The maxilla (: maxillae ) in vertebrates is the upper fixed (not fixed in Neopterygii) bone of the jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the hard palate in the front of the mouth.<ref>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.</ref> The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw.

Anatomy

 Structure
The maxilla is a paired bone - the two maxillae unite with each other at the intermaxillary suture. The maxilla consists of:

 The body of the maxilla: pyramid-shaped; has an orbital, a nasal, an infratemporal, and a facial surface; contains the maxillary sinus.
 Four processes:
 the zygomatic process
 the frontal process
 the alveolar process
 the palatine process
It has three surfaces:
 the anterior, posterior, medial
Features of the maxilla include:
 the infraorbital sulcus, canal, and foramen
 the maxillary sinus
 the incisive foramen

Articulations
Each maxilla articulates with nine bones: frontal, ethmoid, nasal, zygomatic, lacrimal, and palatine bones, the vomer, the inferior nasal concha, as well as the maxilla of the other side.

Sometimes it articulates with the orbital surface, and sometimes with the lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid.

Development

The maxilla is ossified in membrane. Mall and Fawcett maintain that it is ossified from two centers only, one for the maxilla proper and one for the premaxilla.

These centers appear during the sixth week of prenatal development and unite in the beginning of the third month, but the suture between the two portions persists on the palate until nearly middle life. Mall states that the frontal process is developed from both centers.

The maxillary sinus appears as a shallow groove on the nasal surface of the bone about the fourth month of development, but does not reach its full size until after the second dentition.

The maxilla was formerly described as ossifying from six centers, viz.:
 One, the orbitonasal, forms that portion of the body of the bone which lies medial to the infraorbital canal, including the medial part of the floor of the orbit and the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
 A second, the zygomatic, gives origin to the portion which lies lateral to the infraorbital canal, including the zygomatic process.
 From a third, the palatine, is developed the palatine process posterior to the incisive canal together with the adjoining part of the nasal wall.
 A fourth, the premaxillary, forms the incisive bone which carries the incisor teeth and corresponds to the premaxilla of the lower vertebrates.
 A fifth, the nasal, gives rise to the frontal process and the portion above the canine tooth.
 And a sixth, the infravomerine,'' lies between the palatine and premaxillary centers and beneath the vomer; this center, together with the corresponding center of the opposite bone, separates the incisive canals from each other.

Changes by age
At birth the transverse and antero-posterior diameters of the bone are each greater than the vertical.

The frontal process is well-marked and the body of the bone consists of little more than the alveolar process, the teeth sockets reaching almost to the floor of the orbit.

The maxillary sinus presents the appearance of a furrow on the lateral wall of the nose. In the adult the vertical diameter is the greatest, owing to the development of the alveolar process and the increase in size of the sinus.

Function

The alveolar process of the maxillae holds the upper teeth, and is referred to as the maxillary arch. Each maxilla attaches laterally to the zygomatic bones (cheek bones).

Each maxilla assists in forming the boundaries of three cavities:
 the roof of the mouth
 the floor and lateral wall of the nasal cavity
 the wall of the orbit

Each maxilla also enters into the formation of two fossae: the infratemporal and pterygopalatine, and two fissures, the inferior orbital and pterygomaxillary.
-When the tender bones of the upper jaw and lower nostril are severely or repetitively damaged, at any age the surrounding cartilage can begin to deteriorate just as it does after death.

Clinical significance
A maxilla fracture is a form of facial fracture. A maxilla fracture is often the result of facial trauma such as violence, falls or automobile accidents. Maxilla fractures are classified according to the Le Fort classification.

In other animals
Sometimes (e.g. in bony fish), the maxilla is called "upper maxilla", with the mandible being the "lower maxilla". Conversely, in birds the upper jaw is often called "upper mandible".

In most vertebrates, the foremost part of the upper jaw, to which the incisors are attached in mammals consists of a separate pair of bones, the premaxillae. These fuse with the maxilla proper to form the bone found in humans, and some other mammals. In bony fish, amphibians, and reptiles, both maxilla and premaxilla are relatively plate-like bones, forming only the sides of the upper jaw, and part of the face, with the premaxilla also forming the lower boundary of the nostrils. However, in mammals, the bones have curved inward, creating the palatine process and thereby also forming part of the roof of the mouth.

Birds do not have a maxilla in the strict sense; the corresponding part of their beaks (mainly consisting of the premaxilla) is called "upper mandible".

Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, also lack a true maxilla. Their upper jaw is instead formed from a cartilaginous bar that is not homologous with the bone found in other vertebrates.

Additional images

See also

Maxillofacial surgery
Maxillary crest

References

Further reading

External links

Bones of the head and neck
Dental anatomy
Irregular bones
Human mouth anatomy

Maxilla


Liquidmetal and Vitreloy are commercial names of a series of amorphous metal alloys developed by a California Institute of Technology (Caltech) research team and marketed by Liquidmetal Technologies. Liquidmetal alloys combine a number of desirable material features, including high tensile strength, excellent corrosion resistance, very high coefficient of restitution and excellent anti-wearing characteristics, while also being able to be heat-formed in processes similar to thermoplastics. Despite the name, they are not liquid at room temperature.

Liquidmetal was introduced for commercial applications in 2003. It is used for, among other things, golf clubs, watches, and covers of cell phones.

The alloy was the end result of a research program into amorphous metals carried out at Caltech. It was the first of a series of experimental alloys that could achieve an amorphous structure at relatively slow cooling rates. Amorphous metals had been made before, but only in small batches because cooling rates needed to be in the millions of degrees per second. For example, amorphous wires could be fabricated by splat quenching a stream of molten metal on a spinning disk. Because Vitreloy allowed such slow cooling rates, production of larger batch sizes was possible. More recently, a number of additional alloys have been added to the Liquidmetal portfolio. These alloys also retain their amorphous structure after repeated re-heating, allowing them to be used in a wide variety of traditional machining processes.

Characteristics
Liquidmetal, created by Dr. Atakan Peker, contain atoms of significantly different sizes. They form a dense mix with low free volume. Unlike crystalline metals, there is no obvious melting point at which viscosity drops suddenly. Vitreloy behaves more like other glasses, in that its viscosity drops gradually with increased temperature. At high temperature, it behaves in a plastic manner, allowing the mechanical properties to be controlled relatively easily during casting. The viscosity prevents the atoms moving enough to form an ordered lattice, so the material retains its amorphous properties even after being heat-formed.

The alloys have relatively low softening temperatures, allowing casting of complex shapes without needing finishing. The material properties immediately after casting are much better than those of conventional metals; usually, cast metals have worse properties than forged or wrought ones. The alloys are also malleable at low temperatures ( for the earliest formulation), and can be molded. The low free volume also results in low shrinkage during cooling. For all of these reasons, Liquidmetal can be formed into complex shapes using processes similar to thermoplastics, which makes Liquidmetal a potential replacement for many applications where plastics would normally be used.

Due to their non-crystalline (amorphous) structures, Liquidmetals are harder than alloys of titanium or aluminum of similar composition. The zirconium and titanium based Liquidmetal alloys achieved yield strength of over 1723 MPa, nearly twice the strength of conventional crystalline titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V is ~830 MPa), and about the strength of high-strength steels and some highly engineered bulk composite materials (see tensile strength for a list of common materials). However, the early casting methods introduced microscopic flaws that were excellent sites for crack propagation which led to Vitreloy being fragile like glass. Although strong, these early batches shattered easily when struck. Newer casting methods, adjustments of the alloy mixtures and other changes have improved this.

The lack of grain boundaries contributes to the high yield strength (and thereby resilience) exhibited. In a demonstration, a metal sphere dropped on amorphous steel bounced significantly longer than the same metal sphere dropped on crystalline steel.

The lack of grain boundaries in a metallic glass eliminates grain-boundary corrosion—a common problem in high-strength alloys produced by precipitation hardening and sensitized stainless steels. Liquidmetal alloys are therefore generally more corrosion resistant, both due to the mechanical structure as well as the elements used in its alloy. The combination of mechanical hardness, high elasticity and corrosion resistance makes Liquidmetal wear resistant.

Although at high temperatures, plastic deformation occurs easily, almost none occurs at room temperature before the onset of catastrophic failure. This limits the material's applicability in reliability-critical applications, as the impending failure is not evident. The material is also susceptible to metal fatigue with crack growth. A two-phase composite structure with amorphous matrix and a ductile dendritic crystalline-phase reinforcement, or a metal matrix composite reinforced with fibers of other material can reduce or eliminate this disadvantage.

Uses
Liquidmetal combines a number of features that are normally not found in any one material. This makes them useful in a wide variety of applications.

One of the first commercial uses of Liquidmetal was in golf clubs made by the company, where the highly elastic metal was used in portions of the club face. These were highly rated by users, but the product was later dropped, in part because the prototypes shattered after fewer than 40 hits. Since then, Liquidmetal has appeared in other sports equipment, including the cores of golf balls, skis, baseball and softball bats, and tennis racquets.

The ability to be cast and molded, combined with high wear resistance, has also led to Liquidmetal being used as a replacement for plastics in some applications. It has been used on the casing of late-model SanDisk "Cruzer Titanium" USB flash drives as well as their Sansa line of flash-based MP3 player, and casings of some mobile phones, like the luxury Vertu products, and other toughened consumer electronics. Liquidmetal was used in the Biolase dental laser Ilase and the Socketmobile ring bar code scanner. Liquidmetal has also notably been used for making the SIM ejector tool of some iPhone 3Gs made by Apple Inc., shipped in the US. This was done by Apple as an exercise to test the viability of usage of the metal. They retain a scratch-free surface longer than competing materials, while still being made in complex shapes. The same qualities lend it to use as protective coatings for industrial machinery, including petroleum drill pipes and power plant boiler tubes.

It also replaces titanium in applications ranging from medical instruments and cars to the military and aerospace industry. In military applications, rods of amorphous metals replace depleted uranium in kinetic energy penetrators. Plates of Liquidmetal were used in the solar wind ion collector array in the Genesis space probe.

Commercial alloys
A range of zirconium-based alloys have been marketed under this trade name. Some example compositions are listed below, in molar percent:
 An early alloy, Vitreloy 1:
 Zirconium: 41.2, beryllium: 22.5, titanium: 13.8, copper: 12.5, nickel: 10
 A variant, Vitreloy 4 (Vit4):
 Zirconium: 46.75, beryllium: 27.5, titanium: 8.25, copper: 7.5, nickel: 10
 Vitreloy 105 (Vit105):
 Zirconium: 52.5, titanium: 5, copper: 17.9, nickel: 14.6, aluminium: 10
 A more recent development (Vitreloy 106a), which forms glass under less rapid cooling:
 Zirconium: 58.5, copper: 15.6, nickel: 12.8, aluminium: 10.3, niobium: 2.8

Licensed uses
Apple Inc., acquired a perpetual, exclusive license to use its technology in consumer electronics.
The Swatch Group, was granted an exclusive license to utilize Liquidmetal in its timepieces.''

References

External links
Official website
Overview of amorphous metals
NASA Spinoff 2004: Amorphous Alloy Surpasses Steel and Titanium
Another NASA article on LiquidMetal

Live Video demonstration showing elastic properties of Liquidmetal

Alloys
Amorphous metals
Apple Inc. industrial design
California Institute of Technology
Products introduced in 2003
The Swatch Group

Liquidmetal


War of Attrition is the fift album bi Dying Fetus. The album's leerics wur written solely bi guitarist Mike Kimball (see album buiklet). This release haes seen hie praise frae oreeginal fans due tae its return tae traditional DF form. It is an aa their 1st self-produced album in 9 years.

Umwhile co-vocalist Vince Matthews an umwhile drummer Eric Seyanga depairtit in 2005 tae form the baund Covenance. Gallagher ance again foond a new member: drummer Duane Timlin. Wi this line-up, Gallagher promised tae record wha he cawed "oor maist brutal album yet."

It is aiblins Dying Fetus' maist politeecally-influenced album, containin leerics that tackled the War on Terror, reality TV, an the flaws athin the juistice seestem. True tae DF roots, it is an aa rather violent, as richt efter the band describes their topic, they aften switch tae hou they kill their victims.

Track leetin
 Homicidal Retribution - 5:29
 Fate Of The Condemned - 4:41
 Raping The System - 6:11
 Insidious Repression - 3:32
 Unadulterated Hatred - 4:47
 The Ancient Rivalry - 3:41
 Parasites Of Catastrophe - 4:12
 Obsolete Deterrence - 4:13

Line Up

John Gallagher: Guitars/vocals
Mike Kimball: Guitars
Sean Beasley: Bass/vocals
Duane Timlin: Drums

Dying Fetus albums
2007 albums
Relapse Records albums

War of Attrition


Janika Sillamaa (born 23 June 1975) is an Estonian singer and actress.

Born into a musical family, Sillamaa was herself onstage from a very young age: in the musical theatre Colombina, founded by her mother Kaari Sillamaa, she played lead roles in many children's musicals, including "Thumbelina" and a revue programme "Mini-Cabaret".

In 1993 Sillamaa performed at the Roskilde Festival. She was then a student in the pop-jazz department of the Georg Ots Music School in Tallinn, where her vocal-coaches were Jaak Joala and Kare Kauks. In 1992 Sillamaa was internally chosen to represent Estonia at Eurovision 1993 - Estonia's first Eurovision participation - with Sillamaa performing eight potential entrant songs in a national preliminary round televised live as Eurolaul 1993 on 20 February 1993. The song selected for Sillamaa to perform as the Estonian Eurovision entrant was "Muretut meelt ja südametuld". With representatives of six other former Eastern bloc nations and nations of former Yugoslavia, Sillamaa performed "Muretut meelt ja südametuld" at the Kvalifikacija za Millstreet semi-final round broadcast live on 3 April 1993 in Ljubljana, when four of the seven competing entrants were eliminated, including "Muretut meelt ja südametuld" which finished the round at #5.

In 1992 Sillamaa played her first adult role in a stage musical: Mary Magdalene Jesus Christ Superstar at the Linnahall. Having recorded a few singles as vocalist for rock group the Names from 1995, Sillamaa again participated in Eurolaul in 1998 bidding to represent Estonia at Eurovision with "Viimne valge kuu" a song composed by Sillamaa's mother Kaari which finished Eurolaul 1998 in fourth place. In 2000 Sillamaa commenced studies at the Higher Drama School of Estonia intending to complete a four-year programme in stage directing. Only a matter of months before her graduation, however, a red card was shown for delicate reasons, possibly. Neither of the sides, nor the commission or the drop-out herself have yet agreed to reveal on the matter. Despite the controversy over the diploma she was never awarded, Sillamaa has since directed stage plays on a regular basis.

The 2000s (decade) also mark another turn to Janika Sillamaa's career. Several lead roles of blockbuster musicals have come on her credit, such as Elton John's "Aida" (title role), Ulvaeus-Andersson's "Chess" (Svetlana), Schönberg-Boublil's "Miss Saigon" (Ellen) and Webber's "Cats" to name a few. In 2009, she formed a rock band, Famagusta, with friends and recorded a single, Rong, which she described as an anthem for women in their 30s.

Janika Sillamaa has settled in Tallinn with her partner, Villu Feldbergiga, and their daughter, Alma (b. 2015).

References

External links

1975 births
Living people
21st-century Estonian women singers
Estonian pop singers
Estonian musical theatre actresses
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Estonia
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1993
20th-century Estonian women singers
Tallinn Georg Ots Music School alumni
Actresses from Tallinn
Singers from Tallinn

Janika Sillamaa


Sir John Valentine Carden, 6th Baronet MBE (6 February 1892 – 10 December 1935) was an English tank and vehicle designer. He was the sixth baronet of Templemore, County Tipperary, from 1931.

Work
Born in London, Carden was a talented, self-taught engineer, with an ability to put his ideas to practical use. From 1914 to 1916, he ran a company that manufactured light passenger-cars under the brand Carden. The company's first model was a cyclecar, with seating only for the driver.

During the First World War, Carden served in the Army Service Corps and gained the rank of captain, acquiring experience with vehicles such as tracked Holt tractors.

After the war, he returned to car manufacturing but sold his original design and factory to Ward and Avey who renamed it the AV. He then designed a new cyclecar and started manufacture at Ascot but at the end of 1919 sold the design to E. A. Tamplin who continued manufacture as the Tamplin car. A further design followed with a two-seat fibreboard body. Carden even sold one of these to King Alfonso XIII of Spain  before selling the company to new owners in 1922 who renamed it the New Carden.

Two or three years later, Carden met car-designer Vivian Loyd and the two started a small company in Chertsey named Carden-Loyd, working on light, tracked vehicles for military use. Carden was reportedly described as an "introvert engineering genius", while Loyd was conversely described as an "extrovert engineer-salesman".

What brought the pair real success was a tankette design: the first Carden-Loyd One-Man Tankette, which was designed in 1925. In the next two years, it was developed into Marks I, II and III, and later, two-man tankette models Mark IV and Mark V. All were built in small numbers but were very promising, and, as a result, Carden-Loyd was bought by Vickers-Armstrongs in March 1928. Carden himself was employed by Vickers as the technical director. The pair continued developing their tankette model, eventually creating their best-known design, the Mark VI. It became the first successful design for that vehicle type in the world, and a classic one, several hundred being produced and exported to 16 countries. Many foreign tankette models developed later were said to be inspired by the Mark VI.

Carden and Loyd also designed light tanks, such as the well-known Vickers-Armstrongs Commercial Light Tanks series (used, for example, in Belgium) and the British Army's Light Tanks, including Light Tank Mk VI (one of Carden's last designs). The pair also developed the world's first amphibious tank, the Vickers-Carden-Loyd Amphibian Tank, and played a role in the development of the Vickers E tank model.

Aside from tanks, Carden and Loyd also developed several light artillery tractors and carriers, including the VA D50 model, which was a prototype of the Bren Carrier. Carden's interest in flying also led him to build an ultralight plane based on the French "Flying Flea", using a modified Ford engine uprated from 10 bhp to 31 bhp. In 1935, Carden started Carden Aero Engines Ltd., an aircraft engine manufacturer. A partnership with L.E. Baynes led to the founding of Carden Baynes Aircraft Ltd., which produced gliders of Baynes' design fitted with auxiliary engines.

John Carden was killed in an air crash near Tatsfield, Surrey on 10 December 1935, while flying on a Sabena airliner.

Notes

References
Christopher F. Foss, Peter McKenzie. The Vickers Tanks, 1995,
Arthur E. Carden. Carden of Templemore 2010, 2010. Available from Lulu website, blocked by Wikipedia but to be found at Google. This book contains a 30-page chapter on Sir John Valentine Carden, with 24 illustrations.

1892 births
1935 deaths
Baronets in the Baronetage of Ireland
British automotive engineers
British Army personnel of World War I
English aerospace engineers
English aviators
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Royal Army Service Corps officers
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in England
20th-century British inventors

Sir John Carden, 6th Baronet


Natamycin, also known as pimaricin, is an antifungal medication used to treat fungal infections around the eye. This includes infections of the eyelids, conjunctiva, and cornea. It is used as eyedrops. Natamycin is also used in the food industry as a preservative.

Allergic reactions may occur. It is unclear if medical use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe. It is in the macrolide and polyene families of medications. It results in fungal death by altering the cell membrane.

Natamycin was discovered in 1955 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1978. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.  It is produced by fermentation of certain types of the bacterium Streptomyces.

Uses

Medical

Natamycin is used to treat fungal infections, including Candida, Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Fusarium, and Penicillium. It is applied topically as a cream, in eye drops, or (for oral infections) in a lozenge. Natamycin shows negligible absorption into the body when administered in these ways. When taken orally, little or none is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, making it inappropriate for systemic infections. Natamycin lozenges are also prescribed to treat yeast infections and oral thrush.

Food
Natamycin has been used for decades in the food industry as a hurdle to fungal outgrowth in dairy products and other foods.  Potential advantages for the usage of natamycin might include the replacement of traditional chemical preservatives, a neutral flavor impact, and less dependence on pH for efficacy, as is common with chemical preservatives.  It can be applied in a variety of ways: as an aqueous suspension (such as mixed into a brine) sprayed on the product or into which the product is dipped, or in powdered form (along with an anticaking agent such as cellulose) sprinkled on or mixed into the product.

While not currently approved for use on meats in the United States, some countries allow natamycin to be applied to the surface of dry and fermented sausages to prevent mold growth on the casing.  Also, natamycin is approved for various dairy applications in the United States.  More specifically, natamycin is commonly used in products such as cream cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream, yogurt, shredded cheeses, cheese slices, and packaged salad mixes. One of the reasons for food producers to use natamycin is to replace the artificial preservative sorbic acid.

As a food additive, it has E number E235. Throughout the European Union, it is approved only as a surface preservative for certain cheese and dried sausage products. It must not be detectable 5 mm below the rind. While natamycin is approved in different applications at different levels in the world, it is approved in over 150 countries worldwide.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) panel took over the responsibilities of providing scientific food safety advice to the EU from the Scientific Committee on Food  in 2002.  In 2009, the EFSA considered the proposed use levels of natamycin are safe if it is used for the surface treatment for these cheese and sausage types.

Safety

Natamycin does not have acute toxicity. In animal studies, the lowest  found was 2.5-4.5 g/kg. In rats, the LD50 is ≥2300 mg/kg, and doses of 500 mg/kg/day over 2 years caused no detectable differences in survival rate, growth, or incidence of tumors. The metabolites of natamycin also lack toxicity. The breakdown products of natamycin under various storage conditions may have a lower LD50 than natamycin, but in all cases, the numbers are quite high. In humans, a dose of 500 mg/kg/day repeated over multiple days caused nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

No evidence shows natamycin, at either pharmacological levels or levels encountered as a food additive, can harm normal intestinal flora, but definitive research may not be available. However, some people are allergic to natamycin.

The EFSA has concluded that the use of natamycin as a food additive has no relevant risk for the development of resistant fungi.

Mechanism of action

Natamycin inhibits the growth of fungi by specifically binding to ergosterol present in fungal cell membranes. Natamycin inhibits amino acid and glucose transport proteins leading to a loss of nutrient transport across the plasma membrane. While this binding is reversible, ergosterol binding acts as a universal mechanism of fungal inhibition, allowing natamycin to act on diverse fungal pathogens from Saccharomyces yeast to Aspergillus moulds. Natamycin is unique amongst related antifungals specifically because it does not directly cause membrane permeabilization. Structurally-related antibiotics with similar binding properties are thought to produce hydrophilic channels that allow leakage of potassium and sodium ions from the cell.

Natamycin has very low solubility in water; however, natamycin is effective at very low levels. Its minimum inhibitory concentration is less than 10 ppm for most molds.

Biochemistry
Natamycin is produced as a secondary metabolite by some Streptomyces species: S. natalensis, S. lydicus, S. chattanoogensis and S. gilvosporeus. Structurally, its core is a macrolide containing a polyene segment, with carboxylic acid and mycosamine groups attached. As with other polyene antimycotics, the biosynthesis begins with a series of polyketide synthase modules, followed by additional enzymatic processes for oxidation and attachment of the substituents.

Natamycin is produced on an industrial scale by fermentation of various Streptomyces strains, including S. chattanoogensis L10.

History
Natamycin was first isolated in 1955 from fermentation broth of a Streptomyces natalensis cell culture. It was originally named pimaricin to honor Pietermaritzburg, where Streptomyces natalensis was acquired. Pimaricin was later renamed after the World Health Organization (WHO) mandated that antibiotics produced by Streptomyces end in –mycin. The name natamycin was chosen in reference to the natalensis species name.

Society and culture
Natamycin appears on Whole Foods' "Unacceptable Ingredients for Food" list.

References

External links

Antifungals
Preservatives
Macrolides
Polyenes
Epoxides
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
E-number additives

Natamycin


The Oak Lane Historic District is located on the east side of Davenport, Iowa, United States. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1984. The historic district is a residential area that stretches along Oak Lane between High Street on the north and East Locust Street on the south. There are 27 houses that make up the district. Twenty-three houses are located on Oak Lane and four are on Locust Street; the three immediately to the west of Oak Lane and one immediately to the east.

History

Amos Cutter, a local real estate entrepreneur, developed the Oak Lane Addition from about 1900 to 1910. Previously the land had been used for agricultural purposes. Oak Lane reflected a prosperous, middle-class reputation. It also reflected the growing American identity of the city's population in the early 20th century instead of the old European ethnic divisions that marked the neighborhoods that were developed in the 19th century. It also marked the expansion of the city away from the Mississippi River. This was possible, in part, due to the expansion of the city's streetcar lines. Locust Street, on the south side of the neighborhood, was a major streetcar route in the city.

The houses closer to Locust Street are larger, more stylish, and were home to fairly well-to-do professionals. They included William Kellenberger, who was the manager of Tri-City Litho and Printing Co.; Dr. William Alien, M.D.; Horace Roberts, who was the treasurer and general manager of the Gordon-Van Tine Company; Moritz Landauer, of the Simon & Landauer clothing store; Martin L. Parker, who was secretary and treasurer for the M.L. Parker & Company department store; and Oscar C. Woods, who was the president of a wholesale fruit and produce business the Martin-Woods Company. At the other end of Oak Lane near High Street is the location of the more modest houses that were built on narrower lots. They housed families who were headed by salesmen, clerks, and blue-collar workers.

There are two known architect-designed houses in the district. Chicago architect William A. Otis designed a Georgian Revival house at 17 Oak Lane. Davenport architect Gustav Hanssen designed the Georgian Revival Oscar Woods House at 720 East Locust Street. He may have also designed the neighboring Julia Roberts House (726) and the George Johnson House (810) based on similarities of form and facade treatment, but that cannot be confirmed.

For his part, Cutter would go on to develop the McClellan Heights neighborhood beginning in 1906. Like Oak Lane, he would move into a house in the new development as he sold and developed the other lots.

Architecture

The architecture of the Oak Lane neighborhood reflects the styles that were popular at the turn of the 20th century in Davenport. This was a period of transition from the Victorian styles, especially Queen Anne, to the Colonial Revival styles. The three prominent houses along East Locust are noteworthy examples of Davenport's Georgian Revival/Federal style houses. The oldest house in the neighborhood is an Italianate house at 10 Oak Lane that was built about 1875 and came with the property. It became Cutter's residence as the addition was being developed. The newest house in the neighborhood was built at 36 Oak Lane around 1922. It is one of the more modest houses on the north side of the development.

References

External links

Colonial Revival architecture in Iowa
Historic districts in Davenport, Iowa
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Davenport, Iowa
Houses in Davenport, Iowa
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa

Oak Lane Historic District


Admiral of the Blue George Churchill (20 February 1654 – 8 May 1710) was an English naval officer, who served as a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty from 1699 to 1702 and sat on the Lord High Admirals Council from 1702 to 1708. He was Member of Parliament for St Albans from 1685 to 1708, then Portsmouth from 1708 until his death in 1710.

Described by his sister-in-law Sarah Churchill as "a coarse fat man...with uncommon morals", his reputation has suffered in comparison with his brothers, the Duke of Marlborough and Charles Churchill. While considered by some an effective administrator, he made many enemies and achieved high office largely due to his friendship with Prince George of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne.

He died in May 1710 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, next to his sister Arabella. He never married but left the bulk of his property to his illegitimate son, George Churchill (1687–1753).

Life

George Churchill was born at Minterne Magna, Dorset on 20 February 1654, second surviving son of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688) of Glanvilles Wootton, Dorset and Elizabeth Drake, whose family came from Ash, in Devon. Winston served with the Royalist Army in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and was heavily fined as a result, forcing his family to live at Ash House with his mother-in-law.

George had three surviving brothers, John, later Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) and Charles (1654–1714). Another brother, Theobald, died in 1685. Charles often served as John's subordinate and both were political Whigs, while George was a Tory; they quarrelled in later life and neither was an executor of his will.

He was closer to his sister Arabella (1648–1730), mistress of James II from 1665 to 1674 and mother of his eldest son, the Duke of Berwick (1670–1734). His will made a bequest to Francis Godfrey, another of Arabella's sons, and she was buried next to him in Westminster Abbey.

Although he never married, he acknowledged a son, George Churchill, from a relationship with a Mary Cooke, of whom little is known. Apart from the bequest to Francis, George inherited the bulk of his father's estate and became a general in the British Army.

Career

In 1665, Arabella Churchill became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde and began an affair with her husband James, then Duke of York. This led to appointments for her three brothers and in 1666, George was commissioned as Lieutenant in the Royal Navy. He did not serve at sea, instead acting as page to the Earl of Sandwich, envoy to Spain from 1666 to 1668.

Returning from Spain in 1668, his father's financial troubles meant George spent a brief period as a Draper's apprentice, one of the powerful trade associations that dominated the City of London. He returned to military service during the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672 and thereafter held a series of positions in the army and navy.

Charles Churchill had previously served at the Danish court, where he became friends with Prince George of Denmark. In 1683, Prince George married James' younger daughter, 18-year-old Anne; John's wife Sarah Churchill was appointed Anne's Lady of the Bedchamber, while her brother-in-law Colonel Charles Griffin became Prince George's senior aide. The Churchills and their relatives formed a central part of the so-called 'Cockpit circle', named after Anne's apartments in Whitehall Palace. George was particularly close to Prince George and owed much of his later success to their friendship.

Later suggestions of a homosexual relationship between the two Georges appear to have originated with Sarah Churchill. She made similar allegations against Abigail Masham, who supplanted her as Anne's closest friend and often quarreled with her brother-in-law. Since Anne was very close to her husband and pregnant on no less than 18 occasions, such accusations were unwise and Sarah later withdrew them. The wider question on George's sexuality cannot be established; for a variety of reasons, younger sons often remained unmarried.

Despite his Catholicism, James succeeded his brother Charles as king in 1685 with widespread support, particularly among the High Tory faction to which George belonged. Many did so on the principle of hereditary succession, especially important in a highly structured society, and fears his exclusion would lead to a repetition of the civil wars. In 1683, John Churchill purchased Holywell House, near St Albans, giving him control of the Parliamentary constituency of St Albans and in March 1685, George was elected Member of Parliament or MP. A few months later, James suspended Parliament for refusing to pass his measures; his Tory backers began to desert him after 1686, when his policies increasingly seemed to threaten the primacy of the Church of England.

His elder brothers were prominent in the army conspiracy against James, along with Charles Trelawny, a Tory army officer whose support secured the West Country ports of Torbay, Plymouth and Exeter. Prior to the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, George assumed command of HMS Newcastle; claiming his ship was leaking, he entered Plymouth shortly before it declared for William III on 18 November. This appears to have been planned in advance and was the first significant naval defection. He later submitted a vastly inflated bill for 'repairs' and was briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London for demanding payment for escorting merchant vessels.

He fought at Bantry Bay in May 1689 and Beachy Head in July 1690, a defeat that caused panic in England. Churchill was a close friend of the Earl of Torrington, commander at Beachy Head, who was ordered by Edward Russell to attack a French force considerably larger than his own. In the recriminations that followed, Torrington was court-martialled and acquitted but William dismissed him from the navy.

In 1691, Churchill was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel in the Horse Guards and commanded the 96-gun HMS St. Andrew at Barfleur & La Hogue in June 1692. However, the Torrington affair divided the navy and when Russell became First Lord of the Admiralty in 1693, he resigned from the service. He retained his seat as MP and continued his close links with Prince George; when Russell retired in 1699, he was appointed Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty.

After Anne succeeded William in 1702, her husband became Lord High Admiral and Churchill a member of the Lord High Admirals Council that advised him. For the next six years of the War of the Spanish Succession, the pair effectively controlled naval operations. In November 1707, criticism over the conduct of naval affairs culminated in demands by the ruling Whig Junto for Churchill's resignation. These were initially backed by some Tories, until they realised it meant replacing him with another Whig.

The underlying issue was war weariness; Marlborough's victory at Ramillies in 1706 raised hopes of a rapid end but a series of defeats in Spain during 1707 showed this was not the case. There were certainly failings in administration but part of the problem was different views on the navy's role; the Tories felt it should focus on protecting British merchant shipping, the Whigs wanted it to support land operations in the Mediterranean, including Italy, Southern France and Spain. Trying to do both meant it was over extended.

Prince George said he would resign if Churchill were forced out, while Tories in the Lords claimed failures in naval policy and Spain were caused by the unnecessary diversion of resources to Flanders to bolster Marlborough's reputation. The result was that George retained his position but only with support from the Crown and at the cost of an irrevocable breach with his elder brother. At the May 1708 General Election, he gave up the family-controlled seat of St Albans and was returned instead for Portsmouth.

When Prince George died in October 1708, the Council was dissolved and Churchill retired to a house in the Royal park at Windsor, where he maintained a famous aviary. On his death in May 1710, he left this to the Duke of Ormonde and his old friend the Earl of Torrington; the remaining estate of £24,000 was split between his son and nephew.

References

Sources

 ;

External links

1654 births
1710 deaths
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Lords of the Admiralty
Royal Navy admirals
George Churchill
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
English MPs 1685–1687
English MPs 1689–1690
English MPs 1690–1695
English MPs 1695–1698
English MPs 1698–1700
English MPs 1701
English MPs 1701–1702
English MPs 1702–1705
English MPs 1705–1707
British MPs 1708–1710
British Life Guards officers

George Churchill (Royal Navy officer)


The Blackburn Buccaneer is a British carrier-capable attack aircraft designed in the 1950s for the Royal Navy (RN). Designed and initially produced by Blackburn Aircraft at Brough, it was later officially known as the Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer when Blackburn became a part of the Hawker Siddeley Group, but this name is rarely used.

The Buccaneer was originally designed in response to the Soviet Union introducing the Sverdlov class of light cruisers. Instead of building a new class of its own cruisers, the Royal Navy decided that it could address the threat posed via low-level attack runs performed by Buccaneers, so low as to exploit the ship's radar horizon to minimise the opportunity for being fired upon. The Buccaneer could attack using nuclear weapons or conventional munitions. During its service life, it would be modified to carry anti-ship missiles, allowing it to attack vessels from a stand-off distance and thus improve its survivability against modern ship-based anti-aircraft weapons. The Buccaneer performed its maiden flight in April 1958 and entered Royal Navy service during July 1962.

Initial production aircraft suffered a series of accidents, largely due to insufficient engine power; this shortfall would be quickly addressed via the introduction of the Buccaneer S.2, equipped with more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey jet engines, in 1965. The Buccaneer S.2 would be the first FAA aircraft to make a non-stop, unrefuelled crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Royal Navy standardised the air wings operating from their carriers around the Buccaneer, Phantom, and the Fairey Gannet. The Buccaneer was also offered as a possible solution for the Royal Air Force (RAF) requirement for a supersonic interdictor carrying nuclear weapons. It was rejected as not meeting the specification in favour of the more advanced BAC TSR-2 bomber, but this aircraft would be cancelled largely due to its high cost, then its selected replacement, the General Dynamics F-111K, would also be cancelled. The Buccaneer was purchased as a TSR-2 substitute and entered RAF service during October 1969.

The Royal Navy retired the last of its large aircraft carriers in February 1979; as a result, the Buccaneer's strike role was transferred to the British Aerospace Sea Harrier and the Buccaneers were transferred to the RAF. After a crash in 1980 revealed metal fatigue problems, the RAF's fleet was reduced to 60 aircraft while the rest were withdrawn. The ending of the Cold War in the 1990s led to military cutbacks that accelerated the retirement of Britain's remaining Buccaneers; the last of the RAF's Buccaneers were retired in March 1994 in favour of the more modern Panavia Tornado. The South African Air Force (SAAF) was the only export customer for the type. Buccaneers saw combat action in the first Gulf War of 1991, and the lengthy South African Border War.

Development

Royal Navy

Following the end of the Second World War, the Royal Navy soon needed to respond to the threat posed by the rapid expansion of the Soviet Navy. Chief amongst Soviet naval developments in the early 1950s was the ; these vessels were classifiable as light cruisers, being fast, effectively armed, and numerous.  Like the German "pocket battleships" during the Second World War, these new Soviet cruisers presented a serious threat to the merchant fleets in the Atlantic. To counter this threat, the Royal Navy decided not to use a new ship class of its own, but instead introduce a specialised strike aircraft employing conventional or nuclear weapons. Operating from the Navy's fleet carriers, and attacking at high speed and low level, it would offer a solution to the Sverdlov problem.

A detailed specification was issued in June 1952 as Naval Staff Requirement NA.39, calling for a two-seat aircraft with folding wings, capable of flying at  at sea level, with a combat radius of  at low altitude, and  at higher cruising altitudes. A weapons load of  was required, including conventional bombs, the Red Beard free-fall nuclear bomb, or the Green Cheese anti-ship missile. Based on the requirement, the Ministry of Supply issued specification M.148T in August 1952, and the first responses were returned in February 1953. Blackburn's design by Barry P. Laight, Project B-103, won the tender in July 1955. For reasons of secrecy, the aircraft was called BNA (Blackburn Naval Aircraft) or BANA (Blackburn Advanced Naval Aircraft) in documents, leading to the nickname of "Banana Jet". The first prototype made its maiden flight from RAE Bedford on 30 April 1958.

The first production Buccaneer model, the Buccaneer S.1, entered squadron service with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) in January 1963. It was powered by a pair of de Havilland Gyron Junior turbojets, producing  of thrust. This mark was somewhat underpowered, and as a consequence, could not achieve take off if fully laden with both fuel and armament.  A temporary solution to this problem was the "buddy system": aircraft took off with a full load of weaponry and minimal fuel, and would subsequently rendezvous with a Supermarine Scimitar that would deliver the full load of fuel by aerial refuelling. The lack of power meant, however, that the loss of an engine during take-off, or landing at full load, when the aircraft was dependent on flap blowing, could be catastrophic.

The long-term solution to the underpowered S.1 was the development of the Buccaneer S.2, fitted with the Rolls-Royce Spey engine, which provided 40% more thrust. The turbofan Spey also had significantly lower fuel consumption than the pure-jet Gyron, which provided improved range. The engine nacelles had to be enlarged to accommodate the Spey, and the wing required minor aerodynamic modifications as a result. Hawker Siddeley announced the production order for the S.2 in January 1962. All Royal Navy squadrons had converted to the improved S.2 by the end of 1966. However, 736 Naval Air Squadron also used eight S.1 aircraft taken from storage to meet an extra training demand for RAF crews until December 1970.

South African Air Force
In October 1962, 16 aircraft were ordered by the South African Air Force (SAAF), as the Buccaneer S.50. These were S.2 aircraft with the addition of Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines to provide additional thrust for the "hot and high" African airfields. The S.50 was also equipped with strengthened undercarriage, and higher capacity wheel brakes, and had manually folded wings. They were equipped to use the AS-30 command guided air-to-surface missiles. Due to the need to patrol the vast coastline, they also specified aerial refueling, and larger  underwing tanks. Once in service, the extra thrust of the BS.605 rocket engines proved to be unnecessary, and they were eventually removed from all aircraft. South Africa later sought to procure further Buccaneers, but the British government blocked further orders, because of a voluntary arms embargo on that country.

Royal Air Force

Blackburn's first attempt to sell the Buccaneer to the Royal Air Force (RAF) occurred in 1957–1958, in response to the Air Ministry Operational Requirement OR.339, for a replacement for the RAF's English Electric Canberra light bombers, with supersonic speed, and a  combat radius; asking for an all-weather aircraft that could deliver nuclear weapons over a long range, operate at high level at Mach 2+ or low level at Mach 1.2, with STOL performance. Blackburn proposed two designs, the B.103A, a simple modification of the Buccaneer S.1 with more fuel, and the B.108, a more extensively modified aircraft with more sophisticated avionics.  Against a background of inter-service distrust, political issues, and the 1957 Defence White Paper, both types were rejected by the RAF; as being firmly subsonic, and incapable of meeting the RAF's range requirements; while the B.108, which retained Gyron Junior engines while being  heavier than the S.1, would have been severely underpowered, giving poor short-take off performance.  The BAC TSR-2 was eventually selected in 1959.

After the cancellation of the TSR-2, and then the substitute American General Dynamics F-111K, the Royal Air Force still required a replacement for its Canberras in the low-level strike role, while the planned retirement for the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers meant that the RAF would also need to add a maritime strike capability.  It was therefore decided in 1968 that the RAF would adopt the Buccaneer, both by the purchase of new-build aircraft, and by taking over the Fleet Air Arm's Buccaneers as the carriers were retired. A total of 46 new-build aircraft for the RAF were built by Blackburn's successor, Hawker Siddeley, designated S.2B.  These had RAF-type communications and avionics equipment, Martel air-to-surface missile capability, and could be equipped with a bulged bomb-bay door containing an extra fuel tank.

Some Fleet Air Arm Buccaneers were modified in-service to also carry the Martel anti-ship missile.  Martel-capable FAA aircraft were later redesignated S.2D.  The remaining aircraft became S.2C.  RAF aircraft were given various upgrades.  Self-defence was improved by the addition of the AN/ALQ-101 electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod (also found on RAF's SEPECAT Jaguar GR.3), chaff and flare dispensers, and AIM-9 Sidewinder capability.  RAF low-level strike Buccaneers could carry out what was known as 'retard defence'; four  retarded bombs carried internally could be dropped to provide an effective deterrent against any following aircraft.  In 1979, the RAF obtained the American AN/AVQ-23E Pave Spike laser designator pod for Paveway II laser-guided bombs; allowing the aircraft to act as target designators for further Buccaneers, Jaguars, and other strike aircraft. From 1986, No. 208 Squadron RAF, then No. 12 (B) Squadron, replaced the Martel ASM with the Sea Eagle missile.

Proposed developments
Further developments beyond the Buccaneer S.2 were put forward by Hawker Siddeley in the 1960s and 1970s; however none would be pursued through to production by either the Royal Navy or the Royal Air Force.  One such effort was designated as Buccaneer 2*, which was presented as a cost-effective alternative to the TSR-2.  The 2* would have featured newer equipment; such as head-up displays and onboard computers from the cancelled Hawker Siddeley P.1154 VTOL aircraft, it would have also adopted the same radar system as that being developed for the TSR-2.  An even more extensively upgraded model, the Buccaneer 2** was also mooted, which would have been furnished with more sophisticated land-strike capabilities derived from the TSR-2 again.  According to Denis Healey, defence minister 1964–1970, the RAF had been hostile to the Buccaneer due to it being a naval aircraft; it has been further suggested that developing improved Buccaneers for the RAF would weaken arguments against the Royal Navy's planned CVA-01-class aircraft carriers. In one report by the Ministry of Defence (MoD), it was claimed that two Buccaneer 2* could do the job of one General Dynamics F-111, for less than half the unit cost.

Design

Overview

The Buccaneer was a mid-wing, twin-engine aircraft. It had a crew of two in a tandem-seat arrangement with the observer seated higher and offset from the pilot to give a clear view forwards to enable him to assist in visual search. Its operational profile included cruising at altitude (for reduced fuel consumption) before descending, just outside the anticipated enemy radar detection range, to  for a  dash to and from the target. Targets might be ships-at-sea or large shore-based installations at long range from the launching aircraft-carrier. To illustrate, in May 1966, an S.2 launched from  in the Irish Sea, performed a low-level simulated nuclear weapon toss on the airfield at Gibraltar and returned to the ship, a  trip The aircraft had an all-weather operational capability provided by the pilot's head-up display and Airstream Direction Detector, for example, and the observer's navigation systems and fire control radar. The Buccaneer was one of the largest aircraft to operate from British aircraft carriers, and continued operating from them until the last conventional carrier was withdrawn in February 1979. During its service, the Buccaneer was the backbone of the Navy's ground strike operations, including nuclear strike.

The majority of the rear fuselage's internal area was used to house electronics, such as elements of the radio, equipment supporting the aircraft's radar functionality, and the crew's liquid oxygen life support system; the whole compartment was actively cooled by ram air drawn from the tailfin. For redundancy, the Buccaneer featured dual busbars for electrical systems, and three independent hydraulic systems. The aircraft was made easier to control and land via an integrated flight control computer that performed auto-stabilisation and auto pilot functions.

Armament and equipment

The Buccaneer had been designed specifically as a maritime nuclear strike aircraft.  Its intended weapon was a nuclear air-to-surface missile codenamed Green Cheese, but this weapon's development was cancelled, and in its place was the unguided  Red Beard, which had been developed for the English Electric Canberra. Red Beard had an explosive yield in the 10 to 20 kiloton range; and was mounted on a special bomb bay door, into which it nested neatly to reduce aerodynamic buffet on the launch aircraft. At low levels and high speeds, traditional bomb bay doors could not be opened safely into the air stream; therefore, Blackburn developed a revolving bomb bay which turned about the long axis of the aircraft, exposing the weapon load mounted on what was effectively the inside of the single bomb bay door and allowing it to be released quickly without creating a massive increase in drag; this feature also proved convenient in providing ground-level access. and unintentionally improved the aircraft's stealth capability by not generating a large increase in the radar cross section.

The bomb bay could also accommodate a  ferry tank, a photo-reconnaissance 'crate', or a cargo container. The reconnaissance package featured an assortment of six cameras, each at different angles or having different imaging properties, and was only mounted on missions specifically involving reconnaissance activities.  The Buccaneer also featured four underwing hard points capable of mounting  bombs, missiles, fuel tanks, or other equipment such as flares; later developments saw the adoption of wing-mounted electronic warfare and laser designator pods.  A similar underwing configuration was latterly adopted by the SAAF.  Upon its entry into service, the Buccaneer was capable of carrying practically all munitions then in use by Royal Navy aircraft.  It was intended for a pack with twin 30 mm (1.2 in) ADEN cannons to be developed for the Buccaneer, but the effort was abandoned and the type was never equipped with a gun.

Early on in the Buccaneer's career, conventional  anti-ship missions would have employed a mix of unguided bombs and rockets at close range. This tactic became increasingly impractical in the face of Soviet anti-aircraft missile advances; thus, later Buccaneers were adapted to make use of several missiles capable of striking enemy ships from a distance. The Anglo-French Martel missile was introduced upon the Buccaneer, but the weapon was said to have been "very temperamental", and its deployment required an attacking Buccaneer to increase its altitude and thus its vulnerability to being attacked itself. An extensive upgrade programme undertaken in the 1980s added compatibility with several new pieces of equipment; including the Sea Eagle missile, a self-guiding 'fire-and-forget' missile capable of striking targets at an effective range of , five times that of the Martel AJ 168 anti-ship missile, while also being significantly more powerful.

Boundary layer control

In order to dramatically improve aerodynamic performance at slow speeds, such as during takeoff and landing, Blackburn adopted a new aerodynamic control technology, known as boundary layer control (BLC). BLC bled high-pressure air directly from the engines, which was "blown" against various parts of the aircraft's wing surfaces and horizontal stabiliser. A full-span slit along the part of the wing's trailing edge was found to give almost 50% more lift than any contemporary scheme. In order to counteract the severe pitch movements that would otherwise be generated by use of BLC, a self-trimming system was interconnected with the BLC system, and additional blowing of the wing's leading edge was also introduced. The use of BLC allowed the use of slats to be entirely discarded in the design.

Before landing, the pilot would open the BLC vents as well as lower the flaps to achieve slow, stable flight. A consequence of the blown wing was that the engines were required to run at high power for low-speed flight in order to generate sufficient compressor gas for blowing. Blackburn's solution to this situation was the adoption of a large air brake; this addition also allowed an overshooting aircraft to pull away more quickly during a failed landing attempt. The nose cone and radar antenna could also be swung around by 180 degrees to reduce the length of the aircraft in the carrier hangar. This feature was particularly important due to the small size of the aircraft carriers from which the Buccaneer typically operated.

For a carrier take-off, the Buccaneer was pulled tail-down on the catapult, with its nosewheel in the air to put the wing at about 11°. It could be launched "hands-off": the pilot able to leave the tailplane in a neutral position. With blowing on, the Spey 101 output drops to around , though about  is recovered from the trailing edge slits which face aft. About 70% of the blown air goes over the flaps and ailerons, which are in a drooped position. Off an aircraft carrier, the minimum launch speed was around  at ; from an airfield, the Buccaneer took off in  at  with blown air. The figures become  at  without blown air.

Fuselage and structure

The fuselage of the Buccaneer was designed using the area rule technique, which had the effect of reducing aerodynamic drag while travelling at transonic speeds, and gave rise to the characteristic curvy "Coke bottle" shape of the fuselage. The majority of the airframe and fuselage was machined from solid castings to give the required strength to endure the stress of low-level operations. Considerable effort went into ensuring that metal fatigue would not be a limiting factor of the Buccaneer's operational life, even under the formidable conditions imposed of low level flight. However, design changes for the Mark 2 Buccaneer, the addition of extended wingtips and the position of a new bolt hole, did cause fatigue problems leading to the loss of two aircraft.

A large air brake formed the tail-cone of the aircraft. The hydraulically operated air brake formed two leaves that could be opened into the airstream to quickly decelerate the aircraft. The style of air brake chosen by Blackburn was highly effective in the dive-attack profile that the Buccaneer was intended to perform, as well as effectively balancing out induced drag from operating the BLC system. It featured a variable incidence tailplane that could be trimmed to suit the particular requirements of low-speed handling, or high-speed flight; the tailplane had to be high mounted due to the positioning and functionality of the Buccaneer's air brake.

The wing design of the Buccaneer was a compromise between two requirements: a low-aspect ratio for good gust response, and high-aspect ratio to give good range performance. The small wing was suited to high-speed flight at low altitude; however, a small wing did not generate sufficient lift that was essential for carrier operations. Therefore, BLC was used upon both the wing and tailplane, having the effect of energising and smoothing the boundary layer airflow, which significantly reduced airflow separation at the back of the wing, and therefore decreased stall speed, and increased effectiveness of trailing edge control surfaces, including flaps and ailerons. To extend the Buccanneer's operating life during the 1980s, it was deemed necessary to replace the original new spar rings on those aircraft that were retained.

Operational history

Fleet Air Arm

The Buccaneer entered service with the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) on 17 July 1962, when 801 NAS was commissioned at RNAS Lossiemouth in Scotland. The Buccaneer quickly replaced the FAA's Supermarine Scimitar, which had previously been performing the naval attack role. In addition to conventional ordnance, the Buccaneer was cleared for nuclear weapons delivery in 1965; weapons deployed included Red Beard and WE.177 free-fall bombs, which were carried internally on a rotating bomb-bay door. Two FAA operational squadrons, and a training unit were equipped with the Buccaneer S.1. The aircraft was well liked by Navy aircrew for its strength and flying qualities, and the BLC system gave them slower landing speeds than they were accustomed to.  The Buccaneers were painted dark sea grey on top, and anti-flash white on the undersides.

Deficiences in the Buccaneer S.1's Gyron Junior engines led to the type's career coming to an abrupt end in December 1970. On 1 December, an S.1 attempted to overshoot from a misjudged landing approach but one engine surged and produced no thrust, forcing the two crewmen to eject. On 8 December, an S.1 on a training flight suffered a massive uncontained engine failure. The pilot successfully ejected, but due to a mechanical failure in his ejection seat the navigator was killed. Subsequent inspections concluded that the Gyron Junior engine was no longer safe to fly. All remaining S.1s were grounded immediately and permanently.

By April 1965, intensive trials of the new Buccaneer S.2 had begun, with the type entering operational service with the FAA later that year. The improved S.2 type proved its value when it became the first FAA aircraft to make a non-stop, unrefuelled crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. On 28 March 1967, Buccaneers from RNAS Lossiemouth bombed the shipwrecked supertanker  off the western coast of Cornwall to make the oil burn in an attempt to avoid an environmental disaster. In 1972, Buccaneers of 809 Naval Air Squadron operating from  took part in a  mission to show a military presence over British Honduras (now Belize) shortly before its independence, to deter a possible Guatemalan invasion in pursuit of its territorial claims over the country.

The Buccaneer also participated in regular patrols and exercises in the North Sea, practising the type's role if war had broken out with the Soviet Union. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Royal Navy standardised the air wings operating from their carriers around the Phantom, Buccaneer, and the Fairey Gannet aircraft. A total of six FAA squadrons were equipped with the Buccaneer: 700B/700Z (intensive flying trials unit), 736 (training), 800, 801, 803 and 809 Naval Air Squadrons. Buccaneers were embarked on HMS Victorious, , HMS Ark Royal, and .

The Buccaneer was retired from FAA service with the decommissioning in February 1979 of the Ark Royal, the last of the navy's fleet carriers. Their retirement was part of a larger foreign policy agenda that was implemented throughout the 1970s. Measures such as the withdrawal of most British military forces stationed East of Suez were viewed as reducing the need for aircraft carriers, and fixed-wing naval aviation in general. The decision was highly controversial, particularly to those within the FAA. The Royal Navy would replace the naval strike capability of the Buccaneer with the smaller V/STOL-capable British Aerospace Sea Harrier, which were operated from their s.

Royal Air Force
After the General Dynamics F-111K was cancelled in early 1968, due to the programme suffering serious cost escalation and delays, the RAF was forced to look for a replacement that was available and affordable, and reluctantly selected the Buccaneer. The first RAF unit to receive the Buccaneer was 12 Squadron at RAF Honington in October 1969, in the maritime strike role, at first equipped with ex-Royal Navy Buccaneer S.2As. This was to remain a key station for the type, as 15 Squadron equipped with the Buccaneer the following year, before moving to RAF Laarbruch in 1971, and the RAF Buccaneer conversion unit, No. 237 Operational Conversion Unit RAF, forming at Honington in March 1971. The Buccaneer was seen as an interim solution, but delays in the Panavia Tornado programme would ensure that the 'interim' period would stretch out, and the Buccaneer would remain in RAF service for over two decades, long after the FAA had given up the type.

With the phased withdrawal of the Royal Navy's carrier fleet during the 1970s, the Fleet Air Arm's Buccaneers were transferred to the RAF, which had taken over the maritime strike role. 62 of the 84 S.2 aircraft were eventually transferred, redesignated S.2A; some of these were later upgraded to S.2B standard. Ex-FAA aircraft equipped 16 Squadron, joining 15 Squadron at RAF Laarbruch, and 208 Squadron at Honington; the last ex-FAA aircraft went to 216 Squadron shortly before its disbandment.

From 1970, with 12 Squadron initially, followed by 15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, No. 237 OCU, 208 Squadron, and 216 Squadron, the RAF Buccaneer force re-equipped with WE.177 nuclear weapons.  At peak strength, Buccaneers equipped six RAF squadrons, although for only a year.  A more sustained strength of five squadrons was made up of three squadrons (15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, 208 Squadron), plus No. 237 OCU (a war reserve or Shadow squadron), all assigned to Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) for land strike duties in support of land forces opposing Warsaw Pact forces in continental Europe, plus one squadron (12 Squadron) assigned to Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) for maritime strike duties.

Opportunities for Buccaneer squadrons to engage in realistic training were limited, and so when the US began its Red Flag military exercises at Nellis Air Force Base in 1975, the RAF became keenly interested. The first Red Flag in which RAF aircraft were involved was in 1977, with 10 Buccaneers and two Avro Vulcan bombers participating. Buccaneers would be involved in later Red Flags through to 1983, and in 1979, also participated in the similar Maple Flag exercise over Canada. The Buccaneer proved successful with its fast low-level attacks, which were highly accurate despite the lack of terrain-following radar and other modern avionics.

During the 1980 Red Flag exercises, one of the participating Buccaneers lost a wing mid-flight due to a fatigue-induced crack and crashed, killing its crew. The entire RAF Buccaneer fleet was grounded in February 1980; subsequent investigation discovered serious metal fatigue problems to be present on numerous aircraft. A total of 60 aircraft were selected to receive new spar rings, while others were scrapped; the nascent 216 Squadron was subsequently disbanded due to a resulting reduction in aircraft numbers. Later the same year, the UK-based Buccaneer squadrons moved to RAF Lossiemouth in order to free space at Honington for the Tornado.

In 1983, six Buccaneer S.2s were sent to Cyprus to support British peacekeepers in Lebanon as a part of Operation Pulsator.  On 11 September 1983, two of these aircraft flew low over Beirut, their presence intended to intimidate insurgents, rather than inflict damage directly. After 1983, the land strike duties were mostly reassigned to the Tornado aircraft then entering service, and two Buccaneer squadrons remaining (12 Squadron, and 208 Squadron) were then assigned to SACLANT for maritime strike duties.  Only the 'Shadow Squadron', No. 237 OCU, remained assigned to the role of land strike on long term assignment to SACEUR, No. 237 was also to operate as a designator for Jaguar ground strike aircraft in the event of conflict. The Buccaneer stood down from its reserve nuclear delivery duties in 1991.

The Buccaneer took part in combat operations during the 1991 Gulf War. It had been anticipated that Buccaneers might need to perform in the target designation role, although early on, this had been thought to be "unlikely". Following a short-notice decision to deploy, the first batch of six aircraft were readied to deploy in under 72 hours, including the adoption of desert camouflage, and additional equipment, and departed from Lossiemouth for the Middle Eastern theatre early on 26 January 1991. In theatre, it became common for each attack formation to comprise four Tornados and two Buccaneers; each Buccaneer carried a single laser designator pod, and acted as backup to the other in the event of an equipment malfunction. The first combat mission took place on 2 February, operating at a medium altitude of roughly , and successfully attacked the As Suwaira Road Bridge.

Operations continued on practically every available day; missions did not take place at night as the laser pod lacked night-time functionality. Approximately 20 road bridges were destroyed by Buccaneer-supported missions, restricting the Iraqi Army's mobility and communications. In conjunction with the advance of Coalition ground forces into Iraq, the Buccaneers switched to airfield bombing missions, targeting bunkers, runways, and any aircraft sighted; following the guidance of the Tornado's laser-guided ordnance, the Buccaneers would commonly conduct dive-bombing runs upon remaining targets of opportunity in the vicinity. In one incident on 21 February 1991, a pair of Buccaneers destroyed two Iraqi transport aircraft on the ground at Shayka Mazhar airfield. The Buccaneers flew 218 missions during the Gulf War, in which they designated targets for other aircraft, and dropped 48 laser-guided bombs.

It had originally been planned for the Buccaneer to remain in service until the end of the 1990s, having been extensively modernized in a process lasting up to 1989; the end of the Cold War stimulated major changes in British defence policy, many aircraft being deemed to be surplus to requirements. It was decided that a number of Tornado GR1s would be modified for compatibility with the Sea Eagle missile, and take over the RAF's maritime strike mission, and the Buccaneer would be retired early. Squadrons operating the Buccaneer were quickly re-equipped with the Tornado; by mid-1993, 208 Squadron was the sole remaining operator of the type. The last Buccaneers were withdrawn in March 1994, when 208 Squadron disbanded.

South African Air Force

South Africa was the only country other than the UK to operate the Buccaneer, where it was in service with the SAAF from 1965 to 1991.  In January 1963, even before the S.2 entered squadron service, South Africa had purchased 16 Spey-powered Buccaneers. The order was part of the Simonstown Agreement, in which the UK obtained use of the Simonstown naval base in South Africa, in exchange for maritime weapons. An order for a further 20 Buccaneers was blocked by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson's government.

In the maritime strike role, SAAF Buccaneers were armed with the French radio-guided AS-30 missile. In March 1971, Buccaneers fired 12 AS-30s at a stricken tanker, the Wafra, but failed to sink it. The AS-30 missile was also used in ground attacks for effective precision strikes, one example being in 1981, when multiple missiles were used to strike a number of radar stations in southern Angola. For overland attack, the SAAF Buccaneers carried up to four  bombs in the rotary bomb bay, and four bombs, flares, or SNEB rocket packs on the underwing stores pylons. During the 1990s, it was revealed that South Africa had manufactured six air-deliverable tactical nuclear weapons between 1978 and 1993. These nuclear weapons, containing highly enriched uranium, with an estimated explosion yield of 10-18 kilotons, were designed for delivery by either the Buccaneer or the Canberra bomber.

SAAF Buccaneers saw active service in the 1970s and 1980s during the South Africa Border War, frequently flying over Angola and Namibia, launching attacks upon SWAPO guerilla camps. During a ground offensive, Buccaneers would often fly close air support (CAS) missions armed with anti-personnel rockets, as well as performing bombardment operations. Buccaneers played a major role in the Battle of Cassinga in 1978, being employed in repeated strikes upon armoured vehicles, including enemy tanks, and to cover the withdrawal of friendly ground forces from the combat zone. The Buccaneer was capable of carrying heavy load outs over a long range, and could remain in theatre for longer than other aircraft, making it attractive for the CAS role. On 3 January 1988, Buccaneers of the SADF destroyed the important bridge across the Cuito River using a Raptor glide bomb, following on from a less successful attempt on 12 December 1987. Only five aircraft remained operational by the time the Buccaneer was retired from service in 1991.

Others
Early in the Buccaneer programme, the US Navy had expressed mild interest in the aircraft, but quickly moved on to the development of its comparable Grumman A-6 Intruder.  The West German Navy showed a greater interest, and considered replacing its Hawker Sea Hawks with the type, although it eventually decided on the Lockheed F-104G for its maritime strike requirement, following the bribing of West German government officials in the Lockheed bribery scandals.

Variants

Blackburn NA.39
Pre-production build of nine prototype NA.39 aircraft, and a development batch of fourteen S.1s ordered 2 June 1955.

Buccaneer S.1
First production model, powered by de Havilland Gyron Junior 101 turbojet engines.  Forty built, ordered on 25 September 1959, built at Brough and towed to Holme-on-Spalding Moor for first flight and testing.  First aircraft flown on 23 January 1962. A further ten S.1 aircraft ordered in September 1959 were completed as S.2s.

Buccaneer S.2
Development of the S.1 with various improvements, and powered by the more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines. From 1962, ten were built by Blackburn Aircraft Limited, and seventy-four by Hawker Siddeley Aviation Limited.

Buccaneer S.2A
Ex-Royal Navy S.2 aircraft reworked for Royal Air Force.

Buccaneer S.2B
Variant of S.2 for RAF squadrons. Capable of carrying the Martel anti-radar or anti-shipping missile. Forty-six built between 1973 and 1977, plus three for Ministry of Defence weapons trials work.

Buccaneer S.2C
Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2A standard.

Buccaneer S.2D
Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2B standard, operational with Martels from 1975.

Buccaneer S.50
Variant for South Africa.  Wings could be folded, but folding was no longer powered. Aircraft could be equipped with two Bristol Siddeley 605 single-stage RATO rockets to assist take-off from hot-and-high airfields like that of AFB Waterkloof in Pretoria, where the type was mostly based.

Operators

 South African Air Force (SAAF)
 24 Squadron SAAF formed at Lossiemouth in Scotland on 1 May 1965, training its crews before moving back to South Africa in November that year, being based at Waterkloof.  It disbanded on 28 March 1991.

 Royal Air Force (RAF)
 No. 12 Squadron RAF formed at RAF Honington on 1 October 1969, in an anti-shipping role. It moved to RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland in November 1980, and disbanded on 30 November 1993.
 No. 15 Squadron RAF formed at Honington on 1 October 1970, moving to RAF Laarbruch in Germany in January 1971, operating in the overland strike role. It disbanded on 1 July 1983, handing its aircraft to 16 Squadron.
 No. 16 Squadron RAF re-equipped from the Canberra B(I)8 at Laarbruch in October 1972. It discarded its Buccaneers on 29 February 1984, re-equipping with the Panavia Tornado.
 No. 208 Squadron RAF reformed at Honington on 1 July 1974 in the strike role. It switched its primary mission to anti-shipping in 1983, moving to Lossiemouth in July that year. It disbanded on 31 March 1994, the last of the RAF's Buccaneer squadrons.
 No. 216 Squadron RAF formed at Honington on 1 July 1979, with the intended role of anti-shipping operations. When the Buccaneer was grounded in 1980, the Squadron handed its aircraft to 12 Squadron without becoming operational.
 No. 237 Operational Conversion Unit RAF formed at RAF Honington on 1 March 1971 as the Operational Conversion Unit for the Buccaneer. In 1984, it gained the additional role of laser designation support for Royal Air Force Germany (RAFG), and moved north to Lossiemouth in October 1984. The OCU disbanded on 1 October 1991, with training duties for the Buccaneer being handled by 208 Squadron.
 Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA)
 700Z/700B Naval Air Squadron (S.1 and S.2 Intensive Flying Trials Units, respectively)
 736 Naval Air Squadron formed on 29 March 1965 as the Fleet Air Arm Buccaneer training squadron when 809 Squadron disbanded. It disbanded on 25 February 1972, with the task of training Buccaneer crews for the Fleet Air Arm transferred to 237 OCU.
 800 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 18 March 1964, serving aboard HMS Eagle. It disbanded on 23 February 1972.
 801 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 17 July 1962 as the Fleet Air Arm's first Buccaneer squadron. It made one shakedown deployment on HMS Ark Royal, before being assigned to HMS Victorious. After Victorious was retired following a fire in 1967, 801 Naval Air Squadron was assigned to HMS Hermes, disbanding on 21 July 1970.
 803 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 3 July 1967 at Lossiemouth as the Buccaneer trials and headquarters squadron, disbanding on 18 December 1969.
 809 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 15 January 1963 as the Buccaneer headquarters and training squadron. It disbanded in March 1965, when it was renumbered as 736 Naval Air Squadron. It reformed in January 1966 as an operational squadron equipped with the Buccaneer S.2, deploying on HMS Hermes in 1967–68, and on HMS Ark Royal from 1970 until the carrier decommissioned in 1979. It disbanded on 15 December 1978.

Civil operators
At one point, a total of three privately owned Buccaneers were being operated at Thunder City.

Surviving aircraft

In the United Kingdom, Buccaneer S.2 XX885 has been rebuilt to flying condition by Hawker Hunter Aviation. It was granted UK CAA permission to fly in April 2006.

Five Buccaneers in the UK (XN923, XN974, XW544, XX894 and XX900) are in fast taxiing condition.

Specifications (Buccaneer S.2)

Notable appearances in media

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography
 Bishop, Chris and Chris Chant. Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2004. .
 Boot, Roy. "Father of the Buccaneer". Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 23, No. 3, March 1995,. pp. 24–29. ISSN 0143-7240.
 Boot, Roy. From Spitfire to Eurofighter: 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1990. .
 Burns, J.G. and M. Edwards. "Blow, blow thou BLC wind". Flight International Vol. 99, No. 3227, 14 January 1971, pp. 56–59.
 Buttler, Tony. "Strike Rivals: The ones that 'lost' when the TSR.2 'won'." Air Enthusiast, No. 59, September/October 1995, pp. 12–23.
 Calvert, Denis J. and David Donald. "Blackburn Buccaneer". Wings of Fame, Volume 14. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1999. pp. 34–103. . ISSN 1361-2034.
 Caygill, Peter. "Flying the Buccaneer: Britain's Cold War Warrior." Casemate Publishers, 2008. .
 Chesneau, Roger. "Aeroguide 30 - Blackburn Buccaneer S Mks 1 and 2". Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2005. .

 English, Malcolm. "Database: Blackburn (Hawker Siddeley) Buccaneer". Aeroplane, Vol. 40, No. 4, April 2012, pp. 69–86.
 Gething, Michael J. "The Buccaneer Bows Out: Valediction for the Sky Pirate". Air International, Vol. 46, No 3, March 1994, pp. 137–144. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
 Green, William. Aircraft Handbook. London: Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1964.
 Green, William. The Observer's Book of Aircraft. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Ltd., 1968.

 Hampshire, Edward. From East of Suez to the Eastern Atlantic: British Naval Policy 1964-70. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2013. .
 Harding, Richard. The Royal Navy 1930-1990: Innovation and Defense. London: Routledge, 2004. .
 Jackson, A.J. Blackburn Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1968. .

 Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. .
 Jefford, C.G (ed.). "Seminar - Maritime Operations." Royal Air Force Historical Society, 2005. ISSN 1361-4231.
 Laming, Tim. Fight's On!: Airborne with the Aggressors. Zenith Imprint, 1996. .
 Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, Volume I: 1909-1945. Herndon, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2006. .

 Steenkamp, Willem. Borderstrike!: South Africa into Angola 1975-1980 (3rd ed.). Durban, South Africa: Just Done Productions Publishing, 2006first edition 1985. .
 Van Pelt, Michel. Rocketing into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes. New York: Springer, 2012. .
 White, Rowland. Phoenix Squadron: HMS Ark Royal, Britain's Last Topguns and the Untold Story of Their Most Dramatic Mission. London: Bantam Press, 2009. .
 Winchester, Jim, ed. "Blackburn Buccaneer." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. .
 Wynn, Humphrey. "RAF Buccaneers". Flight International, 11 February 1971, Vol. 99 No. 3231, pp. 202–207.
 Wynn, Humphrey. The RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946-1969: a Documentary History. London: HMO, 1997. .

External links

 Blackburn Buccaneer from Thunder and Lightnings
 The Blackburn Buccaneer at Air Vectors
 Blackburn Buccaneer: The awesome "Banana" Jet
 The FAA Buccaneer Association
 "NA.39 - Blackburn's Naval Bomber: A First Analytical Study" a 1958 Flight article by Bill Gunston
 "Flying the Buccaneer" a 1962 Flight article
 "1995 documentary about the Buccaneer's career"
 Destruction of the Cuito River bridge on 3 January 1988 by a SAAF Buccaneer

Buccaneer
1950s British attack aircraft
Twinjets
Carrier-based aircraft
Air refueling
Mid-wing aircraft
T-tail aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1958

Blackburn Buccaneer