Clodagh Simonds ( ; born 16 May 1953) is an Irish musician, songwriter and singer. She was born in Banbridge, County Down, Northern Ireland and raised and educated in Killiney, County Dublin.

Biography
At the age of eleven, she formed her first band, Mellow Candle, with two schoolfriends, Alison Bools (later Williams, later O'Donnell) and Maria White. They released their first single, "Feelin' High", on SNB Records in 1968, when she was 15.  Three years later, and with an expanded line-up, Mellow Candle released their only album, Swaddling Songs, which made little or no impact beyond Ireland until around twenty-five years later. The group disbanded in 1973. Between 1972 and 1975, she guested on Thin Lizzy's second album, Shades of a Blue Orphanage, and two Mike Oldfield albums: Hergest Ridge and Ommadawn, helping Oldfield to coin the title of the latter. She also appears on Oldfield's Amarok album, his 1990 spiritual sequel to Ommadawn. Between 1976 and 1986, she lived in New York where she worked in a band with Carter Burwell and Stephen Bray, as well as writing music for two theatre productions at La MaMa ETC, and occasionally working for Virgin Records.

Working within the recording industry had a negative impact on her career aims, and subsequently she resumed her long-abandoned studies of piano, and began studying music of other cultures.  In 1992, Simonds relocated from London to West Cork to focus on writing music. In 1996, her mini-album Six Elementary Songs was produced by Tom Newman and released on the Tokyo-based label Evangel Records. That same year, the album Virgin Prophet—consisting mostly of recordings for Deram by a pre-drums line-up of Mellow Candle—was released by UK label Kissing Spell. It also featured two even earlier solo demos, written and recorded by Simonds at the age of 16.

Twenty-five years or so after the release of the Mellow Candle album, interest in the band reawakened, starting in Japan, and the album has now been re-released several times, attaining cult status. One of Simonds' songs, "Silversong", was covered by All About Eve in 1988, and another, "Poet and the Witch", was covered by Stephen Malkmus in 1998.  In 1999, she sang a version of the Syd Barrett/James Joyce song "Golden Hair" for Russell Mills' album Pearl & Umbra. Between 2005 and 2007, under the name Fovea Hex, she released 3 EPs, collectively entitled Neither Speak Nor Remain Silent, featuring Michael Begg, Carter Burwell, John Contreras, Roger Doyle, Brian Eno, Roger Eno, Robert Fripp, Percy Jones, Cora Venus Lunny, Dónal Lunny, Andrew M. McKenzie of The Hafler Trio, Sarah McQuaid, Hugh O'Neill, Colin Potter of Nurse with Wound, Geoff Sample, Lydia Sasse, Laura Sheeran, and Steven Wilson. Each EP was available in a special edition that included an additional disc, containing an extensive re-working of that EP's material by The Hafler Trio.

As a performing unit, Fovea Hex usually consists of Clodagh Simonds, Laura Sheeran, Cora Venus Lunny, Michael Begg and Colin Potter, with either Julia Kent, Kate Ellis or John Contreras on cello. In May 2007, Fovea Hex performed at the invitation of David Lynch at the Fondation Cartier in Paris, as part of his The Air Is on Fire retrospective exhibition. Having also performed in Austria, Spain and Italy in 2007 and 2008, Fovea Hex made their debut Irish performance at the Electric Picnic festival in Stradbally, County Laois, in August 2008.

Clodagh Simonds presently lives in Dublin.

Discography

Albums
 Mellow Candle – Swaddling Songs (Deram, 1971)
 Fovea Hex – Bloom (part 1 of Neither Speak Nor Remain Silent, Janet Records/Die Stadt, 2005)
 Fovea Hex – Huge (part 2 of Neither Speak Nor Remain Silent, Janet Records/Die Stadt, 2006)
 Fovea Hex – Allure (part 3 of Neither Speak Nor Remain Silent, Janet Records/Die Stadt, 2007)
 Fovea Hex – Here Is Where We Used To Sing, Janet Records, 2012
 Fovea Hex - The Salt Garden 1, Headphone Dust/Die Stadt, 9 March 2016
 Fovea Hex - The Salt Garden 2, Headphone Dust/Die Stadt, June 2017

Singles
 Mellow Candle – "Feelin High"/"Tea with the Sun" (SNB, 1968)
 Mellow Candle –  "Dan The Wing"/"Silversong" (Deram, 1971)
 Fovea Hex & Andrew Liles – "Gone"/"Every Evening" (Die Stadt, 2007)

Selected credits
 Thin Lizzy – Shades of a Blue Orphanage (vocals, piano, mellotron)
 Mike Oldfield – Hergest Ridge (vocals)
 Mike Oldfield – Ommadawn (vocals, lyrics)
 Mike Oldfield – Amarok (vocals)
 Mike Oldfield – Tubular Bells III (vocals)
 Jade Warrior – Kites (vocals)
 Russell Mills – Pearl + Umbra (vocals, harmonium)
 Tunnels with Percy Jones – Natural Selection (treated vocals)
 Current 93 – Black Ships Ate The Sky (vocals, zither, psaltery)
 Matmos – For Alan Turing (vocals for Molly Malone)
 Human Greed – Black Hill: Midnight At the Blighted Star (piano)
 Steven Wilson – Insurgentes, (vocals, lyrics)
 Thinguma*jigsaw – Misery Together (piano on track: "Folkgore / Dulce Et Decorum Est Pro Pornografica Mori") (2012)

References

External links
Janet Records Website
Interview with The Irish Times, November 2008
Interview with Tokafi (January 2007)
Interview with Black (German magazine, 2007)
Interview with BlowUp (Italian magazine, 2007)
Fovea Hex on Myspace
Review of "Bloom", Pitchfork Media
Review of "Huge", Pitchfork Media
Review of "Allure", Pitchfork media
Mellow Candle – comprehensive history extracted from IRISH FOLK, TRAD AND BLUES – A SECRET HISTORY
Electric Picnic

1953 births
Living people
Musicians from County Dublin
Women singer-songwriters from Northern Ireland
Women composers from Northern Ireland
Folk musicians from Northern Ireland
Experimental musicians
Psychedelic folk musicians
Mellow Candle members
20th-century singer-songwriters from Northern Ireland
21st-century singer-songwriters from Northern Ireland
People from Banbridge

Clodagh Simonds


David Palmer is a fictional character, portrayed by Dennis Haysbert in the television series 24. A U.S. Senator and, later in the series, President of the United States, Palmer serves as the show's second-most prominent protagonist, after Jack Bauer, being forced to make hard decisions as president while also facing opposing elements within his own administration. Throughout the series, Palmer's ex-wife Sherry and brother Wayne are both key figures in his administration.  He has two children: a son, Keith, and a daughter, Nicole. Palmer is a member of the Democratic Party. He is in the fourth highest number of episodes of any character in the series behind Tony Almeida (115), Chloe O'Brian (125) and main character Jack Bauer (192), portrayed by Carlos Bernard, Mary Lynn Rajskub and Kiefer Sutherland, respectively.

Characterization
David Palmer graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Economy from Georgetown University and obtained his Juris Doctor from the University of Maryland School of Law. Prior to his presidency, he served as a Congressman (Representing Baltimore) and senator from Maryland. Season One also includes a reference to Palmer being a college basketball star, hitting a game-winning shot against DePaul in the Final Four.  In 1979 DePaul lost to Indiana St. in the Final Four by a score of 76 – 74.

Appearances
David Palmer is a United States Senator from Maryland who runs for President. He is elected after the assassination attempts against him on the day of the California primary election are foiled by CTU agent Jack Bauer. Although he initially seeks a second term, he is blackmailed to bow out of the race after the opposing candidate learns that David has lied to the chief of police in order to protect his ex-wife, Sherry Palmer, who is under suspicion for involvement in the death of one of his key supporters. When Wayne secures evidence against David he changes his mind and wants to continue running. However upon learning of the death  of his ex wife, he again decides to not seek a 2nd term.

Throughout the series, Palmer's role as president is often vital to the successful foiling of terrorist plots. Palmer is seen as a good leader who makes difficult decisions without much hesitation. On several occasions, his intervention as president and the execution of his presidential powers helps the Counter Terrorist Unit.

24: Season 1
David Palmer has had many difficulties due to his political life. In the first season, Palmer is the frontrunner in the race for nomination as Democratic candidate for President of the United States. His life is threatened during the course of Day 1. His political life is threatened on other fronts. His son, Keith, is shown to be a viable suspect in the murder of the man who raped his daughter. Palmer investigates, but finds that telling the truth is preferable to covering it up with lies, and takes a stand in favor of his son. However, he finds out his wife, Sherry, is trying to manipulate him, both in that potential scandal, and the one Sherry tries to create. David becomes furious with Sherry, and divorces her.

David Palmer also confronts Jack Bauer in person over the events of the first ten hours, demanding a private, unrecorded interview with Bauer. Palmer, believing that Bauer wants payback for the deaths of his covert operations team, starts by demanding that Jack tell him of the other people involved in the assassination attempt on his life. Jack says he is trying to protect Palmer's life, which ultimately leads Palmer to realize he was wrong about Jack and his motives. The failed covert mission is implied to be the cause of Bauer's marital problems preceding the season, Palmer goes on to defeat his Democratic primary opponent Governor Hodges, a University of Toledo College of Law alumnus, and incumbent president Harold Barnes in the general election.

24: Season 2
Over a year later, David Palmer is now U.S. president. He is alerted to the threat of a nuclear bomb detonating in the U.S. He also is informed that Bauer, now an inactive agent, has contacts with people who could lead them to the bomb. Jack ignores calls from CTU, but responds to the call from President Palmer. Jack becomes an active agent again, eventually finding the bomb and detonating it in a remote area. Palmer orders attacks on the three nations responsible, as revealed by an audio known as the Cyprus Recording. Palmer then reverses course, stating that he believes the recordings to be fake, as advised by Jack, but Mike Novick, his Chief of Staff, and the vice president, Jim Prescott deem this sudden reluctance to attack as an incapability to hold the office. Prescott gathers the Cabinet members, and by one vote, David Palmer is removed from office under the provisions of the 25th Amendment. He sits in a room as a prisoner for the rest of the day, until Jack provides CTU with the evidence that the Cyprus Recording is a forgery, and the attacks are called off by Prescott.

Palmer is reinstated as president, and although Prescott and the Cabinet members who voted against Palmer offer to resign, he does not accept their resignations. Palmer does, however, immediately relieve Mike Novick of his post as chief of staff. Palmer then goes out to make a statement to the press, deeming that the threat is over. He shakes hands with many of the onlookers, one of whom happens to be Mandy, a woman hired in Day 1 to assassinate Palmer. She slips a deadly virus into his hand, and he collapses to the ground, panting.

(The extended ending presented in the 24 Season 2 boxset has him get up and say he's all right; this was filmed to stop the extras on location from leaking the real ending.)

24: The Game
Six months after Day 2, Palmer is recovering from his assassination attempt. Although he makes televised appearances to make it appear as if he is strong, healthy, and running the nation, in actuality, vice president Jim Prescott is acting president. The reality is that Palmer is heavily medicated and uses a wheelchair. However, terrorists attempt to assassinate Prescott, leaving the vice-president in critical condition. Palmer decides at this point that he is strong enough to take over the responsibilities of being President of the United States once again.

A few months later (in the comic, 24: Midnight Sun), after the events of Day 2 and 24: The Game, President Palmer allows the opening of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge near Fairbanks, Alaska. His reasoning behind this controversial decision is to stand up to oil companies (a reference to Max and Peter Kingsley).

24: Season 3
In Day 3, Palmer is faced with re-election; however, he is still the president, and is faced with many problems during the day. His lover Anne is implicated in a scandal, and although she is innocent, she leaves him. Palmer's brother admits his affair with the wife of one of his biggest supporters, and Palmer is forced to choose life or death for Jack. Palmer chooses death, but eventually is informed of a huge terrorist threat where Jack had to go undercover. He does not like it, but his faith in Jack prevails. However, Palmer falters in the end. He brings Sherry Palmer back into his life to help. She does, but in the end David cannot agree to her terms (i.e. remarrying her). After she is killed as a result of a political scandal, he ultimately decides not to run for re-election, again preferring his principles over everything else.

At the end of Season 3, after a Presidential debate, he decides to cancel his re-election campaign. His opponent in the election, U.S. Senator John Keeler of Minnesota, becomes president in Season 4.

24: Season 4
In Day 4, President Keeler is incapacitated when Air Force One (forced to remain in flight during the current attacks, even though just returning from Mexico) is shot down by terrorists.

Despite his initial hesitation, Vice President Charles Logan, under the 25th Amendment, becomes Acting President, due to President Keeler's condition (he is in a coma). From the very beginning, Logan shows poor judgement abilities. He demands the arrest of Jack Bauer, which ruins any opportunity to arrest Habib Marwan. When that raid fails, Logan finally realized he is not up to the task, and seeks Mike Novick for counsel.

Mike Novick, Palmer's former chief of staff, recommends that former president David Palmer be brought in to assist the acting president. Palmer effectively leads the events in the latter part of Day 4, but realizes that Logan is a weak-willed commander in chief unable to demonstrate Presidential leadership. Logan blames Palmer when things go wrong, but takes full credit when things go his way. After the terrorists are finally brought down, Logan infamously tells Palmer, he "played a role", in the season finale.

When David saves Jack's life by warning him about the Secret Service agent being sent to kill him, Palmer becomes one of the four people who knows Jack is alive.

24: Season 5
In the opening moments of Day 5, David Palmer is discussing his memoir with his brother Wayne in his penthouse apartment. Wayne notices David seems distracted and worried about a matter that he quickly disregards. At 7:02 a.m., a sniper from the adjacent building shoots through the window, hitting Palmer in the neck, killing him. It is later revealed that the assassin, a man named Haas, had received his orders from Christopher Henderson, who, is secretly working for President Charles Logan. The conspirators also order the deaths of Michelle Dessler, Tony Almeida and Chloe O'Brian, although the planned assassinations of Chloe and Tony are unsuccessful (Tony was stabbed by Henderson later on, and was presumed dead).  Both Haas and Henderson are killed by Jack Bauer in retribution for their role in the deaths of his friends. David Palmer is found to be the primary target for discovering information about someone within the Logan administration who was working with the terrorists.

At the close of the day, David Palmer is given a state procession, as his body was flown back to Washington, watched on by the President and First Lady. Following a speech by President Logan praising Palmer, the President is taken into custody on orders from the Attorney General who has just heard a recording incriminating Logan in Palmer's assassination.

Dennis Haysbert was disappointed that his character was killed in the fifth season, commenting that it continued an American legacy of killing its popular and charismatic leaders. He did, however, continue to watch the show and remained a fan.

Reception

A poll by Blockbuster named Palmer as respondents' Favorite On-Screen President. TV.com visitors also named him the TV President they would most like to see in the Oval Office. Haysbert has also been nominated for a Golden Globe, a Satellite Award and three NAACP Image Awards for his portrayal of Palmer.

On an episode of The Daily Show that aired on June 4, 2008, host Jon Stewart remarked (in a clear reference to David Palmer) that newly christened presumptive Democratic nominee Barack Obama will be the first African American candidate for President of the United States "since the first season of 24."

Pundits, and indeed Dennis Haysbert himself, have claimed that Haysbert's portrayal of David Palmer allowed viewers to become more comfortable with the idea of an African American president and consequently may have helped the political campaign of Obama, who was elected the 44th president on November 4, 2008. Commentators have called this influence the "Palmer effect", in contrast to the Bradley effect.

References

24 (TV series) characters
Fictional African-American people
Fictional murdered people
Television characters introduced in 2001
Fictional Democrats (United States)
Fictional members of the United States House of Representatives
Fictional presidents of the United States
Fictional United States senators
Fictional characters from Baltimore

David Palmer (24)


Day trading is speculation in security bonds, specifically the buying and selling of financial instruments during the trading day. Fast trading methods differs from the long-term trades that uses buy, hold and value investing strategies. Day traders exit before the market closes to avoid uncontrollable risks.

Commonly traded financial instruments include stocks, contracts, currencies, contracts for difference, and a range of futures contracts such as stock index futures, interest rate futures, currency and commodity futures. Some day traders use a technique known as scalping, in which the trader holds the position for a few minutes or seconds, no more.

Finance

Day trading


George Earl Murray Cook (born December 6, 1940) is a Canadian scout and former front office executive in Major League Baseball. He was the general manager of three MLB teams: the New York Yankees (1981–84); the Montreal Expos (1984–87); and the Cincinnati Reds (1988–1990).

Pirates and Yankees
Cook began his baseball career as an infielder in the Pittsburgh Pirates farm system in 1962. He then became a scout and farm system administrator, serving Pittsburgh as assistant director of Minor League operations (1972–77), then director of scouting (1977–79).  He was named the Yankees' scouting director in January 1980.

Yankees
Cook was promoted to general manager of the New York Yankees on June 30, 1981 after Bill Bergesch was hired by Bob Howsam to be GM of the Cincinnati Reds. With manager Billy Martin at the helm the whole1983 season, the team showed a marked improvement, posting a 91-71 record, good for third place. However, George Steinbrenner fired Martin for the third time after the season, and brought in Yogi Berra as the new manager for 1984. Cook had little say in these matters. Murray Cook earned Steinbrenner's wrath when the Oakland Athletics selected pitcher Tim Belcher from the Yankees in the free agent compensation draft on February 8, 1984. Belcher had been the first player selected in the 1983 amateur draft but had refused to sign with the Minnesota Twins at the time; the Yankees had scored a coup by selecting him in the secondary phase of the January 1984 amateur draft and signing him to a contract a few days later. However, they had already submitted their list of protected players for the free agent draft and were unable to add the newly signed Belcher, leading to his selection by the Athletics. A furious Steinbrenner reduced Cook's responsibilities, leaving a void in the front office until he named Clyde King as his replacement on April 9. Cook inherited the title of vice-president and director of scouting in the shuffle, as Steinbrenner stated that "I take the blame of asking a young man to move too fast too soon". He stayed in that role for a few months until he submitted his resignation on August 20, 1984, explaining that he wanted to have a decision-making role again.

Expos
On August 30, the Montreal Expos fired manager Bill Virdon, followed five days later by general manager John McHale. Cook was hired on September 5. His first action after taking over was to hire Buck Rodgers, who had just won the Minor League Manager of the Year Award by leading the Expos' AAA farm team, the Indianapolis Indians to a 91-63 record and the American Association championship.

Due to a tight budget set by the Expos ownership, Cook had to rely on trades instead of signing free agents. He traded away Gary Carter, Bill Gullickson, and Jeff Reardon in order to acquire promising minor league talent. He became known for picking up prospects that other teams were willing to discard, such as Dennis Martínez and Pascual Pérez. He also used the Rule 5 draft to acquire Jeff Parrett.

Scandal
On August 11, 1987, the Expos called a hasty press conference to announce Cook had been fired and Vice-President for Baseball Administration Bill Stoneman was taking over as general manager. Over the next few weeks, rumours began circulating that the firing was not for baseball reasons. In fact, Cook had been dismissed for having an affair with Pamela Brochu, wife of Expos President and CEO Claude Brochu. Cook broke up with his wife of many years to marry his former boss's wife.

Reds
After the 1986 season, Cook was hired to replace Bill Bergesch, the same man he had replaced in New York, as GM of the Cincinnati Reds. They finished second in 1988 and won three more games than the previous season. However, in 1989 the Reds fell to fifth due to the turmoil surrounding manager Pete Rose being banned from baseball. Cook was replaced by Bob Quinn after the season. The year after Cook was let go, the Reds won the World Series.

Later career
From 2002 through 2006, Cook was a major league scout for the Boston Red Sox, joining Boston after nearly a decade as a scout for the Florida Marlins. Since the  season, he has been the East Coast regional crosschecker for the Detroit Tigers.

On Saturday June 21, 2014, Cook was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame, in St. Marys, Ontario, along with former Montreal Expos announcer Dave Van Horne and their popular long time slugging outfielder Tim Wallach.

References

Baseball America Executive Database

External links

1940 births
Living people
Batavia Pirates players
Boston Red Sox scouts
Canadian baseball players
Cincinnati Reds executives
Detroit Tigers scouts
Gastonia Pirates players
Major League Baseball scouting directors
Major League Baseball general managers
Miami Marlins scouts
Montreal Expos executives
New York Yankees executives
People from Sackville, New Brunswick
Pittsburgh Pirates executives
Pittsburgh Pirates scouts
Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame inductees

Murray Cook (baseball)


Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.

Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before in terms of an embryo's need for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents, or in collaborative learning health systems). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.

Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to semiosis, and is often associated with representational systems/activity.

Types

Non-associative learning
Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus." This definition exempt the changes caused by sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury.

Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization.

Habituation

Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively. Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus. This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.

Sensitization

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus. This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

Active learning

Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn. Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning. Conversely, passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional education).

Associative learning
Associative learning is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two stimuli or events. In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.

Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.

Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.

Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life.

Classical conditioning

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs. Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm. It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "Little Albert", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

Observational learning

Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.

Imprinting

Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

Play

Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.

Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.

There are five types of play:
 Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity
 Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three
 Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
 Construction play involves experimentation and building
 Movement play aka physical play

These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play. Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture. Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture. This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience. As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido". Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.

Episodic learning
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge. For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it. This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.

Multimedia learning

Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information. This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory.

E-learning and augmented learning

Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime. See also minimally invasive education.

Moore (1989) purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning:
 Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
 Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and
 Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance).

Rote learning

Rote learning is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion.

Meaningful learning

Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.

Evidence-based learning

Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a student learns.

Formal learning

Formal learning is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition.

Non-formal learning

Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.

Informal learning

Informal learning is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during play, and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrolment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation. Informal learning begins to unfold as the learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience.

Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life. Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger support than subjects with formal learning in the topic of mathematics. Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself.

Nonformal learning and combined approaches
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:
 Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
 Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "muscle memory" and speed.
 Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
 Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
 Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

Tangential learning
Tangential learning is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.

Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning". Mozelius et al. points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.

Dialogic learning

Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning
In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set.

Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:
 An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
 An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
 An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
 An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
 The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.

Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.

Domains

Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are:
 Cognitive: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
 Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
 Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).

Transfer
Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.

Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context. Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning. Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote.

A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer. To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.

Factors affecting learning

Genetics

Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.

Socioeconomic and physical conditions

Problems like malnutrition, fatigue, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.

The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.

Psychological factors and teaching style

Intrinsic motivation, such a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. Rote learning involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and "drill and kill" since it kills intrinsic motivation.  Alternatives to rote learning include active learning and meaningful learning.

The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, energy level, and motivation of the students. Praising students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are counterproductive.

Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:
 The spacing effect means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (spaced repetition) are better than cramming
 Teaching material to other people
 "Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading
 Low-stakes quizzing

Epigenetic factors

The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms.  Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins.  These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that introduce epigenetic alterations.  In particular, the DNA repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base excision repair are employed in learning and memory formation.

General cognition-related factors

Adult learning vs children's learning

Learning is often more efficient in children and takes longer or is more difficult with age. A study using neuroimaging identified rapid neurotransmitter GABA boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.

Children's brains contain more "silent synapses" that are inactive until recruited as part of neuroplasticity and flexible learning or memories. Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during child development.

What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact. Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities.

In animal evolution
Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it. In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge
In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate knowledge.
Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.

Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing environment. The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of Drosophila melanogaster showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.

However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing. An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.

In plants
In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors. Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.

Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes. In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.

During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day. For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.

While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants. One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize. Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in Pisum sativum is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus. There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition". Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece The Intelligent Plant that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants. A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of "cognition" and "learning".

Machine learning

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output.

Types

Phases

See also

Information theory

Types of education

References

Notes

Further reading

External links

 How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (expanded edition) published by the National Academies Press
 Applying Science of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Science into the Curriculum published by the American Psychological Association

Cognitive science
Developmental psychology
Intelligence
Neuropsychological assessment
Systems science
Articles containing video clips

Learning


Michael Anthony Knight Jr. (April 11, 1978 – October 17, 2017) was an American fashion designer. He was born in Nuremberg, Germany to Pamela and Michael Anthony Knight, Sr..

In 2005, Knight auditioned for the second season of the Bravo network reality television series, Project Runway, but he was not accepted as a season two contestant. In 2006, Knight reauditioned for Project Runway, and this time he was accepted as a contestant for season three. Knight went on to win season three's Fan Favorite award and to place fourth in the overall competition.

In 2007, Knight introduced his label, Mychael Knight, on BET's Rip the Runway  and he designed a line of custom tees for the Starbucks Corporation.

Knight died on October 17, 2017 in Atlanta, Georgia at the age of 39. His death was possibly related to recent treatments for intestinal infection.

References

1979 births
2017 deaths
American fashion designers
American television personalities
People from Nuremberg

Mychael Knight


Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp of Hache (21 September 1561 – July 1612) was an English nobleman who had a theoretically strong claim to the throne of England through his mother, Lady Katherine Grey, but his legitimacy was questioned. He was an ancestor of the dukes of Somerset.

Origins
He was the son of Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (1539–1621), by his wife Lady Katherine Grey (died 1568), a younger sister of Lady Jane Grey, "The Nine Days' Queen". His grandfather was Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (executed 1552), all of whose titles became forfeit on his attainder by the Parliament of England, during the reign of his nephew King Edward VI (reigned 1547–53). His father was, however, re-elevated to the peerage in 1559 by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), as Baron Beauchamp of Hache and Earl of Hertford. During the lifetime of his father, whom he predeceased, he was known by the courtesy title (his father's lesser title) "Lord Beauchamp".

He was born in the Tower of London, where his mother had been imprisoned for secretly marrying his father against the wishes of Queen Elizabeth I. For many years, Edward was regarded as illegitimate because no proof could be produced of his parents' legal marriage.

Claimant to throne
By 1603 Edward was the senior qualified heir under the will of King Henry VIII, which stipulated that the elder line of the Tudor dynasty, descended from Margaret Tudor, should be passed over in favour of the younger line, descended from Mary Tudor, the king's younger and favourite sister. Edward's only possible rival under the will was Anne Stanley, Countess of Castlehaven, who would have been heir had Edward been considered illegitimate. Regardless of Henry VIII's wishes, the succession progressed in favour of the elder line, which resulted in King James VI of Scotland ascending the English throne. Had the stipulations of the king's will been carried out, Edward would have become "King Edward VII" and England and Scotland would not have been placed under a personal union. Queen Elizabeth I never officially dismissed her father's will, but James succeeded through the support of the English Parliament.

Marriage and children
Edward married Honora Rogers, a daughter of Sir Richard Rogers (c. 1527 – 1605) of Bryanston, Dorset, a knight of the shire for Dorset in 1572, by his wife Cecilia Luttrell, daughter of Sir Andrew Luttrell (1484–1538), feudal baron of Dunster of Dunster Castle in Somerset. Honora was the sister of Andrew Rogers (died c. 1599), MP, of Bryanstone, who earlier had married (as his second wife) Lord Beauchamp's aunt Lady Mary Seymour (born 1552). Beauchamp's father the earl was strongly opposed to the marriage and sent a certain George Ludlow to discuss the position with the Rogers family. Ludlow reported back that Honora was "a baggage" and her father Sir Richard Rogers "a fool" and that Lord Beauchamp had originally intended to have "but a night's lodging with her". The earl believed that Sir Richard had encouraged the marriage and that "though outwardly he did nothing" to oppose or promote the marriage, nevertheless his daughter had "inwardly his goodwill". By his wife Honora he had three sons and three daughters:
Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp (1586–1618), who married Lady Anne Sackville, daughter of Robert Sackville, 2nd Earl of Dorset. He predeceased his grandfather the 1st Earl of Hertford and died without issue.
William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset (1588–1660) and 2nd Earl of Hertford, who in 1660 eventually regained the dukedom which had been granted to his great-grandfather Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (c. 1500 – 1552)
Francis Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Trowbridge (c. 1590 – 1664), of Marlborough Castle, the grandfather of Francis Seymour, 5th Duke of Somerset (1658–1678) and of his younger brother Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset (1662–1748), "The Proud Duke"
 Honora Seymour (bef. 1594 – 1620), wife of Sir Ferdinando Sutton, son of Edward Sutton, 5th Baron Dudley
 Anne Seymour
 Mary Seymour

Death and succession

Beauchamp predeceased his father, the 1st Earl of Hertford, and was succeeded in the courtesy title by his eldest son Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp (1586–1618), who also predeceased the 1st Earl. It was thus his second son William Seymour who in 1621 succeeded his grandfather as Earl of Hertford and in 1660 was restored as 2nd Duke of Somerset. His monumental brass inscription survives in Great Bedwyn church (the parish church of Wulfhall and Tottenham Lodge), inscribed in Latin:
Bellocamp(o) eram, Graia genetrice, Semerus. Tres habui natos, est quibus una soror ("I was Beauchamp, a Seymour, by my mother Grey. I have had three born from which one a sister")

Ancestry

References

1561 births
1612 deaths
People from London
E
Edward
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Prisoners in the Tower of London
16th-century English nobility
17th-century English nobility
British courtesy barons and lords of Parliament

Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp


Erich Pommer (20 July 1889 – 8 May 1966) was a German-born film producer and executive. Pommer was perhaps the most powerful person in the German and European film industries in the 1920s and early 1930s.

As producer, Erich Pommer was involved in the German Expressionist film movement during the silent era. As the head of production at Decla Film, Decla-Bioskop, and, from 1924 to 1926, at UFA, Pommer was responsible for many of the best known movies of the Weimar Republic such as The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), Dr. Mabuse, the Gambler (1922), Die Nibelungen (1924), Michael (1924), Der Letzte Mann / The Last Laugh (1924), Variety (1925), Tartuffe (1926), Manon Lescaut (1926), Faust (1926), Metropolis (1927) and The Blue Angel (1930). He later worked in American exile before returning to Germany to help rebuild the German film industry after World War II.

Early life and career
Pommer was born in Hildesheim, Province of Hanover, to the Jewish couple Gustav Pommer and his wife Anna. His elder brother was Albert Pommer, who also became a film producer. After a brief apprenticeship with the Herrenkonfektion Machol & Lewin, Pommer began his film career in 1907, with the Berlin branch of the Gaumont company, eventually taking over as director of its Viennese branch in 1910. In 1912, Pommer concluded his military service and became a representative of the French Éclair camera company in Vienna, where he was responsible for film distribution to Central and Eastern Europe. In 1913, he became Éclair's general representative for Central Europe, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Poland, based in Berlin. In the same year, he married Gertrud Levy and became, together with Marcel Vandal, the director-general of the Viennese office of Éclair. Under Pommer's direction, the company began the production of feature films including Das Geheimnis der Lüfte / Le mystère de l'air (in English, the Mystery of the Air), the first films he produced. Another five films followed in 1915.

With French capital from Éclair, and together with Fritz Holz, Pommer - while serving as a soldier in 1915 at the Western front - established the Deutsche "Eclair" Film- und Kinematographen-GmbH ("Deutsche Eclair" or Decla) in Berlin. Decla produced adventure and detective films, drama, and society pieces, as well as short film series. Its own Decla film distribution business, led by Hermann Saklikower, also presented foreign films. Pommer served in the First World War at the West and Eastern fronts, but injuries suffered in action led him to return to Berlin in 1916, where he was responsible for training recruits. Later, he worked for the Bild- und Filmamt (Bufa) at the German War Ministry.

After the 1919 merger of Decla with the Meinert-Film-Gesellschaft, Rudolf Meinert became head of production while Erich Pommer took charge of foreign distribution. Decla's production became more ambitious. The brands "Decla Abenteuerklasse" (producing, among others, Fritz Lang's Die Spinnen. 2. Teil: Die Brillantenschiff (The Spiders, Part 2: The Diamond Ship, 1920) and "Decla Weltklasse" (including The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919), under the direction of Robert Wiene) were created.

Decla merged with Deutsche Bioskop AG to create Decla Bioskop AG, thus becoming in 1920 the second largest German film company after Ufa. Decla owned a studio in Neubabelsberg and a cinema chain. Two subsidiaries were formed: Uco-Film GmbH and Russo Films. The Uco Film GmbH, in whose establishment the Ullstein publishing house was involved, dedicated itself to filming serials from novels. Schloß Vogelöd / The Haunted Castle and Phantom, under the direction of F. W. Murnau, as well as Fritz Lang's Dr. Mabuse, the Gambler, were released. Russo Films focused on the adaptation of works of world literature. In a 1922 interview, Pommer stated that the international success of the German films would have to be linked to the production of quality pictures.

Pommer gathered around him talented directors (Carl Froelich and Fritz Wendhausen), script writers (Thea von Harbou, Carl Mayer, and Robert Liebmann), cameramen (Karl Freund, Carl Hoffmann, and Willy Hameister), architects (Walter Roehrig and Robert Herlth), as well as actors and actresses. In November 1921, Decla-Bioskop was taken over by Universum Film AG (Ufa), although it maintained a modicum of independence.

Work with UFA
As a result of the merger with UFA, Erich Pommer not only continued as CEO of Decla-Bioskop, but also took over direction of Union-Film and Messter-Film. In early 1923, Pommer also joined the Ufa executive committee, to oversee all film production. At about the same time, he became the first chairman of the Central Organization of the German Film Industry (SPIO), which would shape German cinema during the Weimar Republic. The country's hyper inflation made expensive productions possible: at that time the work of several classical authors were adapted into movies, and internationally successful big budget films were released, including Der letzte Mann (The Last Laugh, 1924), Variety (1925), Faust (1926), and Manon Lescaut (1926).

Pommer led Ufa to unprecedented worldwide prestige. However, Pommer came to disagree with the policies of Ufa's new CEO Ferdinand Bausback, including the Parufamet agreement (which later proved disastrous for Ufa as Pommer had predicted). To save face, Bausback and the Ufa board blamed the company's troubles on increasing production costs, especially cost overruns of Fritz Lang's Metropolis (UFA's most expensive film to date), on Pommer himself.

Paramount and MGM
In January 1926, Pommer resigned from Ufa, and a few months later, he left with his family for Hollywood. He was followed by a number of his production and acting team, including film directors Ludwig Berger, Paul Leni, E.A. Dupont, Lothar Mendes, and William Dieterle and actors Conrad Veidt, Emil Jannings, and Lya de Putti.

Working for Paramount Pictures, Pommer produced two films starring Pola Negri, Hotel Imperial and Barbed Wire (both 1927). He then was hired by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) to supervise all units involving foreign directors. His films at MGM included The Demi-Bride with Norma Shearer, California with Tim McCoy, and Mockery with Lon Chaney.

Meanwhile, Ufa had been acquired by the right-wing press magnate Alfred Hugenberg, and in July 1927, he sent Ufa's new CEO Ludwig Klitzsch to America to bring Pommer back to Germany. From the US, Pommer brought organizational and technical innovations, such as the use of shooting schedules and camera crane cars.

Return to UFA
Pommer was given his own production unit at UFA, working under the overall control of the new head of production Ernst Hugo Correll, who effectively occupied Pommer's former role at the company. As head of the "Erich-Pommer-Produktion der Ufa" (Erich Pommer production of the Ufa), he produced Heimkehr (Homecoming) and Ungarische Rhapsodie (Hungarian Rhapsody, both 1928). His last silent productions were  Asphalt directed by Joe May and Die wunderbare Lüge der Nina Petrowna starring Brigitte Helm and Franz Lederer

Pommer was a pioneer of sound film in Germany and of multiple language versions (MLV) as a means to cope with selling big productions to different countries: Melodie des Herzens / Melody of the Heart, made at the end of 1929 in Berlin, was produced in a German, English, French, Hungarian as well as a silent version. The film also created the Operetta film genre. The "Erich-Pommer-Produktion der Ufa" turned out several international box office hits in the following years, most notably Josef von Sternberg's The Blue Angel (1930), starring Marlene Dietrich. Among his productions was a series of popular musical comedies such as Die Drei von der Tankstelle and Der Kongreß tanzt / Congress Dances and the science fiction spectacle F.P.1, which was shot in three language versions.

Exile and eventual return
After the Nazi Party came to power early in 1933, UFA rescinded Pommer's contract and he picked up an offer of Fox Film Corporation to build Fox Europa as its European arm in Paris, where he produced Max Ophüls' On a volé un homme (1933) and Fritz Lang's Liliom (1934), and then went on to Hollywood again. In 1936, he worked in the United Kingdom for Alexander Korda's London Films (Fire Over England 1936 and Farewell Again 1937). In 1937 he formed a production company, the Mayflower Picture Corp., with actor Charles Laughton. Pommer not only produced but also directed their first film, Vessel of Wrath (also known as The Beachcomber), replacing Bartlett Cormack with the latter's agreement. Although Pommer subsequently received offers to direct and could have pursued a directing career, he preferred producing and never directed another film In 1938, Pommer produced St. Martin's Lane directed by Tim Whelan starring Laughton and Vivien Leigh and in 1939 Alfred Hitchcock's Jamaica Inn again with Laughton and also introducing Maureen O'Hara in her first film. Pommer was in New York City for distribution negotiations when the Second World War broke out. Because he still held a German passport, he was unable to return to the United Kingdom and remained in the United States.

In 1939 he signed with RKO Radio Pictures, in Hollywood, for whom he produced two pictures, including Dance, Girl, Dance and They Knew What They Wanted. Becoming seriously ill in 1941 (he was a chain-smoker and suffered a heart attack), his contract with RKO was not renewed. Between 1942 and 1946, Pommer worked on a few film projects, some of which eventually went into production but without him. Pommer and his wife rented a small apartment and lived off the proceeds from the sale of personal valuables. They also helped two close friends, Fred Pinkus (a former business manager from Berlin) and his wife, silent movie star Eliza La Porta, who bought chinaware and glasses and then hand-painted them to sell to the higher-class department stores. Pommer's wife helped with the painting, and Pommer alternated with Pinkus to work the drying oven in Pinkus' garage. Having resided continuously in the United States since 1939, Pommer and his wife became naturalized American citizens in 1944.

In 1946, Pommer returned to Germany, where he became the highest-ranking film control officer of the American military Government OMGUS responsible for the reorganisation of the German film industry overseeing the reconstruction of studios and assigning production licenses. In spite of opposition from both Americans and Germans, Pommer rebuilt the German film industry from ashes. By 1948, a total of 28 feature films had been produced in West Germany under his supervision. Together with film director Curt Oertel and Horst von Hartlieb, director of the film distribution association in Wiesbaden, Pommer also established a voluntary self-control system for the German motion picture industry, which evolved into the Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle der Filmwirtschaft (FSK), implementing a voluntary self-rating system for the movie industry modeled on the Hays Code in the USA. Establishment of this system (and the subsequent establishment of the FSK) avoided government regulation and censorship of the movie industry and replaced military censoring. In 1949 Pommer resigned his office, believing his work to be complete, and returned to the United States. He then attempted to launch Signature Pictures with Dorothy Arzner to produce American films in Europe, an endeavor that failed to obtain promised financing.

In 1951 he started the "Intercontinental Film GmbH" in Munich, making a few movies, including Nights on the Road (1951), which won the 1953 German Film Award, and Kinder, Mütter und ein General, which won the 1955 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film and the 1956 Grand Prize of the Belgian Union of Cinema Critics. However, restrictions forced on Pommer led him to resettle in California. Physically badly shaken (Pommer used a wheelchair after the amputation of a leg) his career as a producer was ended. He retired to live quietly with his wife. After his wife's death, he lived with his son's family.

Pommer died in Los Angeles, California, in 1966.

Awards
1953 German Film Award for "Nachts auf den Strassen".
1955 Golden Globe Award for Best Picture for "Kinder, Mütter, und ein General".
1956 Grand-Prix de l'Union de la Critique de Cinéma (UCC) for "Kinder, Mütter, und ein General".

Films
 The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)
 The Haunted Castle (1921)
 Destiny (1921)
 Dr. Mabuse, the Gambler (1922)
 The Last Laugh (1924)
 The Pleasure Garden (1925)
 Variety (1925)
 Faust (1926)
 Metropolis (1927)
 Spies (1928)
 The Blue Angel (1930)
 Liliom (1934)
 Music in the Air (1934)
 Fire Over England (1937)
 Vessel of Wrath (1938)
 St. Martin's Lane (1938)
 Jamaica Inn (1939)
 Dance, Girl, Dance (1940)
 They Knew What They Wanted (1940)
 Nights on the Road (1952)

References

Bibliography

External links

1889 births
1966 deaths
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
German film producers
People from Hildesheim
People from the Province of Hanover
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Exiles from Nazi Germany
German Army personnel of World War I
Film people from Lower Saxony

Erich Pommer


Roland Simounet (born in Guyotville, Algeria, 31 Aug 1927 - died in Paris, 1996) was a French architect known primarily for his design of the Musée Picasso in Paris and the LaM in Villeneuve d'Ascq.

Biography
Simounet studied architecture in Paris and then returned to his native Algeria where he opened an office in 1952. His first major work, the emergency cité de transit Djenan el-Hassan (1956-8), reflected his concern with the eradication of slum housing; its cellular construction, with individual vaulted roofs, echoed local vernacular architectural forms. In 1958 he was appointed to plan the new city of Thamugadi, which borders the famous Roman ruins of Timgad. After the War of Independence, Simounet moved to Paris (1963), but many of his works continued to address the problems of design for warm climates through the suitable expression of materials, massing and openings; examples include the student housing (1962–70) for the University of Tananarive, Madagascar, and a series of holiday homes in Corsica.

Simounet became one of the most prolific museum builders in France in the 1970s and 1980s. His new buildings for the Musee de la Prehistoire de l'Ile-de-France (1975-9), Nemours, and the Musee d'Art Moderne du Nord (1978–83), Villeneuve d'Ascq, reveal a careful orchestration of natural lighting and details to enhance the individual display of works of art. He also won the limited competition for the conversion of the 17th-century Hôtel Salé in the Marais district of Paris into the Musée Picasso (1976–85); the austere and luminous quality of the white-washed walls and pristine volumes was generally acknowledged to be the perfect showcase for Picasso's personal collection. In Saint-Denis he designed some low-cost housing (1983) in the shadow of the abbey; arranged around small courtyards, it alluded to the historic fortifications. The same parti was used in the les Fongéres residential complex (1987–91) facing the Parc Citroén in Paris.

Simounet was awarded the Grand Prix National d'Architecture in 1977. Simounet died in Paris in 1996.

Bibliography

Roland Simounet a L'oeuvre: Architecture, 1951-1996
by Richard Klein, Roland Simounet,
Musee d'art moderne Lille metropole,  (2-86961-060-2)

Roland Simounet: D'une Architecture Juste
by Roland Simounet
Le Moniteur, 1997,   (2-281-19095-1)

Roland Simounet: Pour Une Invention De L'espace
by Roland Simounet
Electa Moniteur, 1986,  (2-86653-024-1)

References

External links
 Musée National Picasso (Paris, France)

20th-century French architects
1927 births
1996 deaths
French people of colonial Algeria

Roland Simounet


Francisco Paulo Mignone (September 3, 1897, São Paulo – February 19, 1986, Rio de Janeiro) was one of the most significant figures in Brazilian classical music, and one of the most significant Brazilian composers after Heitor Villa-Lobos. In 1968 he was chosen as Brazilian composer of the year.

Life and career
A graduate of the São Paulo Conservatory and then of the Milan Conservatory, Mignone returned to São Paulo in 1929 to teach harmony, and in 1933 took a post in Rio de Janeiro at the Escola Nacional de Música. Mignone was a versatile composer, dividing his output nearly evenly between solo songs, piano pieces, chamber instrumental works, orchestral works, and choral works. In addition, he wrote five operas and eight ballets.

Son of the Italian immigrant flutist Alferio Mignone, Francisco was already making his mark upon the musical world of Brazil by the time he was 10 years old, gaining notoriety around his district playing in the choro style. A pianist and orchestra leader at 13, he had gained some fame composing and playing under the pseudonym of Chico Bororó, keeping these activities separate from his formal music training.  His works may be divided into three compositional periods. His early works show the Italian influences and Romantic sensibilities of his training in Milan. An orchestral piece from his first opera of this early period was premiered in Rio de Janeiro by Richard Strauss conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, in 1923.

Much of Mignone's music is strongly nationalistic in flavor; influenced by the nationalistic movement of his former schoolmate and teacher, the musicologist and writer Mário de Andrade, Mignone uses the folk and popular melodies and forms of his native Brazil as a basis for his compositions. (Andrade reportedly said, "In Italian music, Mignone will be one more among a rich and numerous school, to which he does not add anything. Here, he will be of indispensable value.") From 1929 until 1960 his work was most strongly characterized by this nationalism, during which he composed such pieces as the Fantasias Brasileiras and his ballets Maracatu do Chico Rei and Leilão. His solo vocal and piano works of this time earned him particular acclaim for their expression of Brazilian musical styles, such as the choro, the modinha, and the valsas (waltzes) reminiscent of strolling serenaders.

Mignone's music is noted for its lyricism, colorful instrumentation, and improvisatory style. Most of his early works are tonal, as is typical of the popular and folk music, though later in his career he branched out into polytonal, atonal, and serial writing. In the late 1950s Mignone drifted away from the nationalistic music and toward the then-current trends in academic concert music, composing works such as his 1958 Piano Concerto, which showcase his skillful instrumentation and bravura writing. Mignone was capable of writing in a variety of styles and his works of the early 1960s and beyond are noted for their eclecticism; it is difficult to find any other unifying feature. However, he returned to nationalistic writing toward his last few years.

Mignone was married with Liddy Chiafarelli Mignone who died in a plane crash in 1962 and after that married with Maria Josephina Mignone with whom he frequently played duets.

Mignone died in Rio de Janeiro, age 88. His wife remains an interpreter of his music to this day.

Notable works
O contratador de diamantes, opera, 1921
Congada (from O contratador), orchestra, 1921
L'innocente, opera, 1928
Seis líricas, vocal, 1932
Maracatu do Chico Rei, ballet, 1933
Variações sobre um tema brasileiro, cello and orchestra, 1935
Fantasias brasileiras nos.1–4, piano and orchestra, 1929-1936
Babaloxá, orchestra, 1936
Mizú, operetta, 1937
Quatro líricas, vocal, 1938
Festa das igrejas, orchestra, 1940
Leilão, ballet, 1941
O espantalho, ballet, 1941
Iara, ballet, 1942
Pousa a mão na minha testa, vocal, 1942
Valsas de esquina nos.1–12, piano, 1938–43
O guarda chuva, ballet, 1953
Valsas choros 1–12, piano, 1946–55
Piano Concerto, 1958
Tres Valsas Brasileiras (1968) Viola e Piano
Sugestões sinfônicas, tone poem-ballet, 1969
Doze Estudos, guitar, 1970
12 Valsas para Violão , guitar, 1970
Variações em busca de um tema, orchestra, 1972
O chalaça, opera, 1973
O sargento de milícias, opera, 1978
Quincas Berro d'Agua, ballet, 1979
Valsa brasileira nos.4–12, piano, 1979
O Caçador de esmeraldas, ballet, 1980
16 valsas para fagote solo, bassoon, 1982

Recordings
Francisco Mignone: 12 Studies for Guitar (Da Vinci C00614), played by Cyro Delvizio

References
Gerard Béhague: "Francisco Mignone". Grove Music Online, accessed 28 Feb 05.
The Solo Piano Music of Francisco Mignone and Camargo Guarnieri by Marion Verhaalen (1974)

External links
About Francisco Mignone (with MIDI scores)
Fantasia Brasileira no. 4 performed by Alexandra Mascolo-David and the Kalamazoo Symphony Orchestra on WGBH
Amy Suzanne Gillick, "Experimentation and Nationalism in Francisco Mignone's Works for Bassoon : a Performance Guide to the IInd Wind Quintet and Concertino". Dissertation, UCLA, 2008.

1897 births
1986 deaths
Brazilian classical composers
Brazilian male composers
20th-century classical composers
Brazilian opera composers
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Milan Conservatory alumni
Musicians from São Paulo
Male classical composers
20th-century Brazilian musicians
20th-century male musicians

Francisco Mignone


Sally Ann Triplett (born 15 April 1962, London, England) is a British singer and actress.  She participated in two editions of the Eurovision Song Contest and West End productions.

Career
Triplett first represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 1980 as the lead female vocals of the six-piece band Prima Donna. Prima Donna finished third with their pop-ballad "Love Enough for Two" but the song was a flop in the charts, and the group disbanded after their second single.

Two years later, she again represented United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 1982, this time as part of a duo, Bardo. Their song, "One Step Further", was a frantic pop number with a complex dance routine. The vigorous choreography noticeably affected the vocals, and not helped by a backing track and a live orchestra, the song finished seventh. Author and historian John Kennedy O'Connor notes in his The Eurovision Song Contest – The Official History that Sally-Ann Triplett is one of only four singers to have sung for the United Kingdom in the competition twice, alongside Ronnie Carroll, Cliff Richard and Cheryl Baker of Bucks Fizz. Triplett is the only act to have won the UK heat for Eurovision at both attempts (Cliff Richard was nominated twice without having to compete for the opportunity). The song, however, proved to be a success in the UK Singles Chart when it reached No. 2, and Bardo went on to release two more singles, although no further success followed.

In between her two Eurovision appearances, she was a regular in the BBC television programme Crackerjack!. Triplett has also made many appearances on television. This include Children in Need 2003, EastEnders, Doctors, Down To Earth, Acorn Antiques: The Musical!, Never Mind The Buzzcocks, Holby City and The Fishing Trip.

In a 2009 interview with the BBC, Triplett stated that she had no wish to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest again but, if asked, she would possibly consider it if offered a strong ballad.

Recordings
Triplett has appeared on numerous cast recordings for shows including: Grease, Anything Goes as well as the recent National Symphony Orchestra studio recording of Lionel Bart's Oliver! In 2008 Triplett recorded a song for the CD Act One – Songs From The Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange, an album of twenty recordings by twenty six West End stars, released in November 2008 on Dress Circle Records.

Personal life
She is married to actor/singer/dancer Gary Milner and has two children, Max Milner (from a previous relationship with Gary Dyson, adopted by Milner) and Grace.

Theatre credits
The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane
Follies (as Young Margie) at the Shaftesbury Theatre
Chess (as Florence) at the Prince Edward Theatre
Grease (as Betty Rizzo) at the Dominion Theatre
Jolson The Musical (as Ruby Keeler) opposite Brian Conley at the Victoria Palace Theatre
Cats (as Grizabella) at the New London Theatre
The Villain's Opera at the Royal National Theatre
Anything Goes (as Reno Sweeney) at the Royal National Theatre and the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane
Guys and Dolls (as Miss Adelaide) at the Piccadilly Theatre
Carrie - The Musical (as Sue Snell) on Broadway
Acorn Antiques:The Musical! (as Miss Berta) at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket
Much Ado About Nothing (as Beatrice) at the Liverpool Playhouse Theatre
Chicago (as Roxie Hart) at the Adelphi Theatre
Take Flight (as Amelia Earhart) at the Menier Chocolate Factory
Make Me A Song produced by Thomas Hopkins at the New Players Theatre
Mamma Mia! (as Donna) at the Prince of Wales Theatre
Lend Me A Tenor (as Maria) at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth from 24 September 2010 – 6 October 2010.
 Viva Forever (as Lauren) at Piccadilly Theatre .
 Next To Normal (as Diana) at Drama Center Theatre, Singapore .
 My Judy Garland Life (as Judy/Liza) at Nottingham Playhouse .
 The Last Ship (as Peggy White) at The Bank of America Theatre, Chicago & Neil Simon Theatre, New York .
 A Damsel in Distress (as Billie Dore) at Chichester Festival Theatre .
 Finding Neverland (as Mrs. Emma du Maurier) at Lunt-Fontanne Theatre, Broadway .
 Sweeney Todd (as Mrs. Lovett) at Barrow Street Theatre, New York .
 Oklahoma! (as Aunt Eller) at Wyndham's Theatre .

References

External links
Mamma Mia! official website

1962 births
Living people
English women singers
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1980
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1982
Singers from London
English television actresses
English stage actresses
Actresses from London

Sally Ann Triplett