Raúl Leoni Otero (26 April 1905 – 5 July 1972) was the president of Venezuela from 1964 until 1969. He was a member of the Generation of 1928 and a charter member of the Acción Democrática party, and the first Labor minister of Venezuela (during El Trienio Adeco, 1945–48).

Background
Leoni was born in El Manteco, Bolívar State, son of Clement Leoni Scribani, born in Corsica. He graduated at the Central University of Venezuela in Caracas as a lawyer. He was a member of the Generation of 1928, and the first Labor minister of Venezuela (during El Trienio Adeco, 1945–48).

Presidency

Leoni took control of the presidency on 13 March 1964, succeeding Rómulo Betancourt; both were members of the Acción Democrática.

One of the pillars of a political consolidation in Venezuela, the Pacto de Punto Fijo, was underestimated by Leoni, since in his opinion it reduced the "coherence and organization of the regime".  Strictly, the pact mandated that the composition of the executive cabinet be limited to representatives of three of the more important political parties: Acción Democrática (AD), COPEI and Unión Republicana Democrática (URD). Leoni initially formed a cabinet with a few members of his party and a good number of independents. Later, in November 1964, Leoni initiated conversations with leaders of the involved parties to rescue the spirit of the pact.  A new cabinet was formed, but it lasted for only 16 months.

During his government, Leoni carried out important structural projects in Venezuela, specifically the development of heavy industry in Guayana (hydroelectric, iron and steel), inauguration of the Bank of the Workers, and construction of road infrastructure (highways, freeways, and bridges – the most important of which crossed the Orinoco).  Important changes to labor and social programs also occurred; unions gained force and the Social Security law was modified.  Leoni made an attempt at reforming tax structure, but was restrained by a coalition of left and right that openly served the interests of oil companies.

During Leoni's presidency the conflict with the leftist guerrilla movement Armed Forces for National Liberation (FALN) intensified. Leoni's government was unexceptional, but it was Leoni who had to liquidate the remnants of the communist insurrection for which he put the army in charge of the country with full powers to be as ruthless as needed.

However, unlike guerrillas all over the world, the communist guerrilleros themselves had no rural support to speak of and as such did not control any villages.  They knew that they were no match for the army and avoided confrontations. Castro had been hoping that Venezuela would be the second act of the Latin American revolution, and he tried to supply the Venezuelan guerrillas. That was in keeping with the theory of what could be called the "permanent agrarian revolution", which the French intellectual Régis Debray had expressed in the widely circulated book Revolution Inside the Revolution and Ernesto "Che" Guevara had been trying to carry out first in Africa and later, fatally for him, in Bolivia. In 1966, Castro selected a trusted officer, Arnaldo Ochoa, to assess the Venezuelan guerrillas. Ochoa with the Venezuelan guerrilla commander Luben Petkoff, took a boat to the shores of Falcon, Venezuela, one of his most secretive expedition. Along with 15 other members of the Cuban military went to Coro Sierra mountains to strengthen Douglas Bravo guerrillas who were fighting the government troops that ended in a major strategic loss at large human cost.

In 1967, the invasion of Machurucuto occurred with 12 Cubans and Venezuelans revolutionaries attempted to help Venezuelan guerrillas in the Venezuelan Andes. Soon afterward, Leoni suspended constitutional guarantees and, in a press conference, denouncing Cuban aggression against Venezuela and showed two captured Cubans: Manuel Gil Castellanos, and Pedro Cabrera Torres. Cuba was denounced by Venezuela to the Organization of American States. Cuba did not recognize his action even if the investigation of the AK 47 in possession of the guerrillas had serial numbers matching weapons sold by the Czech Republic to Cuba. The government of Venezuela broke off relations with Cuba them until 1974. That effectively ended Cuba's intervention in Venezuelan affairs. By then, Venezuelan leftists had given up on violence and were seeking legalisation, but Leoni did not offer it. Ochoa was later tried and executed by Castro on an unlikely charge of drug-smuggling.

Meanwhile, Leoni signed the Cartagena Agreement. The precursor to the Andean Community, it was a trade bloc in Bogotá between Venezuela, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador.

On 11 March 1969, Leoni transferred power to Rafael Caldera, a member of the Christian Democratic Party COPEI and a signatory of the Pacto de Punto Fijo. That transfer definitively instituted the alternation of power between the important parties until the late 20th century in Venezuela.

Personal life and death
Raúl Leoni was married to Carmen América Fernández, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1964–1969 and has one son named Álvaro. Leoni died on 5 July 1972 when he was 67 years old, at the Cornell Medical Center in New York City, where he was recovering from medical treatment after suffering a hemorrhage.

See also

Presidents of Venezuela

References

Much of the content of this article comes from the equivalent Spanish-language Wikipedia article. The following references are cited by that Spanish-language article:
 Polar Foundation
Biography of Leoni at Venezuela Tuya
Interview to Raúl Leoni by Miguel Otero Silva PDF format.

People from Bolívar (state)
20th-century Venezuelan lawyers
Presidents of Venezuela
Venezuelan life senators
Venezuelan democracy activists
Venezuelan people of French descent
Venezuelan people of Corsican descent
1905 births
1972 deaths
Presidents of the Senate of Venezuela
Labour ministers of Venezuela
Democratic Action (Venezuela) politicians
Prisoners and detainees of Venezuela
Generation of 1928

Raúl Leoni


A large format lens is a lens that can be used on a large format camera. These cameras usually cover an area of 4x5 inches or more. The picture taken is then recorded on photographic film, or as a digital image.

Other websites
 http://www.schneideroptics.com/info/vintage_lens_data/large_format_lenses/
 http://www.kenrockwell.com/tech/4x5.htm

Camera lenses

Large format lens


Thomas Welz (born 1957 as Thomas Berndt in Bad Berka) grew up in the suburbs of Berlin.
As head of the information department, he was editor and author of several illegal samizdat publications with Rainer Eppelmann of the peace circle of the East Berlin Samariterkirche (Church of the Good Samaritan) in Berlin-Friedrichshain. Many of them became the mouthpiece of the East German civil rights movement, including publications like "Shalom", "Wegzehrung" and "Wendezeit", one of the first publications, in where term "Wende" was used.
During his military service in the NVA, Thomas Welz was detained for five months from October 1978 in the infamous military prison in Schwedt.

Welz, active in various initiatives and ad hoc groups of the East German opposition and the peace movement was  co-founder of the oppositional political group Democratic Awakening in 1989. After German reunification in 1990, he was active in the Social Democratic Party of Germany. He is married and has two sons. He lives in Berlin.

References and media

 Ehrhart Neubert: Geschichte der Opposition in der DDR 1949–1989. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Schriftenreihe Band 346, Bonn 1997, .
 Ehrhart Neubert: Unsere Revolution. Die Geschichte der Jahre 1989/90. Piper-Verlag, München–Zürich 2008, .
 Rainer Eppelmann: Fremd im eigenen Haus. Mein Leben im anderen Deutschland. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2003, .
 RBB-Magazin Stilbruch: Ab nach Schwedt! Die Geschichte des DDR-Militärstrafvollzugs (German)
 MDR-Magazin Barbarossa: Der Mythos Schwedt - über das Militärgefängnis der NVA (German)

External links
 DDR 1989/1990 Dokumente zum Demokratischen Aufbruch
 "Schalom" Samisdat-Publikation der Samaritergemeinde
 Zeitzeugenportal 1989/1990

German reunification
1957 births
Living people
East German dissidents

Thomas Welz


Musical quotation is the practice of directly quoting another work in a new composition. The quotation may be from the same composer's work (self-referential), or from a different composer's work (appropriation).

Sometimes the quotation is done for the purposes of characterization, as in Puccini's use of The Star-Spangled Banner in reference to the American character Lieutenant Pinkerton in his opera Madama Butterfly, or in Tchaikovsky's use of the Russian and French national anthems in the 1812 Overture, which depicted a battle between the Russian and French armies.

Sometimes, there is no explicit characterization involved, as when Luciano Berio used brief quotes from Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Alban Berg, Pierre Boulez, Gustav Mahler, Claude Debussy, Paul Hindemith, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Richard Strauss, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, and others in his Sinfonia.

Quotation vs. variation
Musical quotation is to be distinguished from variation, where a composer takes a theme (their own or another's) and writes variations on it.  In that case, the origin of the theme is usually acknowledged in the title (e.g., Johannes Brahms's Variations on a Theme by Haydn).

In the case of quotations, however, an explicit acknowledgment does not generally appear in the score. Some exceptions are found in Robert Schumann's Carnaval:
 in the section "Florestan" he quotes a theme from his earlier work Papillons, Op. 2, and the inscription "(Papillon?)" is written underneath the notes (he quotes the same theme in the final section "Marche des Davidsbündler contre les Philistins", but without acknowledgement)
 in the final section, he also quotes another theme first used in Papillons, the traditional Grossvater Tanz (Grandfather Dance), but this time the inscription is "Thème du XVIIème siècle".

Examples
Examples of musical quotations in classical music include:
 Arnold Bax quoted a theme from Richard Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde in his 1919 symphonic poem Tintagel

 Alban Berg quoted Johann Sebastian Bach's setting of the chorale "Es ist genug" (It is enough), the closing chorale of Bach's cantata O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 60, with variations in the final movement of his Violin Concerto, subtitled "To the memory of an Angel" in memory of Manon Gropius who died at age 17. In the fourth movement of his Lyric Suite for string quartet, Berg quoted a phrase from the third movement of Alexander Zemlinsky's Lyric Symphony that originally set the words "Du bist mein eigen, mein eigen" (Thou art mine own, mine own).
 The third movement of Luciano Berio's Sinfonia (1968) is full of quotations that drift in an out of the orchestral and vocal textures. Mahler's scherzo from his Symphony No. 2 is central to the structure of the movement and provides the narrative thread, with further quotations ranging from Bach to Beethoven to Ravel, Richard Strauss and Boulez. At the same time there are many literary quotations in the text. Alex Ross described it as "a surreal collage".
 Georges Bizet used a song "El Arreglito" by Sebastián Iradier as the basis for the "Habanera" (L'amour est un oiseau rebelle) in his opera Carmen, believing it to be an anonymous folk song.  When he discovered its true author, who had died only ten years earlier, he made an acknowledgment in the vocal score.
 Johannes Brahms quotes Gaudeamus igitur and other popular university songs in his Academic Festival Overture.
 Benjamin Britten quoted many other works (e.g., Wagner's "Tristan chord") in his opera Albert Herring
 Frédéric Chopin quoted the tenor aria "Vieni fra queste braccia" from Rossini's opera La gazza ladra in his Polonaise in B-flat minor, "Adieu a Guillaume Kolberg", Op. posth; Chopin and Kolberg had seen the opera together
 Brett Dean's work for violin and orchestra, The Lost Art of Letter Writing (2006), includes two quotations from Johannes Brahms: the slow movement of the Fourth Symphony and the Variations on a Theme of Robert Schumann.
 Claude Debussy quoted the opening of Tristan und Isolde disparagingly in the Golliwogg's Cakewalk from his Children's Corner suite for piano
 Sir Edward Elgar quoted The First Nowell and some of his own earlier music in The Starlight Express
 Manuel de Falla quoted the opening of Beethoven's 5th Symphony in his ballet The Three-Cornered Hat.
 Alberto Franchetti quoted widely from German popular songs and from the work of several German composers in his opera Germania, in order to lend the score a German color
 Umberto Giordano quoted the French national anthem La Marseillaise in his opera Andrea Chénier
 Charles Ives was particularly fond of quoting other composers' themes in his works.  They can be found in works such as Three Places in New England and his Piano Sonata No. 2
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart quoted a theme by his recently deceased mentor Johann Christian Bach in his Piano Concerto No. 12
 Giacomo Puccini quoted the U.S. national anthem The Star-Spangled Banner in his opera Madama Butterfly
 Sergei Rachmaninoff based his song "Fate" on the first two measures of the opening movement of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony
 Franz Schubert used self-quotation to convey an associative meaning, as with his song  'Ave Maria' within the Piano Trio No. 2.
 Robert Schumann quoted La Marseillaise in his song The Two Grenadiers and his Carnival Jest from Vienna; he also quoted two themes from his Papillons, Op. 2 in his later work Carnaval, Op. 9 (one of which was the traditional Grossvater Tanz); further, he quoted Beethoven's An die ferne Geliebte and (more distantly) Seventh Symphony in his Fantasie in C, Op. 17
 Dmitri Shostakovich – various examples, for instance the Can-Can from Jacques Offenbach's opera Orpheus in the Underworld
 Richard Strauss quoted the funeral march from Beethoven's Eroica symphony (No. 3) in his Metamorphosen for 23 solo strings
 Strauss used many quotes from his own works in his symphonic poem A Hero's Life
 Strauss quoted Luigi Denza's song Funiculì, Funiculà in his symphonic poem Aus Italien, believing it was a folk song
 Igor Stravinsky quoted a theme from Franz Schubert's Marche Militaire No. 1 in D in his Circus Polka.
 Sir Arthur Sullivan did quote actual melodies by Franz Schubert and Johann Sebastian Bach, but he was more adept at deliberately imitating the styles of other composers without actually quoting their works.  The styles of Bellini, Bizet, Donizetti, Dvořák, Gounod, Handel, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Rossini, Verdi, Wagner and others can all be found in his works.
 Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky quoted the Russian national anthem (God Save the Tsar!), La Marseillaise, a Russian Orthodox plainchant (God Preserve Thy People), and some Russian folk songs, in his 1812 Overture.  He used folk material in other compositions, such as the 4th Symphony and the 1st Piano Concerto.  He quoted the traditional Grossvater Tanz in Act I of The Nutcracker.  And in Act 2, Scene 2 of The Queen of Spades, he has the Countess sing Laurette's aria "Je crains de lui parler la nuit" from André Grétry's opera Richard Coeur-de-Lion.
 Ernest Tomlinson's orchestral Fantasia on Auld Lang Syne (1976) is a quodlibet which introduces at least 129 well-known tunes from classical and folk sources, often overlapping, as counter melodies to Auld Lang Syne, which is present throughout the 20 minute piece.
 Ralph Vaughan Williams quoted the theme from the Epilogue of the third movement of Arnold Bax's Symphony No. 3 in his Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra.
 Heitor Villa-Lobos quoted Yara, a schottische composed in 1896 by Anacleto de Medeiros, in his Chôros No. 10 (1926), as well as the text added in 1907 by Catullo da Paixão Cearense, from which Villa-Lobos took the subtitle of his work, "Rasga o coração" (It Rends Your heart").

Quotation is also a tradition in jazz performance, especially of the bebop era. Charlie Parker, for instance, quoted Stravinsky's Rite of Spring in his solo on "Repetition", and "Country Gardens" on his Verve recording of "Lover Man"; Dizzy Gillespie quotes David Raksin's "Laura" on "Hot House" during the Massey Hall concert. Dexter Gordon and Sonny Rollins are especially famed among jazz fans for their addiction to quotation. Often the use of musical quotation has an ironic edge, whether the musician is aiming for an amusing juxtaposition or is making a more pointed commentary (as when a youthful Rollins, playing alongside Charlie Parker on Miles Davis's Collector's Items, throws in a snippet of "Anything You Can Do I Can Do Better," or when the avant-garde saxophonist Ornette Coleman rebuffs a skeptical heckler at the Croydon Hall concert with a snippet of the jazz standard "Cherokee").

Although less common, musical quotations can be found in rock music, for example Barenaked Ladies "Hello City" quotes a stanza from The Housemartins' "Happy Hour". Sampling, a foundation of hip hop music, is the reuse of a portion (or sample) of a sound recording in another recording.

See also
 Contrafact
 Quodlibet
 Variation (music)
 List of variations on a theme by another composer
 Sampling (music)
 Composer tributes (classical music)
 Interpolation (popular music)

References

Sources
 Nicolas Slonimsky, Richard Kassel eds., Webster's New World Dictionary of Music

Musical terminology
Quotation
Quotation

Musical quotation


Edgar E. Peters (born July 16, 1952), is an asset manager and writer on investment management topics. He is noted for his early contributions to the application of chaos theory and fractals to the financial markets. These works primarily dealt with fat tailed distributions originally discovered by Benoit Mandelbrot and expanded upon in Peters (1991 and 1994). These probability distributions are considered fractal because they are self-similar over different investment horizons once adjusted for scale.

Peters worked as an asset manager for PanAgora Asset Management, Inc., during which time he researched rescaled range analysis, and attempted to estimate the Hurst exponent of various financial markets. He has also taught at Babson College, Boston College and Bentley College, and contributed papers to the Journal of Portfolio Management and the Financial Analysts Journal. His current venture is "Fractal Market Cycles and Regimes" at www.edgarepeters.com.

His books include Chaos and Order in the Capital Markets (According to WorldCat, the book is held in 813 libraries,) Fractal Market Analysis (held in 580 libraries) and Patterns in the Dark: Understanding Risk and Financial Crisis with Complexity Theory. According to Google Scholar his books and articles have over 6000 references.

His best known contribution is the Fractal Market Hypothesis (FMH)  which was outlined in Peters (1994).

Recent research has supported the FMH as well describing the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 as well as Tech Bubble of 2000.  The FMH is a model of investor behavior that unlike the efficient-market hypothesis assumes investors have multiple time horizons and interpret information based upon their horizon.

More recently he has contributed to the risk parity literature.

References

Further reading

1952 births
Living people

Edgar E. Peters


Strokkur is a geyser in Iceland. It is located in the geothermal region near the Hvítá River, east of the capital Reykjavík.

History
Strokkur's activity began in 1789 following an earthquake. Strokkur continued to erupt until 1896, when another earthquake blocked the geyser's water pipeline.

Tourism
Strokkur is famous throughout Iceland and regularly attracts many tourists. People go there to see the geyser erupt.

Sequence of the eruption
The water present at a depth of 23 meters has a temperature of about 120 ° C, but cannot transform into a gaseous state due to the high pressure, due to the overlying mass of water. When this water reaches 16 meters deep, a certain amount can reach the boiling point and this induces the chain reaction that we see.

Geysers
Geography of Iceland

Strokkur


Master Raro was a notable character that appeared in many of Robert Schumann's character pieces for solo piano. Raro may represent the union of (Clara + Robert). He was the personality that balanced the two contrasting natures of Eusebius (passive, dreamy) and Florestan (aggressive, enthusiastic). Master Raro was also the primary arbiter of the many pseudonyms under which Robert Schumann took guise in his critical writings within Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, the journal through which he evaluated the music world.  Raro appears to bring logic and reason into a complex mixture of views of the Davidsbündler. He reflects Schumann's writing mastery and musical genius.

References

Gordon, Stewart. (1996) A history of Keyboard Literature: Music for the Piano and Its Forerunners. Wadsworth Group/Thompson Learning

Robert Schumann

Master Raro


Business rule mining is the process of extracting essential intellectual business logic in the form of business rules from packaged or legacy software applications, recasting them in natural or formal language, and storing them in a source rule repository for further analysis or forward engineering. The goal is to capture these legacy business rules in a way that the business can validate, control and change them over time.

Overview
Business rule mining supports a Business rules approach, which is defined as a formal way of managing and automating an organization's business rules so that the business behaves and evolves as its leaders intend.

It is also commonly conducted as part of an application modernization project evolving legacy software applications to service-oriented architecture (SOA) solutions, transitioning to packaged software, redeveloping new in-house applications, or to facilitate knowledge retention and communication between business and IT professionals in a maintenance environment.

Alternative approaches
Alternative approaches to rule mining are manual and automated.

A manual approach involves the hand-writing of rules on the basis of subject matter expert interviews and the inspection of source code, job flows, data structures and observed behavior.

Manually extracting rules is complicated by the difficulty of locating and understanding highly interdependent logic that has been interwoven into millions of lines of software code.

An automated approach utilizes repository-based software to locate logical connections inherent within applications and extract them into a predetermined business rules format.

With automation, an effective approach is to apply semantic structures to existing applications.  By overlaying business contexts onto legacy applications, rules miners can focus effort on discovering rules from systems that are valuable to the business.  Effort is redirected away from mining commoditized or irrelevant applications.

Further, best practices  coupled with various tool-assisted techniques of capturing programs' semantics speeds the transformation of technical rules to true business rules.  Adding business semantics to the analysis process allows users to abstract technical concepts and descriptors that are normal in an application to a business level that is consumable by a rules analyst.

System integrators, software vendors, rules mining practitioners, and in-house development teams have developed technologies, proprietary methodologies and industry-specific templates for application modernization and business rule mining.

See also
 Business model
 Business process
 Business rules approach
 Expert system
 Service-level agreement (SLA)
 Business rule management system (BRMS)

References

Further reading
 Barbara Von Halle (2001). Business Rules Applied. Wiley.

External links

 Rule Mining best practices wikibook.

Business terms

Business rule mining


Derek Leslie Quinnell (born 22 May 1949 in Llanelli, Carmarthenshire) is a former Welsh rugby union player. He played as a lock-forward and as a number eight. He was capped for Wales youth 1967/8 season.

Club career
Educated at Coleshill Secondary Modern School, Llanelli, Derek Quinnell first played for Llanelli RFC in 1967 and made his international debut for Wales against France in 1972. He captained Llanelli in 1979–80 and went on three British & Irish Lions tours. He played 369 times for Llanelli and scored 47 tries.

International career
He earned 23 caps for Wales, from 1972 to 1980, scoring 1 try, 4 points on aggregate. He played at the Five Nations Championship in 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978 and 1979. He was a member of the winning squad in 1973 (shared), 1975, 1978 and 1979.

He was the only player in the Lions squad not to have been capped by his country when he went on the tour to New Zealand in 1971, playing in one test. He went to New Zealand again in 1977, playing in two tests, and finally to South Africa in 1980, again playing in two tests.

Post-player career
Quinnell is currently the President of Scarlets

Family
Remarkably, his three sons, Scott, Craig and Gavin went on to play top-flight professional rugby, with Craig winning caps for Wales in rugby union and Scott earning Wales caps in both union and league.

Derek's youngest son, Gavin, played professionally for the Magners League side Scarlets before an injury suffered in an October 2010 match between Llanelli RFC and Cross Keys cost him the sight in his left eye.

References

External links
archive of profile at Wales Rugby Union

1949 births
Living people
Barbarian F.C. players
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from Wales
Llanelli RFC players
Rugby union locks
Rugby union number eights
Rugby union players from Llanelli
Wales international rugby union players
Welsh rugby union players

Derek Quinnell


In Islamic eschatology, the Mahdi is a Messianic figure who, it is believed, will appear on Earth before the Day of Judgment, and will rid the world of wrongdoing, injustice and tyranny. People claiming to be the Mahdi have appeared across the Muslim world – in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East – and throughout history since the birth of Islam (AD 610).

A claimant Mahdi can wield great temporal, as well as spiritual, power: claimant Mahdis have founded states (e.g. the late 19th-century Mahdiyah in Sudan), as well as religions and sects (e.g. Bábism, or the Ahmadiyya movement). The continued relevance of the Mahdi doctrine in the Muslim world was most recently emphasised during the 1979 seizing of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, by at least 200 militants led by Juhayman al-Otaibi, who had declared his brother-in-law, Muhammad bin abd Allah al-Qahtani, the Mahdi.

Background
Traditionally interest in "apocalyptic speculation", (with  the appearance of the Mahdi being central), has been  strongest among mainstream Shia (Twelver Shia), Isma'ilism, and Sunni Muslims living on the "doctrinal and geographic margins"such as present day Morocco or Sudanbut was weaker in the heartland of Sunni Islam.

While in (at least) Shi'i Islam, waiting for the Mahdi "is hailed as a form of worship; joining him when he appears and fighting under his banner to fill the world with justice is an everyday aspiration of the faithful", so that more pious Muslims are naturally attracted to support for someone convincingly claiming to be a Mahdi,  there is sometimes considerable clash between a claimant on the one hand, and orthodox believers and Islamic scholars on the other.  In Iraq claimants have been condemned as "infidels, charlatans and liars", while in Iraq one self-proclaimed mahdi (Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim) and one claiming the mahdi has appointed  him his  representative (wassi) (Ahmed Al-Hasan), both with militias, have both vigorously attacked Ayatollahs of Shi'i Islam.

Mahmoud Pargoo offers the explanation that according to Shīʿa hadiths, the mahdi "will bring a new religion, a new book and a new law"; making hard won Islamic learning and beloved, established religious rituals and institutions "redundant".

Ṣāliḥ ibn Ṭarīf
Ṣāliḥ ibn Ṭarīf, the second leader of the Berghouata, proclaimed himself prophet of a new religion in the mid 8th century (second Islamic century). He appeared during the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham. According to Ibn Khaldun's sources, he claimed receiving a new revelation from God called a Qur'an, written in the Berber language with 80 chapters. He established laws for his people, which called him Salih al-Mu'minin ('Restorer of the Believers'), and the final Mahdi.

Islamic literature considers his belief heretical, as several tenets of his teaching contrast with orthodox Islam, such as capital punishment for theft, unlimited divorces, fasting of the month of Rajab instead of Ramadan, and ten obligatory daily prayers instead of five. Politically, its motivation was presumably to establish their independence from the Umayyads, establishing an independent ideology lending legitimacy to the state. Some modern Berber activists regard him as a hero for his resistance to Arab conquest and his foundation of the Berghouata state.

Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya
Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya was a descendant of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib. At the end of 127 AH / AD 744 Shias of Kufa set up him as Imam. He revolted against Yazid III, the Umayyad Caliph, with the support of Shias of Kufa and Ctesiphon. He moved to west of Iran and Isfahan and Istakhr. He managed to control the west of Iran for two years. Finally, he was defeated by the caliph armies in AD 746–7 and fled to Harat in Khurasan. He allegedly died imprisoned by Abu Muslim, his rival. His followers did not believe his death and said that he went to occultation and he would return as Mahdi.

Muhammad ibn Isma'il
Muhammad ibn Isma'il (740–813 CE), son of Isma'il ibn Ja'far (for whom Isma'ili sect of Islam was named), did not claim to be a Mahdi, and most Isma'ili believe the line of Imams continued through his son Ahmad al-Wafi (Abadullah ibn Muhammad), but after his death was revered by his followers as "the seventh and last imam ... whose return was awaited under the signs and powers customarily ascribed to the Mahdi."

Tenth century AD
In the tenth century the Isma'ili sect split into twothe Salamiyids, headquartered in Salamiyah and led by Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah; and the Qarmatians, centred in al-Hasa (Eastern Arabia)each proclaiming a Mahdi.
The Qarmatians broke away from the Salamiyah after
Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah (Salamiyid leader) proclaiming himself mahdi. About 30 years later, Qarmatian leader Abu Tahir al-Jannabi, proclaimed his own  Mahdi, a "young prisoner", Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani.

Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah

In 899 CE, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah (born Abdullah Sa'id) (r. 909–934), the head of the Isma'ili sect at the time, declared himself to be the Mahdi.  The first caliph of the Fatimid state, established in 909, was one of only two claimants who succeeded in establishing a state. (See Muhammad Ahmad below).
His authority as Mahdi was invoked to seize central Syria in 903, but were crushed by Iraqi troops. His preacher/Da'i Abu 'Abdullah Al-Husayn Al-Shi'i helped secure for him parts of north Africa using the support of the Berber locals some years later. The date of the apocalypse that was to follow the arrival of the Mahdi was "indefinitely postponed",  and Abdullah was unable to deploy any of the supernatural powers he (in theory) possessed as Mahdithose who insisted he use them were dismissed and sometimes put to death.

The Fatimids eventually "abandoned millenarian rhetoric" completely and devoted themselves to empire building.  They built Cairo as capital in Egypt and their descendants continued to rule as Caliphs. The sixth caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, was known for "unpredictable commands" (destruction of churches, nocturnal ceasefires, liquidation of all dogs, prohibition of music) carried out with extreme violenceand occasionally rescinded with equal suddenness".  His impulsiveness was believed by some to be divinely inspired and inspired the Druze religion, adherents of whom believe he is in occultation and due to return as Mahdi on Judgment Day.

The dynasty ended when Salah-ud-Din Ayubi (also called Saladin) took over Egypt and ended the Fatimid state. He imprisoned the last Fatimid Caliph and his family in the Fatimid Palace until death.

Kadu ibn Mu'arik al-Mawati
A young Kutama Berber, al-Mawati was proclaimed as the Mahdi by disillusioned adherents of al-Mahdi Billah, in the aftermath of the purge of Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and anti-Kutama riots in the cities of Ifriqiya. The Fatimid heir-apparent, al-Qa'im was given command of an army sent against the rebels. On 21 June 912, the Fatimid army decisively defeated the rebels near Mila. The anti-Mahdi al-Mawati and the other rebel leaders were soon captured, and prominently featured in al-Qa'im's triumphal entry into Kairouan in autumn.

Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani
Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani, also known as the Isfahani Mahdi, was a young Persian man who in 931 CE was declared to be "God incarnate" by Qarmatian leader of Bahrayn, Abu Tahir al-Jannabi. This new apocalyptic leader, however, caused great disruption by rejecting traditional aspects of Islam, and promoting ties to the old Persian religion of Zoroastrianism; "urging his followers" to denounce Abrahamic prophets and "celebrate fire" as Zoroastrians did. Abu Tahir disavowed him as an "imposter" and had him put to death.

Muhammad al-Mahdi Billah
In the summer of 945, during the Kharijite revolt of Abu Yazid against the Fatimid Caliphate, a man claiming to be an Abbasid prince rose in revolt against Abu Yazid at Béja. He used a black banner and claimed to be the Mahdi, with the name Muhammad al-Mahi Billah. Very quickly he was arrested by Abu Yazid's son, Ayyub, and interrogated. After he was tested about his knowledge of Baghdad and proved to be unable to respond, he was crucified in front of the city gate.

Muhammad ibn al-Mustakfi

Muhammad ibn al-Mustakfi was the son and designated heir of the Abbasid caliph al-Mustakfi, he assumed the mantle of the Mahdi in a conspiracy to overthrow the Buyid Emirs and their puppet caliph, al-Muti.

Twelfth century AD

Hassan II of Alamut
In the late eleventh century, as the Fatimid dynasty relinquished any supranatural claims or interest in millenarianism, the Isma'ilis suffered another split. The head of the Fatimid army (Al-Afdal), sidelined the son designated heir (Abu Mansur Nizar) of the deceased caliph for a more compliant son-in-law. A revolt led by Nizar was crushed, but in Iran the commander of Isma'ili forces, Hasan-i-Sabbah, broke from the Fatimids in Cairo and commenced a reign of terror against both leaders of the Sunni Abbasids and the Fatimid court in Cairo from his citadel in Alamut.

In the middle of Ramadan in 559 AH (1164 CE), a successor of Hasan-i-Sabbah, Hassan II gathered his followers  and announced to "jinn, men and angels" that the Hidden Imam had freed them "from the burden of the rules of Holy Law". With that, the assembled took part in a ritual violation of Sharia, a banquet with wine, in violation of the Ramadan fast, with their backs turned towards Medina. Hassan II explained that he had abrogated the exoteric practice of Sharia and stressed on the esoteric (batini) side of the laws. And "while outwardly he was known as the grandson of Buzurgumid", in this esoteric reality,  Hasan claimed "he was the Imam of the time" (the last Imam of Shia Islam). Observance of Islamic rites was punishable by the utmost severity; Resistance was nonetheless deep, and Hasan was stabbed to death by his own brother-in-law. Islamic law was reintroduced after the death of his son.

Ibn Tumart

In Sunni Morocco, Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ibn Tumart (c. 1078/1080 – c. 1130), sought to reform Almoravid decadence in the early 12th century. Rejected in Marrakech and other cities, he turned to his Masmuda tribe in the Atlas Mountains for support. Because of their emphasis on the unity of God, his followers were known as Al Muwahhidun ('unitarians', in English; Almohads in the corrupted Spanish form). Ibn Tumart rejected all other Islamic legal schools, and saw in the lax morality of the ruling Almorvid dynasty signs of that The Hour of Judgement was nigh.

Although declared mahdi by his followers in 1121 CE, and calling himself imam and masum (literally in Arabic: innocent or free of sin), ibn Tumart consulted with a council of ten of his oldest disciples, and conform traditional Berber representative government, later added an assembly of fifty tribal leaders. The Almohad rebellion began in 1125 with attacks on Moroccan cities, including Sus and Marrakech.

His failure to capture Marrakech in 1130 "undermined his messianic pretentions to invulnerability", and  he died shortly after designated Abd al Mumin his successor with the title of Caliph.  Abd al Mumin claimed universal leadership in Islamand placed members of his own family in power, converting the system into a traditional sultanate.

Fourteenth century AD

Shia in Iran and Iraq
With the Mongol invasion of the eastern Muslim world in the 13th century, many Muslims were killed, and Iran and Iraq came under Mongol control. By  the early 14th century Shi'a in Iran and Iraq began "clandestine dissidence". For example, in Hilla, a center of Shi'i learning in central Iraq, each day from afternoon to evening prayer, 100 townsmen participated in a ritual appealing to the Mahdi to reappear. Drums were beaten, trumpets and bugles blown, a saddled horse for the Mahdi led to the sanctuary of the 'Master of the Hour' where the Shiʿa townsmen would cry: 'In the name of Allah, Master of the Hour, in the name of Allah, come, for disorder is rampant and iniquity rife! This is the moment for you to appear! Through you, Allah will make known the true [and separate] from the false!" Similar messianic events occurred in Iran.
Fazlallah al-Astarbadi
After the Mongol khanate disintegrated after the death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335, itinerant brotherhoods  propagated "popular spirituality", with the "foremost" group, the Shaykhiyya-Juryya,  announcing the imminent coming of the Mahdi and calling on Shia to prepare for his arrival by taking up arms. They were subdued by Timur from 1381 to 1392. Messianic agitation was taken up in 1386 by a dream interpreter by the name of Fazlallah al-Astarbadi who proclaimed himself the "manifestation of divine glory" and possessing the attributes of the "master of the Age", including the ability to discern hidden meanings of letters of the alphabet (hurūfiyya). He was executed in 1394, but his disciples "venerated him as a divine incarnation" and awaited his return under the signs of the "Master of the Sword". This sect was "hounded on all sides for heresy" in Iran and Syria, and gradually assimilated into the Sufi brotherhood of the Baktashis in Anatolia.

Fifteenth century AD

Nurbakhsh
A generation after the execution of Fazlallah al-Astarbadi in the early fifteenth century, Ishaq al-Khuttalani, a Sufi master of the Kubrawiyya order in what is now Tajikistan, proclaimed one of his followers, Nurbakhsh (the Gift of Light), the awaited Messiah (i.e. Mahdi). This movement "grew in size and influence", staged an unsuccessful revolt, whereupon Khuttalani and dozens of followersbut not Nurbakhshwere executed in 1425. Nurbakhsh eventually established his own order in Kurdistan "but was forced to publicly renounce any claims to the imamate."

Muhammad Ibn Falah
Another example of how a "millenarian insurrection " gave rise "to a new dynastic power"  is Muhammad ibn Falah (1400–1465/66). He proclaimed himself the wali (friend) of the Mahdi circa 1415 CE. (The first Imam, Ali is regarded by Shiʿa as the wali of Allah.) By 1436 his following had grown in southwestern Iran and he now claimed to "the seventh imam's ultimate incarnation" and delivered "an address of the Mahdi". His sect became known as Musha'sha'iyyah. Opponents of his heresy arose in holy cities of Iraq, but his power was such that he destroyed the Hilla and Najaf, even desecrating Ali's tomb. He also established an emirate in Khurzestan passed on to his descendants, who became provincial governors after the emirate was conquered by the Safavids in 1508.

Syed Muḥammad Jaunpuri

Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri (1443–1505) was born in Jaunpur (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, North India). His father, Syed Muhammad Abdullah was a descendant of the seventh imam, Musa Al-Kazim.

He (Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri) claimed to be the Mahdi-e-Maoud on three occasions:
Between the rukn and maqam in front of the Kaaba in Masjid al-Haram (901 AH)
Taj Khan Salaar Mosque, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (903 AH)
Badli, Gujarat, where he attracted a large amount of followers but opposition from the ulema. (905 AH)

His five deputies were:
1) Bandagi Meeran Syed Mahmood also known as Sani-e-Mahdi,
2) Bandagi Miyan Syed Khundameer also known as Siddiq-e-Vilayat,
3) Bandagi Miyan Sha-e-Neymath also known as Miqraaz-e-Biddath,
4) Bandagi Miyan Sha-e-Nizam also known as Dariya-e-Wahdath-o-Ashaam,
5) Bandagi Miyan Sha-e-Dilawar also known as Maqbool-e-Mahdi.

Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri died in 1505 AD, aged 63, at Farah, Afghanistan. His followers, known as Mahdavis, continue to exist and are centred around the Indian city of Hyderabad, although there are Mahdavi communities in other parts of the world migrated from Hyderabad India Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, as well as in Pakistan and overseas in the United States, Canada, Australia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Africa and the United Kingdom.

Sheikh Bedreddin
Sheikh Bedreddin (; 1359–1420), full name Sheikh Bedreddin Mahmud Bin Israel Bin Abdulaziz, was an influential mystic, scholar, theologian, and revolutionary. He is best known for his role in a 1416 revolt against the Ottoman Empire, in which he and his disciples posed a serious challenge to the authority of Sultan Mehmed I and the Ottoman state.

Sixteenth century AD
In 1509, the Banū Saʿdid, a family claiming ancestry from Muhammad and aided with the military support of the Shaziliyya, "the most powerful brotherhood in the region", took control of Sous. It leader, born Muhammad al-Mahdi, was proclaimed sovereign, and his followers "saw in him the realization" of a famous hadith stating that "a descendant of the Prophet, bearing the same name, Muhammad, will come to restore justice on earth." The dynasty of Banū Saʿdid went on with the help of firearms to rule Morocco for most of the following century.

Ahmed ibn Abi Mahalli
Unsuccessfully challenging the Saʿdid dynasty was another figure making use of Mahdi title, Ahmed ibn Abi Mahalli (); n (1559–1613). A Moroccan Imam and the Sufi leader, who  proclaimed himself Mahdi in 1610 after denouncing his Sufi master as an innovator and reviling the ruling  Sa'did dynasty for alleged religious laxness and failure to attack Western colonialists. He was took the city of  Marrakesh in the south of Morocco, but after he was killed in combat in 1613 his followers saw "their faith in his invincibility disproven" and fled.  His head  was severed and hung from the city ramparts until it disintegrated, but despite this graphic evidence "part of the population" in the region refused to accept his death and believed that he "had hidden himself from public view."

Shah Ismail I Safavid
Nurbakhsh influence was felt in the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736). The dynasty was named after a Sufi order (Safaviyya) that converted to Shiʿism in the fifteenth century, (although the dynasty was "probably of Kurdish origin"). The Safavids depended for military power on "fanatical Turkmen tribes", known as "Qizilbash", who were accused of paganism and shamanism and even ritual cannibalism. After its leader (Haydar) died in combat, he was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Ismail I.
"Strongly influenced" by one of Nurbakhsh's disciples, Ismail used eschatology to justify the savagery of Qizilbash, claiming he was the Mahdi. The ferocious Qizilbash took successively Baku, Tabriz, Isfahan, Shiraz, Baghdad, but were routed in 1514 by the Ottoman artillery. "Unable any longer to pose as the Mahdi, he now claimed to be an ambassador of the Hidden Imam. The Anatolian origins of the Safavid family were conveniently forgotten and replaced by a prophetic ancestry that allowed the dynasty to represent itself as the instrument of the twelfth imam during the course of the Great Occultation. A minority of the Qizilbash nonetheless continued to consider the shah to be the Mahdi himself."
This heresy was suppressed by Ismail's son and successor.

Seventeenth century

Ahmad al-Mansur
Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603), sultan of Morocco. The jurist Ahmad bin Muhammad bin al-Siddeeq wrote a treatise exclusively on the Mahdi, presenting a hundred arguments in support of the Mahdism of al-Mansur.

Ahmed ibn Abi Mahalli
Ahmed ibn Abi Mahalli (1559–1613), from the south of Morocco, was a Qadi and religious scholar who proclaimed himself mahdi and led a revolution (1610–13) against the reigning Saadi dynasty.

Eighteenth century

Āghā Muḥammad Rezā
Agha Muhammad Reza, a Shia Muslim of Iranian ancestry living in the Sylhet region of Bengal rose to prominence as a Sufi pir. He gained a large following of thousands and started a movement in 1799 by invading the Kachari Kingdom and claiming independence from the British. Declaring himself the Mahdi, he was defeated after a number of battles against the East India Company. He escaped but was later caught and sent for lifetime imprisonment in Calcutta.

Nineteenth century
The 19th century provided several Mahdi claimants, some of whose followers and teachings survive to the present day.

Bu Ziyan
One Mahdi who did not aim to reinvent Islam but to uphold it against kafir invaders, was Bu Ziyan. In 1849, Muhammad appeared to him in a series of dreams, commanding him "three times" to "assume the duties of the Mahdi" and drive the French colonialists from Algeria. Bu Ziyan had served as representative of the Anti-French leader Abd al-Qadir, but now led an uprising with the help of many members of the strongest Sufi brotherhood, Rahmaniyya. The French besieged their headquarters at the oasis of Zaʿatsha for 52 days, breaking through and annihilated the population. Bu Ziyan's head was mounted on a pike at the village entrance, but "word spread through the Sahara that the Mahdior at least one of his sons had escaped alive."

Alí Muḥammad Shírází (Báb)

Alí Muḥammad Shírází (1819–1850) claimed to be the Mahdi in 1844, taking the name the Báb and founded a religious movement known as Bábism. He was later executed by firing squad in the town of Tabriz. While Bábism was violently opposed and doesn't exist in modern times, it continued in the form of the Bahá'í Faith, whose followers consider the Báb as a central figure of their own.

Muḥammad Aḥmad

Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah (1844–1885) was a Sudanese Sufi sheikh of the Samaniyya order. Expelled for puritanical outbursts of anger, he founded his own order amidst Sudanese popular protest and millenarian unrest over Anglo-Egyptian rule. In June 1881 he declared himself Mahdi, announcing he had dreamt that he had been enthroned by Muhammad. He established control over the province of Kordofan and went on to lead a successful military campaign against the Turko-Egyptian government of Sudan, defeating the Anglo-Egyptian army and capturing the Sudanese capital, Khartoum in 1885. He predicted he would soon say prayers in Mecca, Medina, Cairo, and Jerusalem, but died a few months after his victory. The Mahdist state continued under his successor, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, until 1898, when it fell to the British army following the Battle of Omdurman.

Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908) claimed to be both the Mahdi and the second coming of Jesus in the late 19th century in British India. He founded the Ahmadiyya religious movement in 1889, which, although considered by its followers to be Islam, is not recognized as such by the majority of mainstream Muslims. In 1880, Ahmad claimed to be the Mahdi in his book Braheen-e-Ahmadiyya, where he claimed to have received revelations. In 1974, the Pakistani parliament adopted a law declaring the Ahmadis to be Not-Muslims. Since Ghulam Ahmad's death, the Ahmadiyya community has been led by his successors.

Wallace Fard Muhammad

Wallace D. Fard Muhammad (1877?–1934?) founded the Nation of Islam, a religious movement, in Detroit, United States on 4 July 1930. The Nation of Islam teaches that W. Fard Muhammad was both the "Messiah" of Judaism and the Mahdi of Islam.

Twentieth century

Muḥammad bin abd Allah al-Qahtani

Muhammad bin abd Allah al-Qahtani (1935–1980) was proclaimed Mahdi by his brother-in-law, Juhayman al-Otaibi, who led over 200 militants to seize the Grand Mosque in Mecca on 20 November 1979. The uprising was suppressed after a two-week siege in which at least 300 people were killed.

Riaz Aḥmed Gohar Shahi

Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi (born 1941) is the founder of the spiritual movements Messiah Foundation International (MFI) and Anjuman Serfaroshan-e-Islam. He is controversial for being declared the Mahdi, Messiah, and Kalki Avatar by the MFI. Shahi's supporters claim that his face became prominent on the Moon, Sun, nebula star and the Black Stone in Mecca. Shahi disappeared from public view in 2001. There have been claims that he died in that year or in 2003, but these are unconfirmed.

Ariffin Moḥamed

Ariffin Mohammed (born 1943), also known as "Ayah Pin", the leader and founder of the banned Sky Kingdom, he was born in 1943 in Beris, Kampung Besar Bachok, Kelantan. In 1975 a spiritual group was formed in Bagan Lebai Tahir, Butterworth, Penang. He claimed to be the incarnation of Jesus, as well as Muhammad, Shiva, and Buddha. Devotees of Sky Kingdom believe that one day, Ayah Pin will return as the Mahdi.

Mouhammadou Limamou Laye

Mouhammadou Limamou Laye (1843–1909) was the founder of the Layene Sufi order, based in Senegal. After the death of his mother he declared himself to be the Mahdi on May 24, 1884. This caused controversy with the French and many orthodox Muslims. His message emphasized cleanliness, prayer, alms, and social justice.

Twenty-first century

Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim
"In 2006, Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim, announced he was the awaited Mahdi and organized an armed group called "the Soldiers of Heaven". According to official reports, in late January 2007, Kadim marched towards  the Shiite holy city of Najaf planned to execute the Shiite authorities and Grand Ayatollahs there and "take over their hawzas." Alerted to this menace, Iraqi forces surrounded Kadim and killed him, and "263 terrorists" in the 2007 Battle of Najaf. Unofficially, Iraqi and American forces are accused of wiping out the entire community of the Soldiers of Heaven, including women and children, at a "camp in Zarga, north of Najaf",

Mohammed Abdullah al-Nasr
In 2016, Mohammed Abdullah al-Nasr, a Sunni Egyptian television preacher known as Sheikh Mizo, declared on his Facebook page that he is the Mahdi, quoting Muhammad and calling both Sunnis and Shiites to comply with his ruling.

Other cases
According to seminary expert, Mehdi Ghafari, more than 3,000 Mahdi claimants were in prison in Iran in 2012.

People claiming to be representatives of the Mahdi
According to at least Shi'i beliefs, before the hidden imam/mahdi himself appears,  "a messenger that represents him and serves as an intermediary between him and the people" will appear, conveying his commands and carrying out some of his tasks.

Haidar Machtat al-Munchidawi, an Iraqi man nicknamed al-Qahtani, wears a turban and describes himself as "the mediator of the Mahdi"; his followers opened a Facebook page entitled, "Fully Dedicated Youth";  In 2015, according to Al Monitor, the chaos in Iraq was leading to the emergence of a growing number of people claiming to be either "the Shiites' awaited Imam Mahdi or his messenger". Adnan Abu Zeed describes,  though some contend, it is intended to eliminate the Shiite religious authorities.
Fadel al-Marsoumi, self-described as "the divine preacher", claims to be sent by God to unify all sects in a single group; also has a Facebook page.
Ahmad al-Hassan, an engineer from Basra and leader of the Shia Iraqi movement Ansar of Imam al-Mahdi declared in 1998  that the Hidden Imam had designated him as his (the Hidden Imam's) representative (wassi). He has  denounced the errancy of religious seminaries in Najaf, and established a militia dubbed the Supporters of the Iman Mahdi (Ansar al-Imam al-Mahdi).

Although a native of Iraq, he calls himself, (and his followers believe him to be), al-Yamani, the eschatological leader from Yemen who will precede the return of the Imam, although this is not a mainstream belief in Shia Islam. Following the American invasion of Iraq, he called for a defensive Jihad against "the American Satan", and threatened all those who resisted him with being put to the sword or dying "in the shadow of the sword". In addition, he has called on Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and "all other" Muslim leaders to "yield their power to him", and "excoriated" all leading Shi'a who deny that "the end of Great Occultation is at hand".

People claimed to be the Mahdi by their followers or supporters
 Adnan Oktar
 Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
 Ja'far al-Sadiq (according to the Tawussite Shia)
 Master Fard Muhammad (according to the Nation of Islam)
 Muhammad Bayazeed Khan Panni (according to the Hezbut Tawheed)
 Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Aftah ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq
 Muhammad ibn Abdallah An-Nafs Az-Zakiyya
 Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi
 Muhammad ibn Qasim (al-Alawi)
 Musa al-Kadhim (according to the Waqifite Shia)
 Yahya ibn Umar

See also
 False messiah
 Messiah
 Messiah complex
 Jewish Messiah claimants
 List of people who have claimed to be Jesus
 List of messiah claimants
 List of avatar claimants
 List of Buddha claimants
 Second Coming of Christ
 Unfulfilled Christian religious predictions
 List of founders of religious traditions
 List of people who have been considered deities
 Signs of the reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi
 Reappearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi
 Mahdism

References

External sources

 Yohanan Friedmann, "Prophecy Continuous – Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background"; Oxford University Press (2003)
 Timothy Furnish, "Holiest Wars: Islamic Mahdis, their Jihads and Osama bin Laden" (Greenwood, 2005)
 Peter Smith, the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions – from messianic Shi'ism to a world religion; Cambridge University Press (1987);
 Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal – the Making of the Bábí Movement in Iran 1844–1850; Cornell University Press (1989);

Islamic eschatology
Lists of Muslims
Self-declared mahdi
Mahdism

List of Mahdi claimants


Bibimbap is one of the most famous Korean traditional foods. The word bibimbap means stirred or mixed rice. It is served as a bowl of rice with more ingredients on it. These ingredients can include some vegetables (spinach, herbs, potherb, and gosari). Beef or seafood can be added too.

History of Bibimbap
There are some theories or stories about the origin of Bibimbap. It was the first written about in a cook book in the late 1800s. The first theory is the "palace food theory". It says that bibimbap was served as a light meal whenever the king wanted something to eat.

The second theory is the "meal for peasants during the farming season". As it was too difficult for peasants to have regular meals during the farming season, they would use a single bowl, where rice was combined with vegetables.

The third theory is the "Donghak uprising theory". When Donghak uprising broke out in the Jeolla provinces in 1894, the Donghak peasants were forced to mix their rice with side dishes because they didn't have enough plates or bowls.

Value of Bibimbap
Because Bibimbap has many ingredients, it contains a lot of nutrition. Also, its color and appearance, can be very different. It is easy to prepare and clean up because it is all packed in one bowl.

References

 "비빔밥". Encyclopedia of Korean National Culture (Empas). Retrieved on 2006-12-06.

Korean food

Bibimbap


VA-831 was an Attack Squadron of the U.S. Navy Reserve. Details of its early years are sketchy, as few records exist for reserve squadrons prior to 1970, the year during which they began submitting history reports.

On 27 Jan 1968, The President directed the activation of VA-831 following the capture of  by a North Korean patrol boat on four days earlier. In July 1968, the squadron was the first activated East Coast reserve unit to be assigned to an operational air wing. The squadron was deactivated and returned to reserve status on 18 October 1968.

Home port assignments
The squadron was assigned to these home ports, effective on the dates shown:
 NAS New York – 27 January 1968
 NAS Cecil Field – 30 May 1968

Aircraft assignment
The squadron first received the following aircraft on the dates shown:
 A-4B Skyhawk – January 1968

See also
List of squadrons in the Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons
Attack aircraft
List of inactive United States Navy aircraft squadrons
History of the United States Navy

References

Attack squadrons of the United States Navy
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons

VA-831 (U.S. Navy)


The Diritto Municipale () was a compilation of the Hospitallers' and Malta's laws during their stay on the Island. It was commissioned by Grand Master Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc in 1781 and completed in 1784. This is one of the more humane set of laws ever compiled by the Order, in keeping with the enlightened ideology sweeping all around Europe at the time.

History
In 1781, Grandmaster Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc assigned the creation of this Code of Laws to a Neapolitan lawyer, Giandonato Rogadeo whom had previously successfully defended the Order from lawsuits that it had gotten from Naples. Rogadeo, however was arrogant, looking down on and ignoring all of the suggestions given by the Maltese lawyers and judges. This caused it to be negatively judged as it was not well-suited for Malta's customs. Rohan, taken aback by the verdict, appointed another commission made up mainly of members of the Order. This resulted to the members of the commission having the same opinion as the Maltese. Rogadeo, affronted, asked for permission to leave Malta. The task was therefore forwarded to a Maltese lawyer Federico Gatt who devised the new code of laws. On 23 December 1782 a new council was set up, to revise the finished product. The council approved of it with minor alterations. It was ultimately disseminated on 17 July 1784.

Contents of the Diritto Municipale
The Diritto Municipale is divided into seven books, as follows;
The first book treats the Gran Corte della Castellania (introduced to Malta in 1530 by Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam). It defines the jurisdictions of the Court, jurisdictions of the public tribunals, duties of the Castellano, duties of the judges and of the other officers of the court.
The second book is made up of five chapters and contain how criminal and civil lawsuits are to be treated.
The third book contains how mortgages, obligations and contracts are to be treated.
The fourth book revolves around will and successional issues and duties.
The fifth book, having nine chapters, deals with the criminal laws. Also to note, the opening mentions the beggars and the indolent, which is the first mention of that social class in Malta's laws.
The sixth book decrees laws to be followed concerning maritime commerce, armaments, the different grades making up the crew, amongst others. Beyond Chapter fourteen of this book, hostile activities of ships directly or indirectly under the authority of the Order.
The seventh and finally book, as its name Miscellanea applies, deals with the other regulations which could not be included in the other books. These are tackled in appendices and single chapters.

Further reading

References

1784 in law
Civil codes
History of Malta

Diritto Municipale


Doris M. Grumbach (née Isaac; July 12, 1918 – November 4, 2022) was an American novelist, memoirist, biographer, literary critic, and essayist. She taught at the College of Saint Rose in Albany, New York, the Iowa Writers' Workshop, and American University in Washington, D.C., and was literary editor of The New Republic for several years. She  published many novels highlighting and focusing on gay and lesbian characters. For two decades, she and her partner, Sybil Pike, operated a bookstore, Wayward Books, in Sargentville, Maine.

Personal life
Doris M. Isaac was born in New York City as a fifth-generation Manhattanite, to Leonard William Isaac and Helen Oppenheimer. When she was six, her younger sister Joan Elaine Isaac was born.

She grew up in Manhattan, where she attended elementary school PS 9. A very bright student, she skipped many grades and entered high school at age eleven. She was not prepared socially for this early advancement and did poorly, developing a stammer and losing her self-confidence. She was encouraged by the principal to take a year off from high school. When she returned, she was an indifferent student in the classroom, but showed talent in theater and in creative writing. In her senior year, she won a citywide short story contest, which helped secure her admission to Washington Square College of New York University.

Isaac received her Bachelor of Arts degree from Washington Square College of New York University in 1939. She majored in philosophy and graduated Phi Beta Kappa.

In 1940, she earned her Master of Arts degree in medieval literature from Cornell University. There, she met her husband, Leonard Grumbach, who was studying for his doctorate in neurophysiology. They were married on October 5, 1941.

After the war, Grumbach moved around the country with her husband as he taught physiology. During this period, the Grumbachs had four daughters: Barbara, Jane, Elizabeth, and Kathryn. Before the birth of their fourth daughter, the Grumbachs settled in Albany, New York, where Leonard Grumbach taught at Albany Medical College and Doris Grumbach began a career in teaching.

In 1971, after raising their children, Grumbach left her husband. She spent a year in Saratoga Springs, New York, helping to set up the external degree program at Empire State College. Following her divorce, she began a relationship with Sybil Pike, who became and remained her life partner. In 1972, accepting a position at The New Republic magazine as literary editor, Grumbach and Pike moved to Washington, D.C. Pike worked for the Library of Congress.

In 1990 Grumbach and Pike moved themselves and the bookstore to Sargentville, Maine. There, Grumbach continued to write while Pike tended to the bookstore. Grumbach published another fiction novel, The Book of Knowledge, in 1995, and several memoirs focusing mostly on aging. In 2009 Wayward Books and their house in Maine were sold.

Around 2009, the couple moved to a Quaker retirement community in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, where Pike died in March 2021, aged 91. Grumbach continued to write, contributing pieces of memoir and articles on old age to The American Scholar. Grumbach celebrated her 100th birthday in 2018, and died in Kennett Square on November 4, 2022, at the age of 104.

Career
During 1940–1941, Grumbach worked for Loew's Inc./MGM writing subtitles for films distributed abroad. During 1941–1942, she was employed as a proofreader for Mademoiselle magazine and then for the journal Architectural Forum in 1942–1943, eventually rising to the position of associate editor. When her husband was drafted during World War II, Grumbach joined the U.S. Navy in 1943 as an officer in the WAVES and served from 1943 to 1945.

From 1957 to 1960, she taught senior English at the Albany Academy for Girls. In 1960, she became a professor of English at the College of Saint Rose also in Albany, New York and taught there until 1971. During her time at the college, Grumbach also began to focus on her writing career and published her first two novels, The Spoil of the Flowers (1962), and The Short Throat, The Tender Mouth (1964). In 1967 she published a literary biography of novelist Mary McCarthy titled The Company She Kept, based in part on correspondence and other documents which McCarthy had shared with Grumbach.

Grumbach worked as a literary editor for The New Republic. She wrote a column called "Fine Print". After two years, the magazine was sold and Grumbach lost her job. She remained in Washington with Pike and in 1975 accepted a position as a professor of American literature at American University. During this time, she also wrote a non-fiction column for The New York Times Book Review and her column "Fine Print" was picked up by the Saturday Review.

In 1979, Grumbach published the novel Chamber Music, which was critically well-received and helped establish her reputation as a novelist. In six years, three more books followed: The Missing Person (1981), The Ladies (1984), and The Magician's Girl (1987). During this period, Grumbach also taught creative writing at the Iowa Writers' Workshop at the University of Iowa and at Johns Hopkins University, where she substituted briefly for John Barth. Grumbach was also a book reviewer and commentator for the Morning Edition of National Public Radio and the televised MacNeil-Lehrer Newshour.

In 1985, Grumbach resigned from her professorship at American University but remained in Washington, D.C. for five more years. She and Pike opened a bookstore for rare and used books, named Wayward Books, located near Eastern Market, on Capitol Hill.

Critical reception of Grumbach's work
Several facets of Grumbach's work have won her both praise and criticism. Grumbach is often lauded as a feminist writer, championing the cause of women in her fiction and revealing the economic, social, and psychological difficulties women face. Other critics find her work not feminist enough and regard her portrayals of women characters as stilted. Grumbach is both highly regarded and often criticized for her focus on gay and lesbian characters. A number of her works, such as The Spoil of the Flowers, Chamber Music, and The Ladies, focus on gay and lesbian themes and characters.  Grumbach wrote in a wide range of genres, as a novelist, literary critic, essayist, biographer, memoirist, and cultural critic.

As a writer who explored gay and lesbian themes in the 1950s and 1960s, Grumbach tends to be grouped with other groundbreaking authors who explored these themes and issues at a time in which the popular sentiment was to regard homosexuality as deviant behavior. Such writers as Ann Bannon, Marijane Meaker, May Sarton, Sylvia Townsend Warner, and Patricia Highsmith explored gay and lesbian themes in positive ways similar to Grumbach. As Ann Cothran, a literary critic of writers on lesbian themes and author of a study on Simone de Beauvoir states, perhaps Grumbach's "most important contribution to gay and lesbian literature is the manner in which she consistently represents homosexual relationships matter of factly, as an integral part of the human landscape. Grumbach depicts lesbianism as a positive, life-giving force in women's lives."

Grumbach's novels tend to be literary and literate in tone in that she often draws upon well-known writers or writings for her titles and for references within her works. For example, she drew her title for The Spoil of the Flowers from a poetic fragment by Euripides, the title for The Short Throat, The Tender Mouth from "The Pardoner's Tale" in The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, and The Magician's Girl from a poem by Sylvia Plath. In addition, Grumbach's writings often refer to well-known or arcane writings; her dialogues or internal monologues have phrases from Latin, French, and other languages.

Critics have noted that she drew from historic persons and events for her fiction. In Chamber Music, for example, she based the characters and the plot on the American composer Edward MacDowell and his wife, Marian, upon Marilyn Monroe in The Missing Person, upon Eleanor Butler and Sarah Ponsonby in The Ladies, and Sylvia Plath and Diane Arbus in The Magician's Girl.

A significant part of her reputation and the current audience is based upon her two memoirs that focus on aging: Coming into the End Zone and Extra Innings. She also explored spiritual reflections about her life in The Presence of Absence: On Prayers and an Epiphany and in her memoir Fifty Days of Solitude.  Grumbach penned introductions and critical assessments of the works of such writers as Willa Cather, Edith Wharton, and Zora Neale Hurston. Grumbach also wrote an influential review of the novel Wise Blood by Flannery O'Connor. Her article on an aborted plan to write a biography of Willa Cather was published in The American Scholar in January 2001.

Grumbach remains an important author for the focus she brought to women's lives and women's struggles in the redefinition of women's roles from the 1950s onward. This dimension is especially true with regard to her positive presentations of lesbians and lesbian lifestyles. Grumbach is admired for her writing style and characterization, which often presents overtones of Henry James and of Gustave Flaubert and Jane Austen in Grumbach's focus upon social conventions and their influence upon the development of individual lives and psyches. Grumbach is one of several 20th-century women writers, such as Sylvia Townsend Warner, Valentine Ackland, and Katherine Mansfield, who represents a transition from Victorian styles and emphases combined with the social and psychological concerns of modernism. Grumbach's papers (from 1938 to 2002) are archived in the New York Public Library (Humanities and Social Sciences Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division).

She received the Bill Whitehead Award for Lifetime Achievement from Publishing Triangle in 2000.

Bibliography

Novels
The Spoil of the Flowers (1962)
The Short Throat, The Tender Mouth (1964)
Chamber Music (1979)
The Missing Person (1981)
The Ladies (1984)
The Magician's Girl (1987)
The Book of Knowledge (1995)

Non-fiction
The Company She Kept: A Revealing Portrait of Mary McCarthy (1967)

Memoirs
Coming into the End Zone (1991)
Extra Innings (1993)
Fifty Days of Solitude (1994)
Life in a Day (1996)
The Presence of Absence: On Prayers and an Epiphany (1998)
The Pleasure of Their Company (2001)

Children's books
Lord, I Have No Courage (1964)
———————
Notes

References

1918 births
2022 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American LGBT people
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American LGBT people
American LGBT military personnel
American LGBT novelists
American centenarians
American lesbian writers
American women memoirists
American women novelists
College of Saint Rose
Commonweal (magazine) people
Cornell University alumni
Female United States Navy officers
Lesbian memoirists
Lambda Literary Award winners
MacDowell Colony fellows
Military personnel from New York City
New York University alumni
People from Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
People from Sedgwick, Maine
United States Navy officers
WAVES personnel
Women centenarians
Writers from Maine
Writers from Manhattan
Novelists from New York City
Memoirists from Maine

Doris Grumbach


The Roslyn Village Historic District encompasses the center of that village in the U.S. state of New York. It includes within its boundaries the earlier Main Street Historic District, although that is considered a separate district by the National Park Service, which added the Roslyn Village district to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.

Distinct from the Main Street district, the newer one includes more commercial property along Old Northern Boulevard, which makes a loop through downtown Roslyn off North Hempstead Turnpike (NY 25A), the main through road along Long Island's North Shore. Its contributing buildings, including several listed separately on the Register, are generally distributed over a wider range of architectural styles from the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Geography

All but 25 of the district's 65 acres (6 of 26 ha) are accounted for by the Main Street District, which includes all property along that Street between Glen Avenue and the intersection with East Broadway. The Roslyn Village district includes most of the remaining properties within the triangle created by Main, East Broadway and Old Northern, and some areas to the northeast along Glen Avenue, going up to Route 25A and the old Northern Mill Pond.

History

Since the settlement's earliest days, in the mid-17th century, its development had clustered around Main Street. That growth took off in the early 19th century after independence, when most of the houses on Main were built. After the Civil War, demand still existed for houses in Roslyn, and buyers and builders turned to East Broadway, which shared the steep hillside and Roslyn Pond shoreline as Main, although in opposite directions.

As a result, the East Broadway houses skew to the late 19th century, with Victorian styles predominating. James K. Davis, who had earlier designed some of the Main Street houses, embraced the new Second Empire mansard roofed look in 1876 for his own house at 139 East Broadway. The Queen Anne style is exemplified by Evangeline Charman's 207 East Broadway home, built in 1895.

In the early 20th century there was still some room left to build on at the edges of the district, and in 1921 the Bryant Library on East Broadway gave the future district its major Colonial Revival building. By 1930 the East Broadway area was as developed as Main Street had been several decades before, and builders turned elsewhere, leaving the district to retain its own historic character.

As Roslyn's Landmark Society began to focus local attention on identifying and preserving the village's historic buildings in the 1960s, leading to the creation of the Main Street district, threatened older houses from elsewhere in the village and greater Roslyn area were moved to East Broadway to better protect them. An expanded historic inventory in 1979 led to a local Multiple Property Submission, which included the Roslyn Village district. The reviewers of the National Park Service initially balked at the idea of having two separate districts, suggesting instead that the state Office of Historic Preservation apply to expand the boundaries of the existing district. The state resubmitted the application, carefully explaining how Main Street constituted a visually and historically distinct collection of properties even within the proposed new district, and the Roslyn Village Historic District was added to the National Register.

Preservation

Roslyn has added to its ordinances a provision protecting the buildings in both its historic districts. They are recognized in its zoning and any additions, demolition or alterations are subject to approval by the six-member Historic District Board. The Roslyn Landmark Society also holds a restrictive covenant on some of the properties.

References

Roslyn, New York
National Register of Historic Places in North Hempstead (town), New York
Historic districts in Nassau County, New York
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)

Roslyn Village Historic District


Syria Direct is a not-for-profit news organization based in Jordan.  It was started in 2013 by television news producer Amjad Tadros and the Global Peace and Development Charitable Trust. Syria Direct reports on the conflict in neighboring Syria, because reporting from Syria is either restricted or too dangerous.

Syria Direct publishes news reports, interviews, photographs, and videos from inside Syria.  They also publish a  newsletter.  They do not accept advertising.  Their operations are funded by the Global Peace & Development Charitable Trust.

Syria Direct is published in English and Arabic. The articles are for readers who are already
knowledgeable about Syria but want more detailed information.  Syria Direct employs about 24 Syrians and Americans who talk to Syrian activists and civilians on both sides of the conflict every day by Skype. Syrian journalists write the stories in Arabic.  The stories are translated to English, fact-checked and edited, then translated back to Arabic. Their website receives about 50,000 page views every month.  Their Facebook page has 77,000 followers. Thousands of people follow their Twitter account.

Syria Direct also has a training program for journalists from Syria. In the past, the training program has received funding from the US Embassy Amman's Public Affairs Section, the Syria office of the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung organization, and the Canadian Embassy in Amman. Every six months they train twelve new Syrian journalists.  The trainees' stories have been published in USA Today, CNN.com, Radio Free Europe, and international new organizations like Le Monde and The Toronto Globe and Mail. As of September 2016, they had trained 70 new journalists.

References

Other websites
 Syria Direct on Facebook
 Syria Direct on Twitter
 Syria Direct official website

Establishments in Syria
Journalism
Media in Asia
2013 establishments in Asia

Syria Direct


is a Japanese delicacy consisting of fresh raw fish or meat sliced into thin pieces and often eaten with soy sauce.

Origin

The word sashimi means "pierced body", i.e. "刺身" = sashimi, where 刺 し = sashi (pierced, stuck) and 身 = mi (body, meat). This word dates from the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573) and was possibly coined when the word "切る" = kiru (cut), the culinary step, was considered too inauspicious to be used by anyone other than samurai. This word may derive from the culinary practice of sticking the fish's tail and fin to the slices for the purpose of identifying the fish being eaten.

Another possibility for the name is the traditional method of harvesting. "Sashimi-grade" fish is caught by individual handline. As soon as the fish is landed, its brain is pierced with a sharp spike, and it is placed in slurried ice. This spiking is called the ikejime process, and the instantaneous death means that the fish's flesh contains a minimal amount of lactic acid. This means that the fish will keep fresh on ice for about ten days, without turning white or otherwise degrading.

Many non-Japanese use the terms sashimi and sushi interchangeably, but the two dishes are distinct and separate. Sushi refers to any dish made with vinegared rice. While raw fish is one traditional sushi ingredient, many sushi dishes contain seafood that has been cooked, and others have no seafood at all including ingredients like seaweed and vegetables. Sashimi by contrast is always served on its own. Although Japan has long had the custom of eating fish raw, the idea of serving it as a beautifully arranged dish is thought to have come from China, probably around the Kamakura period (1185-1333). An early cookbook in Japanese, written in 1489, directs that the raw flesh should be sliced and mixed with vinegar and seasonings such as salt and herbs.

Serving

Sashimi is often the first course in a formal Japanese meal, but it can also be the main course, presented with rice and miso soup in separate bowls. Japanese chefs consider sashimi the finest dish in Japanese formal dining and recommend that it be eaten before other strong flavors affect the palate.

The sliced seafood that composes the main ingredient is typically draped over a garnish. The typical garnish is Asian white radish, daikon, shredded into long thin strands, or single leaves of the herb shiso (perilla). Garnishes for sashimi are generally called tsuma and may also include slices of other raw vegetables, such as cucumbers and carrots, as well as seaweeds, flowers and leaves and stems of other plants.

Sashimi is popularly served with a dipping sauce (soy sauce) and condiments such as wasabi paste, grated fresh ginger, gari or pickled ginger, grated fresh garlic, or ponzu for meat sashimi, and such garnishes as shiso and shredded daikon radish.
Wasabi paste is sometimes mixed directly into soy sauce as a dipping sauce, which is generally not done when eating sushi (which itself normally includes wasabi). A reputed motivation for serving wasabi with sashimi and also gari, besides its flavor, is killing harmful bacteria and parasites that could be present in raw seafood.

Preparation
To highlight the delicate flavor as well as for texture, the chef cuts fish into different thicknesses by variety of the fish, its age and by the season. The hira-zukuri cut (literally "flat slice"), is the standard cut for most sashimi. Typically this style of cut is the size of a domino and  thick. Tuna, salmon, and kingfish are most commonly cut in this style. The usu-zukuri cut (literally "thin slice"), is an extremely thin, diagonally cut slice that is mostly used to cut firm fish, such as bream, whiting, and flounder. The dimensions of this cut are usually  long and  wide. The kaku-zukuri cut (literally "square slice"), is the style in which sashimi is cut into small cubes that are  on each side. The ito-zukuri cut (literally "thread slice"), is the style in which the fish is cut into fine strips, less than  in diameter. The fish typically cut with the ito-zukuri style include garfish and squid;  squid dish prepared in ito-zukuri is also called ika sōmen and is dipped in dashi or men-tsuyu like eating sōmen noodle.

Varieties

Popular main ingredients for sashimi include:

Some sashimi ingredients, such as octopus, are sometimes served cooked given their chewy nature. Most seafood, such as tuna, salmon, and squid, are served raw. Tataki (たたき or 叩き, "pounded") is a type of sashimi that is quickly and lightly seared on the outside, leaving it raw inside.

Less common, but not unusual, sashimi ingredients are vegetarian items, such as yuba (bean curd skin), and raw red meats, such as beef (known as gyuunotataki) or horse (known as basashi). Chicken "sashimi" (known as toriwasa) is considered by some  to be a delicacy; the Nagoya kōchin, French poulet de Bresse and its American derivative, the blue foot chicken, are favored by many for this purpose, as, besides their taste, they are certified to be free of Salmonella. Chicken sashimi is sometimes slightly braised or seared on the outside.

Ingredients other than raw fish meat

Food cut into small pieces and eaten with wasabi and soy sauce may be called sashimi in Japan, including the following ingredients. Like bamboo shoots, the food is enjoyed raw to appreciate the freshness, and producers and farmers offer those sashimi at their properties in top season. Some of the vegetables are enjoyed as thin sliced strips and called sashimi while they resemble fish meat, like avocado as salmon and konnyaku as puffer fish.

Vegetable
 Avocado: served as "avocado sashimi", it is considered to have a texture similar to raw or slightly salted fatty salmon. It is eaten with wasabi soy sauce.
 Bamboo shoots: farmers of bamboo grove serves takenoko in course menu, and sashimi is almost always entered during the high season of harvest.
 Japanese radish: among many varieties of vegetables eaten fresh, it is said that the flavor stands out when tasted within a couple of hours after harvesting, and called sashimi vegetables instead of very fresh salad.
 Konnyaku: cut into short thin strips resembling puffer fish meat, thus called yama fugu (mountain puffer fish) in some regions. Served with vinegar and miso, wasabi and soy sauce, vinegar and soy sauce.
 Yuba, or tofu skin: while there are restaurants where customers cook their own yuba and eat while it is hot, yuba-sashi or sashimi of yuba is chilled and served with wasabi soy sauce or vinegar miso.

Others
 Fishcake: one among the express menu on izakaya menu, offered as Itawasa. Sliced into   thick strips, and eat with wasabi and soy sauce.
 Seaweed: wakame is in strict sense not eaten raw but dipped in boiling water for a few seconds, and enjoyed the fresh green color, with wasabi soy sauce. Marinating with vinegar and miso sauce is popular as well.

Meat
 Beef, pork, and poultry: bought from licensed butchers and processors, those were served raw, and cases are that the restaurant offer slightly cooked meat as sashimi to avoid high risk of food poisoning and parasite infection, by treating meat in boiling water (yubiki) or braised with gas torch (aburi). Served with ponzu citrus vinegar.
 Chiragaa: boiled face skin of pork, served with vinegar and miso sauce, also served as Okinawa cuisine.
 Goat meat: Okinawa cuisine, served with soy sauce and grated ginger.
 Horse meat: offered with grated garlic and soy sauce.
 Mimigaa: boiled ears of pork, also served as Okinawa cuisine.
 Offal: advised to buy from meat processors or restaurants with licenses, as fatal food poisoning happened in Japan with beef liver.
 Wild meat: boar as Okinawa cuisine consumed on Iriomote and Ishigaki islands and boiled meat is served. Deer meat.

Safety
As a raw food, consuming sashimi can result in foodborne illness when bacteria or parasites are present; for example, anisakiasis is a disease caused by the accidental ingestion of larval nematodes in the family Anisakidae, primarily Anisakis simplex  but also Pseudoterranova decipiens. In addition, incorrectly prepared Fugu fish may contain tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin.

Another type of food borne illness that could occur after consuming tainted sashimi is Diphyllobothriasis. This disease is an infection within the intestines that occurs when the tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum is consumed. Common fish such as trout, salmon, pike, and sea bass harbor this parasitic larva in their muscles. Since the innovation of the chilled transport system paired with the salmon and trout consumption, an increasing number of cases have been recorded annually in northern Japan due to the spread of this disease.

Traditionally, fish that spend at least part of their lives in brackish or fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi because of the possibility of parasites. For example, salmon, an anadromous fish, is not traditionally eaten straight out of the river. A study in Seattle, Washington, showed that all wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people, while farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae. However a study commissioned by the Pew Foundation found that total organic contaminants were consistently and significantly more concentrated in the farmed salmon as a group than in wild salmon.

Freezing is often used to kill parasites. According to European Union regulations, freezing fish at −20 °C (−4 °F) for 24 hours kills parasites. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends freezing at −35 °C (−31 °F) for 15 hours, or at −20 °C (−4 °F) for 7 days.

While Canada does not federally regulate freezing fish, British Columbia and Alberta voluntarily adhere to guidelines similar to the FDA's. Ontario attempted to legislate freezing as part of raw food handling requirements, though this was soon withdrawn due to protests by the industry that the subtle flavors and texture of raw fish would be destroyed by freezing. Instead, Ontario has decided to consider regulations on how raw fish must be handled prior to serving.

Some fish for sashimi are treated with carbon monoxide to keep the flesh red for a longer time in storage. This practice can make spoiled fish appear fresh.

Eating chicken sashimi is a serious food poisoning risk. Despite it being on menus, it is hard to find, and many chefs cook it incorrectly. Chicken sashimi is also often sourced at certain restaurants from the thigh, liver and outer breast.

Environmental concerns
With the constant amount of fishing, bluefin tuna population rates have been steadily declining. A proposed solution has been farming bluefin tuna in fisheries. Historically, this has posed a problem in that the captive fish are not raised from spawn, but rather from small wild fish that are netted and transported to the farms, mostly in the Mediterranean. However, Japanese scientists have found a way to successfully breed and raise the fish entirely in captivity.

See also

 Surimi
 Ikizukuri (live sashimi)
 Kuai (dish)
 Hoe (dish)
 Carpaccio
 Kinilaw
 Steak tartare
 Stroganina
 Tiradito
 List of raw fish dishes
 Mercury in fish
 Ceviche

Notes

References

External links

   On the garnishes for sashimi.

Animal-based seafood
Japanese cuisine
Japanese cuisine terms
Uncooked fish dishes
Raw foods
Sliced foods
Types of food

Sashimi


The siege of El Arish was a successful siege by French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte against Ottoman forces under Mustafa Pasha. The French army, commanded by Jean Baptiste Kléber and Jean Reynier laid siege to the fortress of El Arish for nine days. The fortress finally fell to the French on 20 February 1799.

Background
Napoleon had recently subdued a revolt against the French occupation in Egypt, and with his borders secure, continued his offensive against the Ottoman Empire. In the beginning of 1799, a force of 2,160 soldiers under the command of Jean Reynier marched towards the Ottoman fortress of El Arish. The fortress contained a total of 15,500 soldiers under the command of Mustafa Pasha.

Initial Skirmish

On 8 February 1799, Reynier's troops reached Masoodiah, where French soldiers captured a Mamluk runner who told them that El Arish was under Ottoman control. Reynier sent a courier to Bonaparte calling for immediate reinforcements and took position on a sand hill near El Arish. In response, Ottoman forces moved into a nearby palm forest and obtained supplies and twelve cannons. Their cavalry began skirmishing with French forces. After half an hour of Ottoman artillery fire, Reynier sent French troops to take the village of El Arish. The Ottoman defenders of the village fled and escaped into their fort, and their cavalry withdrew on the road to Gaza under the cover of a defile. All twelve cannons were captured by the French. French lost 3 killed while the Ottomans 450 killed and wounded and 900 captured.

Siege

On 12 February 1799, Kléber's division reached El Arish, and his forces began a siege of the Ottoman fort. Reynier's division moved into position in the palm forest near the defile. On 14 February 1799, Reynier's forces attacked an Ottoman camp, which they successfully captured, suffering 23 casualties. The Ottomans, on the other hand, suffered about 500 killed, along with 900 Ottoman prisoners of war captured by the French. 1,000 soldiers under Ottoman commander Ibrahim Nizam were still inside the fort, however, and after processing captured material, Reynier established a camp from which he also began sieging the fort. Meanwhile, the main body of French forces under Napoleon arrived in El Arish.

On 17 February 1799, French commander Louis Caffarelli started engineering work. The French then began artillery fire on the Ottoman fortifications. On 20 February 1799, the French began their assault, and successfully captured El Arish from the Ottomans. After capturing the fort, the French repaired the fortifications that had sustained damage during the siege.

Aftermath

The French had lost 200 killed and 300 wounded. The Ottomans had lost 900 soldiers, with a further 800 being captured. Around 300 of those switched sides and joined the French army when given the opportunity to do so, and the remaining prisoners were moved to cities in Egypt under French command. 40 soldiers who managed to escape settled in Great Britain with the help of British military members sympathetic to their cause.

References

External links

French campaign in Egypt and Syria
El Arish 1799
El Arish 1799
El Arish 1799
1799 in France
1799 in Egypt
Conflicts in 1799

Siege of El Arish


The Wicker is an arterial street in Sheffield, England noted for its history and viaduct that crosses it, the Grade II* listed Wicker Arches. It runs in a north-east to south-westerly direction between Lady's Bridge and the Wicker Arches. For many years the Wicker was an A road, but it has been downgraded following the opening of the Sheffield Northern Relief Road.

History
An early reference to the Wicker comes from the records of the Sheffield Town Trust for 1572: 'Item, payd to William Dyker for mending of the Butt in the Wycker', and earlier the same year: 'Item, paid to William Dyker and Johne Greave for makinge the nare butt in the Sembley grene'. A butt refers to a mound or structure upon which a target is set for archery practice, two existed on the Wicker the near butt and the far butt. The Wicker was also known as the Assembly Green or Sembly-green, and it was an open space where the inhabitants of the town engaged in sports and athletic activities, as well as archery practise. In a tradition thought to date back to at least the 13th century, once a year on the Tuesday after Easter, called Sembley Tuesday the freeholders of the town were required to assemble on the Wicker with their horses and arms before the Lord of the Manor. The assembly took place in front of the court house of the manor, which was the only building on the Wicker, and was called Sembley House. This tradition was discontinued in 1715, although Sembley House (later used as a public house called the Crown and Cushion Tavern or the Bull Inn) remained the only building on the Wicker until 1775.

In the 19th century, the Wicker developed a strong association with railways. The first railway station in Sheffield, Wicker Station was opened at the north-west end of the street on 31 October 1838, and the Wicker Arches, a 40-foot high, 750-yard viaduct, was built in 1848 to connect the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway with its new Victoria Station.

Etymology
The origins of the name Wicker are uncertain. Local historian Sidney Addy gave two possible etymologies, that it referred to the Willows or Alders that grew on this flat, wet and marshy land, or that it derives from wick meaning sinus or angle and described the shape of the land, an angular piece of land that lies within a sharp bend of the River Don.

In popular culture
The Wicker is the setting for the Pulp song "Wickerman", from their 2001 album We Love Life.

See also
History of Sheffield
Transport in Sheffield

References

Streets in Sheffield
History of Sheffield
Sheffield City Centre

The Wicker


A humid subtropical climate is a type of climate. It has hot, humid summers and warm, mild or cool winters. In the Köppen climate classification, they are split into Cfa when there is no dry season and Cwa when there are dry winters. Unlike in a tropical climate, snow and frost do occur in a humid subtropical climate.

Examples are Atlanta, Brisbane, Buenos Aires, Durban, Milan, Shanghai, and Tokyo.

Köppen climate classifications

Humid subtropical climate