Emanuel Swedenborg (, ; born Emanuel Swedberg; 29 March 1772) was a Swedish pluralistic-Christian theologian, scientist, philosopher and mystic. He became best known for his book on the afterlife, Heaven and Hell (1758).

Swedenborg had a prolific career as an inventor and scientist. In 1741, at 53, he entered into a spiritual phase in which he began to experience dreams and visions, notably on Easter Weekend, on 6 April
1744.
His experiences culminated in a "spiritual awakening" in which he received a revelation that Jesus Christ had appointed him to write The Heavenly Doctrine to reform Christianity. According to The Heavenly Doctrine, the Lord had opened Swedenborg's spiritual eyes so that from then on, he could freely visit heaven and hell to converse with angels, demons and other spirits, and that the Last Judgment had already occurred in 1757, the year before the 1758 publication of De Nova Hierosolyma et ejus doctrina coelesti (English: Concerning the New Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine).

Over the last 28 years of his life, Swedenborg wrote 18 published theological works—and several more that remained unpublished. He termed himself a "Servant of the Lord Jesus Christ" in True Christian Religion, which he published himself. Some followers of The Heavenly Doctrine believe that of his theological works, only those that were published by Swedenborg himself are fully divinely inspired. Others have regarded all Swedenborg's theological works as equally inspired, saying for example that the fact that some works were "not written out in a final edited form for publication does not make a single statement less trustworthy than the statements in any of the other works". The New Church, also known as Swedenborgianism, is a new religious movement originally founded in 1787 and comprising several historically related Christian denominations that revere Swedenborg's writings as revelation.

Early life

Swedenborg's father, Jesper Swedberg (1653–1735), descended from a wealthy mining family, bergsfrälse (early noble families in the mining sector), the Stjärna family, of the same patrilineal background as the noble family Stiernhielm, the earliest known patrilineal member being Olof Nilsson Stjärna of Stora Kopparberg. He travelled abroad and studied theology, and on returning home, he was eloquent enough to impress the Swedish king, Charles XI, with his sermons in Stockholm. Through the king's influence, he would later become professor of theology at Uppsala University and Bishop of Skara.

Jesper took an interest in the beliefs of the dissenting Lutheran Pietist movement, which emphasised the virtues of communion with God rather than relying on sheer faith (sola fide). Sola fide is a tenet of the Lutheran Church, and Jesper was charged with being a pietist heretic. While controversial, the beliefs were to have a major impact on his son Emanuel's spirituality. Jesper furthermore held the unconventional belief that angels and spirits were present in everyday life. This also came to have a strong impact on Emanuel.

In 1703–1709, aged 15–21, Emanuel Swedenborg lived in Erik Benzelius the Younger's house. He completed his university course at Uppsala in 1709, and in 1710, he made his grand tour through the Netherlands, France and Germany before reaching London, where he would spend the next four years. It was a flourishing centre of scientific ideas and discoveries. He studied physics, mechanics and philosophy and read and wrote poetry. According to the preface of a book by the Swedish critic Olof Lagercrantz, Swedenborg wrote to his benefactor and brother-in-law Benzelius that he believed he might be destined to be a great scientist.

Scientific period

In 1715, aged 27, Swedenborg returned to Sweden, where he devoted himself to natural science and engineering projects for the next two decades. A first step was his meeting with King Charles XII of Sweden in the city of Lund, in 1716. The Swedish inventor Christopher Polhem, who became a close friend of Swedenborg, was also present. Swedenborg's purpose was to persuade the king to fund an observatory in northern Sweden. However, the warlike king did not consider this project important enough, but did appoint Swedenborg to be assessor-extraordinary on the Swedish Board of Mines (Bergskollegium) in Stockholm.

From 1716 to 1718, aged 30, Swedenborg published a scientific periodical entitled Daedalus Hyperboreus ("The Northern Daedalus"), a record of mechanical and mathematical inventions and discoveries. One notable description was that of a flying machine, the same he had been sketching a few years earlier.

In 1718, Swedenborg published an article that attempted to explain spiritual and mental events in terms of minute vibrations, or "tremulations".

Upon the death of Charles XII, Queen Ulrika Eleonora ennobled Swedenborg and his siblings. It was common in Sweden during the 17th and 18th centuries for the children of bishops to receive that honor, as a recognition of the services of their father. The family name was changed from Swedberg to Swedenborg.

In 1724, he was offered the chair of mathematics at Uppsala University, but he declined and said that he had dealt mainly with geometry, chemistry and metallurgy during his career. He also said that he did not have the gift of eloquent speech because of a stutter, as recognized by many of his acquaintances; it forced him to speak slowly and carefully, and there are no known occurrences of his speaking in public. The Swedish critic Olof Lagerkrantz proposed that Swedenborg compensated for his impediment by extensive argumentation in writing.

New direction of studies ahead of his time
During the 1730s, Swedenborg undertook many studies of anatomy and physiology. He had the first known anticipation of the neuron concept. It was not until a century later that science recognized the full significance of the nerve cell. He also had prescient ideas about the cerebral cortex, the hierarchical organization of the nervous system, the localization of the cerebrospinal fluid, the functions of the pituitary gland, the perivascular spaces, the foramen of Magendie, the idea of somatotopic organization, and the association of frontal brain regions with the intellect. In some cases, his conclusions have been experimentally verified in modern times.

In the 1730s, Swedenborg became increasingly interested in spiritual matters and was determined to find a theory to explain how matter relates to spirit. Swedenborg's desire to understand the order and the purpose of creation first led him to investigate the structure of matter and the process of creation itself. In the Principia, he outlined his philosophical method, which incorporated experience, geometry (the means by which the inner order of the world can be known) and the power of reason. He also outlined his cosmology, which included the first presentation of his nebular hypothesis. (There is evidence that Swedenborg may have preceded Kant by as much as 20 years in the development of that hypothesis.)

In 1735, in Leipzig, he published a three-volume work, Opera philosophica et mineralis ("Philosophical and mineralogical works") in which he tried to conjoin philosophy and metallurgy. The work was mainly appreciated for its chapters on the analysis of the smelting of iron and copper, and it was the work that gave Swedenborg his international reputation. The same year, he also published the small manuscript de Infinito ("On the Infinite") in which he attempted to explain how the finite is related to the infinite and how the soul is connected to the body. It was the first manuscript in which he touched upon such matters. He knew that it might clash with established theologies since he presented the view that the soul is based on material substances. He also conducted dedicated studies of the fashionable philosophers of the time such as John Locke, Christian von Wolff, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and Descartes and earlier thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus and Augustine of Hippo.

Swedenborg was a critic of slavery. He was the first prominent Swede to condemn slavery. In his works, he argued that sub-Saharan African were superior to Europeans, and condemned European missionaries for intruding on African lands.

In 1743, at the age of 55, Swedenborg requested a leave of absence to go abroad. His purpose was to gather source material for Regnum animale (The Animal Kingdom, or Kingdom of Life), a subject on which books were not readily available in Sweden. The aim of the book was to explain the soul from an anatomical point of view. He had planned to produce a total of 17 volumes.

Journal of Dreams
By 1744, when he was 56, Swedenborg had traveled to the Netherlands. Around the time, he began having strange dreams. Swedenborg carried a travel journal with him on most of his travels and did so on this journey. The whereabouts of the diary were long unknown, but it was discovered in the Royal Library in the 1850s and was published in 1859 as Drömboken, or Journal of Dreams.

Swedenborg experienced many different dreams and visions, some greatly pleasurable, others highly disturbing. The experiences continued as he traveled to London to progress the publication of Regnum animale. This process, which one biographer has proposed as cathartic and comparable to the Catholic concept of Purgatory, continued for six months. He also proposed that what Swedenborg was recording in his Journal of Dreams was a battle between the love of himself and the love of God.

Visions and spiritual insights
In the last entry of the journal from 26–27 October 1744, Swedenborg appears to be clear as to which path to follow. He felt that he should drop his current project and write a new book about the worship of God. He soon began working on De cultu et amore Dei, or The Worship and Love of God. It was never fully completed, but Swedenborg still had it published in London in June 1745.

In 1745, aged 57, Swedenborg was dining in a private room at a tavern in London. By the end of the meal, a darkness fell upon his eyes, and the room shifted character. Suddenly, he saw a person sitting at a corner of the room, telling him: "Do not eat too much!". Swedenborg, scared, hurried home. Later that night, the same man appeared in his dreams. The man told Swedenborg that he was the Lord, that he had appointed Swedenborg to reveal the spiritual meaning of the Bible and that he would guide Swedenborg in what to write. The same night, the spiritual world was opened to Swedenborg.

Scriptural commentary and writings

In June 1747, Swedenborg resigned his post as assessor of the board of mines. He explained that he was obliged to complete a work that he had begun and requested to receive half his salary as a pension. He took up afresh his study of Hebrew and began to work on the spiritual interpretation of the Bible with the goal of interpreting the spiritual meaning of every verse. From sometime between 1746 and 1747 and for ten years henceforth, he devoted his energy to the task. Usually abbreviated as Arcana Cœlestia or under the Latin variant Arcana Caelestia (translated as Heavenly Arcana, Heavenly Mysteries, or Secrets of Heaven depending on modern English-language editions), the book became his magnum opus and the basis of his further theological works.

The work was anonymous, and Swedenborg was not identified as the author until the late 1750s. It had eight volumes, published between 1749 and 1756. It attracted little attention, as few people could penetrate its meaning.

His writings were filled with symbolism - Swedenborg often used stones to represent truth, snakes for evil, houses for intelligence, and cities for religious systems. He also described the appearance of heaven in great detail, as well as inhabitants from other planets.

His life from 1747 to his death was spent in Stockholm, the Netherlands, and London. During the 25 years, he wrote another 14 works of a spiritual nature; most were published during his lifetime.

One of Swedenborg's lesser-known works presents a startling claim: that the Last Judgment had begun in the previous year (1757) and was completed by the end of that year and that he had witnessed it. According to The Heavenly Doctrine, the Last Judgment took place not in the physical world but in the World of Spirits, halfway between heaven and hell, through which all pass on their way to heaven or hell. The Judgment took place because the Christian church had lost its charity and faith, resulting in a loss of spiritual free will that threatened the equilibrium between heaven and hell in everyone's life.

The Heavenly Doctrine also teaches that the Last Judgement was followed by the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, which occurred not by Christ in person but by a revelation from him through the inner, spiritual sense of the Word through Swedenborg.

In another of his theological works, Swedenborg wrote that eating meat, regarded in itself, "is something profane" and was not practised in the early days of the human race. However, he said, it now is a matter of conscience, and no one is condemned for doing it. Nonetheless, the early-days ideal appears to have given rise to the idea that Swedenborg was a vegetarian. That conclusion may have been reinforced by the fact that a number of Swedenborg's early followers were part of the vegetarian movement that arose in Britain in the 19th century. However, the only reports on Swedenborg himself are contradictory. His landlord in London, Shearsmith, said he ate no meat, but his maid, who served Swedenborg, said that he ate eels and pigeon pie.

In Earths in the Universe, it is stated that he conversed with spirits from Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, Venus and the Moon, as well as spirits from planets beyond the Solar System. From the "encounters", he concluded that the planets of the Solar System are inhabited and that such an enormous undertaking as the universe could not have been created for just one race on a planet or one "Heaven" derived from its properties per planet. Many Heavenly societies were also needed to increase the perfection of the angelic Heavens and Heaven to fill in deficiencies and gaps in other societies. He argued: "What would this be to God, Who is infinite, and to whom a thousand or tens of thousands of planets, and all of them full of inhabitants, would be scarcely anything!" Swedenborg and the question of life on other planets has been extensively reviewed elsewhere.

Swedenborg published his work in London or the Netherlands to escape censorship by the Swedish Empire.

In July 1770, at the age of 82, he traveled to Amsterdam to complete the publication of his last work. The book, Vera Christiana Religio (The True Christian Religion), was published there in 1771 and was one of the most appreciated of his works. Designed to explain his teachings to Lutherans, it is the most concrete of his works.

Later life

In the summer of 1771, he traveled to London. Shortly before Christmas, he had a stroke and was partially paralyzed and confined to bed. His health improved somewhat, but he died in 1772. There are several accounts of his last months, made by those with whom he stayed and by Arvid Ferelius, a pastor of the Swedish Church in London, who visited him several times.

There is evidence that Swedenborg wrote a letter to John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, in February. Swedenborg said that he had been told in the world of spirits that Wesley wanted to speak with him. Wesley, startled since he had not told anyone of his interest in Swedenborg, replied that he was going on a journey for six months and would contact Swedenborg on his return. Swedenborg replied that that would be too late since Swedenborg would be going to the spiritual world for the last time on March 29. (Wesley later read and commented extensively on Swedenborg's work.) Swedenborg's landlord's servant girl, Elizabeth Reynolds, also said that Swedenborg had predicted the date and that he was as happy about it as if he was "going on holiday or to some merrymaking":

He was buried in the Swedish Church in Princes Square in Shadwell, London. On the 140th anniversary of his death, in 1912/1913, his remains were transferred to Uppsala Cathedral in Sweden, where they now rest close to the grave of the botanist Carl Linnaeus. In 1917, the Swedish Church in Shadwell was demolished, and the Swedish community that had grown around the parish moved to Marylebone. In 1938, Princes Square was redeveloped, and in his honour the local road was renamed Swedenborg Gardens. In 1997, a garden, play area and memorial, near the road, were created in his memory.

Veracity
Swedenborg's transition from scientist to revelator or mystic has fascinated many people. He has had a variety of both supporting and critical biographers. Some propose that he did not have a revelation at all but developed his theological ideas from sources which ranged from his father to earlier figures in the history of thought, notably Plotinus. That position was first taken by Swedish writer Martin Lamm who wrote a biography of Swedenborg in 1915. Swedish critic and publicist Olof Lagercrantz had a similar point of view, calling Swedenborg's theological writing "a poem about a foreign country with peculiar laws and customs".

Swedenborg's approach to proving the veracity of his theological teachings was to use voluminous quotations from the Old Testament and the New Testament to demonstrate agreement with the Bible, and this is found throughout his theological writings. A Swedish Royal Council considering heresy charges against two Swedish promoters of his theological writings concluded that "there is much that is true and useful in Swedenborg's writings". Victor Hugo suggested in passing, in Chapter 14 of Les Misérables, that Swedenborg, in company with Blaise Pascal, had "glided into insanity".

Scientific beliefs
Swedenborg proposed many scientific ideas during his lifetime. In his youth, he wanted to present a new idea every day, as he wrote to his brother-in-law Erik Benzelius in 1718. Around 1730, he had changed his mind, and instead believed that higher knowledge is not something that can be acquired, but that it is based on intuition. After 1745, he instead considered himself receiving scientific knowledge in a spontaneous manner from angels.

From 1745, when he considered himself to have entered a spiritual state, he tended to phrase his "experiences" in empirical terms, to report accurately things he had experienced on his spiritual journeys.

One of his ideas that is considered most crucial for the understanding of his theology is his notion of correspondences. But, in fact, he first presented the theory of correspondences only in 1744, in the first volume of Regnum Animale dealing with the human soul.

The basis of the correspondence theory is that there is a relationship among the natural ("physical"), the spiritual, and the divine worlds. The spiritual realm was seen by Swedenborg and believers in the New Church as "more real than the physical" and as a series of divided "spheres" where souls are sent depending on the level of morality they achieved in the physical world or Earth. Souls navigate through the spiritual world and redeem themselves by travelling through it and reaching higher spheres, then encountering "divinity". The foundations of this theory can be traced to Neoplatonism and the philosopher Plotinus in particular. With the aid of this scenario, Swedenborg now interpreted the Bible in a different light, claiming that even the most apparently trivial sentences could hold a profound spiritual meaning. Swedenborg argued that it is the presence of that spiritual sense which makes the Word divine.

Prophetic accounts
Four incidents of purported psychic ability of Swedenborg exist in the literature. There are several versions of each story.

Fire anecdotes
On Thursday, 19 July 1759 a great and well-documented fire broke out in Stockholm, Sweden. In the high and increasing wind it spread very fast, consuming about 300 houses and making 2000 people homeless.

When the fire broke out Swedenborg was at a dinner with friends in Gothenburg, about 400 km from Stockholm. He became agitated and told the party at six o'clock that there was a fire in Stockholm, that it had consumed his neighbour's home and was threatening his own. Two hours later, he exclaimed with relief that the fire had stopped three doors from his home. In the excitement following his report, word even reached the ears of the provincial governor, who summoned Swedenborg that same evening and asked for a detailed recounting.

At that time, it took two to three days for news from Stockholm to reach Gothenburg by courier, so that is the shortest duration in which the news of the fire could reach Gothenburg. The first messenger from Stockholm with news of the fire was from the Board of Trade, who arrived Monday evening. The second messenger was a royal courier, who arrived on Tuesday. Both of these reports confirmed every statement to the precise hour that Swedenborg first expressed the information. The accounts are fully described in Bergquist, pp. 312–313 and in Chapter 31 of The Swedenborg Epic. According to Swedenborg's biographer Lars Bergquist, however, this event took place on Sunday, 29 July – ten days after the fire.

(Bergquist states, but does not document, that Swedenborg confirmed his vision of the fire incident to his good friend, Consul Christopher Springer, "one of the pillars of the church, ... a man of enviable reputation for virtue and intelligence", and that Swedenborg's innkeeper, Erik Bergström, heard Swedenborg affirming the story.)

According to Swedenborg's followers, it seems unlikely that the many witnesses to Swedenborg's distress during the fire, and his immediate report of it to the provincial governor, would have left room for doubt in the public eye of Swedenborg's report. They further contend that if Swedenborg had only received news of the fire by the normal methods there would have been no issue of psychic perception recorded for history. Instead, "when the news of Swedenborg's extraordinary vision of the fire reached the capital, public curiosity about him was very much aroused."

A second fire anecdote, similar to the first one, but less cited, is the incident of the mill owner Bolander. Swedenborg warned him, again abruptly, of an incipient fire in one of his mills.

Queen of Sweden
The third event was in 1758 when Swedenborg visited Queen Louisa Ulrika of Sweden, who asked him to tell her something about her deceased brother Prince Augustus William of Prussia. The next day, Swedenborg whispered something in her ear that turned the Queen pale and she explained that this was something only she and her brother could know about.

Lost document
The fourth incident involved a woman who had lost an important document, and came to Swedenborg asking if a recently deceased person could tell him where it was, which he (in some sources) was said to have done the following night.

Although not typically cited along with these three episodes, there was one further piece of evidence: Swedenborg was noted by the seamen of the ships that he sailed between Stockholm and London to always have excellent sailing conditions. When asked about this by a friend, Swedenborg played down the matter, saying he was surprised by this experience himself and that he was certainly not able to do miracles.

Kant's view

In 1763, Immanuel Kant, then at the beginning of his career, was impressed by accounts of Swedenborg's psychic abilities and made inquiries to find out if they were true. He also ordered all eight volumes of the expensive Arcana Cœlestia (Heavenly Arcana or Heavenly Mysteries). One Charlotte von Knobloch wrote to Kant asking his opinion of Swedenborg's psychic experiences. Kant wrote a very affirmative reply, referring to Swedenborg's "miraculous" gift, and characterizing him as "reasonable, agreeable, remarkable and sincere" and "a scholar", in one of his letters to Moses Mendelssohn, and expressing regret that he (Kant) had never met Swedenborg. Joseph Green, his English friend, who investigated the matter for Kant, including by visiting Swedenborg's home, found Swedenborg to be a "sensible, pleasant and openhearted" man and here again, a scholar.

However, three years later, in 1766, Kant wrote and published anonymously a small book entitled Träume eines Geistersehers (Dreams of a Spirit-Seer) that was a scathing critique of Swedenborg and his writings. He termed Swedenborg a "spook hunter" "without official office or occupation". As rationale for his critique, Kant said he wanted to stop "ceaseless questioning" and inquiries about Dreams from "inquisitive" persons, both known and unknown. Kant's friend Moses Mendelssohn thought there was a "joking pensiveness" in Dreams that sometimes left the reader in doubt as to whether Dreams was meant to make "metaphysics laughable or spirit-seeking credible". In one of his letters to Mendelssohn, Kant refers to Dreams less-than-enthusiastically as a "desultory little essay".

Theology

Swedenborg claimed in The Heavenly Doctrine that the teachings of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ were revealed to him.

Swedenborg considered his theology a revelation of the true Christian religion that had become obfuscated through centuries of theology. However, he did not refer to his writings as theology since he considered it based on actual experiences, unlike theology, except in the title of his last work. Neither did he wish to compare it to philosophy, a discipline he discarded in 1748 because, he claimed, it "darkens the mind, blinds us, and wholly rejects the faith".

The foundation of Swedenborg's theology was laid down in Arcana Cœlestia (Heavenly Mysteries), published in eight Latin volumes from 1749 to 1756. In a significant portion of that work, he interprets the Biblical passages of Genesis and Exodus. He reviews what he says is the inner spiritual sense of these two works of the Word of God. (He later made a similar review of the inner sense of the book of Revelation in Apocalypse Revealed.) Most of all, he was convinced that the Bible describes a human's transformation from a materialistic to a spiritual being, which he calls rebirth or regeneration. He begins this work by outlining how the creation myth was not an account of the creation of Earth, but an account of man's rebirth or regeneration in six steps represented by the six days of creation. Everything related to mankind in the Bible could also be related to Jesus Christ, and how Christ freed himself from materialistic boundaries through the glorification of his human presence by making it Divine. Swedenborg examines this idea in his exposition of Genesis and Exodus.

Marriage
One often discussed aspect of Swedenborg's writing is his ideas on marriage. Swedenborg himself remained a bachelor all his life, but that did not hinder him from writing voluminously on the subject. His work on Marriage Love (Conjugial Love in older translations) (1768) was dedicated to this purpose.

A central question with regard to marriage is whether it stops at death or continues into heaven. The question arises due to a statement attributed to Jesus that there is no marriage in heaven (Luke 20:27–38, Matthew 22:23–32, and Mark 12:18–27). Swedenborg wrote The Lord God Jesus Christ on Marriage in Heaven as a detailed analysis of what he meant.

The quality of the relationship between husband and wife resumes in the spiritual world in whatever state it was at their death in this world. Thus, a couple in true marriage love remain together in that state in heaven into eternity. A couple lacking in that love by one or both partners, however, will separate after death and each will be given a compatible new partner if they wish. A partner is also given to a person who loved the ideal of marriage but never found a true partner in this world. The exception in both cases is a person who hates chaste marriage and thus cannot receive such a partner.

Swedenborg saw creation as a series of pairings, descending from the Divine love and wisdom that define God and are the basis of creation. This duality can be seen in the pairing of good and truth, charity and faith, God and the church, and husband and wife. In each case, the goal for these pairs is to achieve conjunction between the two component parts. In the case of marriage, the object is to bring about the joining of the two partners at the spiritual and physical levels, and the happiness that comes as a consequence.

Trinity
Swedenborg rejected the common explanation of the Trinity as a Trinity of Persons, which he said was not taught in the early Christian church. There was, for instance, no mention in the Apostolic writings of any "Son from eternity". Instead he explained in his theological writings how the Divine Trinity exists in One Person, in One God, the Lord Jesus Christ, which he said is taught in Colossians 2:9. According to The Heavenly Doctrine, Jesus, the Son of God, came into the world because of the spread of evil here.

Swedenborg spoke in virtually all his works against what he regarded as the incomprehensible Trinity of Persons concept. He said that people of other religions opposed Christianity because of its doctrine of a Trinity of Persons. He considered the separation of the Trinity into three separate Persons to have originated with the First Council of Nicaea and the Athanasian Creed.

Sola Fide (Faith Alone)
The Heavenly Doctrine rejects the concept of salvation through faith alone (), since he considered both faith and charity necessary for salvation, not one without the other, whereas the Reformers taught that faith-alone procured justification, although it must be a faith which resulted in obedience. The purpose of faith, according to The Heavenly Doctrine, is to lead a person to a life according to the truths of faith, which is charity, as is taught in 1 Corinthians 13:13 and James 2:20.

In other words, Swedenborg spoke sharply against the sola fide doctrine of Luther and others. He held that justification before God was not based solely upon some imputed righteousness before God, and was not achievable merely by a gift of God's grace (), granted without any basis in a person's actual behavior in life. Sola fide was a doctrine averred by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli and others during the Protestant Reformation, and was a core belief especially in the theology of the Lutheran reformers Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon.

Although the sola fide doctrine of the Reformers also emphasized that saving faith was one that effected works (by faith alone, but not by a faith which is alone), Swedenborg protested against sola fide being the instrument of justification, and held that salvation is only possible through the conjunction of faith and charity in a person, and that the purpose of faith is to lead a person to live according to the truths of faith, which is charity. He further states that faith and charity must be exercised by doing good out of willing good whenever possible, which are good works or good uses or the conjunction perishes. In one section he wrote:

Later history
Swedenborg made no attempt to found a church. A few years after his death – 15 (~1787) by one estimate – for the most part in England, small reading groups formed to study his teachings. As one scholar states, The Heavenly Doctrine particularly appealed to the various dissenting groups that sprang up in the first half of the 18th century who were "surfeited with revivalism and narrow-mindedness" and found his optimism and comprehensive explanations appealing.

A variety of important cultural figures, both writers and artists, were influenced by Swedenborg's writings, including Robert Frost, Johnny Appleseed, William Blake, Jorge Luis Borges, Daniel Burnham, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Conan Doyle,
Ralph Waldo Emerson, John Flaxman, George Inness, Henry James Sr., Carl Jung, Immanuel Kant, Honoré de Balzac, Helen Keller, Czesław Miłosz, Joseph Smith, August Strindberg, D. T. Suzuki, and W. B. Yeats. His philosophy had a great impact on the Duke of Södermanland, later King Carl XIII, who as the Grand Master of Swedish Freemasonry (Svenska Frimurare Orden) built its unique system of degrees and wrote its rituals. In contrast, one of the most prominent Swedish authors of Swedenborg's day, Johan Henric Kellgren, called Swedenborg "nothing but a fool". A heresy trial was initiated in Sweden in 1768 against Swedenborg writings and two men who promoted them.

In the two and a half centuries since Swedenborg's death, various interpretations of his theology have been made, and he has also been scrutinized in biographies and psychological studies. Swedenborg, with his claimed new dispensation, has been considered by some to have a  mental illness.
While the insanity explanation was not uncommon during Swedenborg's own time, it is mitigated by his activity in the Swedish Riddarhuset (the House of the Nobility), the Riksdag (the Swedish parliament), and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Additionally, the system of thought in his theological writings is considered by some to be remarkably coherent. Furthermore, he was characterized by his contemporaries as a "kind and warm-hearted man", "amiable in his meeting with the public", speaking "easily and naturally of his spiritual experiences", with pleasant and interesting conversation. An English friend of Kant's who visited Swedenborg at Kant's behest described Swedenborg as a "reasonable, pleasant and candid man and scholar". Of note here is Swedenborg's statement that he was commanded by the Lord to publish his writings and "Do not believe that without this express command I would have thought of publishing things which I knew in advance would make me look ridiculous and many people would think lies".

Works

Copies of the original Latin version in which Swedenborg wrote his revelation are available from the following sources.

The common names used in a New Church listing are given parenthetically, followed by the titles in the original. All the titles listed were published by Swedenborg except The Spiritual Diary. Various minor reports and tracts have been omitted from the list.

 1716–1718, (Daedalus Hyperboreus) Swedish: Daedalus Hyperboreus, eller några nya mathematiska och physicaliska försök. (English: The Northern inventor, or some new experiments in mathematics and physics)
 1721, (Principles of Chemistry) Latin: Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium: sive novorum tentaminum chymiam et physicam experimenta geometrice explicandi
 1722, (Miscellaneous Observations) Latin: Miscellanea de Rebus Naturalibus
 1734, (Principia) Latin: Opera Philosophica et Mineralia (English: Philosophical and Mineralogical Works), three volumes
 (Principia, Volume I) Latin: Tomus I. Principia rerum naturlium sive novorum tentaminum phaenomena mundi elementaris philosophice explicandi
 (Principia, Volume II) Latin: Tomus II. Regnum subterraneum sive minerale de ferro
 (Principia, Volume III) Latin: Tomus III. Regnum subterraneum sive minerale de cupro et orichalco
 1734, (The Infinite and Final Cause of Creation) Latin: Prodromus Philosophiz Ratiocinantis de Infinito, et Causa Finali Creationis; deque Mechanismo Operationis Animae et Corporis.

1742, ( The Soul Or Rational Psychology)
 1744–1745, (The Animal Kingdom) Latin: Regnum animale, 3 volumes
 1745, (The Worship and Love of God) Latin: De Cultu et Amore Dei, 2 volumes
 1749–1756, (Arcana Cœlestia or Caelestia) (Heavenly Mysteries) Latin: Arcana Cœlestia, quae in Scriptura Sacra seu Verbo Domini sunt, detecta, 8 volumes
 1758, (Heaven and Hell) Latin: De Caelo et Ejus Mirabilibus et de inferno. Ex Auditis et Visis.
 1758, (The Last Judgment) Latin: De Ultimo Judicio
 1758, (The White Horse) Latin: De Equo Albo de quo in Apocalypsi Cap. XIX.
 1758, (Earths in the Universe) Latin:  De Telluribus in Mundo Nostro Solari, quæ vocantur planetæ: et de telluribus in coelo astrifero: deque illarum incolis; tum de spiritibus & angelis ibi; ex auditis & visis.
 1758, (The New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine) Latin: De Nova Hierosolyma et Ejus Doctrina Coelesti
 1763, (Doctrine of the Lord) Latin:Doctrina Novæ Hierosolymæ de Domino.
 1763, (Doctrine of the Sacred Scripture) Latin: Doctrina Novæ Hierosolymæ de Scriptura Sacra.
 1763, (Doctrine of Life) Latin: Doctrina Vitæ pro Nova Hierosolyma ex præceptis Decalogi.
 1763, (Doctrine of Faith) Latin: Doctrina Novæ Hierosolymæ de Fide.
 1763, (Continuation of The Last Judgement) Latin:  Continuatio De Ultimo Judicio: et de mundo spirituali.
 1763, (Divine Love and Wisdom) Latin:  Sapientia Angelica de Divino Amore et de Divina Sapientia. Sapientia Angelica de Divina Providentia.
 1764, (Divine Providence) Latin: Sapientia Angelica de Divina Providentia.
 1766, (Apocalypse Revealed) Latin: Apocalypsis Revelata, in quae detegunter Arcana quae ibi preedicta sunt.
 1768, (Conjugial Love, or Marriage Love) Latin:  Deliciae Sapientiae de Amore Conjugiali; post quas sequumtur voluptates insaniae de amore scortatorio.
 1769, (Brief Exposition) Latin: Summaria Expositio Doctrinæ Novæ Ecclesiæ, quæ per Novam Hierosolymam in Apocalypsi intelligitur.
 1769, (Interaction of the Soul and the Body) Latin: De Commercio Animæ & Corporis.
 1771, (True Christian Religion) Latin: Vera Christiana Religio, continens Universam Theologiam Novae Ecclesiae
 1859, Drömboken, Journalanteckningar (Journal of Dreams), 1743–1744

 1983–1997, (Spiritual Diary) Latin: Diarum, Ubi Memorantur Experientiae Spirituales.

In popular culture
The song The Dreams of Swedenborg, from symphonic metal band Therion's 2004 album Lemuria, talks about Swedenborg's revelations.

Swedenborg's book Heaven and its Wonders and Hell From Things Heard and Seen is a major contributor to the plot of the movie Things Heard & Seen, which premiered on Netflix in 2021.

In Olga Tokarczuk's 2018 novel, "Drive Your Plow Over the Bones of the Dead," the main character, Janina Duszejko, makes a reference to Swedenborg's work in astrology.

Posthumous honours
The mineral swedenborgite, discovered in Långban, Sweden in 1924, is named in his honor.

See also
 Swedenborg Society

 List of Christian thinkers in science
 Lord's New Church Which Is Nova Hierosolyma
 The New Church (Swedenborgian)
 General Church of the New Jerusalem
 Swedenborgian Church of North America
 Swedenborg Rite
 Wayfarers Chapel
 Daniil Andreyev

Notes

References

Sources
 Ahlstrom, S.E. A Religious History of the American People (Yale 1972) Includes section on Swedenborg by this scholar.
 Benz, Ernst, Emanuel Swedenborg: Visionary Savant in the Age of Reason (Swedenborg Foundation, 2002) , a translation of the thorough German language study on life and work of Swedenborg, Emanuel Swedenborg: Naturforscher und Seher by the noted religious scholar Ernst Benz, published in Munich in 1948.
 Bergquist, Lars, Swedenborg's Secret, (London, The Swedenborg Society, 2005) , a translation of the Swedish language biography of Swedenborg, Swedenborgs Hemlighet, published in Stockholm in 1999.
 Block, M. B. The New Church in the New World. A study of Swedenborgianism in America (Holt 1932; Octagon reprint 1968) A detailed history of the ideational and social development of the organized churches based on Swedenborg's works.
 Crompton, S. Emanuel Swedenborg (Chelsea House, 2005) Recent biography of Swedenborg.
 Johnson, G., ed. Kant on Swedenborg. Dreams of a Spirit-Seer and Other Writings. Translation by Johnson, G., Magee, G.E. (Swedenborg Foundation 2002) New translation and extensive set of supplementary texts.
 Lamm, Martin, Swedenborg: En studie (1987; first ed. 1915). A popular biography that is still read and quoted. It is also available in English: Emanuel Swedenborg: The Development of His Thought, Martin Lamm (Swedenborg Studies, No. 9, 2001),
 Lagercrantz, Olof, Dikten om livet på den andra sidan (Wahlström & Widstrand 1996), . In Swedish.
 Leon, James, Overcoming Objections to Swedenborg's Writings Through the Development of Scientific Dualism  An examination of Swedenborg's discoveries. The author is a professor of psychology (1998; published in New Philosophy, 2001)
 Moody, R. A. Life after Life (Bantam 1975) Reports correlation of near-death experience with Swedenborg's reports of life after death.
 Price, R. Johnny Appleseed. Man and Myth (Indiana 1954) Definitive study of this legendary man. Includes details of his interest in Swedenborg and the organizational New Church
 Robsahm, Carl, Hallengren, Anders (translation and comments), Anteckningar om Swedenborg (Föreningen Swedenborgs Minne: Stockholm 1989), . Hallengren writes that the first complete publication of the Robsam manuscript was in R. L. Tafel's Documents, Vol. I, 1875 (see section "Further reading")
 Schuchard, Marsha Keith. 2011. Emanuel Swedenborg, Secret Agent on Earth and in Heaven: Jacobites, Jews and Freemasons in Early Modern Sweden. Brill.
Sigstedt, C.,The Swedenborg Epic. The Life and Works of Emanuel Swedenborg (New York: Bookman Associates, 1952). The whole book is available online at Swedenborg Digital Library.

Further reading

 Newer material
 The Arms of Morpheus—Essays on Swedenborg and Mysticism, ed. Stephen McNeilly (London: Swedenborg Society, 2007), .
 Between Method and Madness—Essays on Swedenborg and Literature, ed. Stephen McNeilly (London: Swedenborg Society, 2005), .
 In Search of the Absolute—Essays on Swedenborg and Literature, ed. Stephen McNeilly (London: Swedenborg Society, 2005), .
 On the True Philosopher and the True Philosophy—Essays on Swedenborg, ed. Stephen McNeilly (London: Swedenborg Society, 2005), .
 Swedenborg and His Influence, ed. Erland J. Brock, (Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania: The Academy of the New Church, 1988), .
 Jonathan S. Rose, ed. Emanuel Swedenborg: Essays for the New Century Edition on His Life, Work, and Impact (West Chester, Pennsylvania: Swedenborg Foundation, 2002), . 580 pages. Multiple scholars contributed to this collection of information on Swedenborg, his manuscripts, and his cultural influence. Republished in 2004 under new title, Scribe of Heaven: Swedenborg's Life, Work, and Impact .
 Wilson van Dusen, The Presence of Other Worlds, Swedenborg Foundation, Inc., New York, Harper & Row, 1974.
 "The Madness Hypothesis," a special issue of The New Philosophy (1998;101: whole number), a journal produced by the Swedenborg Scientific Association, reviews the question of Swedenborg's sanity in scholarly detail, making the case that he was in fact quite sane.
 Donald L. Rose, ed., Afterlife: A Guided Tour of Heaven and Its Wonders. Swedenborg Foundation, 2006. (abridged version of Heaven and Hell)
 D. T. Suzuki, translated by Andrew Bernstein, Afterword by David Loy, Swedenborg: Buddha of the North. Swedenborg Foundation, 1996. (Brilliantly shows relevance of Swedenborg's ideas to Buddhist thought.)
 Nemitz, K., "The Man and His Work ".
 Larsen, T, Larsen, Lawrence, JF, Woofenden WR. Emanuel Swedenborg. A Continuing Vision. Swedenborg Foundation, 1988
 Sig Synnestvedt, ed., The Essential Swedenborg: Basic Religious Teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg. Swedenborg Foundation, 1970.

 Older material of importance (some of it not in print)

 The most extensive work is: RL Tafel, Documents concerning the Life and Character of Swedenborg, collected, translated and annotated (3 vols., Swedenborg Society, 1875–1877);
 J. Hyde, A Bibliography of the Works of Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedenborg Society).
 Kant's Träume eines Geistersehers (1766; the most recent edition in English is from 1975,  );
 J. G. Herder's "Emanuel Swedenborg," in his Adrastea (Werke zur Phil. und Gesch., xii. 110–125).
 Transactions of the International Swedenborg Congress (London, 1910), summarized in The New Church Magazine (August 1910).
 Swedenborg and Esoteric Islam (Swedenborg Studies, No 4) by Henry Corbin, Leonard Fox
 Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Swedenborg; or, the Mystic", in Emerson: Essays and Lectures (New York, New York: The Library of America, 1983), .

 William White, Emmanuel Swedenborg, His Life and Writings, 2nd Ed., Rev. (xx, 767 p.; London, Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1868) – This is the second of White's two biographies of Swedenborg, the first one published in 1856 (White, W. Swedenborg: his life and writings Bath : I. Pitman, Phonetic Institution, 1856) and this second one in 1867. White worked for the Swedenborg Society in London and wrote an affirmative biography of Swedenborg. However, he was fired for publishing spiritist books and selling them at the Society's store, as well as otherwise interfering with the Society's function. White's response was the 1867 biography, in which he, in Tafel's words, "turn[ed] a complete somersault in his convictions," and wrote a highly derogatory biography of Swedenborg and his teachings. (The Swedenborg Epic footnote # 769) (R. Tafel, Documents Concerning the Life and Character of Emanuel Swedenborg, Vol. 3, p. 1284. London. Swedenborg Society 1890)

External links

1688 births
1772 deaths
18th-century apocalypticists
18th-century Christian mystics
18th-century essayists
18th-century writers in Latin
18th-century male writers
18th-century occultists
18th-century philosophers
18th-century Swedish writers
Afterlife in Christianity
Age of Enlightenment
Age of Liberty people
Angelic visionaries
Burials at Uppsala Cathedral
Christian philosophers
Christian theologians
Enlightenment philosophers
Epistemologists
Founders of new religious movements
Intellectual history
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Metaphilosophers
Metaphysicians
Metaphysics writers
Mystics
New Age predecessors
New Thought mystics
Ontologists
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of love
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of religion
Philosophers of science
Philosophers of social science
Social philosophers
Spiritual mediums
18th-century Swedish astronomers
Swedish Christians
Swedish ethicists
Swedish expatriates in the Dutch Republic
Swedish male non-fiction writers
Swedish nobility
Swedish philosophers
18th-century Swedish scientists
Swedish spiritual writers

Swedish theologians
Theorists on Western civilization
Uppsala University alumni
Writers about religion and science
Writers from Stockholm
17th-century Lutheran theologians
18th-century Lutheran theologians
18th-century theologians

Emanuel Swedenborg


Saeftinghe or Saaftinge was a town in the southwest Netherlands, located in eastern Zeelandic Flanders, near Nieuw-Namen. It existed until 1584. It is now a swamp known as the  () and an official nature reserve area. The land is a crosspoint where the river Scheldt meets the salty waters of the North Sea in the estuary Western Scheldt. It is a treacherous place where the tides easily consume large stretches of land in a matter of seconds and must not be explored without an experienced guide.

History
Saeftinghe was drained in the 13th century under the management of the abbey of Ter Doest. Willem van Saeftinghe was one of the best known occupants of the abbey and gave his name to the stretch of land claimed from the sea. Up to 1570, the land was very fertile polder. Agriculture, peat burning and trade turned Saeftinghe into one of the most prosperous places in the region. There were several additional settlements nearby: Namen, Sint-Laureins, Stampaert, Weele (Sint-Marie), Sint-Laureijns and Casuwele.

The settlements were mostly small villages with just a few houses and huts, but there was also Saeftinghe Castle, built in 1279. Today all is buried beneath several layers of clay and sand due to several floods over the years. Large bricks were found at several places in land. Those bricks were probably remainders of the abbey used by the villagers to build their houses when the abbey was destroyed due to several floods. Today some of those bricks can be seen in the nearby Visitors Center.

Most of the land around the town was lost in the All Saint's flood of 1570 (the Allerheiligenvloed). Four years later the drowned land reached into what is now Belgium. Only Saeftinghe and some surrounding land managed to remain dry.

In 1584, during the Eighty Years' War, Dutch soldiers found themselves forced to destroy the last intact dike and Saeftinghe sunk into the waters of the Scheldt. Attempts to reclaim the area were made throughout history; the most serious project taking place in 1907, but even then only the Hertogin Hedwigepolder was conquered from the sea. Nowadays a hamlet is located within the reclaimed portions of land, called .
Saaftinge itself has never been retrieved.
In 1970, all of the area was incorporated into the municipality of Hulst, when  and Clinge ceased to exist.

Within the historical municipal limits, Saaftinge today has a population of 55. The flag consists of a blue lion rampant on a white field. The lion originates from the personal shield of Willem van Saeftinghe.

The legend

A legend of Saeftinghe attributes the All Saint's flood to capturing a mermaid and not setting her free. This caused the region to be cursed by the merman, and led to the flood that destroyed the towns of Sint-Laureins, Namen and Casuwele, killing all inhabitants. The legend holds that a tower bell calls for help from the sunken town. Another Saeftinghe legend holds the belief that visitors of the area and inhabitants of the nearby village of Emmadorp sometimes see 'ghosts' in the fog. According to the legend the ghosts are the spirits of the inhabitants of the three towns killed in the flood.

Visitor centre
A visitor centre opened in Emmadorp in 1997, from where excursions to the nature reserve depart. From 1997 to 2007, an average of around 12,000 visitors per year went on excursions.

See also

Lost city

References

External links

Destroyed populated places
Submerged places
Underwater ruins
Swamps of Europe
1584 disestablishments
Former populated places in the Netherlands
Wetlands of the Netherlands
Landforms of Zeeland
History of Zeeland
Zeelandic Flanders
Hulst
Ramsar sites in the Netherlands

Saeftinghe


Codeine or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic properties. It is also used to treat coughing and diarrhea. It is marketed as the salts codeine sulfate and codeine phosphate. Codeine hydrochloride is more commonly marketed in continental Europe and other regions.

Codeine is an alkaloid found in opium in concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 percent. Codeine can be extracted from opium. Today, most codeine is synthesized from morphine through the process of O-methylation.

Uses
Codeine is used to treat the following:
Cough, though its efficacy in low dose over the counter formulations has been disputed.
Diarrhea
Moderate to severe pain
Irritable bowel syndrome

Compound analgesics
Codeine is often marketed as drugs in combination with paracetamol (acetaminophen) as co-codamol (best known in North America as Tylenol 3). Research has shown the combination to be very much more effective than paracetamol, and much less addictive that pure codeine.

There are similar combinations with aspirin as co-codaprin or with ibuprofen. These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone. Drug synergy is an important principle.

References

Opioids
Analgesics
Organonitrogen compounds

Codeine


Viridiplants (Viridiplantae, 'green plants') are the clade which includes the green algae and land plants.

In some classification systems they have been called Plantae, by expanding the traditional plant kingdom (Embryophytes) to include the green algae.

Adl and colleagues, who produced a classification for eukaryotes in 2005, used the name Chloroplastida for this group, reflecting the group having primary chloroplasts with green chlorophyll. They rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that most of the species are not plants, as understood traditionally.

There are more than 350,000 species of Viridiplantae.

Group structure
The monophyletic Chlorophyta and Charophyta are classified under Viridiplantae. A common classification is:
Viridiplantae
Chlorophyta
Streptophyta
Embryophyta
Charophyta
'Green algae' is not used here because they are definitely not monophyletic. It is just a convenience term for Chlorophyta and Charophyta together.

There are different opinions about the classification. Another opinion is that only the Charophyceae are closely related to land plants, and that arrangement is simplified as:
Viridiplantae
Chlorophyta
Charophyta
Streptophyta
Embryophyta
Charophyceae

References

Plant taxonomy

Viridiplantae


The Gordon England glider was a single seat glider designed specifically for the first British gliding competition held at Itford Hill in 1922, an endurance event.  It made some competition flights but was damaged on the last day.

Design
In August 1922 the Daily Mail newspaper offered a £1,000 prize for the longest duration flight by an unpowered, heavier than air aircraft.  The competition was to be organized by the Royal Aero Club, who chose the site (Itford Hill, on the Sussex South Downs near Lewes) and the date (16–21 October).  This gave competitors six weeks to design, build and transport their entries.  13 arrived in time and one of these was the Gordon England glider, competition number 13, to be flown by its designer, Eric Gordon England, after whom it was named.

The Gordon England glider was a wooden aircraft, constructed by George England (1922) Ltd, in whose name it was entered into the competition.  It was a high wing cantilever monoplane.  Its wings were slightly tapered, with a little sweep on the leading edge, with blunt tips.  The ailerons extended to the wing tips.  The tailplane had parallel chord and rounded tips, carrying a single piece elevator.  The fin had a rounded leading edge and vertical hinge for the rhomboidal rudder; the rudder's upswept lower edge allowed for elevator deflection.

The fuselage was rectangular in cross-section, with sides rounded and tapered into a slender symmetrical airfoil-like shape.  The open cockpit was placed a little behind the leading edge.  A pair of half-exposed, unsprung wheels was mounted just within the fuselage, assisted by twin skids under the tail.

Operational history

During practice, non-competition flights on Saturday 14 October England found his rudder ineffective, so he and his brother spent the day enlarging it. On Sunday he made a flight lasting 84 s.  On Monday, the first day of competition flights he watched the approach of Anthony Fokker, who had more gliding experience after flying in Germany, then returned a 4 min 32 s flight of his own.  Conditions became increasingly windy on Wednesday, with hilltop wind speeds gusting up to 40 mph (65 kmh).  Gordon England flew, but could not improve on his time, though he said that was his first landing made travelling backwards.  It was windy also on Saturday, the final day of the competition.  Trying to return to the top of the ridge, having been blown windward, a gust caught him in a steep turn and the wing tip hit the ground.  The glider survived the impact with damage only to the extreme nose but England suffered a broken leg.  The competition winner, the French pilot Maneyrol, stayed up for 201 min in his tandem-winged Peyret glider that same day.  Gordon England received Mrs C. G. Grey's prize o £10.

It is not known for certain what happened to the glider after the competition, though it may have been used by the gliding club at the RAF Staff College, Andover.

Specifications

See also
 Bristol Gordon England biplanes
 Gordon England (coachbuilder)
 Eric Gordon England

Notes

References

1920s British aircraft
Glider aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1922
High-wing aircraft

Gordon England glider


Jason Meredith Reese  (24 June 1967 – 8 March 2019 was a British engineering scientist, and Regius Professor of Engineering at the University of Edinburgh.

His research was in multiscale flow systems in which the molecular or discrete nature of the fluid determines the overall fluid dynamics. A winner of the Philip Leverhulme Prize for Engineering (Leverhulme Trust), the Lord Kelvin Medal (Royal Society of Edinburgh), and a MacRobert Award (Royal Academy of Engineering) finalist, he was previously Weir Professor of Thermodynamics & Fluid Mechanics, and Head of the Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Department, at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.

Education
Jason Reese studied at Imperial College London, graduating in Physics in 1988. He completed his Masters and Doctoral research in Applied Mathematics at the University of Oxford in 1993, where he was one of the last research students of Leslie Colin Woods.

Career and research
After his PhD, Reese moved into engineering and was a postdoctoral researcher at the Technical University of Berlin, and the University of Cambridge. In 1996 he became a lecturer in Engineering in the University of Aberdeen, and then joined King's College London in 2001 as Lecturer and ExxonMobil Engineering Fellow. He moved to the University of Strathclyde in 2003 as the Weir Professor of Thermodynamics & Fluid Mechanics, and was latterly Head of the Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering. In 2013 he was appointed to the Regius Professorship at the University of Edinburgh, the ninth incumbent of this position since it was established by Queen Victoria in 1868.

Reese was an engineering scientist who conducted and published theoretical and computational research into multiscale fluid dynamics, in particular, micro and nano flows, as well as rarefied gas dynamics. He was also involved in the industrial application of fluid mechanics: he was part of the team that founded Brinker Technology Ltd in 2002 to commercialise a novel leak detection and sealing system for oil/gas pipelines and wellheads, and water mains pipes.

From 2012 to 2016, Reese was a member of the Scottish Science Advisory Council, Scotland's highest level science advisory body, providing independent advice and recommendations on science strategy, policy and priorities to the Scottish Government.

In 2018, he was awarded a 10-year Chair in Emerging Technologies by the Royal Academy of Engineering, to research and develop multiscale engineering design, "from molecules to machines".

Reese was an independent member of the Defence Science Expert Committee, DSEC, providing independent scientific and technological advice to the UK's Ministry of Defence. He was also an independent member of the Science & Technology Honours Committee, reviewing and advising on recommendations for UK national honours.

He died suddenly at the age of 51 on 8 March 2019; his full obituary was published in The Herald (Glasgow) on 24 March 2019.

Awards and honours
Recognition of his engineering achievements includes:

2000 ExxonMobil Engineering Fellowship, Royal Academy of Engineering
2003 Philip Leverhulme Prize for Engineering, Leverhulme Trust
2004 36th Bruce-Preller Prize Lectureship, Royal Society of Edinburgh
2005 Fellow of the Institute of Physics (FInstP)
2006 Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (FIMechE)
2006 Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (FRSE)
2006 Finalist, MacRobert Award for Innovation in Engineering, Royal Academy of Engineering
2011 Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng)
2015 Lord Kelvin Medal (Senior Prize in Physical Sciences), Royal Society of Edinburgh
2016 Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS Fellow)
2018 Chair in Emerging Technologies, Royal Academy of Engineering

References

External links

1967 births
2019 deaths
British mechanical engineers
Alumni of Imperial College London
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Academics of King's College London
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
People associated with the University of Strathclyde
Academic staff of the Technical University of Berlin
20th-century British engineers
21st-century British engineers
Regius Professors of Engineering in Edinburgh University
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the American Physical Society

Jason Reese


Uladzimir Karatkievich (; ) (26 November 1930 – 25 July 1984) was a Belarusian romantic writer.

Biography

Family and childhood
Karatkevich's ancestors were of aristocratic class and came from the Belarusian cities Dnieper, Rogachev, Mstislavl, Mogilev and others. One of the writer's maternal relatives, according to family legend - Thomas Hrynkevich, took part in the uprising of 1863. The rebels under his command were defeated, and he himself was shot in Rahačow. This story Korotkevitch described in the epilogue of the Russian-language novel "Background" (Предыстория), and in the prologue of the novel "Can not forget" ("Leonids will not return to the Earth", «Леониды не вернутся к Земле»).

He was born on November 26, 1930, in the city of Orsha, Vitebsk region, into a family of intellectuals. Father - Simon (1887 - 1959), graduated from City College in Orsha, he worked in the Treasury, served as a clerk in the imperial army, then worked as an inspector of the budget in the Orsha district finance department. Mother - Nadezhda Vasilevna (1893 - 1977), from the Hrynkevich family, after graduating from the Mariinsky Gymnasium in Mogilev, worked for some time as a teacher in a rural school near Rogachev, after marriage she took up housekeeping. The family had three children - Vladimir, his older brother, Valery (1918 - 1941), elder sister Natalia (married - Kuchkovskaya; 1922–2003). During his childhood, the family greatly influenced Vladimir. Especially influential was his maternal grandfather Basil Yullyanavich Hrynkevich (1861 - 1945), a man with rich life experience, who rose to the rank of provincial treasurer. Vasil Hrynkevich was a witty narrator, from whom his grandson heard many fairy tales and folk tales, inherited a love of nature. Later, the grandfather will be the prototype of Daniel Zagorskaga-Vezhy in the novel "Ears under your sickle" («Колосья под серпом твоим»). From his grandfather Vladimir heard the legend of the "Mother of the Wind" about the events of the Krichev uprising of 1743-1744. Many of the stories of his grandfather became a source for future works of Vladimir.

Vladimir learned to read very early, at the age of three and a half. As a child, he not only liked to listen to fairy tales and various stories that were read to him by his elders, but tried to think of plot development. From the earliest childhood he was interested in history, especially the history of Belarus. As a child, the diversity of his talents was manifested in a penchant for drawing, which lasted a lifetime. Also, he had perfect pitch, while engaged in a music school.

Young Karatkevich was also interested in theater, understood Yiddish, as evidenced by the memoirs of his older sister Natalia Kuchkovskaya: "Occasionally a Jewish theater came to our city. Since the Jewish language sounded at Orsha streets every day, we had no interpreter quietly watched the whole repertoire, consisting of well-known works of Sholem Aleichem: "Wandering Stars", "Teve-milkman", "Boy Motl" - and have more fun".

In 1938 he went to school in Orsha. By the beginning of the war he managed to finish 3 classes.

War period and later life
During the Second World War his family was evacuated to Moscow, and then to Chkalov and Kyiv.

In 1954, he graduated from the Philological Department of Kyiv University and first taught in a village school in the Kyiv region of Ukraine, and then in his home town, Orsha (Belarus). Later, he completed advanced literature courses (1960) and cinematography (1962) in Moscow. Literature became his main occupation.

In Kyiv, Uladzimir Karatkevich continued to compose poems in Belarusian and Russian, and tried to write them in Ukrainian and Polish. In his student essays, several literary topics were thoroughly developed: the works of Pushkin, Bogdanovich and others. At this time he conceived a great historical work, where he planned to present all the circumstances of the uprising of 1863–1864. In the summer of 1950 in Orsha, after the first course of the Faculty of Philology, Korotkevich created the first version of the famous novel King Stakh's Wild Hunt.

Career
His first published work (a poem) was in 1951, which was followed by three collections of verses. Later, he turned to prose and subsequently published a large number of short stories in collections entitled Chazenia, The Eye of the Typhoon, From Past Ages, and others. He also wrote the novels Unforgettable and The Dark Castle Olshansky. The novel King Stakh's Wild Hunt (Дзікае паляванне караля Стаха, 1964) is probably his most popular work. His novels deal predominantly with Belarus's historical past, including the January uprising of 1863 – 1865.

Karatkievich also wrote a number of plays, essays, articles, screenplays for short and feature films, and detective and adventure stories. Karatkievich's literary works are marked by romanticism, rich imagery, and emotionalism. A recipient of several national literary awards, he has strongly affected the further development of historical themes in Belarusian literature.

Bibliography
This list is not full, you can see complete list of author's works in the article in Belarusian wiki.

Novels
 Леаніды не вернуцца да Зямлі, 1960—1962
 Каласы пад сярпом тваім, 1962—1964
 Хрыстос прызямліўся ў Гародні, 1965—1966
 Чорны замак Альшанскі, 1979

Stories
 Предыстория
 King Stakh's Wild Hunt (Дзікае паляванне караля Стаха), 1950—1958
 У снягах драмае вясна, 1957
 Цыганскі кароль, 1958
 Сівая легенда, 1960
 Зброя, 1964
 Ладдзя Роспачы, 1964
 Чазенія, 1966
 Лісце каштанаў, 1973
 Крыж Аняліна, 1988

References

Sources

1930 births
1984 deaths
People from Orsha
Belarusian male writers
Romanticism
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv alumni
Recipients of the Byelorussian SSR State Prize
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples

Uladzimir Karatkievich


The Mahomet Aquifer is the most important aquifer in east-central Illinois. Composed of sand and gravel, it is part of the buried Mahomet Bedrock Valley. It underlies 15 counties and ranges from 50 to 200 feet (15 to 60 m) thick. It supplies over  per day of groundwater for public water use, industrial supply, and irrigation.

Hydrogeologic setting

The Mahomet Aquifer consists of sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater flowing westward along the Mahomet Bedrock Valley during the Pre-Illinoian glacial episode. This bedrock valley forms the western part of the Teays-Mahomet Bedrock Valley System that extends into Illinois from Indiana (Larson et al., 2003). Most of the sand and gravel of the Mahomet Aquifer is from the lower half of the Banner Formation and belongs to the Mahomet Sand Member which is buried 100 to 200 feet (30 to 60 m) below the ground surface.

The aquifer underlies 1.26 million acres (5,100 km²) of land in east-central Illinois and spans 15 counties (Panno and Korab, 2000). The Mahomet ranges from four to fifteen miles (24 km) wide (6 to 24 km) and 50 to 200 feet (15 to 60 m) thick, although the average thickness is 100 feet (30 m). The aquifer is confined except in Mason, Menard, and Tazewell Counties in the west near the Illinois River.

Groundwater use
The Mahomet Aquifer supplies approximately 850,000 people with water. The Illinois Bureau of the Budget projects that the population could increase to about 910,000 people by 2020. An estimated  per day of groundwater is pumped from the aquifer to supply municipal, agricultural, commercial, industrial, and rural domestic users (Larson et al., 2003). Approximately 45% of the water withdrawn is consumed by the public, 29% by industry, and 18% by commercial users (Panno and Korab, 2000). The remaining percentage is for other uses such as livestock and irrigation.

As the population increases and economic growth occurs in the region, the demand for water also rises. Concern about additional groundwater withdrawal and the resulting repercussions has encouraged planning, management, and groundwater studies. The Illinois State Geological Survey and the Illinois State Water Survey have collected data that indicate declining water levels in certain parts of the Mahomet Aquifer.

Water quality
The water quality in the Mahomet Aquifer is high in dissolved minerals and iron, which is typical of all groundwater. Neither of these pose a human health risk. One contaminant that is of concern is naturally occurring arsenic. The arsenic leaches from oxidized pyrite. Concentrations can range from 20 to 70 parts per billion (ppb), which exceeds the new standard adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Panno and Korab, 2000). The new standard is 10 ppb. Water-supply systems must comply with the new standard from January 23, 2006 (EPA, 2004). The arsenic can be effectively removed with commercially available water-treatment systems.

Mahomet Aquifer Consortium
The Mahomet Aquifer Consortium (MAC) was formed in 1998 with the purpose of developing a study and management plan for the aquifer. The group consists of 70 representatives from the public, water authorities, water companies, professional groups, and local, county, state, and federal governments. The goal of the MAC is to study the aquifer so that informed decisions can be made about meeting future water demand as populations increase and extreme weather events occur (MAC, 2004).

References
 Panno, S.V. and H. Korab. 2000. The Mahomet Aquifer. The Illinois Steward, v. 9, no. 1, p. 19-21.
 Larson, D. R., E. Mehnert and B. L. Herzog. June 2003. The Mahomet Aquifer: A Transboundary Resource in East-Central Illinois. Water International, v. 28, no. 2, p. 170–180.

External links
 Mahomet Aquifer Consortium
 A Plan to Improve the Planning and Management of Water Supplies in East-Central Illinois (pdf)

Aquifers in the United States
Geology of Illinois
Geography of Champaign County, Illinois

Mahomet Aquifer


The Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) for all domestic students, or the ATAR-based Combined Rank (CR) for all International Baccalaureate (IB) students, are the primary criteria for determining the
Selection Rank (SR) for admission into undergraduate courses in Australian public universities. Domestic Students are students who are Australian or New Zealand citizens, or Australian permanent residents, or the holder of long-term refugee visa. ATAR & CR are not applicable for international students as they must apply directly to each university separately and their SR is calculated by the university. The ATAR is calculated by each state or territory's own state-level Tertiary Admission Center (TAC) for all domestic students studying within their geographical limits. Interstate Domestic Students must apply to the TAC of their respective state. The Selection Rank is calculated by each University separately based on the ATAR or CR as well as additional points for each university's unique criteria such as a student's educational disadvantage or subject performance. ATAR is not a mark, but rather a percentile ranking between 0.00 and 99.95 which shows the student's relative position compared to all other students in the range of 16 to 20 years old who would have completed their respective year 12 exams in that state in a year.

The ATAR rank provides an indication of the overall position of the student in relation to the student body for that year across the state. A higher ATAR gives preference to that student for the course to which they wish to enrol in a university of their choice. The ATAR is used by all Australian public universities via their respective state-level Tertiary Admissions Centers, which are the unified admission center for all the universities within that state or territory. These bodies then allocate positions for the tertiary institutions in their relevant states. Private universities, with the exception of Bond University, do not primarily consider the ATAR and students must apply directly. The list of state-level TACs are as follows:

 Australian Capital Territory & New South Wales: Universities Admissions Centre (UAC).

 Northern Territory & South Australia: South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC).

 Queensland: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC).

 Tasmania: University of Tasmania, Tasmania is an exception, where the University of Tasmania is the only tertiary institution and therefore acts as a self-governing admissions centre.

 Victoria: Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC).

 Western Australia: Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC).

History

Introduction of ATAR
In June 2009, the Federal Minister for Education Julia Gillard announced the removal of all state-level university entrance scores and the introduction of a national Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) for Year 12 students of 2009 within the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales, and for the rest of the country, excluding Queensland, in 2010. The ATAR was introduced to unify the university entrance system in Australia, where previously each state or territory had its own individual system (UAI in ACT/NSW, TER in SA/NT/WA/TAS, ENTER in Victoria). In 2020, Queensland switched to the ATAR as the primary tertiary entrance pathway, replacing the Overall Position (OP).

2016 ATAR error
In 2016, a computer error allowed 2075 students to receive their ATAR score five days earlier than they were supposed to be announced. The external SMS provider for VCAA, Salmat Digital, created an error that allowed students to receive their results by texting VCAA and requesting their scores to be sent to them on the expected release date. This sparked outrage from parents of students who did not receive their scores, citing that they considered it "unfair", as well as concern about some students receiving their results before they were equipped to deal with them (particularly with regards to counseling).

Calculating the ATAR

In all states, the ATAR is a percentile given between 0.00 and 99.95 which compares a student's performance in senior secondary with that of their peers. For example, an ATAR of 99.00 would indicate that the recipient performed better than 99% of their peers. "Peers" is not the body of students receiving an ATAR that year, but a notional body of persons who might have qualified to receive an ATAR – as a result, the median ATAR score is generally above 50, depending on the state or territory. For example, the median ATAR score in NSW and the ACT for 2014 was 68.95. Since 2020, all jurisdictions have used a one-parameter cubic spline model to convert their aggregate scores into percentiles. In most states, when a student achieves an ATAR between 0.00 and 30.00, their notification will only indicate an ATAR of "30 or less".

Though there are differences in how each state calculates the ATAR, they are all primarily based on the student's scaled subject results. Scaling is a process that is performed by all states which align student results along a common axis such that the same score in two subjects equates with the same level of achievement. In this way, students are not disadvantaged by taking difficult subjects where the average achievement is lower. Theoretically, this ensures that the ATARs between students are comparable even when they took a different combination of courses. Despite this, in a 2018 survey, 35.8% of HSC students said they chose one or more subjects because they believed it would help them achieve a higher ATAR.

Victoria

The Victorian ATAR (formerly ENTER) is calculated by the Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) using student results provided by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). VTAC will combine the student's results into an "aggregate" which is a sum of selected (scaled) results from eligible subjects:

 the student's best score in one of English, English Language, Literature, or English as an Additional Language (EAL),
 the student's next three best scores; along with the English score these form the "primary four" results,
 10% of the next two best scores, known as "increments".

The Victorian aggregates, which can range from 0 to over 210 (in exceptional cases), are then mapped to percentiles for conversion to an ATAR. Students must pass an English subject in order to qualify for an ATAR as well as the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). The primary four results must be taken from VCE or Vocational Education and Training (VET) Units 3 and 4 sequences, while the increments can also include other results, such as interstate study or university extension studies. There are also other rules, such as only two studies from the same subject area can contribute to the "primary 4". For example, if the student completed Unit 3/4 for all General Mathematics, Mathematical Methods, and Specialist Mathematics, the one with the lowest study score must be an increment, even if the score is higher than all other studies outside of mathematics.

The group of students with the highest aggregates will be assigned the highest ATAR of 99.95. ATARs below 30.00 are reported as "less than 30" on printed ATAR statements, however the actual ATAR is available online.

New South Wales
The shift to ATAR means that the ranks of most students receiving a UAI would increase by a small amount (although this would not present as any advantage as cutoffs would subsequently increase), while the maximum rank in NSW/ACT would change from a UAI of 100 to an ATAR of 99.95.

The New South Wales ATAR is calculated by the University Admission Centre (UAC) using student results achieved in the Higher School Certificate (HSC). The marks included in the calculation can be accumulated over five years. Subjects are scaled such that "the scaled mean in a course is equal to the average academic achievement of the course candidature where, for individual students, the measure of academic achievement is taken as the average scaled mark in all courses completed". The aggregate is a sum of scaled marks in 10 units of eligible courses:

 2 units of English
 6 units from Category A subjects
 2 units from Category A or B subjects (if English Studies was used for the English marks, then these must be Category A units).

Students achieve the highest possible aggregate given their results. The aggregates are mapped to percentiles and given to students on their ATAR Advice Notice.

Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) ATAR is calculated alongside the NSW equivalent by the University Admissions Centre (UAC). Results are calculated on the basis of students' achievement in the ACT Senior Secondary Certificate (ACT SSC). UAC treats all ACT and NSW students as one cohort and thus the two regions' ATARs are exactly equivalent. The aggregate score is calculated as a sum of the student's three best scores from major courses and 60% of the next best course.

Queensland
Queensland transitioned from the Overall Position (OP) to ATAR in 2019, with the 2020 cohort being the first to graduate through the ATAR system. When the OP was still in place, the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) used a scaling method known as the "Queensland Core Skills Test". Since the introduction of the ATAR, Queensland now uses inter-scaling methods used by other states. ATAR can be calculated from any of the following combinations of results:

 5 general subjects at Units 3 and 4,
 4 general subjects and 1 applied subject, both at Units 3 and 4,
 4 general subjects at Units 3 and 4, and 1 Vocational Education and Training (VET) qualification (Certificate III or higher).

Like in New South Wales, students will be awarded on the basis of the combination ensuring the maximum final percentile. Students must pass an English subject in order to receive their Queensland Certificate of Education (QCE) and thus qualify for an ATAR, but their English result does not necessarily need to be included in the calculation of their ATAR.

Tasmania
Since Tasmania has only one university, the University of Tasmania (UTAS), there is no state-wide admissions body. Students' results from the Office of Tasmanian Assessments, Standards and Certification (TASC) are provided directly to the university for calculation of scaling and ATARs. UTAS uses a polytomous Rasch model to scale course results. Students who qualify for the Tasmanian Certificate of Education (TCE) are automatically awarded an ATAR if they also pass four or more courses at the pre-tertiary level (Level 3 or 4). Unlike in other states and territories, students do not need to complete an English course to qualify for a TCE or ATAR, though they must demonstrate an adult level of reading, writing and communication through another subject or through a safety net test. Most students who qualify for an ATAR will have completed an English course anyway, since pre-tertiary English is required for the majority of university entry.

The Tasmania ATAR is calculated from a Tertiary Entrance Score (TES), which is the sum of a student's scaled results in their five best pre-tertiary subjects. Three of these subjects must come from the student's final year of study (Year 12 or 13), and students may only count scores from two years of their study, even if they have taken a Year 13. Other subjects, such as selected University Connections Program (UCP) and High Achiever Program (HAP) units, may also contribute to a student's ATAR. Since UCP and HAP units are only one semester long, only 8/15 of the scaled score may be counted towards the ATAR. The other 7/15 may come from any other subject but is generally chosen from the alternative semester UCP/HAP unit.

Western Australia
The Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC) is responsible for the calculation of students' ATARs in Western Australia. TISC does not require that students complete an English subject, though they must demonstrate literary competency through their Year 9 NAPLAN results or an Online Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (OLNA). TISC derives an ATAR percentile from a student's Tertiary Entrance Aggregate (TEA), which is calculated as a sum of the student's best four scaled subjects out of their Year 12 ATAR subjects over up to five consecutive years. Students may additionally count 10% of their score in any of the following subjects:

 any Language other than English (LOTE),
 Mathematics Methods,
 Mathematics Specialist.

The maximum TEA is 430. Mature age students may also receive a Mature Age Tertiary Entrance Aggregate, which only incorporates a student's best two subjects as well as 10% of any of the above subjects. The TEA is converted to an ATAR percentile using the cubic spline model.

See also

 Austudy Payment (for those above 25 years old)
 Youth Allowance (for below 25 years old)
 List of universities in Australia
 Universities Admissions Centre (UAC) in NSW and ACT
 Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) in VIC
 South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC) in SA and NT
 Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC) in WA
 Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) in QLD

References

Higher education in Australia
School qualifications

Australian Tertiary Admission Rank


Pyotr Kirillovich Koshevoy (; ;  – 30 August 1976) was a Soviet military commander and a Marshal of the Soviet Union.

Koshevoy was born to a Ukrainian peasant family and joined the Red Army in 1920, fighting in the Russian Civil War. During the interwar period, he served as a junior commander in cavalry units and held staff positions from the late 1930s. By the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Koshevoy commanded the 65th Rifle Division, which he led during the Siege of Leningrad. In mid-1942 he transferred to command the 24th Guards Rifle Division, fighting in the Battle of Stalingrad and the North Caucasus.

Koshevoy commanded the 63rd Rifle Corps during the Crimean Offensive, then transferred to command the 71st Rifle Corps before leading the 36th Guards Rifle Corps from early 1945, commanding it in the East Prussian Offensive. He was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union twice – in 1944, for the taking of Mount Sapun during the Crimean Offensive and in 1945, for his part in the capture of Königsberg.

Following the war, Koshevoy commanded the 6th Guards, the 5th, the 11th Guards Armies, and the Siberian and Kiev Military Districts. He became commander-in-chief of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany in 1965. Koshevoy was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1968, but was dismissed from command of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany in late 1969.

Early life, Russian Civil War, and interwar period
Koshevoy was born on  in Oleksandriia, Kherson Governorate to a Ukrainian peasant family. After graduating from primary school in 1919, he worked with his father, a miller, for a year and a half. He joined the Red Army during the Russian Civil War on 13 February 1920 and was sent to the 2nd Red Cossack Regiment of the 8th Red Cossack Cavalry Division, with which he fought on the Southwestern Front against Polish and Ukrainian People's Army troops in the area of Chornyi Ostriv, Lityn, Proskurov, Horodok, and Rohatyn, then against the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine.

After the end of the war, in August 1922, Koshevoy was sent to study at the Crimean Cavalry Courses, and upon graduation in October 1923 was appointed a squadron starshina in the 3rd Red Cossack Cavalry Regiment of the 1st Red Cossack Cavalry Division, stationed in the Ukrainian Military District. Becoming a kursant at the Ukrainian Cavalry School in August 1924, after graduation in September 1927 he served as a platoon commander with the 61st Cavalry Regiment of the Special Cavalry Brigade in the Moscow Military District. Temporarily transferred to the department of higher education institutions at the district headquarters to serve as officer for assignments of the 2nd category in November 1931, Koshevoy then served at the VTsIK Combined Military School as an assistant machine gun squadron commander.

After attending the Armored Commanders' Advanced Training Courses (KUKS) in Leningrad between March and May 1932, he returned to the school to briefly become a platoon commander in the mechanized battalion. From September of that year, Koshevoy served as head of the regimental school of the 61st Regiment, part of the Special Cavalry Division (formed from the Special Cavalry Brigade). He became assistant chief of the 1st (operations) section of the staff of the regiment in May 1935, and from October of that year was regimental chief of staff. Koshevoy entered the Frunze Military Academy in May 1936 and upon graduation in January 1939 was appointed chief of staff of the 15th Cavalry Division, stationed in the Transbaikal Military District. He was transferred to command the 65th Rifle Division of the district in February 1940. Koshevoy was assigned the rank of colonel on 29 February when the Red Army adopted personal military ranks.

World War II

After Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, began in June 1941, Koshevoy remained with the division in the Transbaikal Military District. Under his command, the 65th was relocated to the Volkhov Front during November, and as part of the 4th Army fought in the Tikhvin Defensive Operation. For its "successful actions" in the latter, the 65th was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. Transferred to command the 24th Guards Rifle Division in the reserve on 2 July 1942, Koshevoy led the division as part of the 8th Army from 7 August, fighting in the Sinyavino Offensive. He was promoted to major general on 1 October. The division was relocated to Rasskazovo on 25 October 1942, where it joined the 2nd Guards Army of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command, receiving replacements and new equipment. Departing with the army in mid-December for the Stalingrad Front, it fought in the repulse of Operation Winter Storm, a German counterattack attempting to relieve surrounded troops in Stalingrad. As part of the Southern Front, the division fought in the Rostov Offensive, part of the North Caucasus Strategic Offensive in early 1943. It was in reserve in Voroshilovgrad oblast for rebuilding from March. During the summer, as part of the 2nd Guards Army of the Southern Front, Koshevoy led the division in the Mius and Donbass Offensives.

During the Donbass Offensive, Koshevoy was appointed commander of the 63rd Rifle Corps of the 51st Army on 28 August. He went on to lead the corps as part of the 44th and 51st Armies of the 4th Ukrainian Front in the Melitopol and Crimean Offensives, during which it captured Kakhovka, Simferopol, and Sevastopol. For his "skillful leadership" of the corps in the Crimean Offensive, including in the crossing of the Sivash and the taking of Mount Sapun, Koshevoy was made a Hero of the Soviet Union and awarded the Order of Lenin on 16 May 1944, being promoted to lieutenant general a day later. Transferred to command the 71st Rifle Corps on 27 May, he led the latter as part of the 31st Army of the 3rd Belorussian Front in Operation Bagration and the Baltic Offensive. For its "courage in battle", the 71st was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. Koshevoy transferred to command the 36th Guards Rifle Corps of the 11th Guards Army from 7 January 1945, leading it for the rest of the war. During the East Prussian Offensive, the corps captured Insterburg, Königsberg, and Pillau. During the offensive, according to his superiors, Koshevoy personally organized the attacks of the corps and led from the front, in the "most critical and dangerous" areas of Insterburg. For his "skillful leadership" in the offensive, "courage and heroism", he received the title Hero of the Soviet Union a second time on 19 April.

Postwar

After the end of the war, Koshevoy continued to command the corps. He commanded the 6th Guards Army in the Baltic Military District from July 1946, and studied at the Higher Academic Courses of the Voroshilov Higher Military Academy from March 1947 to April 1948. Upon completion of the courses, he was appointed commander of the 5th Army of the Primorsky Military District, which became part of the Far Eastern Military District in April 1953. Promoted to colonel general on 31 May 1954, Koshevoy was transferred to command the 11th Guards Army in the Baltic Military District in June 1954 and became first deputy commander-in-chief of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany (GSFG) in July 1955. He commanded the Siberian Military District from July 1957 and the Kiev Military District from April 1960, being promoted to army general on 13 April 1964. Koshevoy became commander-in-chief of the GSFG in January 1965. Although promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union on 15 April 1968, he was transferred to the Group of Inspectors General of the Ministry of Defense as an inspector general in October 1969, a retirement post for aging senior officers. Koshevoy lived in Moscow, where he died on 30 August 1976. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery. His memoirs of his World War II service, In the war years (), were published in 1978 by Voenizdat.

Honors and awards
Koshevoy was a recipient of the following awards and decorations:

Hero of the Soviet Union, twice (16 May 1944, 19 April 1945)
 Five Orders of Lenin (17 December 1941, 16 May 1944, 30 April 1945, 9 December 1964, 22 February 1968)
Order of the October Revolution (4 December 1974)
Order of the Red Banner, three times (3 November 1944, 15 November 1950, 21 February 1969)
Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 1st class (5 May 1945)
Order of Suvorov, 2nd class (31 March 1943)
Order of Kutuzov, 2nd class, twice (17 September 1943, 4 July 1944)
 Eleven campaign and jubilee medals
Ten foreign orders and medals

Koshevoy was a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1971, and a sixth and seventh convocation delegate of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.

A bronze bust of Koshevoy was installed in Oleksandriia. In 1976, the Omsk Tank School was named in his honor.

References

Citations

Bibliography

1904 births
1976 deaths
People from Oleksandriia
People from Aleksandriysky Uyezd
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Candidates of the Central Committee of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Sixth convocation members of the Soviet of the Union
Seventh convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Marshals of the Soviet Union
Soviet military personnel of World War II from Ukraine
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 2nd class
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 2nd class
Recipients of the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Soviet Union), 1st class
Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery
Frunze Military Academy alumni
Soviet military personnel of the Polish–Soviet War
Soviet military personnel of the Russian Civil War
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia

Pyotr Koshevoy


The Art of Thinking Clearly is a 2013 book by the Swiss writer Rolf Dobelli which describes in short chapters 99 of the most common thinking errors – ranging from cognitive biases to envy and social distortions.

The book was written as weekly columns in leading newspapers in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and later in two German books. The book was in the top ten of Germany's Der Spiegel Bestseller list for 80 consecutive weeks and has been translated into many languages. Outside Germany and Switzerland, the book hit the top ten bestseller lists in the U.K, South Korea, India, Ireland, Singapore, and Iran. Author Nassim Taleb has asserted that the book included sections plagiarised from Taleb's manuscript of Antifragile.

See also
 List of cognitive biases
 The Demon-Haunted World

References

External links

2013 non-fiction books
Books about cognition
Sceptre (imprint) books
Farrar, Straus and Giroux books
Works about skepticism

The Art of Thinking Clearly


Jean Bagot (; 9 July 1591 – 23 August 1664) was a Jesuit theologian.

Bagot was born at Rennes, France.  He entered the Society of Jesus, 1 July 1611, taught belles-lettres for many years at various colleges in France, philosophy for five years, theology for thirteen years, and became theologian to the General of the Society. In 1647 he published the first part of his work Apologeticus Fidei titled Institutio Theologica de vera Religione In 1645 the second part, Demonstratio dogmatum Christianorum, appeared, and in 1646 Dissertationes theologicae on the Sacrament of Penance. In his Avis aux Catholiques, Bagot attacked the new doctrine on grace, directing against it also his Lettre sur la conformite de S. Augustin. In 1653 his Libertatis et gratiae defensio was published.

In 1655 Rousse, Curé of Saint Roch (or Masure, the Curé of St. Paul's), published a little work titled De l'obligation des fidèles de se confesser a leur cure, suivant le chapitre 21 du concile general de Latran. Père Bagot answered this in his Défense du droit épiscopal et de la liberté des fidèles, which he afterwards translated into Latin. A controversy arose, in which various ecclesiastics, including Pierre de Marca, Archbishop of Toulouse, took sides against Bagot. The work was referred to the faculty of theology at Paris, which censured some of the propositions. Bagot, however, defended his doctrine before this assembly with the result that the censure was removed. he answered his opponents in the Réponse du P. Bagot. On his return from Rome he devoted the remaining years of his life to the congregation of the Blessed Virgin, and died superior of the professed house at Paris.

References

Attribution
 cites:
Hurter, Nomenclator, II, 67;
de Backer, Bibl. des escriv. de la c. de J., I, 32;
Carlos Sommervogel, Bibl. de la c. de J., I, 774; Idem in Dict. de theol. cath.

1591 births
17th-century French Jesuits
1664 deaths
17th-century French Catholic theologians

Jean Bagot


In organic chemistry, a pericyclic reaction is a type of chemical reaction between organic compounds. In the case of pericyclic reactions, the transition state of the molecule is a ring (has a cyclic geometry), and the reaction goes forward in a concerted way. Pericyclic reactions are usually rearrangement reactions. The most important groups of pericyclic reactions are:

 Electrocyclic reactions
 Cycloadditions
 Sigmatropic reactions
 Group transfer reactions
 Cheletropic reactions
 Dyotropic reactions

In general, pericyclic reactions are equilibrium processes. However, it is possible to push the reaction in one direction if the product is at a significantly lower energy level. This is applying Le Chatelier's principle to a reaction involving a single molecule.

Many pericyclic reactions have similar stepwise radical processes connected with them. Chemists disagree whether some reactions are pericyclic reactions. For example, it is not definitively known whether the [2+2] cycloaddition mechanism is concerted (or may depend on the reactive system). Many pericyclic reactions have similar reactions that are metal-catalyzed. But these metal-catalyzed reactions are also not really pericyclic. The metal catalysts stabilize the reaction intermediates. So the reaction is not concerted, but rather metal-stabilized.

A large photoinduced hydrogen sigmatropic shift was utilized in a corrin synthesis performed by Albert Eschenmoser containing a 16π system.

Due to the principle of microscopic reversibility, there is a parallel set of "retro" pericyclic reactions, which perform the reverse reaction.

Pericyclic reactions in biochemistry

Pericyclic reactions also happen in several biological processes:

Claisen rearrangement of chorismate to prephenate in almost all prototrophic organisms.
[1,5]-sigmatropic shift when precorrin-8x is being changed into hydrogenobyrinic acid
non-enzymatic, photochemical electrocyclic ring opening and a (1,7) sigmatropic hydride shift in vitamin D synthesis.
a conversion of Isochorismate into salicylate and Pyruvate in a catalyzed, true pericyclic reaction.

Related pages
Woodward–Hoffmann rules

References

Pericyclic reactions
Rearrangement reactions
Organic Chemistry

Pericyclic reaction