A mycorrhiza (from Greek μύκης , "fungus", and ῥίζα , "root"; : mycorrhizae, mycorrhiza or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, its root system. Mycorrhizae play important roles in plant nutrition, soil biology, and soil chemistry.

In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's root tissues, either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, or extracellularly as in ectomycorrhizal fungi. The association is normally mutualistic. In particular species, or in particular circumstances, mycorrhizae may have a parasitic association with host plants.

Definition

A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a green plant and a fungus. The plant makes organic molecules by photosynthesis and supplies them to the fungus in the form of sugars or lipids, while the fungus supplies the plant with water and mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus, taken from the soil. Mycorrhizas are located in the roots of vascular plants, but mycorrhiza-like associations also occur in bryophytes and there is fossil evidence that early land plants that lacked roots formed arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. Most plant species form mycorrhizal associations, though some families like Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae cannot. Different forms for the association are detailed in the next section. The most common is the arbuscular type that is present in 70% of plant species, including many crop plants such as cereals and legumes.

Evolution

Fossil and genetic evidence indicate that mycorrhizae are ancient, potentially as old as the terrestrialization of plants. Genetic evidence indicates that all land plants share a single common ancestor, which appears to have quickly adopted mycorrhizal symbiosis, and research suggests that proto-mycorrhizal fungi were a key factor enabling plant terrestrialization. The 400 million year old Rhynie chert contains an assemblage of fossil plants preserved in sufficient detail that arbuscular mycorrhizae have been observed in the stems of Aglaophyton major, giving a lower bound for how late mycorrhizal symbiosis may have developed. Ectomycorrhizae developed substantially later, during the Jurassic period, while most other modern mycorrhizal families, including orchid and erchoid mycorrhizae, date to the period of angiosperm radiation in the Cretaceous period. There is genetic evidence that the symbiosis between legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria is an extension of mycorrhizal symbiosis. The modern distribution of mycorrhizal fungi appears to reflect an increasing complexity and competition in root morphology associated with the dominance of angiosperms in the Cenozoic Era, characterized by complex ecological dynamics between species.

Types

Mycorrhizas are commonly divided into ectomycorrhizas and endomycorrhizas. The two types are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate individual cells within the root, while the hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall and invaginate the cell membrane. Endomycorrhiza includes arbuscular, ericoid, and orchid mycorrhiza, while arbutoid mycorrhizas can be classified as ectoendomycorrhizas. Monotropoid mycorrhizas form a special category.

Ectomycorrhiza

Ectomycorrhizas, or EcM, are symbiotic associations between the roots of around 10% of plant families, mostly woody plants including the birch, dipterocarp, eucalyptus, oak, pine, and rose families, orchids, and fungi belonging to the Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, and Zygomycota. Some EcM fungi, such as many Leccinum and Suillus, are symbiotic with only one particular genus of plant, while other fungi, such as the Amanita, are generalists that form mycorrhizas with many different plants. An individual tree may have 15 or more different fungal EcM partners at one time. Thousands of ectomycorrhizal fungal species exist, hosted in over 200 genera. A recent study has conservatively estimated global ectomycorrhizal fungal species richness at approximately 7750 species, although, on the basis of estimates of knowns and unknowns in macromycete diversity, a final estimate of ECM species richness would probably be between 20,000 and 25,000.

Ectomycorrhizas consist of a hyphal sheath, or mantle, covering the root tip and a Hartig net of hyphae surrounding the plant cells within the root cortex. In some cases the hyphae may also penetrate the plant cells, in which case the mycorrhiza is called an ectendomycorrhiza. Outside the root, ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium forms an extensive network within the soil and leaf litter.

Nutrients can be shown to move between different plants through the fungal network. Carbon has been shown to move from paper birch seedlings into adjacent Douglas-fir seedlings, although not conclusively through a common mycorrhizal network, thereby promoting succession in ecosystems. The ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor has been found to lure and kill springtails to obtain nitrogen, some of which may then be transferred to the mycorrhizal host plant. In a study by Klironomos and Hart, Eastern White Pine inoculated with L. bicolor was able to derive up to 25% of its nitrogen from springtails. When compared with non-mycorrhizal fine roots, ectomycorrhizae may contain very high concentrations of trace elements, including toxic metals (cadmium, silver) or chlorine.

The first genomic sequence for a representative of symbiotic fungi, the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete L. bicolor, was published in 2008. An expansion of several multigene families occurred in this fungus, suggesting that adaptation to symbiosis proceeded by gene duplication. Within lineage-specific genes those coding for symbiosis-regulated secreted proteins showed an up-regulated expression in ectomycorrhizal root tips suggesting a role in the partner communication. L. bicolor is lacking enzymes involved in the degradation of plant cell wall components (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and pectates), preventing the symbiont from degrading host cells during the root colonisation. By contrast, L. bicolor possesses expanded multigene families associated with hydrolysis of bacterial and microfauna polysaccharides and proteins. This genome analysis revealed the dual saprotrophic and biotrophic lifestyle of the mycorrhizal fungus that enables it to grow within both soil and living plant roots. Since then, the genomes of many other ectomycorrhizal fungal species have been sequenced further expanding the study of gene families and evolution in these organisms.

Arbutoid mycorrhiza

This type of mycorrhiza involves plants of the Ericaceae subfamily Arbutoideae. It is however different from ericoid mycorrhiza and resembles ectomycorrhiza, both functionally and in terms of the fungi involved. It differs from ectomycorrhiza in that some hyphae actually penetrate into the root cells, making this type of mycorrhiza an ectendomycorrhiza.

Endomycorrhiza

Endomycorrhizas are variable and have been further classified as arbuscular, ericoid, arbutoid, monotropoid, and orchid mycorrhizas.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza

Arbuscular mycorrhizas, (formerly known as vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas), have hyphae that penetrate plant cells, producing dichotomously branching invaginations (arbuscules) as a means of nutrient exchange. Often, balloon-like storage structures, termed vesicles, are also produced. In this interaction, fungal hyphae do not in fact penetrate the protoplast (i.e. the interior of the cell), but invaginate the cell membrane, creating a so-called peri-arbuscular membrane. The structure of the arbuscules greatly increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the host cell cytoplasm to facilitate the transfer of nutrients between them. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are fungi that are obligate biotrophs, meaning that they use the plant host for both growth and reproduction. Twenty percent of the photosynthetic products made by the plant host are consumed by the fungi, the transfer of carbon from the terrestrial host plant is then exchanged by equal amounts of phosphate from the fungi to the plant host.

Arbuscular mycorrhizas are formed only by fungi in the division Glomeromycota. Fossil evidence and DNA sequence analysis suggest that this mutualism appeared 400-460 million years ago, when the first plants were colonizing land. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are found in 85% of all plant families, and occur in many crop species. The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi produce the glycoprotein glomalin, which may be one of the major stores of carbon in the soil. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have (possibly) been asexual for many millions of years and, unusually, individuals can contain many genetically different nuclei (a phenomenon called heterokaryosis).

Ericoid mycorrhiza

Ericoid mycorrhizas are the third of the three more ecologically important types. They have a simple intraradical (growth in cells) phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the outermost layer of root cells. There is no periradical phase and the extraradical phase consists of sparse hyphae that don't extend very far into the surrounding soil. They might form sporocarps (probably in the form of small cups), but their reproductive biology is poorly understood.

Ericoid mycorrhizas have also been shown to have considerable saprotrophic capabilities, which would enable plants to receive nutrients from not-yet-decomposed materials via the decomposing actions of their ericoid partners.

Orchid mycorrhiza

All orchids are myco-heterotrophic at some stage during their lifecycle, meaning that they can survive only if they form orchid mycorrhizas with basidiomycete fungi. Their hyphae penetrate into the root cells and form pelotons (coils) for nutrient exchange.

Monotropoid mycorrhiza

This type of mycorrhiza occurs in the subfamily Monotropoideae of the Ericaceae, as well as several genera in the Orchidaceae. These plants are heterotrophic or mixotrophic and derive their carbon from the fungus partner. This is thus a non-mutualistic, parasitic type of mycorrhizal symbiosis.

Mutualist dynamics

Mycorrhizal fungi form a mutualistic relationship with the roots of most plant species. In such a relationship, both the plants themselves and those parts of the roots that host the fungi, are said to be mycorrhizal. Relatively few of the mycorrhizal relationships between plant species and fungi have been examined to date, but 95% of the plant families investigated are predominantly mycorrhizal either in the sense that most of their species associate beneficially with mycorrhizae, or are absolutely dependent on mycorrhizae. The Orchidaceae are notorious as a family in which the absence of the correct mycorrhizae is fatal even to germinating seeds.

Recent research into ectomycorrhizal plants in boreal forests has indicated that mycorrhizal fungi and plants have a relationship that may be more complex than simply mutualistic. This relationship was noted when mycorrhizal fungi were unexpectedly found to be hoarding nitrogen from plant roots in times of nitrogen scarcity. Researchers argue that some mycorrhizae distribute nutrients based upon the environment with surrounding plants and other mycorrhizae. They go on to explain how this updated model could explain why mycorrhizae do not alleviate plant nitrogen limitation, and why plants can switch abruptly from a mixed strategy with both mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal roots to a purely mycorrhizal strategy as soil nitrogen availability declines. It has also been suggested that evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships can explain much more variation in the strength of mycorrhizal mutualisms than ecological factors.

Sugar-water/mineral exchange

The mycorrhizal mutualistic association provides the fungus with relatively constant and direct access to carbohydrates, such as glucose and sucrose. The carbohydrates are translocated from their source (usually leaves) to root tissue and on to the plant's fungal partners. In return, the plant gains the benefits of the mycelium's higher absorptive capacity for water and mineral nutrients, partly because of the large surface area of fungal hyphae, which are much longer and finer than plant root hairs, and partly because some such fungi can mobilize soil minerals unavailable to the plants' roots. The effect is thus to improve the plant's mineral absorption capabilities.

Unaided plant roots may be unable to take up nutrients that are chemically or physically immobilised; examples include phosphate ions and micronutrients such as iron. One form of such immobilization occurs in soil with high clay content, or soils with a strongly basic pH. The mycelium of the mycorrhizal fungus can, however, access many such nutrient sources, and make them available to the plants they colonize. Thus, many plants are able to obtain phosphate without using soil as a source. Another form of immobilisation is when nutrients are locked up in organic matter that is slow to decay, such as wood, and some mycorrhizal fungi act directly as decay organisms, mobilising the nutrients and passing some onto the host plants; for example, in some dystrophic forests, large amounts of phosphate and other nutrients are taken up by mycorrhizal hyphae acting directly on leaf litter, bypassing the need for soil uptake. Inga alley cropping, an agroforestry technique proposed as an alternative to slash and burn rainforest destruction, relies upon mycorrhiza within the root system of species of Inga to prevent the rain from washing phosphorus out of the soil.

In some more complex relationships, mycorrhizal fungi do not just collect immobilised soil nutrients, but connect individual plants together by mycorrhizal networks that transport water, carbon, and other nutrients directly from plant to plant through underground hyphal networks.

Suillus tomentosus, a basidiomycete fungus, produces specialized structures known as tuberculate ectomycorrhizae with its plant host lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). These structures have been shown to host nitrogen fixing bacteria which contribute a significant amount of nitrogen and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.

Mechanisms

The mechanisms by which mycorrhizae increase absorption include some that are physical and some that are chemical. Physically, most mycorrhizal mycelia are much smaller in diameter than the smallest root or root hair, and thus can explore soil material that roots and root hairs cannot reach, and provide a larger surface area for absorption. Chemically, the cell membrane chemistry of fungi differs from that of plants. For example, they may secrete organic acids that dissolve or chelate many ions, or release them from minerals by ion exchange. Mycorrhizae are especially beneficial for the plant partner in nutrient-poor soils.

Disease, drought and salinity resistance and its correlation to mycorrhizae

Mycorrhizal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as those caused by microbial soil-borne pathogens. These associations have been found to assist in plant defense both above and belowground. Mycorrhizas have been found to excrete enzymes that are toxic to soil borne organisms such as nematodes. More recent studies have shown that mycorrhizal associations result in a priming effect of plants that essentially acts as a primary immune response. When this association is formed a defense response is activated similarly to the response that occurs when the plant is under attack. As a result of this inoculation, defense responses are stronger in plants with mycorrhizal associations.
Ecosystem services provided by mycorrhizal fungi may depend on the soil microbiome. Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi was significantly correlated with soil physical variable, but only with water level and not with aggregate stability and can lead also to more resistant to the effects of drought. Moreover, the significance of mycorrhizal fungi also includes alleviation of salt stress and its beneficial effects on plant growth and productivity. Although salinity can negatively affect mycorrhizal fungi, many reports show improved growth and performance of mycorrhizal plants under salt stress conditions.

Resistance to insects

Plants connected by mycorrhizal fungi in mycorrhizal networks can use these underground connections to communicate warning signals. For example, when a host plant is attacked by an aphid, the plant signals surrounding connected plants of its condition. Both the host plant and those connected to it release volatile organic compounds that repel aphids and attract parasitoid wasps, predators of aphids. This assists the mycorrhizal fungi by conserving its food supply.

Colonization of barren soil
Plants grown in sterile soils and growth media often perform poorly without the addition of spores or hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi to colonise the plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. The absence of mycorrhizal fungi can also slow plant growth in early succession or on degraded landscapes. The introduction of alien mycorrhizal plants to nutrient-deficient ecosystems puts indigenous non-mycorrhizal plants at a competitive disadvantage. This aptitude to colonize barren soil is defined by the category Oligotroph.

Resistance to toxicity

Fungi have a protective role for plants rooted in soils with high metal concentrations, such as acidic and contaminated soils. Pine trees inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius planted in several contaminated sites displayed high tolerance to the prevailing contaminant, survivorship and growth. One study discovered the existence of Suillus luteus strains with varying tolerance of zinc. Another study discovered that zinc-tolerant strains of Suillus bovinus conferred resistance to plants of Pinus sylvestris. This was probably due to binding of the metal to the extramatricial mycelium of the fungus, without affecting the exchange of beneficial substances.

Occurrence of mycorrhizal associations

Mycorrhizas are present in 92% of plant families studied (80% of species), with arbuscular mycorrhizas being the ancestral and predominant form, and the most prevalent symbiotic association found in the plant kingdom. The structure of arbuscular mycorrhizas has been highly conserved since their first appearance in the fossil record, with both the development of ectomycorrhizas, and the loss of mycorrhizas, evolving convergently on multiple occasions.

Associations of fungi with the roots of plants have been known since at least the mid-19th century. However early observers simply recorded the fact without investigating the relationships between the two organisms. This symbiosis was studied and described by Franciszek Kamieński in 1879–1882.

Climate change

CO2 released by human activities is causing climate change and possible damage to mycorrhizae, but the direct effect of an increase in the gas should be to benefit plants and mycorrhizae. In Arctic regions, nitrogen and water are harder for plants to obtain, making mycorrhizae crucial to plant growth. Since mycorrhizae tend to do better in cooler temperatures, warming could be detrimental to them. Gases such as SO2, NO-x, and O3 produced by human activity may harm mycorrhizae, causing reduction in "propagules, the colonization of roots, degradation in connections between trees, reduction in the mycorrhizal incidence in trees, and reduction in the enzyme activity of ectomycorrhizal roots."

See also

 Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity
 Endosymbiont
 Epibiont, an organism that grows on another life form
 Endophyte
 Epiphyte
 Epiphytic fungus
 Mucigel
 Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
 Mycorrhizal network
 Rhizobia
 Suzanne Simard

References

External links

 International Mycorrhiza Society International Mycorrhiza Society
 Mohamed Hijri: A simple solution to the coming phosphorus crisis video recommending agricultural mycorrhiza use to conserve phosphorus reserves & 85% waste problem @Ted.com
 Mycorrhizal Associations: The Web Resource Comprehensive illustrations and lists of mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants and fungi
 Mycorrhizas – a successful symbiosis Biosafety research into genetically modified barley
 MycorWiki a portal concerned with the biology and ecology of ectomycorrhizal fungi and other forest fungi.

Plant roots
Soil biology
Symbiosis
Oligotrophs
Fungus ecology

Mycorrhiza


Jerzy Popiełuszko (pron. jɛʐɨ popʲɛwuʂko) (Okopy, 14 September 1947 - Włocławek, 19 October 1984) was a Polish presbyter, killed by officers of the ministry of the interior of the People's Republic of Poland. He is treated with great respect and honored as blessed by the Catholic Church.

Life
Born in Okopy, a lone village near Suchowola, his parents were farmers, and in this simple environment became grown into his vocation.
He was ordained priest on 28 May 1972 in Warsaw by cardinal Stefan Wyszyński.

Until 1980 he was a priest in his home village, occupying himself mainly with the education of children and boys, since that moment began to near the movement of Polish workers and to subjects of social justice.

In his pastoral activity, he took his work near the workers of steelworks, celebrating a solemn mass in the factory during a strike of the metallurgiacal workers.

Next, he joined the workers of the independent trade union Solidarność (Solidarity), adverse to the communist system of government. He was an anticommunist sure of his faith, and in his preachings launched criticisms of the system and invited the people to contest the system of government.

The challenge to the system of government
During the period of the martial law (1981 - 1983) the Catholic Church was the only force that could have a certain possibility of criticism, through the preachings during the celebration of the masses.

The homilies and the preachings of Father Popiełuszko were regularly transmitted by Radio Free Europe, which gave him a certain popularity also in other countries.

He was initially threatened and ordered to silence by the Polish Ministry of the Interior. On 13 October 1984, he was involved in a traffic accident from which however he went out whole.

Murder

On 19 October 1984, on return from a pastoral service, he was taken away illegally and killed by three officers of the Ministry of the Interior, and his body was found on 30 October in the waters of the Vistula River close to Włocławek.

The notice of the murder caused disorders in Poland, and the authors of the murder - the captains Grzegorz Piotrowski, Leszek Pękala, Waldemar Chmielewski, and Colonel Adam Petruszka - were judged guilty and stated punishment to 25 years of prison, but were freed as amnesty some year later.

The funeral took 3rd of November400.000 people attended including the leader of Solidarność Lech Wałęsa.

Beatification
His grave is the aim of regular pilgrimages, from Poland and from other countries; on 14 July 1987, Pope John Paul II prayed on his grave also.

The Catholic Church began the process of beatification in 1997.

On 19 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI gave formal permission for the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to issue the decree regarding "the martyrdom of Servant of God, George Popiełuszko, diocesan priest; born on 14 September 1947 in Okopy Suchowola (Poland) and killed in hate to the faith on 20 October 1984 near Włocławek (Poland)".

The solemn mass of beatification of Jerzy Popiełuszko has been celebrated in Warsaw on Sunday, 6 June 2010, in the square that has a title of the marshal Piłsudski.

Notes

Writings on the subject
Annalia Guglielmi, Popiełuszko. «Non si può uccidere la speranza», Itaca, Castel Bolognese, 2010
Milena Kindziuk, Popiełuszko, Edizioni San Paolo, 2010
Grażyna Sikorska, Vita e morte di Jerzy Popiełuszko, Queriniana Editrice, 1986
Jerzy Popiełuszko, Il cammino della mia croce. Messe a Varsavia, Queriniana Editrice, 1985

Filmography
Rafal Wieczynski, Popiełuszko - Non si può uccidere la speranza, Ranieri Made s.r.l. - Mondadori, 2010

Other websites
 The blessed George Popieluszko's voice on the website santiebeati.it

1947 births
1984 deaths
Beatified people
Nonviolence advocates
Polish Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic martyrs

Jerzy Popiełuszko


The Ships of Earth (1994) is a science fiction novel by American writer  Orson Scott Card. It is the third book of the Homecoming Saga, a fictionalization of the first few hundred years recorded in the Book of Mormon.

Plot summary
This book focuses on the struggles between the pioneers to establish a new social order now that they have left Basilica.  The new society is opposite to that of the previous societies - male dominated instead of female dominated, monogamous and lifelong marriages instead of the yearly contracts of Basilica.

The struggles between the characters ultimately come down to the struggles between Nafai and Elemak, two sons of Volemak.  Nafai leads the faction who have faith in the Oversoul, while Elemak leads the faction who want desperately to return to the civilization of doomed Basilica.  Both are ostensibly under the leadership of Volemak (and not Rasa, as they had been in the city).

The settlers, after years of traveling, finally arrive in a land lost in ancient times which holds the secret of the Oversoul.  Additionally, many children are born, all in their preparation for the ultimate journey to Earth.

The book offers an interesting justification of the social structures of the Hebrew tribes in Genesis,  all while the originally powerful female characters gradually succumb to the new hierarchy of "men" and "wives."  Only one character - Shedemei, the brilliant geneticist, thinks about this problem.

The focus in on the group dynamics of the new tribe as they journey where the Oversoul guides them.

Prophetic dreams abound, mostly involving giant rats and bats ("diggers" and "angels").  The Oversoul discovers itself.

See also

List of works by Orson Scott Card

External links

 About the novel The Ships of Earth from Card's website

1994 American novels
Novels by Orson Scott Card
1994 science fiction novels
Mormon fiction
Tor Books books

The Ships of Earth


Honorio Pueyrredón (June 9, 1876 – September 23, 1945) was an Argentine lawyer, university professor, diplomat and politician.

Born in San Pedro, Buenos Aires, Pueyrredón graduated at the Faculty of Law of the University of Buenos Aires in 1896, where he would also later teach.

Originally affiliated to the National Civic Union, he later became a prominent figure in the Radical Civic Union, and was named Minister of Agriculture in 1916 by President Hipólito Yrigoyen, and was Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1917 and 1922. During this last term Pueyrredón was also chief of the Argentine delegation at the first gathering of the League of Nations in Geneva, where he served as vice-president of the first assembly of 1920.

In 1922 Pueyrredón was named Argentine Ambassador to the United States, a post he also held in Cuba years later. He was also president of the Argentine delegation to the XI Pan-American Conference held in Havana in 1928.

Pueyrredón was elected governor of the Province of Buenos Aires in 1930, but the elections were invalidated by dictator José Félix Uriburu, whose coup d'etat toppled Yrigoyen. He continued his political activity, firmly following Yrigoyen ideas, until he was exiled during the Década Infame because of his political tendencies. He returned to Argentina several years later, and died in Buenos Aires in 1945.

References

Biographical sources
Historical Dictionary of Argentina. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978.

1876 births
1945 deaths
Argentine people of Basque descent
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Academic staff of the University of Buenos Aires
Radical Civic Union politicians
Foreign ministers of Argentina
Argentine diplomats
Ambassadors of Argentina to the United States
Ambassadors of Argentina to Cuba
Governors of Buenos Aires Province
Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery

Honorio Pueyrredón


Andrew Melrose (5 February 1860 - 6 November 1928) was a British publisher. Although he was noted for publishing theological works, he was also active in promoting new fiction, and offered a substantial cash prize for the best first novel submitted to his firm.

Life and works
Melrose was born in Midlothian. Much of his early career was spent at the London Ludgate Hill offices of the Sunday School Union, where from 1893 he published the Sunday School Chronicle.

He began publishing under his own name around 1899 in York Street, Covent Garden, finally moving to an address next door to Macmillan in St. Martin Street, Leicester Square. Among the early writers he encouraged and published was W.E. Cule, a friend and colleague from the Sunday School Union.

Between 1900 and 1903 Melrose published and contributed to a weekly paper Boys of the Empire, the official organ of the Boys Empire League. The League's stated purpose was" to promote and strengthen a worthy Imperial Spirit in British-born boys". The paper was edited by Howard Spicer (later Sir Howard).

In 1911, Melrose was living at 68 Southwood Lane, Highgate, with his wife Margaret and their children Ernest (20), Douglas (17), Allan (14), Kenneth (11) and Marjorie (9).

Melrose gained a reputation for publishing distinctive books of a theological kind. He was described as "an extremely shrewd, somewhat dour Scotsman, possessing a keen sense of literary values". He was one of the pioneers of offering substantial money prizes to aspiring authors. Two early winners of the 250-guinea prize were Agnes E.Jacomb for her first novel The Faith of His Fathers (1909) and Patricia Wentworth for A Marriage Under The Terror (1910). In 1913, Margaret Peterson won the prize for her novel The Lure of the Little Drum. A notable winner was Catherine Carswell for her novel Open the Door (1920). Melrose also had a keen sense of book design, commissioning illustrations from some of the leading illustrators of his day such as Charles Robinson, Florence Meyerheim, Amelia Bauerle and William Gordon Mein.

Melrose was not afraid of courting controversy in his choice of authors. In 1915 he published Caradoc Evans's story collection My People, a work that provoked outrage for its depiction of Welsh society. He was also responsible for introducing David Grayson to English readers and for publishing the letters of Donald Hankey.

The book on which Melrose chiefly prided himself was The House with the Green Shutters by George Douglas Brown.  Melrose had met Brown through Howard Spicer, and the two encouraged Brown to write his grim story of a Scottish village.  The following year, Brown  died unexpectedly of pneumonia at Melrose's house in Hornsey. Melrose published a memorial edition of Brown's House with the Green Shutters in 1923 and subsequently unveiled a memorial to the author in his Ayrshire birthplace.

Under the pseudonym of A. E. Macdonald, Melrose wrote popular biographies of missionary Alexander Murdoch Mackay, British statesman William Ewart Gladstone and explorer Henry Morton Stanley.

In 1927 Melrose's publishing business was taken over by the Hutchinson group and became known as Andrew Melrose Limited. It published religious and general titles and the imprint lasted until the mid-1950s. Melrose's son Douglas Melrose, who was associated with his father's business,  founded the publishing firm of Melrose and Co. of St Martin's Lane.

Melrose prize winners
The Melrose prize was awarded eight times between 1908 and 1923, and seven of the winners were women.

References

Book publishing companies of the United Kingdom
Publishers (people) from Edinburgh
Writers from Edinburgh
1928 deaths
1860 births
19th-century Scottish people
People from Hornsey
Companies based in the City of Westminster

Andrew Melrose


The European Clarinet Association is association that assembles clarinetists from various European countries.

History
At the 2009 ClarinetFest in Porto, Portugal, a group of European clarinetists decided to found the European Clarinet Association - ECA. The Board of Directors included clarinetists from different European regions, under the leadership of Matthias Müller from Zurich.

Aims
The aims of the European Clarinet Association are:
 To enhance contact and communication among clarinetists and national clarinet societies.
 To organize activities and events in collaboration with national clarinet societies.
 To encourage and support European countries to found and maintain national societies by sharing experience and knowledge.
 To support the International Clarinet Association (ICA) with the organization of ClarinetFests in Europe.
 To disseminate and share information through Facebook.

Other websites
 Official website of the European Clarinet Association

Woodwind instruments
Clarinetists

European Clarinet Association


Pasquier is a French surname derived from Latin pascuarium (verb pascere) meaning "pasture". Pasquier shares the same root of given name and surname Pascal, from Latin Pascha, in turn from the Hebrew pesach that means literally "pass over". Alternative spellings and related names are: Pasquett, Pasquié, Pâquier, Paquier, Pasqueraud, Pasquerault, Paqueraud, Paquerault, Paquereau.

Pasquier may refer to:

Edme-Armand-Gaston d'Audiffret-Pasquier (1823–1905), French politician and member of the Académie française,
Étienne Pasquier (1529–1615), French lawyer and man of letters,
Étienne-Denis Pasquier (1767–1862), French statesman
Jérôme Pasquier (courtier), French servant and clerk of Mary, Queen of Scots
Jules Pasquier (1839-1928), French politician.
Jules-Paul Pasquier (1774-1858), French member of the Conseil d'État.
Georges Pasquier (1878-?) French road racing cyclist
Pierre Pasquier (colonial administrator) (1877-1934)
Pierre Pasquier (violist) (1902-1986), violist
Pierre Pasquier (born 1935), businessman
Bruno Pasquier born 1943, violist
Régis Pasquier born 1945, violinist
Stéphane Pasquier (born 1978), French jockey

Du Pasquier
L. Gustave du Pasquier (1876–1957), Swiss mathematician
Nathalie du Pasquier (born 1957), French painter and designer

French-language surnames

Pasquier


George Nelson Kennedy (September 11, 1822 – September 7, 1901) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.

Life
He was born in Marcellus, New York to George Kennedy and Eunice (Dibble) Kennedy. The family removed to Skaneateles in 1831. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1842, and practiced in Marcellus. He married Ann Jennette Tefft (1824–1885), daughter of Assemblyman Lake I. Tefft, and they had several children. In 1854, he removed to Syracuse, and practiced law there in partnership with Charles B. Sedgwick and Charles Andrews.

Kennedy entered politics as a Democrat, joined the Free Soil Party in 1848, returned to the Democratic Party, and finally joined the Republican Party upon its foundation. He was a member of the New York State Senate (22nd D.) from 1868 to 1871, sitting in the 91st, 92nd, 93rd and 94th New York State Legislatures.

He was a justice of the New York Supreme Court (5th D.) from 1884 until the end of 1892 when he reached the constitutional age limit and retired from the bench.

He died from "brain disease and Cheyne-Stokes respiration" at his summer residence in Thousand Island Park, and was buried at the Oakwood Cemetery in Syracuse. He bequeathed $40,000 to Syracuse University.

Sources
 The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough, Stephen C. Hutchins and Edgar Albert Werner (1870; pg. 444, 498 and 501)
 Life Sketches of the State Officers, Senators, and Members of the Assembly of the State of New York in 1868 by S. R. Harlow & S. C. Hutchins (pg. 97ff)
 EX-JUSTICE G. M. (sic) KENNEDY DEAD in NYT on september 8, 1901 [After the wrong middle initial, the obit gives the wrong middle name "Nestor."]
 Ex-Justice Kennedy's Bequests in NYT on September 12, 1901

External links

1822 births
1901 deaths
Republican Party New York (state) state senators
Politicians from Syracuse, New York
People from Skaneateles, New York
New York Supreme Court Justices
Burials at Oakwood Cemetery (Syracuse, New York)
People from Marcellus, New York
Lawyers from Syracuse, New York
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges

George N. Kennedy


Andrea Bellini was an Italian operatic bass who had an active career performing in Italy's major opera houses from the 1840s through the 1870s. He specialized in the buffo repertoire and was most often heard in comprimario roles.

Career
From 1843 to 1853, 1856–1858, and 1866–1872, Bellini was committed to La Fenice in Venice. At that house he performed in several world premieres, including Samuele Levi's Giuditta (1844, Mindo), Giuseppe Verdi's Ernani (1844, Jago), Giovanni Galzerani's Giovanna Maillotte (1848), Galzerani's La vivandiera (1848), Antonio Buzzolla's Elisabetta di Valois (1850, Count di Lerme), Francesco Malipiero's Fernando Cortez (1851, Don Alfonso), Verdi's Rigoletto (1851, Count Ceprano), Giovanni Felis' Hermosa (1851), Carlo Ercole Bosoni's La prigioniera (1853, Inigo), Antonio Monticini's Aladino (1853, Uberto), Verdi's La traviata (1853, Dottore Grenvil), Verdi's Simon Boccanegra (1857, Pietro), and Serafino Amedeo De Ferrari's Il matrimonio per concorso (1858, Anselmo). He sang at the Teatro Regio di Parma in 1854–1855. He also worked as a guest artist at the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples.

References

Italian opera singers
Operatic basses
Year of death missing
Year of birth missing

Andrea Bellini (singer)


Lamarck–Caulaincourt () is a station on Line 12 of the Paris Métro in the Montmartre district and the 18th arrondissement of Paris.

Location
Lamarck–Caulaincourt is located within the 18th arrondissement of Paris, which covers some of the northernmost parts of the city. Specifically, it runs beneath Rue de la Fontaine du But where it changes into a staircase. The station takes its name from the two main roads that cross near its entrance: Rue Lamarck and Rue Caulaincourt.

History
The station opened on 31 October 1912 as part of a northward extension of the Nord-Sud company's Line A from Pigalle to Jules Joffrin. In 1930, the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris bought out the Nord-Sud company and renamed Line A to Line 12 in order to conform to the former's convention.

Originally named Constantin Pecqueur, after the short street at the top of the entrance stairway, which in turn derives its title from the socialist economist of the same name, Lamarck–Caulaincourt opened as Lamarck, a reference to Rue Lamarck, the road at the bottom of the entrance stairwell. At a later time, the station's name changed to Lamarck (Caulaincourt), and finally received the spelling of Lamarck–Caulaincourt. Rue Lamarck is dedicated to Jean-Baptiste Pierre de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744–1829), a French naturalist who is mainly remembered for his theory of the inheritance of acquired traits. Rue Caulaincourt is named after the marquis Armand Augustin Louis de Caulaincourt (1773–1827), general, ambassador, and foreign minister from 1813 to 1814.

Station layout

Design
The station has a very picturesque single entry which is surrounded by two staircases ascending the hill of Montmartre. The platforms are  below the entrance and are reached by a lift or a spiral staircase. Like most Paris Métro stations, at track level, there are two tracks and two side platforms.

In popular culture

Métro Lamarck–Caulaincourt is the beautiful Metro station with the double staircase in the film Amélie. It is where the blind man experiences a moment of transcendence as Amélie describes the mouthwatering sights of the bustling market on rue Lamarck.

References

Paris Métro stations in the 18th arrondissement of Paris
Railway stations in France opened in 1912

Lamarck–Caulaincourt station


The Morris–Butler House is a Second Empire-style house built about 1864 in the Old Northside Historic District of Indianapolis, Indiana. Restored as a museum home by Indiana Landmarks between 1964 and 1969, the American Civil War-era residence was the non-profit organization's first preservation project. Restoration work retained some of its original architectural features, and the home was furnished in Victorian and Post-Victorian styles. Its use was changed to a venue for Indiana Landmarks programs, special events, and private rentals following a refurbishment in 2013. Regular daily tours of the property have been discontinued.

History

Private residence
The house was built about 1864 for John D. Morris, an Indianapolis businessman, who was the son of Morris Morris, an Indianapolis settler. It is believed that the home was designed by noted Indianapolis architect Diedrich A. Bohlen. The house is located in what was then a suburb of Indianapolis, an area now known as the Old Northside Historic District. Morris lived in the house with his family until the 1870s, when the family experienced financial difficulties. In 1878 he sold the house to Noble Chase Butler, a bankruptcy lawyer and clerk of the United States District Court in Indianapolis. Butler lived in the house with his wife and seven children until his death in 1933. Butler's daughter, Florence, lived in the house until her death on January 7, 1957. By that time the neighborhood was quite different. Most of the homes were low-income rentals and many suffered from neglect. The house was briefly used as an artists' studio, gallery, and apartments between 1957 and 1964.

Historic house museum

With funds from Eli Lilly, Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana (now Indiana Landmarks) bought the house in 1963, when it was in danger of being destroyed by the construction of Interstate 70. Lilly had once lived on North Delaware Street, about a block away from the Morris–Butler House, with his first wife, Evelyn Fortune Lilly, in the 1920s. He also had known Florence Butler. Lilly provided $22,500 to purchase the house and additional funds for restoration. The home, named after the two families who once resided there, was Historic Landmarks Foundation's first historic preservation project.

Architect H. Roll McLaughlin, A.I.A., of James Associates and a president of Indiana Landmarks, headed the  restoration. Work included repairing warped floors, cleaning and repainting the darkened brickwork, and adding a new slate roof. The house was opened to the public as a historic home and decorative arts museum in May 1969. Its interiors were furnished and decorated in Victorian-era furnishings, along with a few reproductions. Notable furnishing included a Wooton desk, paintings by Hoosier artist Jacob Cox, and Charles Eastlake chairs. Indiana Landmarks staffed the house with tour guides, coordinated further restoration, and hosted educational and cultural events. Morris–Butler House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.

Refurbished as event space
Refurbishments to the house made during 2012 and 2013 included general repairs, painting, improvements to its landscape, and interior updates. Its use was changed from a house museum to a venue for Indiana Landmarks programs, special events, and event rentals. Daily tours of the property have been discontinued.

Description
The Second Empire-style home, with overall dimensions are  by , is located the corner of North Park Avenue and East 12th Street, north of downtown Indianapolis, adjacent to the Indiana Landmark Center and a part of its campus complex. The exterior features a French mansard roof of gray slate, a white limestone foundation, red brick walls, a four-story tower, and a limestone arch at the main entrance. The home has two main stories in addition to a cellar, an attic, and the brick tower. It also contains wooden front and side porches, dormers, and cornices. The dwelling's central hall floor plan has a service ell at the rear. A roofed breezeway connects the service ell to a red-brick summer kitchen. The house's projecting window on its south façade and its front porch are surmounted by iron railings. The property also contains a carriage house with living quarters. A black mental fence installed around the perimeter of the landscaped lot is a reproduction.

Notes

References
 Coats, Nellie N. (1969). "Grand Opening of the Restored Morris–Butler House: 1204 North Park Avenue, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202". Indianapolis: Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana.

External links

 Indiana Landmarks – Morris–Butler House (official website)
 The Historic Old Northside, Indianapolis
 Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record: Morris–Butler House

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Second Empire architecture in Indiana
Houses completed in 1864
Houses in Indianapolis
National Register of Historic Places in Indianapolis

Morris–Butler House


{{Infobox comics creator

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| caption       = Nicieza at the 2011 New York Comic Con
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| nationality   = Argentine-American
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| notable works =New WarriorsThunderboltsNomadX-MenX-ForceDeadpoolCable & DeadpoolSuburban Dicks| collaborators =
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Fabian Nicieza (; December 31, 1961) is an Argentine-American comic book writer and editor who is best known for his work on Marvel titles such as X-Men, X-Force, New Warriors, Nomad, Cable, Deadpool and Thunderbolts, for all of which he helped create numerous characters, among them Deadpool, Domino, Shatterstar, and Silhouette.

Early life
Nicieza was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the son of Omar and Irma Riguetti Nicieza. He was four years old when his family moved to the United States. Growing up in New Jersey, Nicieza learned to read and write from comic books. He lived first in Sayreville, New Jersey and moved to Old Bridge Township, where he attended Madison Central High School, from which he graduated in 1979. He studied at Rutgers University, interning at the ABC television network before graduating in 1983 with a degree in advertising and public relations. His brother is Mariano Nicieza, also a comic book writer and editor.

Career
Until 1985, Nicieza worked for the Berkley Publishing Group, starting in the production department and becoming a managing editor.

Marvel Comics
In 1985, Nicieza joined the staff at Marvel Comics, initially as a manufacturing assistant, later moving to the promotions department as an advertising manager. During this period he began to take his first freelance work for Marvel, writing short articles for Marvel's promotional magazine Marvel Age.

Nicieza's first published comics story came with Psi-Force No. 9 (July 1987), a title in Marvel's short-lived New Universe imprint. This led to his becoming that title's regular writer from #16 (Feb. 1988) until #32 (June 1989), the final issue. This led to fill-in work on titles such as Classic X-Men, for which he provided backup stories, and in the Marvel Annuals' 1989 summer crossover "Atlantis Attacks".

After Tom DeFalco, then Marvel's editor-in-chief, created the superhero team the New Warriors, using existing characters, in Thor No. 412 (Dec. 1989), he selected Nicieza to write the spin-off series. Nicieza recalled "I took the assignment for two reasons. First, I saw a lot of potential in these characters that had already been deemed useless. And secondly, I really wanted to write a monthly book." Collaborating with pencilers Mark Bagley and later Darick Robertson, primarily, Nicieza went on to write the title for most of its first 53 issues (July 1990 – November 1994). Years later, Nicieza said that he considers the first 25 issues of New Warriors to be the best work of his career.

Also in 1990 Nicieza began short runs on comics such as Alpha Flight (#87–101), Avengers (#317–325) and Avengers Spotlight, as well as the miniseries Nomad, which in turn led him to write the ongoing series Nomad vol. 2 in 1992. That year, Nicieza became editor of Marvel's children's imprint, Star Comics. Shortly afterward, he left the Marvel staff and began freelance writing for the company.

Nicieza's projects in this period included the first four issues of National Football League-approved superhero NFL SuperPro (Oct. 1991 –  Feb. 1992), and, with penciler Kevin Maguire, the four-issue  miniseries Adventures of Captain America (also known by its cover-logo treatment, The Adventures of Captain America: Sentinel of Liberty) (Sept. 1991 – Jan. 1992), an origin-story retelling set in the 1940s.

The X-Men
In 1991, Nicieza joined with artist Rob Liefeld in co-plotting and writing the final three issues of the New Mutants. In those issues Liefeld and Nicieza created the characters  Deadpool and Shatterstar as well as the super team, X-Force. Liefeld and Nicieza then produced an ongoing X-Force title. Nicieza initially worked on the title as scripter; after the departure of Liefeld in No. 12 he became its full writer, which he remained until 1995. By the end of 1992, Nicieza became regular scripter for X-Men vol. 2, beginning with No. 12 (Sept. 1992), working primarily with penciler Andy Kubert throughout his run. For the next three years, Nicieza was among the writers and editors of one of Marvel's most popular superhero franchises during a time of such popular, multi-series crossover story arcs as "X-Cutioner's Song", "Phalanx Covenant" and "Age of Apocalypse".

During this period Nicieza wrote the first Cable miniseries as well as the first few issues of the character's subsequent ongoing series. He also wrote the first solo Deadpool series, Deadpool: the Circle Chase in 1993. These series expanded the characters' personalities and established key background information for both characters, all things which were later used by other writers on those characters' subsequent ongoing books.

However, in 1995, in a dispute with then editor-in-chief Bob Harras over the future direction of his plotlines on X-Force, Nicieza was fired from the X-titles, leaving X-Force with No. 43 and X-Men with No. 45. He later remarked, "I never wanted to leave [X-Force], and never felt my firing was justified. ... I don't recall being given a reason [for being fired], and I also don't recall asking for one. ... Considering it was a Top 10 selling title at the time, I felt it was a wholly unjustified decision."

Acclaim Comics
After 1995, Nicieza wrote short runs of Captain Marvel  (vol. 2, 1995),  Spider-Man: The Final Adventure (1995) and stories for Mighty Morphin Power Rangers before leaving the company in 1996. That year Nicieza did his first work for rival publisher DC Comics, co-writing Justice League: Midsummer Nightmare with Mark Waid which relaunched the Justice League as the JLA. He also worked for Twist and Shout Comics writing and pencilling back-up stories in X-Flies Special #1 and Dirtbag #7.

Later in 1996 Nicieza joined Acclaim Comics as senior vice-president and editor-in-chief. He was charged with revamping the companies intellectual properties which had previously formed Valiant Comics' Valiant Universe. Nicieza as editor oversaw the new version, dubbed "VH2", which re-imagined characters such as Solar, X-O Manowar, and Ninjak.

Nicieza himself wrote the Turok title as well as a new series, Troublemakers. Turok met with success as a video game adaptation, and Nicieza was promoted to president and publisher of Acclaim Comics in 1997. He also wrote a Turok novella during this period. However, after staff cuts and most of the lines' cancellation, Nicieza left Acclaim in 1999.

Freelance work
Returning to freelance work, Marvel and the X-Men, Nicieza co-wrote the Magneto Wars crossover through Uncanny X-Men #366–367 and X-Men vol. 2, #86–87, with artist Alan Davis in 1999. This led to the successive Magneto limited series Magneto Rex (1999) and Magneto: Dark Seduction (2000), as well as an ongoing Gambit (1999) series which he wrote for the first 24 issues of its 25-issue run.

Also in 1999, Nicieza began writing Thunderbolts with #34. He continued to write the book (initially with old partner Mark Bagley on art, later with Patrick Zircher and Chris Batista) up until No. 75 when the title was revamped. The revamp was unsuccessful, and in 2004 the original version of the team was resurrected, initially in an Avengers/Thunderbolts miniseries, then later in the  New Thunderbolts series with Nicieza again as writer.

Nicieza also worked on several limited series at Marvel and DC around the turn of the century. At Marvel he wrote Citizen V (2001), Citizen V and the V Battalion: Everlasting (2002), X-Men Forever (2001), and X-Force vol. 2, as well as the short-lived ongoing series Hawkeye (2003); while at DC, he wrote the six-issue miniseries Supermen of America (1999) and the Elseworlds project JLA: Created Equal (2000), as well as some issues of the children's comic Justice League Adventures.

In 2003 Nicieza co-created, with artist Stefano Raffaele, the horror miniseries The Blackburne Covenant, published by Dark Horse Comics. That same year he returned to two of his old characters with the Marvel series Cable and Deadpool, of which he wrote all 50 issues.

In 2006, Nicieza returned to DC with a three-issue arc in Action Comics #841–843 (July–Sept. 2006), co-written with Kurt Busiek. Nicieza also wrote JSA Classified #28.  He is also one of the co-writers for The 99, an "Islamic culture-based comic book" with Kuwaiti Naif Al-Mutawa, Other late-2000s DC work includes Nightwing and Robin,Fabian Nicieza on Picking Up 'Robin' Post-Dixon, Newsarama, August 4, 2008 both titles being cancelled in connection with "Batman R.I.P." and Nicieza then wrote an Azrael : Death's Dark Knight mini-series, part of the Battle for the Cowl storyline which dealt with the "Batman R.I.P." aftermath. After Death's Dark Knight concluded, Nicieza wrote the new Azrael ongoing series from issue #1–13 (December 2009 – December 2010).Fabian Nicieza Unleashes Azrael, Comic Book Resources, December 29, 2008

Nicieza began writing the DC series Red Robin from issues #13-26, the final issue  (Aug. 2010 - Aug. 2011). DC announced Nicieza would be writing Legion Lost, a spinoff of Legion of Superheroes as part of DC's line wide relaunch initiative in September 2011. Nicieza wrote the first six issues before leaving the title. In 2016, for the comics company Shatner Singularity, he adapted a Stan Lee poem into the graphic novel Stan Lee's 'God Woke'. That work won the 2017 Independent Publisher Book Awards' Outstanding Books of the Year Independent Voice Award.

In 2023, it was announced that Nicieza would be returning to the X-Men line of books to write a new Cable mini-series beginning in January, 2024.

Non-comics work
In non-comics works, Nicieza co-scripted the direct-to-DVD animated feature Hot Wheels World Race, and the  computer-animated DVD feature The Black Belt Club, based on the Scholastic book series. In 2021, Nicieza created and executive produced the animated streaming series Superhero Kindergarten, based on the comic book series of the same name by Stan Lee. In 2021, Nicieza's first non-comic book was released: Suburban Dicks, a satirical crime novel set in the New Jersey suburbs. A second book with the same characters, The Self-Made Widow'', was published in 2022.

References

External links

 Fabian Nicieza at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators

 Comicon.com: The Pulse interview with Nicieza
 "Interview with Fabian Nicieza", BigShinyRobot.com, December 19, 2008

1961 births
American comics writers
Argentine comics writers
Living people
Writers from Buenos Aires
Marvel Comics writers
DC Comics people
Old Bridge High School alumni
People from Old Bridge Township, New Jersey
People from Sayreville, New Jersey
Rutgers University alumni
Argentine emigrants to the United States

Fabian Nicieza


In medicine, compliance or adherence refers to the fact that a patient follows the advice of the doctor, and takes the prescribed drugs in the quantities prescribed. Compliance is important for the treatment of chronic diseases.

Worldwide, non-compliance is a major obstacle to the effective delivery of health care. In 2003,   the World Health Organization estimated that only about half the patients with chronic diseases living in developed countries follow treatment recommendations. In particular, low rates of adherence to therapies for asthma, diabetes, and hypertension are thought to contribute substantially to the human and economic burden of those conditions. Compliance rates may be overestimated in the medical literature, as compliance is often high in the setting of a formal clinical trial but drops off in a "real-world" setting.

Some drugs are difficult to take, because they must be taken at a specific time or interval; sometimes, several drugs must be taken together. This is seen as a major obstacle to compliance.  Other factors that may adversely influence compliance are that many patients do not understand the benefits of being treated, or they see side-effects that they were not told about, the drugs costing a lot of money, poor communication or lack of trust between the patient and their health-care provider. Efforts to improve compliance have been aimed at simplifying drug packaging, providing effective medication reminders, improving patient education, and limiting the number of medications prescribed at the same time.

References

Drugs
Medicine

Compliance (medicine)


The Billboard Hot 100 is the music industry standard record chart in the United States for songs, published weekly by Billboard magazine. Chart rankings are based on sales (physical and digital), online streaming, and radio play in the U.S.

A new chart is compiled and released online to the public by Billboard website on Tuesdays but post-dated to the following Saturday, when the printed magazine first reaches newsstands. The weekly tracking period for sales is currently Friday–Thursday, after being changed in July 2015. It was initially Monday–Sunday when Nielsen started tracking sales in 1991. This tracking period also applies to compiling online streaming data. Radio airplay is readily available on a real-time basis, unlike sales figures and streaming, but is also tracked on the same Friday–Thursday cycle, effective with the chart dated July 17, 2021. Previously, radio was tracked Monday–Sunday and, before July 2015, Wednesday–Tuesday.

The first number-one song of the Billboard Hot 100 was "Poor Little Fool" by Ricky Nelson, on August 4, 1958. As of the issue for the week ending on November 4, 2023, the Billboard Hot 100 has had 1,158 different number-one entries. The current number-one song on the chart is "Cruel Summer" by Taylor Swift.

History

The first chart published by Billboard was "Last Week's Ten Best Sellers Among the Popular Songs", a list of best-selling sheet music, in July 1913. Other charts listed popular song performances in theatres and recitals. In 1928, "Popular Numbers Featured by Famous Singers and Leaders" appeared, which added radio performances to in-person performances. On January 4, 1936, Billboard magazine published "Ten Best Records for Week Ending", which recorded the 10 top selling records of three leading record companies as reported by the companies themselves. In October 1938, a review list, "The Week's Best Records", was retitled "The Billboard Record Buying Guide" by incorporating airplay and sheet music sales, which would eventually become the first trade survey of record popularity. This led to the full-page "Billboard Music Popularity Chart" for the week ending July 20, 1940, and published in the July 27 issue, with lists covering jukebox play, retail sales, sheet music sales, and radio play. Listed were 10 songs of the national "Best Selling Retail Records", which was the fore-runner of today's pop chart, with "I'll Never Smile Again" by Tommy Dorsey its first number one.

Starting on March 24, 1945, Billboards lead popularity chart was the Honor Roll of Hits. This chart ranked the most popular songs regardless of performer (it combined different versions of the same song by different artists) based on record and sheet sales, disk jockey, and jukebox performances as determined by Billboards weekly nationwide survey. At the start of the rock era in 1955, there were three charts that measured songs by individual metrics:

 Best Sellers in Stores was the best seller chart first established in July 1940. This chart ranked the biggest selling singles in retail stores, as reported by merchants surveyed throughout the country (20 to 50 positions).
 Most Played by Jockeys was Billboards original airplay chart. It ranked the most played songs on United States radio stations, as reported by radio DJs and radio stations (20 to 25 positions).
 Most Played in Jukeboxes ranked the most played songs in jukeboxes across the United States (20 positions). This was one of the main outlets of measuring song popularity with the younger generation of music listeners, as many radio stations resisted adding rock and roll music to their playlists for many years.

Although officially all three charts had equal "weight" in terms of their importance, Billboard retrospectively considers the Best Sellers in Stores chart when referencing a song's performance before the creation of the Hot 100. In its issue of November 12, 1955, Billboard published The Top 100 for the first time (for the survey weeks ending October 26 and November 2). The Top 100 combined all aspects of a single's performance (sales, airplay and jukebox activity), based on a point system that typically gave sales (purchases) more weight than radio airplay. The first No. 1 in that chart was "Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing" by The Four Aces. The Best Sellers in Stores, Most Played by Jockeys and Most Played in Jukeboxes charts continued to be published concurrently with the new Top 100 chart.

On June 17, 1957, Billboard discontinued the Most Played in Jukeboxes chart, as the popularity of jukeboxes waned and radio stations incorporated more and more rock-oriented music into their playlists. The week of July 28, 1958, had the final Most Played by Jockeys and Top 100 charts, both of which had Perez Prado's instrumental version of "Patricia" ascending to the top.

On August 4, 1958, Billboard premiered one main all-genre singles chart: the Hot 100, with "Poor Little Fool" by Ricky Nelson its first No. 1. The Hot 100 quickly became the industry standard and Billboard discontinued the Best Sellers In Stores chart on October 13, 1958.

The Hot 100 was created by journalists Tom Noonan, Paul Ackerman, and Seymour Stein; Stein did not recall who chose the name.

The Billboard Hot 100 is still the standard by which a song's popularity is measured in the United States. The Hot 100 is ranked by radio airplay audience impressions as measured by Nielsen BDS, sales data compiled by Nielsen Soundscan (both at retail and digitally) and streaming activity provided by online music sources.

There are several component charts that contribute to the overall calculation of the Hot 100. The most significant ones are:

 Radio Songs: (per Billboard) approximately 1,000 stations, "composed of adult contemporary, R&B, hip hop, country, rock, gospel, Latin and Christian formats, digitally monitored twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. Charts are ranked by number of gross audience impressions, computed by cross-referencing exact times of radio airplay with Arbitron listener data."
 Digital Songs: Digital sales are tracked by Nielsen SoundScan and are included as part of a title's sales points.
 Streaming Songs: a collaboration between Billboard, Nielsen SoundScan and National Association of Recording Merchandisers which measures the top streamed radio songs, on-demand songs and videos on leading online music services.

Compilation

The tracking week for sales, streaming and airplay begins on Friday and ends on Thursday (airplay used to have a tracking week from Monday to Sunday, but effective with the chart dated July 17, 2021, the week was adjusted to align with the other two metrics). A new chart is compiled and officially released to the public by Billboard on Tuesday. Each chart is post-dated with the "week-ending" issue date four days after the charts are refreshed online (i.e., the following Saturday). For example:

 Friday, January 1 – tracking-week begins for sales, streaming and airplay
 Thursday, January 7 – tracking-week ends for sales, streaming and airplay
 Tuesday, January 12 – new chart released, with issue post-dated Saturday, January 16

Policy changes

The methods and policies by which this data is obtained and compiled have changed many times throughout the chart's history.

Although the advent of a singles music chart spawned chart historians and chart-watchers and greatly affected pop culture and produced countless bits of trivia, the main purpose of the Hot 100 is to aid those within the music industry: to reflect the popularity of the "product" (the singles, the albums, etc.) and to track the trends of the buying public. Billboard has (many times) changed its methodology and policies to give the most precise and accurate reflection of what is popular. A very basic example of this would be the ratio given to sales and airplay. During the Hot 100's early history, singles were the leading way by which people bought music. At times, when singles sales were robust, more weight was given to a song's retail points than to its radio airplay.

As the decades passed, the recording industry concentrated more on album sales than singles sales. Musicians eventually expressed their creative output in the form of full-length albums rather than singles, and by the 1990s many record companies stopped releasing singles altogether (see Album Cuts, below). Eventually, a song's airplay points were weighted more so than its sales. Billboard has adjusted the sales/airplay ratio many times to more accurately reflect the true popularity of songs.

Double-sided singles

Billboard has also changed its Hot 100 policy regarding "two-sided singles" several times. The pre-Hot 100 chart "Best Sellers in Stores" listed popular A- and-B-sides together, with the side that was played most often (based on its other charts) listed first. One of the most notable of these, but far from the only one, was Elvis Presley's "Don't Be Cruel" / "Hound Dog". During the Presley single's chart run, top billing was switched back and forth between the two sides several times. But on the concurrent "Most Played in Juke Boxes", "Most Played by Jockeys" and the "Top 100", the two songs were listed separately, as was true of all songs. With the initiation of the Hot 100 in 1958, A- and-B-sides charted separately, as they had on the former Top 100.

Starting with the Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 29, 1969, this rule was altered; if both sides received significant airplay, they were listed together. This started to become a moot point by 1972, as most major record labels solidified a trend they had started in the 1960s by putting the same song on both sides of the singles provided to radio.

More complex issues began to arise as the typical A-and-B-side format of singles gave way to 12 inch singles and maxi-singles, many of which contained more than one B-side. Further problems arose when, in several cases, a B-side would eventually overtake the A-side in popularity, thus prompting record labels to release a new single, featuring the former B-side as the A-side, along with a "new" B-side.

The inclusion of album cuts on the Hot 100 put the double-sided hit issues to rest permanently.

Album cuts

As many Hot 100 chart policies have been modified over the years, one rule always remained constant: songs were not eligible to enter the Hot 100 unless they were available to purchase as a single. However, on December 5, 1998, the Hot 100 changed from being a "singles" chart to a "songs" chart. During the 1990s, a growing trend in the music industry was to promote songs to radio without ever releasing them as singles. It was claimed by major record labels that singles were cannibalizing album sales, so they were slowly phased out. During this period, accusations began to fly of chart manipulation as labels would hold off on releasing a single until airplay was at its absolute peak, thus prompting a top ten or, in some cases, a number-one debut. In many cases, a label would delete a single from its catalog after only one week, thus allowing the song to enter the Hot 100, make a high debut and then slowly decline in position as the one-time production of the retail single sold out.

It was during this period that several popular mainstream hits never charted on the Hot 100, or charted well after their airplay had declined. During the period that they were not released as singles, the songs were not eligible to chart. Many of these songs dominated the Hot 100 Airplay chart for extended periods of time:

 1995 The Rembrandts: "I'll Be There for You" (number one for eight weeks)
 1996 No Doubt: "Don't Speak" (number one for 16 weeks)
 1997 Sugar Ray featuring Super Cat: "Fly" (number one for six weeks)
 1997 Will Smith: "Men in Black" (number one for four weeks)
 1997 The Cardigans: "Lovefool" (number two for eight weeks)
 1998 Natalie Imbruglia: "Torn" (number one for 11 weeks)
 1998 Goo Goo Dolls: "Iris" (number one for 18 weeks)

As debate and conflicts occurred more and more often, Billboard finally answered the requests of music industry artists and insiders to include airplay-only songs (or "album cuts") in the Hot 100, while the retail component was reduced from 40% to 25%.

EPs

Extended play (EP) releases were listed by Billboard on the Hot 100 and in pre-Hot 100 charts (Top 100) until the mid-to-late 1960s. With the growing popularity of albums, it was decided to move EPs (which typically contain four to six tracks) from the Hot 100 to the Billboard 200, where they are included to this day.

Digital downloads, online streaming and bundles

Since February 12, 2005, the Billboard Hot 100 tracks paid digital downloads from such internet services as iTunes, Musicmatch, and Rhapsody. Billboard initially started tracking downloads in 2003 with the Hot Digital Tracks chart. However, these downloads did not count towards the Hot 100 and that chart (as opposed to Hot Digital Songs) counted each version of a song separately. This was the first major overhaul of the Hot 100's chart formula since December 1998.

The change in methodology has shaken up the chart considerably, with some songs debuting on the chart strictly with robust online sales and others making drastic leaps. In recent years, several songs have been able to achieve 80-to-90 position jumps in a single week as their digital components were made available at online music stores. Since 2006, the all-time record for the biggest single-week upward movement was broken nine times.

In the issue dated August 11, 2007, Billboard began incorporating weekly data from streaming media and on-demand services into the Hot 100. The first two major companies to provide their statistics to Nielsen BDS on a weekly basis were AOL Music and Yahoo! Music. On March 24, 2012, Billboard premiered its On-Demand Songs chart, which ranks web radio streams from services such as Spotify, as well as on-demand audio titles. Its data was then incorporated into the equation that compiles the Hot 100, and this was expanded to a broader Streaming Songs chart in January 2013. In February 2013, U.S. views for a song on YouTube were added to the Hot 100 formula. "Harlem Shake" was the first song to reach number one after the changes were made.

In July 2020, Billboard announced that they would no longer allow sales of physical/digital bundles to be reported as digital sales. This refers to songs being bought along with merchandise, either from an artists website or through another vendor. The magazine stated that this was a tactic generally used by certain artists to boost their chart positions. Instead, such physical releases are now only counted when they are shipped to the consumer, rendering the tactic "ineffectual".

Remixes

A growing trend early in the first decade of the 21st century was to issue a song as a "remix" that was so drastically different in structure and lyrical content from its original version that it was essentially a whole new song. Under normal circumstances, airplay points from a song's album version, "radio" mix and/or dance music remix, etc. were all combined and factored into the song's performance on the Hot 100, as the structure, lyrics and melody remained intact. Criticisms began when songs were being completely re-recorded to the point that they no longer resembled the original recording. The first such example of this scenario is Jennifer Lopez's "I'm Real". Originally entering the Hot 100 in its album version, a "remix" was issued in the midst of its chart run that featured rapper Ja Rule. This new version proved to be far more popular than the album version and the track was propelled to number one.

To address this issue, Billboard now separates airplay points from a song's original version and its remix, if the remix is determined to be a "new song". Since administering this new chart rule, several songs have charted twice, normally credited as "Part 1" and "Part 2". The remix rule is still in place.

Recurrents

Billboard, in an effort to allow the chart to remain as current as possible and to give representation to new and developing artists and tracks, has (since 1991) removed titles that have reached certain criteria regarding its current rank and number of weeks on the chart. Recurrent criteria have been modified several times and currently (), a song is permanently moved to "recurrent status" if it has spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 and fallen below position number 50. Additionally, descending songs are removed from the chart if ranking below number 25 after 52 weeks. Exceptions are made to re-releases and sudden resurgence in popularity of tracks that have taken a very long time to gain mainstream success. These rare cases are handled on a case-by-case basis and ultimately determined by Billboards chart managers and staff. Christmas songs have been a regular presence on the Hot 100 each December since the relaxation of recurrent rules, culminating in Mariah Carey's 1994 recording "All I Want for Christmas Is You" reaching No. 1 on the chart in December 2019.

Adjustment of tracking week

Billboard altered its tracking-week for sales, streaming and radio airplay in order to conform to a new Global Release Date, which now falls on Fridays in all major-market territories (United States product was formerly released on Tuesdays before June 2015). This modified tracking schedule took effect in the issue dated July 25, 2015.

Year-end charts

Billboards "chart year" runs from the first week of December to the final week in November. This altered calendar allows for Billboard to calculate year-end charts and release them in time for its final print issue in the last week of December.

Before Nielsen SoundScan, year-end singles charts were calculated by an inverse-point system based solely on a song's performance on the Hot 100 (for example, a song would be given one point for a week spent at position 100, two points for a week spent at position 99 and so forth, up to 100 points for each week spent at number one). Other factors including the total weeks a song spent on the chart and at its peak position were calculated into its year-end total.

After Billboard began obtaining sales and airplay information from Nielsen SoundScan, the year-end charts are now calculated by a very straightforward cumulative total of yearlong sales, streaming, and airplay points. This gives a more accurate picture of any given year's most popular tracks, as the points accrued by one song during its week at number one in March might be less than those accrued by another song reaching number three in January. Songs at the peak of their popularity at the time of the November/December chart-year cutoff many times end up ranked on the following year's chart as well, as their cumulative points are split between the two chart-years, but often are ranked lower than they would have been had the peak occurred in a single year.

Use in media

The Hot 100 served for many years as the data source for the weekly radio countdown show American Top 40. This relationship ended on November 30, 1991, as American Top 40 started using the airplay-only side of the Hot 100 (then called Top 40 Radio Monitor). The ongoing splintering of Top 40 radio in the early 1990s led stations to lean into specific formats, meaning that practically no station would play the wide array of genres that typically composed each weekly Hot 100 chart.

An artist or band's ability to have hits in the Hot 100 across multiple decades is recognized as a sign of longevity and being able to adapt to changing musical styles. Only five artists had a Hot 100 Top 40 hit in each of the four decades from the 1980s through the 2010s: Michael Jackson, Madonna, "Weird Al" Yankovic, U2, and Kenny G. Mariah Carey is the first artist to have a number-one single in four different decades.

Similar charts

A new chart, the Pop 100, was created by Billboard in February 2005 to answer criticism that the Hot 100 at the time was too dominated by hip hop and R&B. It was discontinued in June 2009 due to the charts becoming increasingly similar.

The Canadian Hot 100 was launched June 16, 2007. Like the Hot 100 chart, it uses sales and airplay tracking compiled by Nielsen SoundScan and BDS.

The Billboard Japan Hot 100 was launched in the issue dated May 31, 2008, using the same methodologies as the Hot 100 charts for the U.S. and Canada, using sales and airplay data from SoundScan Japan and radio tracking service Plantech.

The Vietnamese edition of Hot 100, Billboard Vietnam Hot 100, was launched on January 14, 2022.

See also

 American Top 40
 Bestseller
 Billboard charts
 Billboard Global 200
 Billboard Music Awards
 Chart-topper
 List of artists who reached number one in the United States
 List of best-selling music artists
 List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones
 List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of the 2020s
 List of Billboard Hot 100 top-ten singles
 List of Billboard number-one singles
 Single certifications
 Rolling Stone Top 100

Notes

References

 Bronson, Fred. Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition ()
 Feldman, Christopher G. The Billboard Book of No. 2 Singles ()
 Whitburn, Joel. Top Pop Singles 1955–2008, 12 Edition ()
 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Pop Charts, 1955–1959 ()
 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Sixties ()
 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Seventies ()
 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Eighties ()
 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties ()

External links

Hot 100
Top lists

1958 establishments in the United States

Billboard Hot 100


The Stadio comunale Luigi Ferraris, also known as the Marassi from the name of the neighbourhood where it is located, is a multi-use stadium in Genoa, Italy. The home of Genoa C.F.C. and U.C. Sampdoria football clubs, it opened in 1911 and is the oldest stadium still in use for football and other sports in Italy. Aside from football, the stadium has hosted meetings of rugby in the Italian national rugby team and, more rarely, some concerts.

The stadium is named after Luigi Ferraris (1887–1915), an Italian footballer, engineer and soldier who died during WWI.

Notable matches
The stadium was inaugurated on 22 January 1911 with a football match between Genoa and Internazionale, and had a capacity of 20,000. On 22 December 1912, it hosted its first international, in which Italy lost 3–1 to Austria in a friendly.

It also hosted the 1934 World Cup round-of-16 match between Spain and Brazil, and by then its capacity had been expanded to 30,000.

The stadium was dismantled and rebuilt before the 1990 FIFA World Cup, for which it hosted three Group C matches (between Costa Rica, Scotland and Sweden) and a round-of-16 match between the Republic of Ireland and Romania.

The highest attendance at the Luigi Ferraris was 60,000 on 27 February 1949, for a match between Italy and Portugal.

On 12 October 2010, a Euro 2012 qualifier between Italy and Serbia was abandoned after Serbia fans continued to throw flares onto the pitch and light fireworks. When the game finally began, more flares and fireworks were thrown onto the field and the referee stopped the match after only six minutes of play.

On 29 February 2012, the United States defeated Italy 1–0 in a friendly played at the stadium. It was the first time in almost 100 years that Italy had been defeated in Genoa after 22 December 1912 defeat against Austria, and the first time that the US had ever defeated Italy.

On 14 November 2014, it hosted Italy's end-of-year rugby union international against Argentina who won 20–18.

Average attendances

1990 FIFA World Cup
The stadium was one of the venues of the 1990 FIFA World Cup, and held the following matches:

References

External links

Stadio Luigi Ferraris on Russian Sampdoria website
Article at stadiumguide.com

Luigi Ferraris
Luigi Ferraris
Luigi Ferraris
Sports venues completed in 1911
1934 FIFA World Cup stadiums
1990 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Buildings and structures in Genoa
Sports venues in Liguria
Sport in Genoa
1911 establishments in Italy

Stadio Luigi Ferraris


Oldřich Velen, birth name Oldřich Volek (15 September 1921 in Brno-Tuřany – 4 May 2013) was a Czech actor. He is known from the successful television series Slovácko sa nesúdí, after the books by Zdeněk Galuška where he played a major role (figure Jura Klásek) together with the popular actor Slovak Jozef Kroner. He also appeared in 5 episodes of Křeček v noční košili and 5 episodes of Arabela se vrací.

Velen played nearly 300 different film roles. After graduating high school in Brno Conservatory and began playing in theater in České Budějovice, this theater was later by the Nazis forcibly relocated to Tábor. During the Nazi occupation he was also imprisoned in Brno Kounic college, which during World War II served as the main Moravian Brno Gestapo prison. For sixteen years he worked in the theater in Olomouc; he was also a member of the Barrandov Studios acting group, and played at the legendary Theatre on the Balustrade in Prague.

He appeared in movies like The Mysterious Castle in the Carpathians, but most of his movie roles were very minor.

External links
Obituary in Slovak newspaper SME.

1921 births
2013 deaths
Czech male film actors
Czech male television actors
Czech male stage actors
Actors from Brno
Czechoslovak male actors
Brno Conservatory alumni

Oldřich Velen


Anton Cottier (born 4 December 1943 in Jaun, Switzerland) was a Swiss politician with the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland (CVP).

Anton-Moritz Cottier was the son of Albert-Roman Cottier (born 29 December 1893 in Jaun and died 4 February 1977 in Fribourg) who was a lawyer, president of the Grand Council of Fribourg, and of Lina Vonlanthen (born 29 July 1903 in St-Anton and died 19 July 1991 in Fribourg). He married Danielle de Techtermann on 3 June 1977 in Fribourg and on 25 June 1977 in Barberêche.

Cottier was born in Jaun, the only German community in Gruyère. He grew up bilingual in German and French. After his legal studies at the University of Freiburg, Cottier practiced law from 1973 and joined the CVP the same year.

He served on the Great Council of the canton of Fribourg (1976-1987). From 1987 to 2003 he served in the Senate, where he held the presidency in 2002. From 1982 to 1991 Cottier was also on the government of the city of Freiburg as communal advisor with the Department of the Police. During the same time he was president of HC Fribourg (now HC Fribourg-Gottéron SA) from 1977 to 1984, which he hire Canadian [Gaston Pelletier] to coach (1978-1982).

Elected to the Council of States in 1987, he presided in 2002 before retiring during the federal election in 2003. In the senate, Cottier worked with the Parliamentary Inverstigation Commission, which was concerned with files from the Department of Justice and Police. Cottier was also president of the Christian Democratic People's Party from 1993 to 1996.

On 3 November 2006 Cottier succumbed to cancer. He had three children.

References

1943 births
2006 deaths
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians

Anton Cottier


James Wesley Wilson (born June 6, 1973) is a former American football offensive tackle. He was signed by the Carolina Panthers as an undrafted free agent in 1997 and would play three seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Marshall.

At Marshall, Wilson was a member of the 1996 NCAA Division I-AA National Championship team. In 2019, he was inducted into the Marshall Athletics Hall of Fame.

Wilson was signed as an undrafted free agent by the Panthers in 1997. However, Wilson never appeared in a regular season game with Carolina. He spent the 1998 season on injured reserve and was traded prior to the 1999 season. He appeared in five games with the Indianapolis Colts in 1999.

References

1973 births
Living people
American football offensive tackles
Carolina Panthers players
Indianapolis Colts players
Marshall Thundering Herd football players
Players of American football from Newport News, Virginia

Jamie Wilson (American football)


Spooky toxin (SsTx) is a small peptide neurotoxin. It is found in the venom of Chinese red-headed centipedes (Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans), also known as golden head centipedes. It is originally composed of 76 amino acids (sequence: MEKKIIFLVFLVAL
LALPGFISTEVIKK
DTPYKKRKFPYKSEC
LKACATSFTG
GDESRIQEGKPG
FFKCTCYFTTG, disulfide bonds Cys43-Cys69,
Cys47-Cys71), with a molecular weight of 6017.5 Daltons, but loses the first 23 residues and becomes 53 residues long (sequence
EVIKKDTPYKKRKFPYKSECLKACATSFTGGDESRIQEGKPGFFKCTCYFTTG, disulfide bonds Cys20-Cys46, Cys24-Cys48). SsTx is currently thought to be unique to Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans.

By blocking KCNQ channels (preventing potassium from flowing into and out of cells) SsTx disrupts cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, and nervous systems; where snake venoms typically only affect circulatory or nervous systems, and venom from spiders, scorpions, and snails typically only target nervous systems. This allows for golden headed centipedes to target larger prey up to 15 times their size.

Applications
The venom of the Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans is already being widely used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries. Claimed medicinal uses include antimicrobial, antibacterial, and anticancer.

See also
Charybdotoxin

References

Centipede toxins
Neurotoxins
Ion channel toxins
Potassium channel blockers
Protein toxins

Ssm spooky toxin


Aleks Danko (born 1950) is an Australian performance artist and sculptor. The son of Ukrainian migrants, he was born in Adelaide, and educated at the South Australian School of Art (University of South Australia) and the Hawthorn Institute of Education.

He started exhibiting in Adelaide in 1970. The first exhibition at Llewellyn Galleries, Adelaide was titled UCK, a collaboration with the poet and artist Richard Tipping. Since then he has held over 45 solo exhibitions and his work has been selected for a number of national and international exhibitions and collections. They include Born to Concrete, the Heide Collection, Heide Museum of Modern Art, Melbourne (2011); The Beauty of Distance: Songs of Survival in a Precarious Age, 17th Biennale of Sydney (2010); Mortality, Australian Centre for Contemporary Art, Melbourne (2010); Contemporary Australia: Optimism, Gallery of Modern Art/Queensland Art, Brisbane (2008-9); and International 04, Liverpool Biennial, (2004). Danko's work is held in many public collections, including the British Museum, the National Gallery of Australia and the major state and regional galleries of Australia, as well as university and private collections.

His work has been exhibited in the National Gallery of Victoria, Danko was the first artist selected by the National Gallery of Victoria for their national fellowship, which provides an income of $100,000 over two years.

References

Australian performance artists
20th-century Australian sculptors
Living people
1950 births
21st-century Australian sculptors

Aleks Danko


Hérita N'Kongolo Ilunga (born 25 February 1982) is a retired Congolese footballer who played as a left-back. At club level, he represented Espanyol B, Saint-Étienne, Toulouse, West Ham United, Doncaster Rovers, Rennes, Carquefou, and US Creteil. He has also played international football for DR Congo.

Career

Early career
Aged 13, Ilunga started training with Amiens SC, staying with the Somme-based club for four years before moving to Stade Rennais.

Ilunga moved to Spain, aged 20, where he joined Espanyol. In Barcelona, the left-back featured exclusively for Espanyol's B team in the Spanish Third Division, but he still did enough to catch the eye of Saint-Étienne coach Frederic Antonetti, who took him back to France, initially on loan, in 2003.

Ilunga spent four seasons at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard, making 135 appearances for Les Verts and winning the club's player of the season award.

Toulouse
The summer of 2007 saw Ilunga move to Toulouse, who had qualified for the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League. The defender appeared at Anfield as Toulouse lost 5–0 on aggregate to Liverpool at the third qualifying round stage. His time at Toulouse was "horrible" in his first season when the club was 17th place in Ligue 1, avoiding relegation after having a struggling season.

Toulouse dropped into the UEFA Cup, with Ilunga making six appearances as Le Tef beat CSKA Sofia on away goals before falling at the group stage. Toulouse also endured a difficult campaign in Ligue 1, only avoiding relegation on the final day of the season by beating Valenciennes 2–1.

The following season (2008–09), Ilunga seems out of favor with new coach Alain Casanova, the latter preferring Jérémy Mathieu as a left back. After two months without playing a single minute and approaches from different European clubs (including Mallorca and Newcastle), Ilunga was linked interests from English Premier League side West Ham United.

West Ham United

On 2 September 2008, Premier League club West Ham United signed Ilunga on loan for the 2008–09 season.

Ilunga made his Hammers debut away at West Bromwich Albion on 13 September, and quickly established himself as the club's first-choice left-back, after the sale of George McCartney to Sunderland. Illunga performance led him earned being voted player of the month of October by fans of the Hammers. Ilunga scored his first goal for the club in the 3–0 home FA Cup win against Barnsley on 3 January 2009, and scored again in a later round against Middlesbrough.

On 15 April 2009, Ilunga agreed to turn his loan move into a permanent four-year contract with West Ham. The deal was completed when the 2009 summer transfer window opened. His first game as a permanent signing came in a 2–0 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers on 15 August 2009 and after a clash of heads between Ilunga and Kevin Foley on 65 minutes, Ilunga and Foley needed treatment. Foley was able to return while Ilunga was substituted for Jonathan Spector. Ilunga suffered a jaw injury not returning until 19 September playing 90 minutes in a 3–2 loss against Liverpool. On 31 October 2009, Ilunga was involved in an incident with Kenwyne Jones. After a foul Jones retaliated by pushing Ilunga in the face; Jones was sent off and received a three match ban and Ilunga was booked. The match finished 2–2. Ilunga made 17 appearances for West Ham during season 2009–10 but only one in the period from January until the end of the season. Injured in a game on 11 February 2010 against Birmingham City, Ilunga did not play again that season.

Ilunga returned on 14 August 2010 in a 3–0 defeat by Aston Villa but found his playing opportunities limited under new manager Avram Grant. He made only 12 appearances during season 2010–11 and by January 2011 he had been omitted from the first team squad. Following West Ham's relegation to the Football Championship and another change of manager, Ilunga was picked for the first five games of season 2011–12 by new manager Sam Allardyce, before leaving to join Doncaster Rovers on-loan.

On 27 January 2012, West Ham United mutually agreed with Ilunga to terminate his contract with immediate effect. He made 73 appearances for West Ham in all competitions scoring three goals.

Doncaster Rovers
On 4 October 2011, he joined Doncaster Rovers on a three-month loan. He made his debut on 14 October 2011 in a 3–0 home defeat against Leeds United. On 9 March 2012, Ilunga re-signed for Doncaster on an initial one-month contract but his appearances could not stop Doncaster finishing bottom of the Championship and their relegation to League One. He was not on Doncaster's list of retained players in June 2012 and he left the club.

Stade Rennais
After being released by Doncaster Rovers, Ilunga made a return to France by going on trial with clubs like Guingamp and Brest in the January transfer window. On 23 January 2013, Illunga signed for Rennes, the team he started his youth career, on a six-month deal and was also reunited with Antonetti, during their time at Saint-Étienne. A few weeks later, Ilunga made his debut (his first appearance in Ligue 1 since 2008), playing in a left-back position, in a 2–2 draw against Lorient. However, Ilunga suffered a thigh injury during a match against Montpellier in March 2013.

Later years

Following his departure from Rennes, Ilunga went on trial at AS Nancy before spending six months at Carquefou. He then spent two seasons at Creteil. He retired in 2016, and in September 2017 was appointed to the commission for training and development at CAF.

International career
Ilunga was part of the Congolese 2004 African Nations Cup team, who finished bottom of their group in the first round of competition, thus failing to secure qualification for the quarter-finals.

Ilunga helped DR Congo reach the quarter-finals of the African Cup of Nations in Egypt in 2006. The Leopards beat Togo and drew with Angola before being eliminated by the host nation in the last-eight.

Ilunga scored his first goal for his country in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Egypt in Cairo on 1 June 2008, but it was not enough to prevent the DR Congo being eliminated from the competition at the second qualifying round stage.

International goals

Appearances in major competitions

References

External links

1982 births
Living people
Footballers from Kinshasa
Democratic Republic of the Congo men's footballers
Democratic Republic of the Congo expatriate men's footballers
Democratic Republic of the Congo men's international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in England
RCD Espanyol B footballers
Stade Rennais F.C. players
AS Saint-Étienne players
Toulouse FC players
West Ham United F.C. players
Doncaster Rovers F.C. players
USJA Carquefou players
US Créteil-Lusitanos players
Ligue 1 players
Ligue 2 players
Premier League players
English Football League players
2004 African Cup of Nations players
2006 Africa Cup of Nations players
21st-century Democratic Republic of the Congo people

Hérita Ilunga


Benjamin Obadiah Iqbal Zephaniah (born 15 April 1958, Birmingham, England) is a British Jamaican writer, dub poet and Rastafarian. He was included in The Times list of Britain's top 50 post-war writers in 2008.

Writers from London
British poets
Rastafari
1958 births
Living people
People with dyslexia
Black British people

Zephaniah was a young black boy who had dyslexia and encountered Racism at his new school in Birmingham. He grew up in Wandsworth up until the age of 9 when his mother who was also a Jamaican nurse who fled from his father who was a postman back in Barbados. Leaving his twin sister Velda and other siblings Zephaniah felt isolated as being a young black boy with a disability

Zephaniah faced prejudice frequently while residing in London and was involved in the racial riots of the 1980s: "They happened all around me. Racism was really evident back then. The National Front opposed foreigners and people of color, and the police were also very racist.

Benjamin Zephaniah