being inspired by drill rappers and gangs from United Kingdom and Ghana such as Black Sherif , Digga D , YAW YOG , Russ Millions and Tion Wayne also to some Zambian artists who have released drills songs before like Princess Natasha ChansaPrincess Natasha Chansa - PNCPNC .
He released his first drill song in February 2022 and it was shared by many artists such as Happy k Nipatali , Madrovex and promoters like Twaambo Page and Kenzo The hustler .
Also the song appeard on many streaming and downloading sites also on digital stores such as facebook and instagram.

RELATIONSHIP
Single .Ealier the rapper narrated that he only have best friends whom they interact with such as Anitah Chanda

SINGLES
1.Mafia kid ft Biney and Tex prod by Tex
2.Myself prod by Mr Chile
3.Support your local Zambia prod by DJ inno and keno beats
4.I love you ft Biney prod by Biney and mutual
5.Li(unique 100 bars in drill) prod by favour sounds, Chris rich and Bjoern

Vayimbi
2003 births

Saizi


Freddy Got Fingered is a 2001 American surreal black comedy film directed by Tom Green in his feature film directorial debut and written by Green and Derek Harvie. Green stars in the film as a childish slacker who wishes to become a professional cartoonist while dealing with his abusive father's behavior. Its plot resembles Green's struggles as a young man trying to get his television series picked up, which would later become the MTV series The Tom Green Show. The title of the film refers to a plot point where Green's character falsely accuses his father of sexually abusing his brother, the eponymous Freddy.

Released in theaters on April 20, 2001 by 20th Century Fox, Freddy Got Fingered was critically panned at the time of its release, with many considering it as one of the worst films of all time. It was also a box office disappointment, grossing only $14.3 million worldwide, slightly above its $14 million budget. It received five Golden Raspberry Awards of its eight nominations, as well as a Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Worst Picture. However, the film quickly developed a cult following after its release on home video and has earned some critical reevaluation.

Plot
Unemployed 28-year-old cartoonist Gordon "Gord" Brody leaves his parents' home in Portland, Oregon, to pursue his lifelong ambition of obtaining a contract for an animated television series. His parents, Jim and Julie, give him a Chrysler LeBaron which he drives to Los Angeles and starts work at a cheese sandwich factory to make money. Gord shows his drawings to Dave Davidson, the CEO of a major animation studio; Davidson commends the artwork but calls the concepts depicted, including a vigilante "X-Ray Cat", nonsensical. Disheartened, Gord quits his job and returns to his parents.

Jim constantly insults and belittles Gord following his return, telling him to forget about being an animator and "get a job". When Gord pressures his friend Darren into skating on a wooden half-pipe he has built outside the Brody home, Darren falls and breaks his leg. At the hospital, Gord impersonates a doctor, delivers a baby, and meets an attractive nurse named Betty, who uses a wheelchair, has an obsessive penchant for fellatio, and wants to create a rocket-powered wheelchair. Gord lies to his father that he has got a job in the computer industry and goes out to a restaurant with Betty, pretending he is at work. However, Jim sees him there and disparages Betty due to her disabilities. After a fight in the restaurant, Gord is arrested and Betty bails him out. Following her advice, Gord attempts to continue drawing; however, he gets into an argument with Jim, who then smashes Gord's half-pipe. Gord and his parents then go to a family therapy session, where Gord falsely accuses Jim of "fingering" Gord's younger brother, Freddy. The 25-year-old Freddy is sent to a home for sexually molested children despite looking nothing like a child while Julie, being fed up with his abusive behavior and short temper, leaves Jim and ends up dating the basketball player Shaquille O'Neal. While in a drunken stupor, Jim tells Gord how much of a disappointment he is to him. Affected by his father's words, Gord decides to abandon his aspirations to be a cartoonist and gets a job at a local sandwich shop.

After seeing a television news report on Betty's successful rocket-powered wheelchair, Gord is inspired to pursue his dreams once again. He returns to Hollywood with a concept based on his relationship with his father: an adult animated series called Zebras in America. Jim follows Gord there after threatening Darren into revealing his whereabouts. While Gord is pitching the show to Davidson, Jim bursts in and trashes Davidson's office. Thinking Jim's actions are part of Gord's pitch, Davidson greenlights Zebras in America and gives Gord a million-dollar check. Gord spends a quarter of that money on an elaborate thank you to Betty for inspiring him, and the remainder to relocate the Brody house to Pakistan with his father inside, unconscious—a response to Jim's earlier put-down that "If this were Pakistan, you would have been sewing soccer balls when you were four years old!"

Gord and Jim soon come to terms but are then abducted and held hostage. The kidnapping becomes a news item, as Gord's series has already become popular. After 18 months in captivity, Gord and Jim return to America, where a huge crowd, including Betty and Darren, welcomes them home.

Cast

 Tom Green as Gordon Brody, a childish 28-year-old slacker cartoonist who dreams of having his own cartoon show.
 Rip Torn as Jim Brody, Gord's verbally and emotionally abusive father whom Gord falsely accuses of sexually abusing Freddy by fingering him.
 Marisa Coughlan as Betty Menger, Gord's masochist love interest who dreams of developing a rocket-powered wheelchair and loves giving fellatio.
 Eddie Kaye Thomas as Freddy Brody, Gord's responsible younger brother. The namesake of the film, he is sent to an institute for sexually abused children after Gord falsely accuses Jim of fingering him.
 Harland Williams as Darren, Gord's bank teller friend who breaks his leg on Gord's skateboard ramp.
 Anthony Michael Hall as Dave Davidson, the head of Radioactive Animation Studios who picks up Gord's cartoons for an animated series.
 Julie Hagerty as Julie Brody, Gord's mild-mannered mother.
 Drew Barrymore (Green's then-fiancée) as Davidson's receptionist
 Shaquille O'Neal as himself
 Jackson Davies as Mr. Malloy, the Brodys' next-door neighbor.
 Connor Widdows as Andy Malloy, the son of Mr. Malloy. He's involved in a running gag where he gets gruesomely hurt such as getting a nosebleed from Gordon's car, hit by a wine bottle from Jim, accidentally getting his teeth broken from a game of catch and getting shred to pieces by airplane propellers (which he somehow survived).
 Lorena Gale as Psychiatrist/Social worker
 Noel Fisher as Pimply manager
 Stephen Tobolowsky (uncredited) as Uncle Neil
 Joe Flaherty (uncredited) as William

Production
The theatrical release is 87 minutes and received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America following requested cuts to tone it down from an NC-17, a rating that Green described as "like porn with murder." As an extra on the DVD release, Green also included a version of the ending, where a small child character gets sliced by the airplane propeller, which he had edited to secure an R rating. The PG-rated cut of Freddy Got Fingered is a mere three minutes long with a comedic voiceover. Some footage was leaked by the Newgrounds website before release. Years later, Tom Fulp, owner of Newgrounds, confirmed that the leak was a publicity stunt. Titmouse, Inc produced the animation sequences.

Reception

Box office
On a budget of $14 million, Freddy Got Fingered grossed $14,254,993 domestically and $78,259 overseas for a worldwide total of $14,333,252, making it initially a commercial failure though it did eventually turn a profit from DVD sales. The film earned $24,300,000 from DVD sales, and was among the top 50 weekly DVD rentals chart. Green has stated in a few interviews in 2010 that DVD sales have been growing many years later and that there was a cult following.   In a 2017 interview, Green stated that the box office receipts for the film did not reflect the actual attendance, as he thinks that moviegoers under the age of 17 bought tickets to Crocodile Dundee in Los Angeles and then snuck into the theater showing his film.

Critical response

Freddy Got Fingered was panned upon release, with many critics considering it to be one of the worst films of all time. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 11% based on reviews from 95 critics, with an average rating of 3.20/10. The site's consensus reads "Unfavorably comparing it with such infamously bad titles as Battlefield Earth, a significant number of critics are calling Tom Green's extreme gross-out comedy the worst movie they have ever seen." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from film critics, the film has an "Overwhelming dislike" rating score of 13 out of 100 based on 25 reviews. CinemaScore polls revealed the average grade filmgoers gave Freddy Got Fingered was C−, on an A+ to F scale.

The Toronto Star created a one-time new rating for Freddy Got Fingered, giving it "negative one star out of five stars." CNN's Paul Clinton called it "quite simply the worst movie ever released by a major studio in Hollywood history" and listed the running time as "87 awful minutes."

Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film a rare zero-star rating and listed it as one of his most hated films of all time, and described the film thus: "This movie doesn't scrape the bottom of the barrel. This movie isn't the bottom of the barrel. This movie isn't below the bottom of the barrel. This movie doesn't deserve to be mentioned in the same sentence with barrels [...]. The day may come when Freddy Got Fingered is seen as a milestone of neo-surrealism. The day may never come when it is seen as funny."

Richard Roeper, on the TV show At the Movies, hosted by Roeper and Ebert, called it "horrible" and expressed the view that Green was a poor comedian, going so far as to say that he "should be flipping burgers somewhere". Along with Ebert, he was offended by the numerous "gross-out" gags. Film critic Leonard Maltin shared Ebert and Roeper's views of the film: "Instantly notorious word-of-mouth debacle became the poster child for all that's wrong with movie comedy. Gags include the maiming of an innocent child and a newborn spun around in the air by its umbilical cord—compounded by the almost unimaginable ineptitude with which they're executed." In 2017, the film critic of The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw, cited it as the worst film he had ever seen, and James Berardinelli says that it is his least-favourite film of all time. Similarly, David Stratton and Margaret Pomeranz of SBS' The Movie Show were not impressed by the film's content and tone. Stratton gave the film zero stars while Pomeranz gave it one star. The magazine Complex included the film in its listicle, "25 Movies That Killed Careers".

A. O. Scott of The New York Times, compared the film to conceptual performance art and praised it "guardedly and with a slightly guilty conscience".

Accolades
The film received eight Golden Raspberry Award nominations in 2002, winning five. In acknowledgment of the critical consensus regarding the film's merits, Green personally appeared at the ceremony to accept his awards, bringing his own red carpet and saying: "I'd just like to say to all the other nominees in the audience: I don't think that I deserve it any more than the rest of you. I'd like to say that; I don't think that it would be true, though." Green would go on to play the harmonica badly for so long that he was dragged off the stage. In February 2010, it was announced that Freddy Got Fingered was nominated for "Worst Picture of the Decade" for the 30th Golden Raspberry Awards but "lost" to Battlefield Earth. Freddy Got Fingered also garnered seven nominations at the 2001 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, five of which were wins. Following his wins, The Stinkers went ahead and designed their very own trophy for him to collect.

Legacy

Later reviews
Freddy Got Fingered began to see more positive praise over time, becoming a cult classic. Critic Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club gave the film a rave review in his "My Year of Flops" column, comparing it to the work of Jean-Luc Godard and calling the film "less as a conventional comedy than as a borderline Dadaist provocation, a $15 million prank at the studio's expense" adding "it's utterly rare and wondrous to witness the emergence of a dazzlingly original comic voice. I experienced that glorious sensation watching Fingered...I can honestly say that I've never seen anything remotely like it" and rated it a "Secret Success." In a later column, Rabin stated "I was a little worried that I'd catch flak for giving mad props to a film as divisive and widely reviled as Freddy Got Fingered. So I was relieved to discover that every single comment agreed with my assessment of it... It also didn't escape my attention that my Freddy post was the most commented-upon post in the history of My Year of Flops by a huge margin." Comedian Chris Rock listed Freddy Got Fingered as one of his favorite movies on his website.

Later, in his review of the film Stealing Harvard, a film co-starring Green, Ebert wrote:
"Seeing Tom Green reminded me, as how could it not, of his movie Freddy Got Fingered, which was so poorly received by the film critics that it received only one lonely, apologetic positive review on the Tomatometer. I gave it—let's see—zero stars. Bad movie, especially the scene where Green was whirling the newborn infant around his head by its umbilical cord. But the thing is, I remember Freddy Got Fingered more than a year later. I refer to it sometimes. It is a milestone. And for all its sins, it was at least an ambitious movie, a go-for-broke attempt to accomplish something. It failed, but it has not left me convinced that Tom Green doesn't have good work in him. Anyone with his nerve and total lack of taste is sooner or later going to make a movie worth seeing."

In Green's interview on [[Opie and Anthony|The Opie and Anthony Show]], host Opie said the film had begun to be regarded as "one of the funniest movies ever made". Green said the film had sold a million copies, and that he wished to make a director's cut due to a lot of footage not making the final cut. Green said that he was not trying to make The Jazz Singer and that many fans of the movie shout out scenes from the film regularly at his stand-up performance.Unreality Magazine featured the film in its list of "10 Hilarious Movies That Received Terrible Reviews", noting that critics' taste in comedies tend not to reflect the general public. Vadim Rizov for IFC.com wrote an article titled "In defense of Freddy Got Fingered". He calls the film one of the great underrated comedies of the decade and says the film would go on to do better if it was released today, comparing it to the successful Adult Swim series Aqua Teen Hunger Force.

Director's cut
Green stated that he would like to do a "director's cut" DVD release of the film in 2011 to celebrate the 10th anniversary.

On March 9, 2010, on Loveline'', Green officially announced that a director's cut would be released. In an answer to a question from a fan on his website tomgreen.com in December 2010, Green said that there was no progress yet in regards to the director's cut. In a Reddit "Ask Me Anything" (AMA) Green did on the website Reddit on October 17, 2013, Green responded to a question regarding the release of the director's cut with: "The studio didn't give me the footage to make the directors cut. I want to do it. If you contact New Regency or 20th Century Fox and tell them you want a directors cut  maybe it will happen!"

See also
 List of films considered the worst

References

External links

2001 films
2001 black comedy films
20th Century Fox films
Internet memes introduced in 2001
American black comedy films
American films with live action and animation
2000s English-language films
Films about brothers
Films about dysfunctional families
Films directed by Tom Green
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Pakistan
Films set in Portland, Oregon
Films set in hospitals
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Vancouver
Regency Enterprises films
Surreal comedy films
Absurdist fiction
2001 directorial debut films
2001 comedy films
Golden Raspberry Award winning films
2000s American films

Freddy Got Fingered


Evolution of cells refers to the evolutionary origin and subsequent evolutionary development of cells. Cells first emerged at least 3.8 billion years ago approximately 750 million years after Earth was formed.

The first cells

The initial development of the cell marked the passage from prebiotic chemistry to partitioned units resembling modern cells. The final transition to living entities that fulfill all the definitions of modern cells depended on the ability to evolve effectively by natural selection. This transition has been called the Darwinian transition.

If life is viewed from the point of view of replicator molecules, cells satisfy two fundamental conditions: protection from the outside environment and confinement of biochemical activity. The former condition is needed to keep complex molecules stable in a varying and sometimes aggressive environment; the latter is fundamental for the evolution of biocomplexity. If freely floating molecules that code for enzymes are not enclosed in cells, the enzymes will automatically benefit neighboring replicator molecules as well. Thus, the consequences of diffusion in non-partitioned lifeforms would result in "parasitism by default." Therefore, the selection pressure on replicator molecules will be lower, as the 'lucky' molecule that produces the better enzyme does not fully leverage its advantage over its close neighbors. In contrast, if the molecule is enclosed in a cell membrane, the enzymes coded will be available only to itself. That molecule will uniquely benefit from the enzymes it codes for, increasing individuality and thus accelerating natural selection.

Partitioning may have begun from cell-like spheroids formed by proteinoids, which are observed by heating amino acids with phosphoric acid as a catalyst. They bear much of the basic features provided by cell membranes. Proteinoid-based protocells enclosing RNA molecules could have been the first cellular life forms on Earth.

Another possibility is that the shores of the ancient coastal waters may have been a suitable environment for the initial development of cells. Waves breaking on the shore create a delicate foam composed of bubbles. Shallow coastal waters also tend to be warmer, further concentrating the molecules through evaporation. While bubbles made mostly of water tend to burst quickly, oily bubbles are much more stable. The phospholipid, the primary material of cell membranes, is an example of a common oily compound prevalent in the prebiotic seas.

Both of these options require the presence of massive amounts of chemicals and organic material in order to form cells. A large gathering of organic molecules most likely came from what scientists now call the prebiotic soup. The prebiotic soup refers to the collection of every organic compound that appeared on Earth after it was formed. This soup would have most likely contained the compounds necessary to form early cells.

Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic head on one end and a hydrophobic tail on the other. They can come together to form a bilayer membrane. A lipid monolayer bubble can only contain oil and is not conducive to harboring water-soluble organic molecules. On the other hand, a lipid bilayer bubble can contain water and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane. If a protein was introduced that increased the integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage. Primitive reproduction may have occurred when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the surrounding medium. Once enough of the right compounds were released into the medium, the development of the first prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and multi-cellular organisms could be achieved.

However, the first cell membrane could not have been composed of phospholipids due its low permeability, as ions would not able to pass through the membrane. Rather it is suggested they were composed of fatty acids, as they can freely exchange ions, allowing geochemically sustained proton gradients at alkaline hydrothermal vents that might lead to prebiotic chemical reactions via CO2 fixation.

Community metabolism
The common ancestor of the now existing cellular lineages (eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea) may have been a community of organisms that readily exchanged components and genes. It would have contained:
 Autotrophs that produced organic compounds from CO2, either photosynthetically or by inorganic chemical reactions;
 Heterotrophs that obtained organics from leakage of other organisms
 Saprotrophs that absorbed nutrients from decaying organisms
 Phagotrophs that were sufficiently complex to envelop and digest particulate nutrients, including other organisms.

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. DNA-bearing organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are remnants of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, where at least part of the rest of the cell may have been derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell. The archean prokaryote cell concept is often termed as the endosymbiotic theory. There is still debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.

How the current lineages of microbes evolved from this postulated community is currently unsolved, but subject to intense research by biologists, stimulated by the great flow of new discoveries in genome science.

Genetic code and the RNA world
Modern evidence suggests that early cellular evolution occurred in a biological realm radically distinct from modern biology. It is thought that in this ancient realm, the current genetic role of DNA was largely filled by RNA, and catalysis was also largely mediated by RNA (that is, by ribozyme counterparts of enzymes). This concept is known as the RNA world hypothesis.

According to this hypothesis, the ancient RNA world transitioned into the modern cellular world via the evolution of protein synthesis, followed by replacement of many cellular ribozyme catalysts by protein-based enzymes. Proteins are much more flexible in catalysis than RNA due to the existence of diverse amino acid side chains with distinct chemical characteristics. The RNA record in existing cells appears to preserve some 'molecular fossils' from this RNA world. These RNA fossils include the ribosome itself (in which RNA catalyzes peptide-bond formation), the modern ribozyme catalyst RNase P, and RNAs.

The nearly universal genetic code preserves some evidence for the RNA world. For instance, recent studies of transfer RNAs, the enzymes that charge them with amino acids (the first step in protein synthesis) and the way these components recognize and exploit the genetic code, have been used to suggest that the universal genetic code emerged before the evolution of the modern amino acid activation method for protein synthesis. The first RNA polymers probably emerged prior to 4.17 Gya if life originated at freshwater environments similar to Darwin's warm little pond.

Sexual reproduction
The evolution of sexual reproduction may be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes, including single cell eukaryotes. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Hofstatter and Lehr reviewed evidence supporting the hypothesis that all eukaryotes can be regarded as sexual, unless proven otherwise.

Sexual reproduction may have arisen in early protocells with RNA genomes (RNA world).  Initially, each protocell would likely have contained one RNA genome (rather than multiple) since this maximizes the growth rate. However, the occurrence of damages to the RNA which block RNA replication or interfere with ribozyme function would make it advantageous to fuse periodically with another protocell to restore reproductive ability.  This early, simple form of genetic recovery is similar to that occurring in extant segmented single-stranded RNA viruses (see influenza A virus).

As duplex DNA became the predominant form of the genetic material, the mechanism of genetic recovery evolved into the more complex process of meiotic recombination, found today in most species. It thus appears likely that sexual reproduction arose early in the evolution of cells and has had a continuous evolutionary history.

Horizontal gene transfer
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the movement of genetic information between different organisms of the same species mainly being bacteria. This is not the movement of genetic information between a parent and their offspring but by other factors. In contrast to how animals reproduce and evolve from sexual reproduction, bacteria evolve by sharing DNA with other bacteria or their environment.

There are three common mechanisms of transferring genetic material by HGT:

 Transformation: The bacteria assimilates DNA from the environment into their own
 Conjugation: Bacteria directly transfer genes from one cell to another
 Transduction: Bacteriophages (virus) move genes from one bacterial cell to another

Once one of these mechanisms has occurred the bacteria will continue to multiply and grow resistance and evolve by natural selection. HGT is the main cause of the assimilation of certain genetic material and the passing down of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).

Canonical patterns
Although the evolutionary origins of the major lineages of modern cells are disputed, the primary distinctions between the three major lineages of cellular life (called domains) are firmly established.

In each of these three domains, DNA replication, transcription, and translation all display distinctive features. There are three versions of ribosomal RNAs, and generally three versions of each ribosomal protein, one for each domain of life. These three versions of the protein synthesis apparatus are called the canonical patterns, and the existence of these canonical patterns provides the basis for a definition of the three domains - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (or Eukaryota) - of currently existing cells.

Using genomics to infer early lines of evolution
Instead of relying a single gene such as the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene to reconstruct early evolution, or a few genes, scientific effort has shifted to analyzing complete genome sequences.

Evolutionary trees based only on SSU rRNA alone do not capture the events of early eukaryote evolution accurately, and the progenitors of the first nucleated cells are still uncertain. For instance, analysis of the complete genome of the eukaryote yeast shows that many of its genes are more closely related to bacterial genes than they are to archaea, and it is now clear that archaea were not the simple progenitors of the eukaryotes, in contradiction to earlier findings based on SSU rRNA and limited samples of other genes.

One hypothesis is that the first nucleated cell arose from two distinctly different ancient prokaryotic (non-nucleated) species that had formed a symbiotic relationship with one another to carry out different aspects of metabolism. One partner of this symbiosis is proposed to be a bacterial cell, and the other an archaeal cell. It is postulated that this symbiotic partnership progressed via the cellular fusion of the partners to generate a chimeric or hybrid cell with a membrane bound internal structure that was the forerunner of the nucleus. The next stage in this scheme was transfer of both partner genomes into the nucleus and their fusion with one another. Several variations of this hypothesis for the origin of nucleated cells have been suggested. Other biologists dispute this conception and emphasize the community metabolism theme, the idea that early living communities would comprise many different entities to extant cells, and would have shared their genetic material more extensively than current microbes.

Quotes
 "The First Cell arose in the previously prebiotic world with the coming together of several entities that gave a single vesicle the unique chance to carry out three essential and quite different life processes. These were: (a) to copy informational macromolecules, (b) to carry out specific catalytic functions, and (c) to couple energy from the environment into usable chemical forms. These would foster subsequent cellular evolution and metabolism. Each of these three essential processes probably originated and was lost many times prior to The First Cell, but only when these three occurred together was life jump-started and Darwinian evolution of organisms began." (Koch and Silver, 2005)

"The evolution of modern cells is arguably the most challenging and important problem the field of Biology has ever faced. In Darwin's day the problem could hardly be imagined. For much of the 20th century it was intractable. In any case, the problem lay buried in the catch-all rubric "origin of life"--where, because it is a biological not a (bio)chemical problem, it was effectively ignored. Scientific interest in cellular evolution started to pick up once the universal phylogenetic tree, the framework within which the problem had to be addressed, was determined. But it was not until microbial genomics arrived on the scene that biologists could actually do much about the problem of cellular evolution." (Carl Woese, 2002)

References

Further reading

External links
 Life on Earth
 The universal nature of biochemistry
 Endosymbiosis and The Origin of Eukaryotes
 Origins of the Eukarya.

Cell biology
Evolutionary biology

Evolution of cells


Joseph Edgar Howard (February 12, 1870May 19, 1961) was an American Broadway composer, lyricist, librettist, and performer. A famed member of Tin Pan Alley along with wife and composer Ida Emerson as part of the song-writing team of Howard and Emerson, his hits included "Hello! Ma Baby" and Broadway musicals like "I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now?".

Early years
Joseph Howard was born on February 12, 1870 (or 1871), in New York City. He grew up in a gang-terrorized part of the city and was frequently beaten by his father. His mother died when he was 8 years old, and he ran away to a Catholic orphanage, serving as an altar boy and singing in the choir. Avoiding his father, who had discovered the boy's place of refuge, he rode a freight train to Kansas City, Missouri. There he sang in a saloon and sold newspapers. It was in Kansas City that he was discovered by George Walker of Williams and Walker who arranged for Howard to receive voice training. From Kansas City, he went to St. Louis, Missouri, where he had his first taste of the theater.

Career
Howard toured in a stock company production of "Little Eva,"  then performed in vaudeville as a boy soprano at the age of 11.  He was married to singer actress Mabel Barrison from 1906 until her death in 1912.

At 17, he met a young singer named Ida Emerson who would become his second wife. They played the Midwestern vaudeville circuit, drawing notice enough in Chicago to obtain an engagement in New York at Tony Pastor's Music Hall on 14th Street, where they were a big hit in 1898. Their fortunes improved in 1899 when they wrote the song "Hello! Ma Baby," which became one of the most popular songs of its day, selling over a million copies of the sheet music, the predominant way of making money from music prior to recordings, in just a few months. They found themselves space at the famed Tin Pan Alley where they continued to write songs for vaudeville. They penned another hit, "Goodbye, My Lady Love," in 1904. They moved back to Chicago, where Howard performed and composed his tunes, and produced some of the biggest Chicago musical hit shows from 1905 to 1915.

Howard produced a string of pop jazz hits, including "What's the Use of Dreaming?," "I Don't Like Your Family,"  and "A Boy's Best Friend Is His Mother". The tunes that he is most often associated with in modern times are "Hello! Ma Baby" and  "I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now".  The latter was a jilted man's waltz that made its debut in the 1909 musical The Prince of To-Night and became the subject of controversy many years later when one of Howard's employees, Harold Orlob, a composer, sued and won the right to remove Howard's name from the piece as its primary composer.

Howard performed in nightclubs, theaters, radio and television throughout his career. His writing slacked off between 1915 and 1939, then picked up again.

In 1939, Howard collaborated with Beatrice Kay, a husky-voiced showgirl, on a radio program called The Gay Nineties Revue, which revisited his hits from the turn of the century and the teens, which by then had become nostalgic American entertainment for listeners during the Big Band Era.

He made recordings for the Decca and Vocalion labels in the late 1940s.

In 1947, a motion picture was produced based on Howard's biography called I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now, starring Mark Stevens, with Buddy Clark taking on the singing chores. The film generated legal controversy when Harold Orlob, a former employee sued, proved his authorship of the composition, and won the right to remove Howard's name from the song.

Howard hosted the early live television series The Gay Nineties Revue (ABC, 1948–1949).

In the late 1950s, he published an autobiography entitled Gay Nineties Troubadour.

Howard died on stage in Chicago while singing "Let Me Call You Sweetheart" during a curtain call on May 19, 1961.

Legal controversy

After the release of the movie I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now, Harold Orlob sued Howard, claiming that he had penned the tune when he worked for Howard in Chicago as a writer of additional songs for the musical The Prince of To-Night (1909). Orlob won his suit, which sought no compensation but asked to have Howard's name removed as the primary composer and his put on to the credits for the song as the lead composer.

Awards and accolades
In 1970, Howard was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame by the ASCAP Hall of Fame Committee.

Songs

Collaborating with songwriters such as wife Ida Emerson, Frank R. Adams, Will Hough and Harold Orlob, Howard produced such hits as:

 "Peerless March" - 1916
 "When Our Boys Come Marching Home" - 1917
 "It Won't Be Long Before We're Home" - 1918. L: Paul Cunningham
 "Hello! Ma Baby"
 "A Boy's Best Friend is His Mother"
 "Goodbye, My Lady Love"
 "There's Nothing Like a Good Old Song"
 "Somewhere In France Is the Lily" - 1917. m: Philander Chase Johnson
 "On a Saturday Night"
 "Can't Get You Out of My Mind"
 "Love Me Little, Love Me Long"
 "Montana"
 "Silver in Your Hair"
 "Whistle a Song"
 "On the Boulevard"
 "San Francisco Frizz"
 "An Echo of Her Smile"
 "I Don't Like Your Family"
 "Blow the Smoke Away"
 "What's the Use of Dreaming?"
 "When You First Kiss the Last Girl You Love"
 "Honeymoon"
 "Be Sweet to Me, Kid"
 "Tonight Will Never Come Again"
 "Cross Your Heart"
 "I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now"

Howard also wrote the stage scores for:

 The Land of Nod
 The Time, the Place and the Girl
 The Girl Question
 A Stubborn Cinderella
 The Goddess of Liberty
 The Prince of Tonight
 Maurice Chevalier in an Evening of Songs and Impressions
 Tintypes

Howard also wrote the music and lyrics for "Goodbye, My Lady Love", featured in the original production of Show Boat (1927).

Howard also composed "It Won't Be Long Before We're Home".

References

Further reading
Howard, Joseph E. Gay Nineties Troubador: Autobiography of Joe Howard, American Composer of I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now? Miami Beach, FL: Joe Howard Music House, 1956.

External links

Joseph E. Howard at the National Jukebox
Joseph Edgar Howard at FindAGrave:  *

1870 births
1961 deaths
American musical theatre composers
American musical theatre lyricists
Broadway composers and lyricists
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)
Male musical theatre composers
Musicians who died on stage
Ragtime composers

Joseph E. Howard


A map is an image of an area, usually of the Earth or part of the Earth. A map is different from an aerial photograph because it includes interpretation. Many maps are called "charts" such as star charts and nautical charts. Some maps are of distant worlds. Before the late 20th century almost all maps were on paper. Today, many maps are digital, and can be seen on smartphones and computers. However, paper maps are still used.

The word "map" can also be used to talk about a chart or drawing that shows relationships between ideas, people, events, or anything else you can think about. This is why web developers call a list of web pages on a web site a site map.

People who make maps are cartographers.

Many maps today are made using GIS computer systems. These are database systems that are organized by location instead of named records.

If a map is on a piece of paper or a computer screen, it has to be projected.  This is because the Earth is round and paper and screens are flat.  There are a lot of ways that use mathematics to make map projections.  The only kind of map of the Earth that is not projected is one drawn on a sphere.  This is called a globe.

Basic English 850 words
Cartography
Survival skills
Tools

Map


De Volksbank () is a Dutch retail bank offering financial products to both companies and individuals. Prior to a 2017 restructuring, it was called SNS Bank, which remains its major brand name. It became a subsidiary of SNS Reaal in 1997 when the holding company bought the insurance company Reaal.  The bank and its parent were rescued by the Dutch government in 2013 and have been state owned since then. In 2016, SNS Bank was the fourth-largest bank in the Netherlands in terms of total assets.

History
The history of the bank goes back to 1817 when the first Netherlands savings bank () was established as Nutsspaarbank.  The saving bank movement was part of a campaign to encourage individual citizens to save for their future.  The savings banks used these funds to provide mortgages to individuals who would otherwise not have the ability to buy their own house, much like the building society movement in the UK.

In 1987 a merger with several regional banks, including Gelders-Utrechtse Spaarbank en Spaarbank Limburg, formed SNS Bank. SNS is an abbreviation for Samenwerkende Nederlandse Spaarbanken (English: "Co-operating Dutch savings banks"). The holding was called Sanes Holding N.V.

The second half of the 20th century saw a big consolidation of spaarbanks in the Netherlands. Some joined SBS Bank, while others joined VSB (, ), which later became part of Fortis. In 1990, following several more mergers, SNS Bank N.V. and its holding company SNS Groep N.V. were formed.

In 1997, SNS Groep N.V. and insurer REAAL Group N.V. merged into SNS REAAL N.V.

The holding company was listed on the Euronext stock exchange in Amsterdam on May 18, 2006. On December 4, 2006, it was announced that SNS REAAL would purchase RegioBank from ING Bank in a €50M deal.

On February 1, 2013 SNS Bank and its parent SNS REAAL were nationalized by the Dutch government to save it from default. Investors were expropriated as a result of the nationalization and originally, the Ministry of Finance did not want to provide any compensation at all, but in February 2021, after years of legal proceedings, a Dutch court ruled that the government must pay 804 million euros plus interest to them.

In September 2016 it was announced that SNS Bank would be called De Volksbank as of 1 January 2017. De Volksbank has a single banking permit and continues to operate under multiple brand names, including SNS Bank, ASN Bank, BLG Wonen and RegioBank.

See also

SNS REAAL

References

External links
SNS Bank website
De Volksbank Website

Banks of the Netherlands
Banks established in 1817
1817 establishments in the Netherlands
Banks under direct supervision of the European Central Bank

De Volksbank


Pascagoula Parish was a parish (county) of the Territory of Orleans, formed in 1811 from the formerly Spanish West Florida colony. It was eliminated in 1812, the same year that Louisiana became a U.S. state, when the Gulf of Mexico coastal lands (between the Pearl River and the Perdido River) were transferred to the Mississippi Territory.

Pascagoula Parish was never within Louisiana's state borders as we know them today. It was a U.S. territorial jurisdiction which existed for approximately one year and is located in the area which is today the coastal part of the state of Mississippi.

Former parishes of Louisiana

Pascagoula Parish, Louisiana


Expeditus (died 303) also known as Expedite, was said to have been a Roman centurion in Armenia who was martyred around April 303 in what is now Turkey, for converting to Christianity. Considered the patron saint of urgent causes, he is also known as the saint of time, he was commemorated by the Catholic Church on 19 April.

Hagiography
Expeditus was probably born in Armenia. He was a Christian martyr, but not much else is known about him. Information concerning Expeditus is found in the Hieronymian Martyrology, where he appears as one of six Roman soldiers said to have been executed at Melitene during the Diocletianic Persecution. If he was stationed at Melitene at the beginning of the fourth century, he would likely have been a member of the Legio XII Fulminata.

The earliest indication of devotion to St. Expeditus comes only from the second half of the eighteenth century. He was mentioned briefly in 1675 in the Acta sanctorum volume for April. However, according to Delehaye, the word "Expeditus" is a misreading of "Elpidius". The name "Expeditus" has provoked puns , so he has become the saint of rapidity.  At first, he was invoked for urgent causes; he has since become the patron of dealers, sailors, students, and examinees; he is also implored for success in lawsuits.

Given that "Expeditus" is Latin for a soldier without marching pack, i.e. a soldier with light equipment, this saint may be an anonymous individual known by his profession. His cult was already developed in Turin, Italy, in the Middle Ages.

Roman Catholic veneration

Legends
According to tradition, Expeditus was a Roman centurion in Armenia who became a Christian and was beheaded during the Diocletian Persecution in AD 303. The day he decided to become a Christian, the Devil took the form of a crow (a snake in some versions of the legend) and told him to defer his conversion until the next day. Expeditus stamped on the bird and killed it, declaring, "I'll be a Christian today!"

Expeditus was included in martyrologies in Italy before 1781. There was a tradition that Expeditus could be called upon to help settle overly long legal cases. His feast of April 19 is widely celebrated. Expedite is venerated in Europe and strongly in Latin America. Brazil has ceremonies in São Paulo and crowds attending ceremonies to mark his April 19 feast day can reach in the hundreds of thousands.

Many stories circulated about the origin of the cultus of Expeditus. One states that it began when a package marked expedite (meaning 'be ready' or alternately 'loosen') arrived with unidentified relics or statues. The recipients assumed that the statuary or relics belonged to an Expeditus, and so veneration began. Such an account is set in France in 1781. A case containing the relics of a saint, who was formerly buried in the Denfert-Rochereau catacombs of Paris, was delivered at a convent in the city. The senders had written expédit on the case, to ensure fast delivery of the remains. The nuns assumed that "Expédit" was the name of a martyr, and prayed for his intercession. When their prayers were answered, veneration spread rapidly through France and on to other Roman Catholic countries.

Another version of the story takes place in New Orleans, Louisiana, which was strongly influenced by French Catholic culture through the colonial period.  This account says that Our Lady of Guadalupe Chapel (New Orleans) received a large shipment of statues of various saints, and that one case lacked an identifying label. It was labeled "Expedite" (Expédit in French), so the residents assumed that must be the saint's name. Expédit still figures prominently in Louisiana Creole folklore and is revered through amulets, flowers, candles, and intercessory prayers.

Iconographical depiction
Expeditus' typical depiction in artwork is as a young Roman centurion. The soldier is squashing a crow beneath his right foot and bearing a clock in early images. Later depictions have Expeditus holding a cross, inscribed with the Latin word hodie ("today"). A banderole with the word cras ("tomorrow" in Latin) emerges from the crow's mouth.

Although in the English language a crow's cry is rendered as "caw caw," in Italian the sound is "cra cra.", and Latin version was "cras cras".

Réunion Island

Expédit has a significant folk following on the French island of Réunion off the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. Stories about the origin of his veneration follow the typical formula: a mysterious parcel marked with expedit arrived as an aid to instill pious virtues in the people. Another version says that Expédit acquired his name through his help in placing vengeful curses. Decapitated statues of the saint are often found, the defacement inflicted in anger for a request not carried out, or in order to break an existing curse.

Road-side altars dedicated to Expédit can be as small as a box containing a small statue of the saint, or as large as a hut, containing multiple statues, candles, and flowers. In all cases, these altars are painted a bright red. Also common are ex-votos thanking Expédit for wishes granted and favors received.

In Réunion, the cult of Saint Expédit has been syncretic, associating him with goddess Kali, with Roman Catholicism absorbing other beliefs from Madagascar or India. Expédit is a popular saint, revered by Reunionnais regardless of age or religion. As the worship of Expédit is officially considered taboo, people do not generally visit the altars in the open. But, the altars are widespread on the island and obviously well-tended, showing that the cult is active.

Churches in the world
There are churches dedicated to Expeditus all over the world:

Chile

Himnos mil al glorioso Expedito,
que su sangre en la Armenia vertió,
cuyo nombre en el cielo fue escrito,
y de mártir el laurel alcanzó.
—Himno a San Expedito

A thousand hymns to glorious Expeditus,
Who shed his blood in Armenia,
Whose name was written in heaven,
And gained the laurel of martyrdom.
—Hymn to Saint Expeditus

Veneration in Chile is said to have begun when a devotee of Expeditus (or locally in Spanish, San Expedito) brought an image of him to Viña del Mar, one of the most popular beach cities of Chile. She petitioned some local priests for help to have a small church built for him. It is said that local authorities initially rejected the idea, but the priests and the devout lady prayed to Expeditus, and in less than nine days they had the approval. Since then, the cult of San Expedito has become increasingly popular in Chile; from rich to poor, people pray novenas to him. The shrine in the Reñaca sector of Viña is a rather popular pilgrimage site, especially during summer.

References

Further reading
  A booklet that contains a prayer and novena litany to Expedit.

External links

 San Expeditus Site
 San Expeditus Web

3rd-century births
303 deaths
Religion in Réunion
4th-century Christian martyrs
4th-century Romans
Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian

Expeditus


Fanaticism (from the Latin adverb fānāticē [fren-fānāticus; enthusiastic, ecstatic; raging, fanatical, furious]) is a belief or behavior involving uncritical zeal or an obsessive enthusiasm.

Definitions
Philosopher George Santayana defines fanaticism as "redoubling your effort when you have forgotten your aim". The fanatic displays very strict standards and little tolerance for contrary ideas or opinions. Tõnu Lehtsaar has defined the term fanaticism as the pursuit or defence of something in an extreme and passionate way that goes beyond normality. Religious fanaticism is defined by blind faith, the persecution of dissidents and the absence of reality.

Causes

Fanaticism is a result from multiple cultures interacting with one another. Fanaticism occurs most frequently when a leader makes minor variations on already existing beliefs, which then drives the followers into a frenzy. In this case, fanaticism is used as an adjective describing the nature of certain behaviors that people recognize as cult-like. Mead referred to the style of defense used when the followers are approached. The most consistent thing presented is the priming, or preexisting, conditions and mind state needed to induce fanatical behavior. Each behavior is obvious once it is pointed out; a closed mind, no interest in debating the subject of worship, and over reaction to people who do not believe.

In his book Crazy Talk, Stupid Talk, Neil Postman states that "the key to all fanatical beliefs is that they are self-confirming....(some beliefs are) fanatical not because they are 'false', but because they are expressed in such a way that they can never be shown to be false."

Similar behaviors
The behavior of a fan with overwhelming enthusiasm for a given subject is differentiated from the behavior of a fanatic by the fanatic's violation of prevailing social norms. Though the fan's behavior may be judged as odd or eccentric, it does not violate such norms. A fanatic differs from a crank, in that a crank is defined as a person who holds a position or opinion which is so far from the norm as to appear ludicrous and/or probably wrong, such as a belief in a Flat Earth. In contrast, the subject of the fanatic's obsession may be "normal", such as an interest in religion or politics, except that the scale of the person's involvement, devotion, or obsession with the activity or cause is abnormal or disproportionate to the average.

Types

 Consumer fanaticism – the level of involvement or interest one has in the liking of a particular person, group, trend, artwork or idea
 Emotional fanaticism
 Ethnic or racial supremacist fanaticism
 Leisure fanaticism – high levels of intensity, enthusiasm, commitment and zeal shown for a particular leisure activity
 Nationalistic or patriotic fanaticism
 Political, ideological fanaticism.
 Religious fanaticism – considered by some to be the most extreme form of religious fundamentalism. Entail promoting religious point of views
 Sports fanaticism – high levels of intensity surrounding sporting events. This is either done based on the belief that extreme fanaticism can alter games for one's favorite team (Ex: Knight Krew), or because the person uses sports activities as an ultra-masculine "proving ground" for brawls, as in the case of football hooliganism.

See also

 The Anatomy of Revolution
 Antifanaticism: A Tale of the South
 Basking in reflected glory
 Celebrity worship syndrome
 Cult of personality
 Enthusiasm
 Extremism
 Falsifiability
 Fan (person)
 Fan loyalty
 Fanboy
 Fixation (psychology)
 M. Lamar Keene
 Obsession (psychology)
 Phillie Phanatic
 Purity spiral
 The True Believer
 True-believer syndrome
 Zealotry

References

Further reading
Haynal, A., Molnar, M. and de Puymege, G. Fanaticism. A Historical and Psychoanalytical Study. Schoken Books. New York, 1987
Rudin, J.Fanaticism. A psychological Analysis. University of Notre Dame Press. London, 1969.
Collins, Jack. "Real Times". University of Santa Barbara. California. 1993.

External links

Fandom
Popular psychology
Problem behavior
Barriers to critical thinking

Fanaticism


The International Brigade Memorial Trust is a British educational trust formed by the veterans of the International Brigade Association, the Friends of the IBA, representatives of the Marx Memorial Library, and historians specialising in the Spanish Civil War.

The aims of the IBMT are to:

 Educate the public in the history of the men and women who fought in the International Brigades and in the medical and other support services in the Spanish Civil War. In particular, by preserving and cataloguing valuable historical material relating hereto and by making such material available to the public.
 To foster good citizenship by remembering those who have fallen in the Spanish Civil War by preserving, maintaining and assisting in the construction of war memorials.

The longest serving  President of the International Brigade Memorial Trust was the late Jack Jones, former General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union, and himself a veteran of the British Battalion of the International Brigades. The IBMT holds an annual commemorative ceremony at the International Brigades memorial at Jubilee Gardens on the South Bank in London and organises a yearly lecture on the civil war, given by specialist academic historians from around the world.

The group maintains a map of memorials to volunteers in the Spanish Civil War.

External links
 The International Brigade Memorial Trust - www.international-brigades.org.uk
 History of the British Battalion, XV International Brigade - www.spartacus-educational.com/
 RealAudio interviews with British Battalion veterans  - www.iwm.org.uk
 Men who fought Franco fêted as Spain finally confronts its past - The Times, 15 July 2006
 Trust map of memorials in the British Isles

International Brigades

International Brigade Memorial Trust