In probability theory, a log-normal (or lognormal) distribution is a continuous probability distribution of a random variable whose logarithm is normally distributed. Thus, if the random variable  is log-normally distributed, then  has a normal distribution. Equivalently, if  has a normal distribution, then the exponential function of , , has a log-normal distribution. A random variable which is log-normally distributed takes only positive real values. It is a convenient and useful model for measurements in exact and engineering sciences, as well as medicine, economics and other topics (e.g., energies, concentrations, lengths, prices of financial instruments, and other metrics).

The distribution is occasionally referred to as the Galton distribution or Galton's distribution, after Francis Galton. The log-normal distribution has also been associated with other names, such as McAlister, Gibrat and Cobb–Douglas.

A log-normal process is the statistical realization of the multiplicative product of many independent random variables, each of which is positive. This is justified by considering the central limit theorem in the log domain (sometimes called Gibrat's law). The log-normal distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate —for which the mean and variance of  are specified.

Definitions

Generation and parameters

Let  be a standard normal variable, and let  and  be two real numbers. Then, the distribution of the random variable

is called the log-normal distribution with parameters  and . These are the expected value (or mean) and standard deviation of the variable's natural logarithm, not the expectation and standard deviation of  itself.

This relationship is true regardless of the base of the logarithmic or exponential function: if  is normally distributed, then so is  for any two positive numbers . Likewise, if  is log-normally distributed, then so is , where .

In order to produce a distribution with desired mean  and variance , one uses
 and

Alternatively, the "multiplicative" or "geometric" parameters  and  can be used. They have a more direct interpretation:  is the median of the distribution, and  is useful for determining "scatter" intervals, see below.

Probability density function

A positive random variable X is log-normally distributed (i.e., ), if the natural logarithm of X is normally distributed with mean  and variance :

Let  and  be respectively the cumulative probability distribution function and the probability density function of the N(0,1) distribution, then we have that

Cumulative distribution function

The cumulative distribution function is

where  is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution (i.e., N(0,1)).

This may also be expressed as follows:

where erfc is the complementary error function.

Multivariate log-normal
If  is a multivariate normal distribution, then  has a multivariate log-normal distribution. The exponential is applied elementwise to the random vector . The mean of  is

and its covariance matrix is

Since the multivariate log-normal distribution is not widely used, the rest of this entry only deals with the univariate distribution.

Characteristic function and moment generating function

All moments of the log-normal distribution exist and

This can be derived by letting  within the integral. However, the log-normal distribution is not determined by its moments. This implies that it cannot have a defined moment generating function in a neighborhood of zero. Indeed, the expected value  is not defined for any positive value of the argument , since the defining integral diverges.

The characteristic function  is defined for real values of , but is not defined for any complex value of  that has a negative imaginary part, and hence the characteristic function is not analytic at the origin. Consequently, the characteristic function of the log-normal distribution cannot be represented as an infinite convergent series. In particular, its Taylor formal series diverges:

However, a number of alternative divergent series representations have been obtained.

A closed-form formula for the characteristic function  with  in the domain of convergence is not known. A relatively simple approximating formula is available in closed form, and is given by

where  is the Lambert W function.  This approximation is derived via an asymptotic method, but it stays sharp all over the domain of convergence of .

Properties

Probability in different domains
The probability content of a log-normal distribution in any arbitrary domain can be computed to desired precision by first transforming the variable to normal, then numerically integrating using the ray-trace method. (Matlab code)

Probabilities of functions of a log-normal variable
Since the probability of a log-normal can be computed in any domain, this means that the cdf (and consequently pdf and inverse cdf) of any function of a log-normal variable can also be computed. (Matlab code)

Geometric or multiplicative moments

The geometric or multiplicative mean of the log-normal distribution is . It equals the median. The geometric or multiplicative standard deviation is .

By analogy with the arithmetic statistics, one can define a geometric variance, , and a geometric coefficient of variation, , has been proposed. This term was intended to be analogous to the coefficient of variation, for describing multiplicative variation in log-normal data, but this definition of GCV has no theoretical basis as an estimate of  itself (see also Coefficient of variation).

Note that the geometric mean is smaller than the arithmetic mean. This is due to the AM–GM inequality and is a consequence of the logarithm being a concave function. In fact,

In finance, the term  is sometimes interpreted as a convexity correction. From the point of view of stochastic calculus, this is the same correction term as in Itō's lemma for geometric Brownian motion.

Arithmetic moments

For any real or complex number , the -th moment of a log-normally distributed variable  is given by

Specifically, the arithmetic mean, expected square, arithmetic variance, and arithmetic standard deviation of a log-normally distributed variable  are respectively given by:

The arithmetic coefficient of variation  is the ratio . For a log-normal distribution it is equal to

This estimate is sometimes referred to as the "geometric CV" (GCV), due to its use of the geometric variance. Contrary to the arithmetic standard deviation, the arithmetic coefficient of variation is independent of the arithmetic mean.

The parameters  and  can be obtained, if the arithmetic mean and the arithmetic variance are known:

A probability distribution is not uniquely determined by the moments  for .  That is, there exist other distributions with the same set of moments. In fact, there is a whole family of distributions with the same moments as the log-normal distribution.

Mode, median, quantiles

The mode is the point of global maximum of the probability density function.  In particular, by solving the equation , we get that:

Since the log-transformed variable  has a normal distribution, and quantiles are preserved under monotonic transformations, the quantiles of  are

where  is the quantile of the standard normal distribution.

Specifically, the median of a log-normal distribution is equal to its multiplicative mean,

Partial expectation

The partial expectation of a random variable  with respect to a threshold  is defined as

Alternatively, by using the definition of conditional expectation, it can be written as . For a log-normal random variable, the partial expectation is given by:

where  is the normal cumulative distribution function. The derivation of the formula is provided in the Talk page. The partial expectation formula has applications in insurance and economics, it is used in solving the partial differential equation leading to the Black–Scholes formula.

Conditional expectation

The conditional expectation of a log-normal random variable —with respect to a threshold —is its partial expectation divided by the cumulative probability of being in that range:

Alternative parameterizations
In addition to the characterization by  or , here are multiple ways how the log-normal distribution can be parameterized. ProbOnto, the knowledge base and ontology of probability distributions lists seven such forms:

 LogNormal1(μ,σ) with mean, μ, and standard deviation, σ, both on the log-scale

 LogNormal2(μ,υ) with mean, μ, and variance, υ, both on the log-scale

 LogNormal3(m,σ) with median, m, on the natural scale and standard deviation, σ, on the log-scale

 LogNormal4(m,cv) with median, m, and coefficient of variation, cv, both on the natural scale

 LogNormal5(μ,τ) with mean, μ, and precision, τ, both on the log-scale

 LogNormal6(m,σg) with median, m, and geometric standard deviation, σg, both on the natural scale

 LogNormal7(μN,σN) with mean, μN, and standard deviation, σN, both on the natural scale

Examples for re-parameterization
Consider the situation when one would like to run a model using two different optimal design tools, for example PFIM and PopED. The former supports the LN2, the latter LN7 parameterization, respectively. Therefore, the re-parameterization is required, otherwise the two tools would produce different results.

For the transition  following formulas hold  and .

For the transition  following formulas hold  and .

All remaining re-parameterisation formulas can be found in the specification document on the project website.

Multiple, reciprocal, power
 Multiplication by a constant: If  then  for
 Reciprocal: If  then
 Power: If  then  for

Multiplication and division of independent, log-normal random variables
If two independent, log-normal variables  and   are multiplied [divided], the product [ratio] is again log-normal, with parameters  [] and , where . This is easily generalized to the product of  such variables.

More generally, if  are  independent, log-normally distributed variables, then

Multiplicative central limit theorem

The geometric or multiplicative mean of  independent, identically distributed, positive random variables  shows, for  approximately a log-normal distribution with parameters  and , assuming  is finite.

In fact, the random variables do not have to be identically distributed.  It is enough for the distributions of  to all have finite variance and satisfy the other conditions of any of the many variants of the central limit theorem.

This is commonly known as Gibrat's law.

Other

A set of data that arises from the log-normal distribution has a symmetric Lorenz curve (see also Lorenz asymmetry coefficient).

The harmonic , geometric  and arithmetic  means of this distribution are related; such relation is given by

Log-normal distributions are infinitely divisible, but they are not stable distributions, which can be easily drawn from.

Related distributions
 If  is a normal distribution, then
 If  is distributed log-normally, then  is a normal random variable.
 Let  be independent log-normally distributed variables with possibly varying  and  parameters, and .  The distribution of  has no closed-form expression, but can be reasonably approximated by another log-normal distribution  at the right tail. Its probability density function at the neighborhood of 0 has been characterized  and it does not resemble any log-normal distribution. A commonly used approximation due to L.F. Fenton (but previously stated by R.I. Wilkinson and mathematical justified by Marlow) is obtained by matching the mean and variance of another log-normal distribution:  In the case that all  have the same variance parameter , these formulas simplify to
For a more accurate approximation, one can use the Monte Carlo method to estimate the cumulative distribution function, the pdf and the right tail.

The sum of correlated log-normally distributed random variables can also be approximated by a log-normal distribution
 If  then  is said to have a Three-parameter log-normal distribution with support . , .
 The log-normal distribution is a special case of the semi-bounded Johnson's SU-distribution.
 If  with , then  (Suzuki distribution).
 A substitute for the log-normal whose integral can be expressed in terms of more elementary functions can be obtained based on the logistic distribution to get an approximation for the CDF  This is a log-logistic distribution.

Statistical inference

Estimation of parameters

For determining the maximum likelihood estimators of the log-normal distribution parameters μ and σ, we can use the same procedure as for the normal distribution. Note that

where  is the density function of the normal distribution .  Therefore, the log-likelihood function is

Since the first term is constant with regard to μ and σ, both logarithmic likelihood functions,  and , reach their maximum with the same  and .  Hence, the maximum likelihood estimators are identical to those for a normal distribution for the observations ,

For finite n, the estimator for  is unbiased, but the one for  is biased. As for the normal distribution, an unbiased estimator for  can be obtained by replacing the denominator n by n−1 in the equation for .

When the individual values  are not available, but the sample's mean  and standard deviation s is, then the Method of moments can be used. The corresponding parameters are determined by the following formulas, obtained from solving the equations for the expectation  and variance  for  and :

Statistics
The most efficient way to analyze log-normally distributed data consists of applying the well-known methods based on the normal distribution to logarithmically transformed data and then to back-transform results if appropriate.

Scatter intervals
A basic example is given by scatter intervals: For the normal distribution, the interval  contains approximately two thirds (68%) of the probability (or of a large sample), and  contain 95%. Therefore, for a log-normal distribution,
 contains 2/3, and
 contains 95% of the probability. Using estimated parameters, then approximately the same percentages of the data should be contained in these intervals.

Confidence interval for μ*
Using the principle, note that a confidence interval for  is , where  is the standard error and q is the 97.5% quantile of a t distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom. Back-transformation leads to a confidence interval for ,
 with

Extremal principle of entropy to fix the free parameter σ

In applications,  is a parameter to be determined.  For growing processes balanced by production and dissipation, the use of an extremal principle of Shannon entropy shows that

This value can then be used to give some scaling relation between the inflexion point and maximum point of the log-normal distribution. This relationship is determined by the base of natural logarithm, , and exhibits some geometrical similarity to the minimal surface energy principle.
These scaling relations are useful for predicting a number of growth processes  (epidemic spreading, droplet splashing, population growth, swirling rate of the bathtub vortex, distribution of language characters, velocity profile of turbulences, etc.).
For example, the log-normal function with such  fits well with the size of secondarily produced droplets during droplet impact  and the spreading of an epidemic disease.

The value  is used to provide a probabilistic solution for the Drake equation.

Occurrence and applications
The log-normal distribution is important in the description of natural phenomena.  Many natural growth processes are driven by the accumulation of many small percentage changes which become additive on a log scale.  Under appropriate regularity conditions, the distribution of the resulting accumulated changes will be increasingly well approximated by a log-normal, as noted in the section above on "Multiplicative Central Limit Theorem".  This is also known as  Gibrat's law, after Robert Gibrat (1904–1980)  who formulated it for companies. If the rate of accumulation of these small changes does not vary over time, growth becomes independent of size.  Even if this assumption is not true, the size distributions at any age of things that grow over time tends to be log-normal. Consequently, reference ranges for measurements in healthy individuals are more accurately estimated by assuming a log-normal distribution than by assuming a symmetric distribution about the mean.

A second justification is based on the observation that fundamental natural laws imply multiplications and divisions of positive variables. Examples are the simple gravitation law connecting masses and distance with the resulting force, or the formula for equilibrium concentrations of chemicals in a solution that connects concentrations of educts and products. Assuming log-normal distributions of the variables involved leads to consistent models in these cases.

Specific examples are given in the following subsections.  contains a review and table of log-normal distributions from geology, biology, medicine, food, ecology, and other areas.  is a review article on log-normal distributions in neuroscience, with annotated bibliography.

Human behavior

 The length of comments posted in Internet discussion forums follows a log-normal distribution.
 Users' dwell time on online articles (jokes, news etc.) follows a log-normal distribution.
 The length of chess games tends to follow a log-normal distribution.
 Onset durations of acoustic comparison stimuli that are matched to a standard stimulus follow a log-normal distribution.

Biology and medicine

 Measures of size of living tissue (length, skin area, weight).
 Incubation period of diseases.
 Diameters of banana leaf spots, powdery mildew on barley.
 For highly communicable epidemics, such as SARS in 2003, if public intervention control policies are involved, the number of hospitalized cases is shown to satisfy the log-normal distribution with no free parameters if an entropy is assumed and the standard deviation is determined by the principle of maximum rate of entropy production.
 The length of inert appendages (hair, claws, nails, teeth) of biological specimens, in the direction of growth.
 The normalised RNA-Seq readcount for any genomic region can be well approximated by log-normal distribution.
 The PacBio sequencing read length follows a log-normal distribution.
 Certain physiological measurements, such as blood pressure of adult humans (after separation on male/female subpopulations).
Several pharmacokinetic variables, such as Cmax, elimination half-life and the elimination rate constant.
 In neuroscience, the distribution of firing rates across a population of neurons is often approximately log-normal. This has been first observed in the cortex and striatum  and later in hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, and elsewhere in the brain. Also, intrinsic gain distributions and synaptic weight distributions appear to be log-normal as well.
Neuron densities in the cerebral cortex, due to the noisy cell division process during neurodevelopment.
In operating-rooms management, the distribution of surgery duration.
In the size of avalanches of fractures in the cytoskeleton of living cells, showing log-normal distributions, with significantly higher size in cancer cells than healthy ones.

Chemistry

 Particle size distributions and molar mass distributions.

 The concentration of rare elements in minerals.
 Diameters of crystals in ice cream, oil drops in mayonnaise, pores in cocoa press cake.

Hydrology

In hydrology, the log-normal distribution is used to analyze extreme values of such variables as monthly and annual maximum values of daily rainfall and river discharge volumes.

The image on the right, made with CumFreq, illustrates an example of fitting the log-normal distribution to ranked annually maximum one-day rainfalls showing also the 90% confidence belt based on the binomial distribution.

The rainfall data are represented by plotting positions as part of a cumulative frequency analysis.

Social sciences and demographics

 In economics, there is evidence that the income of 97%–99% of the population is distributed log-normally.   (The distribution of higher-income individuals follows a Pareto distribution).
 If an income distribution follows a log-normal distribution with standard deviation , then the Gini coefficient, commonly use to evaluate income inequality, can be computed as  where  is the error function, since , where   is the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal distribution.
 In finance, in particular the Black–Scholes model, changes in the logarithm of exchange rates, price indices, and stock market indices are assumed normal (these variables behave like compound interest, not like simple interest, and so are multiplicative). However, some mathematicians such as Benoit Mandelbrot have argued  that log-Lévy distributions, which possesses heavy tails would be a more appropriate model, in particular for the analysis for stock market crashes. Indeed, stock price distributions typically exhibit a fat tail.  The fat tailed distribution of changes during stock market crashes invalidate the assumptions of the central limit theorem.
 In scientometrics, the number of citations to journal articles and patents follows a discrete log-normal distribution.
 City sizes (population) satisfy Gibrat's Law. The growth process of city sizes is proportionate and invariant with respect to size. From the central limit theorem therefore, the log of city size is normally distributed.
 The number of sexual partners appears to be best described by a log-normal distribution.

Technology
 In reliability analysis, the log-normal distribution is often used to model times to repair a maintainable system.
 In wireless communication, "the local-mean power expressed in logarithmic values, such as dB or neper, has a normal (i.e., Gaussian) distribution." Also, the random obstruction of radio signals due to large buildings and hills, called shadowing, is often modeled as a log-normal distribution.
 Particle size distributions produced by comminution with random impacts, such as in ball milling.
 The file size distribution of publicly available audio and video data files (MIME types) follows a log-normal distribution over five orders of magnitude.
 File sizes of 140 million files on personal computers running the Windows OS, collected in 1999.
 Sizes of text-based emails (1990s) and multimedia-based emails (2000s).
 In computer networks and Internet traffic analysis, log-normal is shown as a good statistical model to represent the amount of traffic per unit time. This has been shown by applying a robust statistical approach on a large groups of real Internet traces. In this context, the log-normal distribution has shown a good performance in two main use cases: (1) predicting the proportion of time traffic will exceed a given level (for service level agreement or link capacity estimation) i.e. link dimensioning based on bandwidth provisioning and (2) predicting 95th percentile pricing.
 in physical testing when the test produces a time-to-failure of an item under specified conditions, the data is often best analyzed using a lognormal  distribution.

See also

 Heavy-tailed distribution
 Log-distance path loss model
 Modified lognormal power-law distribution
 Slow fading

Notes

Further reading

 Aitchison, J. and Brown, J.A.C. (1957)  The Lognormal Distribution, Cambridge University Press.

External links

The normal distribution is the log-normal distribution

Continuous distributions
Normal distribution
Exponential family distributions
Infinitely divisible probability distributions
Non-Newtonian calculus

Log-normal distribution


"Moving On" is a song written by Fredrik Kempe and Sarah Dawn Finer, and performed by Sarah Dawn Finer at Melodifestivalen 2009, where it ended up 6th.

The song participated in the 4th semifinal in Malmö on 28 February 2009, dueling against Malena Ernman's song "La Voix" that reached the final. Sarah Dawn Finer's song reached "Andra chansen" in Norrköping on 7 March 2009. The song also became the choice of the international jury. At Andra chansen the song dueled against Scotts' "Jag tror på oss" and Lili & Susie's "Show Me Heaven", but managed to reach the finals together with Caroline af Ugglas's song "Snälla, snälla".

The song also charted at Svensktoppen, entering on 19 April 2009 where it stayed for 22 weeks. before leaving the chart in late September 2009.

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

References

2007 singles
Melodifestivalen songs of 2009
Sarah Dawn Finer songs
Songs written by Fredrik Kempe
English-language Swedish songs
2007 songs
Songs written by Sarah Dawn Finer

Moving On (Sarah Dawn Finer song)


The German Ideology (German: Die deutsche Ideologie), also known as A Critique of the German Ideology, is a set of manuscripts written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels around April or early May 1846. Marx and Engels did not find a publisher, but the work was retrieved and first published in 1932 by the Soviet Union's Marx–Engels–Lenin Institute. The book uses satirical polemics to critique modern German philosophy, particularly that of young Hegelians such as Marx's former mentor Bruno Bauer, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Max Stirner's The Ego and Its Own. It criticizes "ideology" as a form of "historical idealism", as opposed to Marx's historical materialism (the "materialist conception of history"). The first part of Volume I also examines the division of labor and Marx's theory of human nature, on which he states that humans "distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence".

Text

The text itself was written by Marx and Engels in Brussels in 1845 and 1846 but it was not published until 1932. The Preface and some of the alterations and additions are in Marx's hand. The bulk of the manuscript is in Engels' hand, except for Chapter V of Volume II and some passages of Chapter III of Volume I which are in Joseph Weydemeyer's hand. Chapter V in Volume II was written by Moses Hess and edited by Marx and Engels. The text in German runs to around 700 pages.

Recent research for the new Marx Engels Gesamtausgabe (MEGA) indicates that much of the "system" of the "materialist conception of history" in the first part of the book was created afterwards by the Marx-Engels Institute.

Through the publication of the first volume of "Marx Engels Gesamtausgabe" it was possible to show that "Marx and Engels did not write the manuscripts on the "German ideology" as part of a book project, but rather as part of a magazine project in which other authors (Moses Hess, Georg Weerth, Wilhelm Weitling, etc.) were also involved. For this reason, a manuscript written by Roland Daniels, which was edited by Marx and Engels for the planned quarterly publication, is being printed in this volume for the first time. In terms of content, it was not initially the systematic elaboration of one's own theoretical positions that was the concern, but instead the polemical debate with young Hegelian and socialist contemporaries. However, the focus of the criticism of Marx and Engels was not on Feuerbach (as was mostly assumed up to now), but on Max Stirner, the author of the radical individualist work "The Unique One and His Property". It could be proven that the majority of what the recipients of the last century saw as chapter "I. Feuerbach" was originally written in controversy with Stirner. This also applies to the genesis of such central concepts as "ideology" and "petty bourgeois". In addition, there are numerous digressions in which Marx and Engels present their own positions (depictions of the historical development of the German bourgeoisie, the relationship between intellectual and material rule and the history of private property). It was only during the course of this discussion that Marx and Engels made the decision present their views in a separate chapter and combine them with a critique of Feuerbach. To this end, they removed central parts of the text of the Stirner and Bauer criticism from the context of their composition. These text developments are documented in detail in the apparatus volume. The text-critical apparatus with its discursive presentation of variants makes the drafting process transparent and, in particular, the intensive collaboration between Marx and Engels on the manuscripts comprehensible."

General outline
Marx and Engels argue that humans distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence to support their needs; what individuals are coincides with their production in both how and what they produce. The nature of individuals depends on the material conditions determining their production.

How far the productive forces of a nation are developed is shown by the degree to which the division of labor has been carried. Also, there is a direct link between division of labor and forms of ownership.

The ruling class, in ruling the material force of society, is simultaneously the ruling intellectual force of society. They regulate the production and distribution of ideas of their age.  As the ruling class changes with time, so too do the ideals and the new ruling class must instill upon its society its own ideas which will become universal. The ruling ideas are thought to be the universal interest. However, it is an illusion that the ideas of the ruling class are the communal interests.  This system will forever remain in place so long as society is organized around the need for a ruling class.

To illustrate this theoretical framework, Marx draws on his formulation of base and superstructure. Historical development is the reflection of changes in the economic and material relations of the base. When the base changes, a revolutionary class becomes the new ruling class that forms the superstructure. During revolution, the revolutionary class makes certain that its ideas appeal to humanity in general so that after a successful revolution these ideas appear natural and universal. These ideas, which the super-structural elements of society propagate, then become the governing ideology of the historical period. Furthermore, the governing ideology mystifies the economic relations of society and therefore places the proletariat in a state of false consciousness that serves to reproduce the working class.

"Morality, religion, metaphysics, all the rest of ideology and their corresponding forms of consciousness no longer retain the semblance of independence; they have no history and no development; but men, developing their material production and their material intercourse, alter, along with their real existence, their thinking and the products of their collective thinking."

This approach allows us to cease understanding history as a collection of dead facts or an imagined activity of subjects.

In The German Ideology (as in his later text volume 3 of Capital), Marx discusses how primitive accumulation alienates humans from nature.

See also

German idealism
The Indian Ideology and The Californian Ideology, whose titles were inspired by The German Ideology
Lumpenproletariat
Marxist philosophy
Sociology of knowledge
Young Hegelians
Young Marx

Footnotes

Further reading
 Terrell Carver and Daniel Blank, Marx and Engels's German Ideology Manuscripts: Presentation and Analysis of the "Feuerbach Chapter." New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
 –––, Political History of the Editions of Marx and Engels's "German Ideology Manuscripts." New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
 Sarah Johnson, "Farewell to the German ideology," in Journal of the History of Ideas 83, no.1, 2022.
 Margaret A. Rose, Reading the Young Marx and Engels: Poetry, Parody, and the Censor. London: Croon Helm, 1978.

External links
The German Ideology (Marxists.org)
The German Ideology, English-language edition of book published by Progress Publishers, PDF format.

1932 non-fiction books
Books by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Historical materialism

The German Ideology


Heuliez was a French carrosserie that worked as a production and design unit for various automakers. It specialized in producing short series for niche markets, such as convertibles or station-wagons.

The business activity ended on 31 October 2013.   The company's plant and buildings have been taken over by the "Fabrique régionale du Bocage", a quasi-company which has the regional government of Poitou-Charentes as its majority shareholder.

History
Heuliez was created in 1920 by Adolphe Heuliez, who started by making horse-drawn carts.  As early as 1925, he assembled his first car, a Peugeot 177B.  He also created a subsidiary company for the production of buses, which was later sold in 1980 and trades as Heuliez Bus.

Toward the end, however, the main product of Heuliez was the retractable roof made for the Peugeot 206 CC, with 350,000 units being produced.  It also produced entire cars, such as the Opel Tigra.  Since 1985, Heuliez has produced more than 450,000 cars, with a staff of over 2,000.

Poor sales of the Tigra forced Heuliez to reduce its staff by 541 and Opel asked Heuliez to reduce its output from 200 to 50 cars/day until the end of 2006.

In October 2007, Heuliez asked for protection from creditors. In July 2008, Argentum Motors committed itself to invest 10 million Euros in the business, with a further 10 million Euros during the ensuing five years, in return for 60% of the company's capital, but the agreement was not followed through.

The main production plant is located in Cerizay in the Deux-Sèvres département. The president of Heuliez is Paul Quéveau.

In 2010, Heuliez went out of the convertible rooftop-making business, and the electric vehicle elements were acquired by the Franco-German group Baelen Gaillard Industrie-ConEnergy-Kohl and were renamed Mia electric which itself ceased business in 2014.

Production
Citroën BX Station Wagon (1985–1994)
Citroën Visa Chrono (1984)
Citroën Visa Mille Pistes (1984)
Citroën Visa Convertible (1984)
Citroën BX 4TC (1986)
Citroën CX Break (1989–1991)
Citroën XM Break (1992–2000)
Citroën Xantia Break (1995–2001)
Opel Tigra TwinTop (2004–2009)
Peugeot 206 CC (2000–2007)
Peugeot 604 Limousine (1978–1984)
Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 road cars
Porsche 914/6 Murène concept car
Renault 5 Turbo

Electric vehicles
Heuliez Friendly, becoming Mia electric
Heuliez Pondicherry, neighborhood all-electric urban pick-up prototype

See also
Active Wheel as used in the Heuliez WILL concept car
Henri Chapron also in France
Karmann in Germany
Magna Steyr in Austria
Bertone and Pininfarina in Italy
Valmet Automotive in Finland

References

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of France
Convertible top suppliers
Coachbuilders of France
Contract vehicle manufacturers
Companies based in Nouvelle-Aquitaine

Heuliez


This is a list of authors of Hindi literature, i.e. people who write in Hindi language, its dialects and Hindustani language.

A
 Amarkant (1925–2014), novelist
 Amar Goswami (1945–2012), Hindi author and journalist
 Amir Khusro (1253–1325 AD), author of pahelis and mukris in the "Hindavi" dialect
 Acharya Ramlochan Saran (1889–1971), author, grammarian and publisher
 Abid Surti (1935–), author
 Acharya Chatursen Shastri (1891–1960)
 Amrita Pritam (1919–2005)

B
 Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850–1885), the "father of modern Hindi literature"
 Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan (1905–1988)
 Bhisham Sahni (1915–2003), author
 Bhupendra Nath Kaushik (1924–2007), poet, writer, satirist
 Badri Narain Sinha (1930–1979), poet, critic, journalist
 Balendu Dwivedi (1975–), Hindi author
 Bihari (1595–1664), author of Satasai ("Seven Hundred Verses")
 Banarasidas (1586–1643), author of 'Ardhakathanaka', the first biography in Hindi
 Bhagwati Charan Verma (1903–1981), author of Chitralekha and Sahitya Akademy award winning Bhoole Bisre Chitra

C
 Chand Bardai (1148–1191), author of Prithviraj Raso
 Chandrakiran Sonrexa (1920-2009), author of Chandan Chandni
 Chitra Mudgal (1943–) The first Indian woman to receive the Vyas Samman for her novel "Aavaan".

D
 Darchhawna (1936–), Hindi writer and Padma Shri awardee
 Devaki Nandan Khatri (1861–1913), novelist, author of Chandrakanta
 Dharamvir Bharati (1926–1997), Hindi poet, playwright
 Dushyant Kumar (1931–1975), poet of modern Hindustani
 Divya Prakash Dubey (1982–), Hindi author
 Doodhnath Singh (1936–2018), Hindi writer, critic, poet and a recipient of Bharat Bharti Samman

G
 Ganga Das (1823–1913), author of about fifty kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, he is known as Bhismpitama of the Hindi poetry.
 Geetanjali Shree (1957 - ) author of Tomb of Sand (Ret Samadhi) which won the International Booker Prize in 2022
 Gopal Singh Nepali (1911–1963), poet, lyricist
 Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh (1917–1964), modern Hindi poet
 Guru Bhakt Singh 'Bhakt' (1893–1983), "Wordsworth of India"
 Guru Gobind Singh Ji (1666–1708), the tenth Guru of Sikhism
 Babu Gulabrai (1888–1963), philosopher and Hindi writer
 Gopaldas Neeraj (1925–2018), poet and author
 Giriraj Kishore (1937–2020), writer

H
 Harishankar Parsai (1924–1995), satirist
 Hari Joshi (1943–), satirist, novelist, writer, poet
 Harivanshrai Bachchan (1907–2003): Madhushala
 Hrishikesh Sulabh (1955–)
 Hazari Prasad Dwivedi (1907–1979), novelist, literary historian

I
 Indira Dangi (1980–), novelist, writer

J
 Jagadguru Shree Kripaluji Maharaj (1922–2013), religious leader
 Jagadguru Swami Rambhadracharya (1950–), spiritual leader, scholar, poet, textual commentator, philosopher and playwright
 Jagdish Piyush (1950–2021), author, writer
 Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937), poet known for Kamayani
 Jainendra Kumar (1905–1988), author, short story writer
 Janki Ballabh Shastri (1916–2011), poet, author
 Jyotsna Milan (1941–2014), novelist, short story writer, poet and editor

K
 Kabir (1440–1518), poet, figure of the Bhakti movement
 Kavi Bhushan (1613–1712), poet and scholar who mainly wrote in braj bhasha
 Kaka Kalelkar (1885–1961), Gandhian, social reformer, scholar
 Kamleshwar (1932–2007), author, screenwriter, 2003 Sahitya Akademi Award for Kitne Pakistan (2000)
 Kashinath Singh (1937–), novelist, short story writer, 2011 Sahitya Akademi Award for Rehan Par Ragghu (2008), author of Kashi Ka Assi etc.
 Kedarnath Agarwal (1911–2000), recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award (1986) for Apurva (poetry collection)
 Kedarnath Singh (1934–2018), modern poet
 Keshavdas (1555–1625), Sanskrit scholar, Hindi poet, author of Rasik Priya
 Krishna Sobti (1925–), recipient of Sahitya Akademi Award for the novel Zindaginama
 Kamta Prasad Guru (1875–1947), grammar expert
 Kaifi Azmi (1919–2002)

L
 Lallu Lal (1763–1835), author and translator
 Laxmi Narayan Mishra (1903–1987), playwright

M
 Mirabai (1498–1546/1547), poet
 Malik Muhammad Jayasi (1477–1542), Avadhi poet; author of Padmawat
 Mahadevi Varma (1907–1987), poet, writer, recipient of the Jnanpith Award
 Maithili Sharan Gupt (1886–1964), modern Hindi poet; a pioneer of Khadi boli poetry; author of the epic Saket
 Makhanlal Chaturvedi (1889–1968), poet, playwright, journalist
 Mannu Bhandari (1931–), novelist
 Mohan Rakesh (1925–1972), a pioneer of the Nai Kahani ("New Story") literary movement
 Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1864–1938), writer, linguist, translator
 Manohar Shyam Joshi (1933–2006), journalist, screenwriter
 Mehrunnisa Parvez (1944–), Hindi novelist, short story writer and Padma Shri awardee
 Madhur Kapila (1942–), art critic, Hindi writer, recipient of the 2011 Sahitya Akademi Award for contribution to literature
 Mohan Rana (1964–), Hindi poet and philosopher
 Mridula Garg (1938–), short story writer and novelist

N
 Nagarjun (1911–2002), poet, biographer
 Naresh Mehta (1922–2000), one of the pioneers Nakenwad movement
 Nalin Vilochan Sharma (1916–1961), one of the pioneers Nakenwad movement
 Neelam Saxena Chandra (1969–), poet, fiction
 Nirmal Verma (1929–2005), novelist, translator
 Narendra Kohli (1940–2021), credited with reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose

P
 Pandit Narendra Sharma (1913–1989), poet, lyricist
 Phanishwar Nath 'Renu' (1921–1977), Hindi novelist
 Padma Sachdev (1940–), poet, novelist in Hindi and Dogri
 Pran Kumar Sharma (1938–), creator of Chacha Choudhary
 Premchand (1880–1936), modern Hindustani literature
 Parichay Das (1964–), writer and editor in contemporary Bhojpuri poetry
 Pankaj Prasun (1984–), writer and poet of Satire poetry

R
 Ram Ratan Bhatnagar (1914–1992), writer, literary critic
 Ramesh Chandra Jha (1928–1994), poet, novelist
 Raghuvir Sahay (1929–1990), poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist
 Rahi Masoom Raza (1927–1992), writer, lyricist
 Rajkamal Choudhary (1929–1967), poet, short story writer, novelist, critic
 Rahul Sankrityayan (1893–1963), the "father of Hindi travel literature"
 Ravidas (1398–1448), guru, songwriter
 Rajendra Mishra (1919–1979), Hindi author, critic
 Rajendra Yadav (1929–2013), pioneer of "Nayi Kahani" movement
 Rajinder Singh Bedi (1915–1984), writer, screenwriter
 Ramdhari Singh Dinkar (1908–1974), nationalist poet, essayist
Ramnarayan Yadavendu (1909–1951), writer, fictionist, essayist and social reformer
 Ram Vilas Sharma (1912–2000), literary critic
 Ramvriksh Benipuri (1899–1968), writer
 Rangeya Raghav (1923–1962), writer
 Raskhan (1533–1618), poet
 Rustam Singh (1955–), poet, philosopher, translator and editor
 Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), writer, poet, and musician

S
 Sahajanand Saraswati (1889–1950), writer, scholar
 Sachchidananda Vatsyayan (1911–1987) ("Agyeya"), recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award, and Jnanpith Award
 Sarveshwar Dayal Saxena (1927–1983), recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award, 1983
 Sharad Joshi (1931–1991), satirist, screenwriter
 Shekhar Joshi (1939–), Hindi author
 Acharya Shivpujan Sahay (1893–1963), writer of novels and prose
 Sri Lal Sukla (1925–2011), satirist
 Sumitranandan Pant (1900–1977), Hindi poet
 Surdas (1467–1583), composer
 Sūdan (1700–1753), author and poet
 Shahnaz Fatmi (1949–), writer, scholar
 Shankar Dayal Singh (1937–1995)
 Yagyadutt Sharma (1916–1993), Hindi novelist, writer and poet
 Subhadra Kumari Chauhan (1904–1948), poet, songwriter
 Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' (1896–1961), poet and author
 Safdar Hashmi (1889–1954), author, street theatre, activist
 Shyam Narayan Pandey (1907–1991), Hindi poet
 Saadat Hassan Manto (1912–1955), Hindi author
 Surender Mohan Pathak (1940–), Hindi author
 Sudama Panday 'Dhoomil' (1936–1975), Hindi poet, recipient of 1979 Sahitya Akademi Award for Kal Sunana Mujhe

T
 Teji Grover (1955–), poet, fiction writer, translator and painter
 Tulsidas (1532–1623), author of Shrī Rāmcharitmānas

U
 Usha Priyamvada (1930–), novelist, short-story writer, translator

V
 Vidyapati (1352–1448), a prominent poet of Eastern dialects
 Vishnu Prabhakar (1912–2009), recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award for the novel Ardhanarishvara
 Vibhuti Narain Rai (1951–), novelist
 Viveki Rai (1924–2016), novelist
 Vrindavan Lal Verma (1889–1969), historical novelist
 Vidya Niwas Mishra (1926–2005), scholar, journalist
 Vrind (1643–1723), Braj bhasha poet

Y
 Yashpal (1903–1976), novelist, author, Jhutha Sach (The False Truth, 1958–1960)

See also
 List of Hindi-language poets

References

Lists of writers by language

Hindi-language literature
Hindi language
Authors

List of Hindi authors


Ħal Far is the largest industrial estate in Malta. It is at the southern extreme of Malta, between the localities of Birżebbuġa, Safi and Żurrieq.

In the past, Ħal Far housed the RAF Hal Far airfield, which was known as HMS Falcon when in the service of the Royal Navy.  The airfield was also used in 1954 and 1955 by the US Navy Squadron VP-11 for a tour of six months each year. VP-11 had a complement of 12 aircraft stationed there. The enlisted personnel lived in Quonset huts located within walking distance of the airport.

The runway can still be seen and driven on, leaving Maltese drag racers to use it for drag car racing. Parts of the airfield including the hangar have been converted into detention centres for refugees and asylum seekers.

In this area, one can also find the historical Ħasan Cave, the Wardija Tower and the second largest Playmobil factory in the world.

References

Industrial parks in Malta
Birżebbuġa

Ħal Far


Terry Smith (born 1956) is a British-born artist living in London, England. In 2008, Smith was a recipient of the Paul Hamlyn Foundation Award for Artists. He is known for his carvings into the plaster of walls, mainly in derelict buildings and spaces.

Works
Smith notably held the keys to Tate Turbine Hall during the building of the hall in 1995–6, having been given permission to create his sculptures in the walls and spaces of the hall. Only the staff at the Tate and a few invitees were permitted access to the works areas inside the Turbine Hall and other areas of the building site to see Smith's work. Images of these works at Tate Modern were later shown at the South London Gallery in July–August 1996 for a group show called "Inside Bankside". Smith was permitted to create the same plaster/wall-based sculptures at the British Museum and also, prior to the British Museum piece, in the building that later became the South London Gallery. Smith had his first major retrospective Parallax. at the John Hansard Gallery, Southampton from December 2011–January 2012.

Other works of note were The Foundling, a video-audio installation commissioned by Gill Hedley as part of the Foundling Museum's contemporary art programme.

Smith has exhibited extensively in the UK and South America (e.g. Instituto de Artes, Porte Alegre, Brazil, Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas, Caracas, Venezuela and Museo X-Tersea, Mexico City.).

Solo Exhibitions include Fault Line, Museo de Arte Contemporaneo, Mexico City (1999), Marking Time, Lux Gallery, London (2000) and One thing leads to another, Studio 1.1, London (2004).

Publications include:
2000 Marking time. Nuova Icona, Venice.
2008  The Art of Learning. Art Monthly October 8 issue

One of Terry Smith's audio pieces Untitled features on the album Root by Thurston Moore, released on Lo Recordings in 1998.

Awards
1997, Pollock-Krasner Foundation
1997 London Arts Board
1997 Arts Council of England

References

Further reading
 Terry Smith's artist Statement http://www.axisweb.org/seCVFU.aspx?ARTISTID=2811 Retrieved April 2, 2012
 Terry Smith Website http://www.arts.clara.net/arts/CV.html Retrieved April 2, 2012
 The Caracol project at the Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas http://vimeo.com/23303857

Living people
1956 births
British contemporary artists
British installation artists
British performance artists

Terry Smith (artist)


() is a term which means "lineage" in Spanish and Portuguese and has historically been used as a racial and social identifier. In the context of the Spanish Empire in the Americas, the term also refers to a now-discredited 20th-century theoretical framework which postulated that colonial society operated under a hierarchical race-based "caste system". From the outset, colonial Spanish America resulted in widespread intermarriage: unions of Spaniards (), Amerindians (), and Africans (). Basic mixed-race categories that appeared in official colonial documentation were , generally offspring of a Spaniard and an Indigenous person; and , offspring of a Spaniard and an African. A plethora of terms were used for people with mixed Spanish, Amerindian, and African ancestry in 18th-century casta paintings, but they are not known to have been widely used officially or unofficially in the Spanish Empire.

Etymology
 is an Iberian word (existing in Spanish, Portuguese and other Iberian languages since the Middle Ages), meaning 'lineage'. It is documented in Spanish since 1417 and is linked to the Proto-Indo-European . The Portuguese  gave rise to the English word caste during the early modern period.

Use of casta terminology
In the historical literature, how racial distinction, hierarchy, and social status functioned over time in colonial Spanish America has been an evolving and contested discussion. Although the term sistema de castas (system of castes) or sociedad de castas ("society of castes") are utilized in modern historical analyses to describe the social hierarchy based on race, with Spaniards at the apex, archival research shows that there is not a rigid "system" with fixed places for individuals. rather, a more fluid social structure where individuals could move from one category to another, or maintain or be given different labels depending on the context. In the 18th century, "casta paintings", imply a fixed racial hierarchy, but this genre may well have been an attempt to bring order into a system that was more fluid. "For colonial elites, casta paintings might well have been an attempt to fix in place rigid divisions based on race, even as they were disappearing in social reality."

Examination of registers in colonial Mexico put in question other narratives held by certain academics, such as Spanish immigrants who arrived to Mexico being almost exclusively men or that "pure Spanish" people were all part of a small powerful elite, as Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of complete Spanish origin.

In New Spain (colonial Mexico) during the Mexican War of Independence, race and racial distinctions were an important issue and the end of imperial had a strong appeal. José María Morelos, who was registered as a Spaniard in his baptismal records, called for the abolition of the formal distinctions the imperial regime made between racial groups, advocating for "calling them one and all Americans." Morelos issued regulations in 1810 to prevent ethnic-based disturbances. "He who raises his voice should be immediately punished." In 1821 race was an issue in the negotiations resulting in the Plan of Iguala.

"Colonial Caste System" debate
The degree to which racial category labels had legal and social consequences has been subject to academic debate since the idea of a "caste system" was first developed by Polish-Venezuelan philologist Ángel Rosenblat and Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán in the 1940s. Both authors popularized the notion that racial status was the key organizing principle of Spanish colonial rule, a theory which became commonplace in the anglosphere during the mid and late 20th century. However, recent academic studies in Latin America have widely challenged this notion, considering it a flawed and ideologically-based reinterpretation of the colonial period. Then, several historians have questioned the existence of this phenomenon in historical sociopolitical dynamics, considering that it could be a modern invention, which emerged during a historical revisionism in the 1940s, which would misrepresent qualifiers and lexicon of colonial culture to result in the system of castes that is narrated. Given this, this historiographical current believes that for later social scientists, the nomenclature of "castes" began to imply, arbitrarily and equivocally, that colonial society was necessarily founded on an apparent "caste system" like Caste system in India.

Pilar Gonzalbo, in her study  (2013) discards the idea of the existence of a "caste system" or a "caste society" in New Spain, understood as a "social organization based on the race and supported by coercive power". She also affirms in her work that certain subliminal and derogatory messages in caste paintings were not a general phenomenon, and that they only began to be carried out in particular environments of the Criollo oligarchies after the Bourbon Reformism and the influx of ideas of scientific racism from the illustration within some encyclopedic environments of the colonial bourgeoisie. A sample of the artificial construction of situations and characters in these paintings can be intuited in terms of the apparent scarce presence of Spanish women to represent the formation of miscegenation, which is very contrary to the reality of parish marriage records, which they recorded the widespread existence of Spanish women married to men of other castes. So, those who commissioned the representations of castes would be a minority of distinguished Criollo, probably functionaries of the metropolis and owners of a dubious lineage; who had a desire for social distinction, plagued with prejudice against the commoner masses (in which a large part of the indigenous peasantry was included) because of works such as that of Jean de La Bruyère (who spread the idea of a poor and miserable peasantry, almost like animals, in the encyclopedic elites of the Enlightenment). These paintings are not very reliable testimonies of racism at a mass level.

Joanne Rappaport, in her book on colonial New Granada, The Disappearing Mestizo, rejects the caste system as an interpretative framework for that time, discussing both the legitimacy of a model valid for the entire colonial world and the usual association between "caste" and "race".

Similarly, Berta Ares' 2015 study on the Viceroyalty of Peru, notes that the term "casta" was barely used by colonial authorities which, according to her, casts doubt on the existence of a "caste system". Even by the 18th century, its use was rare and appeared in its plural form, "castas", characterized by its ambiguous meaning. The word did not specifically refer to sectors of the population who were of mixed race, but also included both Spaniards and Indians of lower socio-economic extraction, often used together with other terms such as plebe, vulgo, naciones, clases, calidades, otras gentes, etc.

Ben Vinson, in a study of the historical archives of Mexico carried out in 2018, addressing the issue of racial diversity in Mexico and its relationship with imperial Spain, ratified these conclusions.

Often called the  or the , there was, in fact, no fixed system of classification for individuals, as careful archival research has shown. There was considerable fluidity in society, with the same individuals being identified by different categories simultaneously or over time. Individuals self-identified by particular terms, often to shift their status from one category to another to their advantage. For example, both  and Spaniards were exempt from tribute obligations, but were both equally subject to the Inquisition. , on the other hand, paid tribute yet were exempt from the Inquisition. In certain cases, a  might try to "pass" as an  to escape the Inquisition. An  might try to pass as a  to escape tribute obligations.

Casta paintings produced largely in 18th-century Mexico have influenced modern understandings of race in Spanish America, a concept which began infiltrating Bourbon Spain from France and Northern Europe during this time. They purport to show a fixed "system" of racial hierarchy which has been disputed by modern academia. These paintings should be evaluated as the production by elites in New Spain for an elite viewership in both Spanish territories and abroad portrayals of mixtures of Spaniards with other ethnicities, some of which have been interpreted as being pejorative in nature or seeking social outrage. They are thus useful for understanding elites and their attitudes toward non-elites, and quite valuable as illustrations of aspects of material culture in the late colonial era.

The process of mixing ancestries by the union of people of different races is known in the modern era as  ( , ). In Spanish colonial law, mixed-race castas were classified as part of the  and not the , which set Amerindians outside the Hispanic sphere with different duties and rights to those of Spaniards and Mestizos.

The caste system for these revisionists would have been misconstrued as being analogous to the castes of India. Given that in viceregal Spanish America there was never a closed system based on birth rights, where the birth rate and, therefore, wealth, created a "caste system" difficult to penetrate; but, rather, the statute of Limpieza de sangre (a concept of religious root and not biological or racial) was given, in which the Indian and the mestizo, as a new Christian, had limitations on access to certain trades until assimilation full of his conversion to Catholicism; but that did not prevent his social ascent, and he would even receive protections that would benefit his social mobilization, protections that the old Christian of the Republica de españoles would not enjoy (such as being free from all the taxes of the whites, with the exception of the indigenous tribute, or be exempt from the Holy Inquisition). Then, those conceptions of a "caste society" or a "caste system" as characteristic of colonial society would be completely anachronistic formulations and could be part of the Spanish Black Legend. Given this, in works prior to those of Rosenblat and Beltrán, one would not find references to the notion that the Spanish empire was a society founded on racial segregation. Neither in Nicolás León, Gregorio Torres Quintero, Blanchard, nor in the Catalog of Herrera and Cicero (1895), nor in the article "Castas" of the Dictionary of History and Geography (1855), nor in Alexander von Humboldt's Political Essay on the Spanish-American territories that he visited on his scientific expeditions. Among other works that refer to the existence of castes and caste paintings, without implying connotations with modern racism, which would come to America after the French Enlightenment.

This would make these critics conclude that those colonial societies were rather of the class type, that although there was a relationship between class and race through castes, that was not in a cause relationship, but in a consequence relationship ( not being an end in itself the race, which was understood in the Hispanic tradition as something purely spiritual, not so much biological). The purpose of the castas was to register the identity of lineages to register them in the republic of Spaniards, the republic of Indians, with the services and privileges acquired, which would not disturb the economic potential of the individual of the caste, nor would they have the purpose of to formally segregate them from positions of power, but to hierarchize them in feudal society (not equivalent to the same thing, as long as they were not prevented from ascending to the nobility or being part of the commercial petty bourgeoisie). Then, the viceroyalty society would be a society of "quality", estate, corporate, patronage and trade union, where each social group was not conditioned by their race, and neither did this establish the labor relations of its inhabitants. In the parish registers there would never have been the tendency to classify in so many innumerable mixtures as seen in the caste charts, which would be an artistic phenomenon typical of the Age of Enlightenment.

Some examples of blacks, mulattoes and mestizos who climbed socially would be used as evidence against these misrepresentations, such as: Juan Latino, Juan Valiente, Juan Garrido, Juan García, Juan Bardales, Sebastián Toral, Antonio Pérez, Miguel Ruíz, Gómez de León, Fran Dearobe, José Manuel Valdés, Teresa Juliana de Santo Domingo. Names of indigenous chiefs and noble mestizos are also mentioned: Carlos Inca, Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Manuela Taurichumbi Saba Cápac Inca, Alonso de Castilla Titu Atauchi Inga, Alonso de Areanas Florencia Inca, Gonzalo Tlaxhuexolotzin, Vicente Xicohténcatl, Bartolomé Zitlalpopoca, Lorenzo Nahxixcalzin , Doña Luisa Xicotencatl, Nicolás de San Luis Montañez, Fernando de Tapia, Isabel Moctezuma Tecuichpo Ixcaxochitzin, Pedro de Moctezuma. The Royal Decree of Philip II on 1559 is also often mentioned, in which it is prescribed that "the mestizos who come to these kingdoms to study, or for other things of their use (...) do not need another license to return." The document is important, because laws are not made for particular cases and it shows that the existence of multiple castes did not impede social mobilization within the Hispanic monarchy, the same mobilization that must have been significant to require the attention of a royal edict of the person of the Spanish king.

"Purity of blood" and the evolution of racial classification
Certain authors have sought to link the castas in Latin America to the older Spanish concept of "purity of blood", limpieza de sangre, originating under Moorish rule, developed in Christian Spain to denote those without recent Jewish or Muslim heritage or, more widely, heritage from individuals convicted by the Spanish inquisition for heresy.

It was directly linked to religion and notions of legitimacy, lineage and honor following Spain's reconquest of Moorish territory and the degree to which it can be considered a precursor to the modern concept of race has been the subject of academic debate. The Inquisition only allowed those Spaniards who could demonstrate not to have Jewish and Moorish blood to emigrate to Latin America, although this prohibition was frequently ignored and a number of Spanish Conquistadors were Jewish Conversos. Others, such as Juan Valiente, were Black Africans or had recent Moorish ancestry.

Both in Spain and in the New World Conversos who continued to practice Judaism in secret were aggressively prosecuted. Of the roughly 40 people executed by the Spanish Inquisition in Mexico, a significant number were convicted of being "Judaizers" (judaizantes) . Spanish Conquistador Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva was prosecuted by the Inquisition for secretly practising Judaism and eventually died in prison.

In Spanish America, the idea of purity of blood also applied to Black Africans and indigenous peoples since, as Spaniards of Moorish and Jewish descent, they had not been Christian for various generations and were inherently suspect of engaging in religious heresy. In all Spanish territories, including Spain itself, evidence of lack of purity of blood had consequences for eligibility for office, entrance into the priesthood, and emigration to Spain's overseas territories. Having to produce genealogical records to prove one's pure ancestry gave rise to a trade in the creation of false genealogies, a practice which was already widespread in Spain itself.

This was no impediment for intermarriage between Spaniards and indigenous people, just as it had not been between Old and New Christians or different racial groups coexisting in late medieval and early modern Spain. The result was generations of mixed-race children who were typically considered Spaniards, and many of whom returned to Spain to join the ranks of the nobility, a notable example being Juan Cano Moctezuma.

However, starting in the late 16th century, some investigations of ancestry classified as "stains" any connection with Black Africans ("negros", which resulted in "mulatos") and sometimes mixtures with indigenous that produced Mestizos. While some illustrations from the period show men of African descent dressed in fashionable clothing and as aristocrats in upper-class surroundings, the idea that any hint of black ancestry was a stain developed by the end of the colonial period, a time in which biological racism began to emerge throughout the western world. This trend was illustrated in 18th-century paintings of racial hierarchy, known as casta paintings which led to 20th-century emergence of theories on a "Caste System" existing in Colonial Spanish America.

The idea in New Spain that native or "Indian" (indio) blood in a lineage was an impurity may well have come about as the optimism of the early Franciscans faded about creating Indian priests trained at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, which ceased that function in the mid-16th century. In addition, the Indian nobility, which was recognized by the Spanish colonists, had declined in importance, and there were fewer formal marriages between Spaniards and indigenous women than during the early decades of the colonial era. In the 17th century in New Spain, the ideas of purity of blood became associated with "Spanishness and whiteness, but it came to work together with socio-economic categories", such that a lineage with someone engaged in work with their hands was tainted by that connection.

Indians in Central Mexico were affected by ideas of purity of blood from the other side. Crown decrees on purity of blood were affirmed by indigenous communities, which barred Indians from holding office who had any non-Indians (Spaniards and/or Black peoples) in their lineage. In indigenous communities "local caciques [rulers] and principales were granted a set of privileges and rights on the basis of their pre-Hispanic noble bloodlines and acceptance of the Catholic faith." Indigenous nobles submitted proofs (probanzas) of their purity of blood to affirm their rights and privileges that were extended to themselves and their communities. This supported the república de indios, a legal division of society that separated indigenous from non-Indians (república de españoles).

Casta classifications and legal consequences

In Spanish America racial categories were registered at local parishes upon baptism as required by the Spanish Crown. Initially in Spanish America there were three ethnic categories. They generally referred to the multiplicity of indigenous American peoples as "Indians" (indios). Those from Spain called themselves españoles. The third group were black Africans, called negros (lit. "blacks"), brought as slaves from the earliest days of Spanish Empire. Although intermarriage was widespread from the beginning of the colonial period, mestizos only slowly began to be recognized as a distinct ethnicity 150 years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, prior to which they had simply been identified as Spaniards.

Although the number of Spanish women emigrating to New Spain was far higher than is often portrayed, they were fewer in number than men, as well as fewer black women than men, so the mixed-race offspring of Spaniards and of Black people were often the product of liaisons with indigenous women. The process of race mixture is now termed mestizaje, a term coined in the modern era.

In the 16th century, the term casta, a collective category for mixed-race individuals, came into existence as the numbers grew, particularly in urban areas. Nevertheless, during the first century and a half of the colonial era, the offspring of mixed marriages were registered as Spaniards and only Africans were registered as "Castas". The registry of "Mestizos" as "Castas" rather than "Spaniards" only become widespread in the last century of colonial rule.

The crown had divided the population of its overseas empire into two categories, separating Indians from non-Indians. Indigenous were the República de Indios, the other the República de Españoles, essentially the Hispanic sphere, so that Spaniards, Black people, and mixed-race castas were lumped into this category. Official censuses and ecclesiastical records noted an individual's racial category, so that these sources can be used to chart socio-economic standard, residence patterns, and other important data.

General racial groupings had their own set of privileges and restrictions, both legal and customary. So, for example, only Spaniards and indigenous, who were deemed to be the original societies of the Spanish dominions, had recognized aristocracies. In the population at large, access to social privileges and even at times a person's perceived and accepted racial classification, were predominantly determined by that person's socioeconomic standing in society.

Official censuses and ecclesiastical records noted an individual's racial category, so that these sources can be used to chart socio-economic standards, residence patterns, and other important data. Parish registers, where baptism, marriage, and burial were recorded, had three basic categories: español (Spaniards), indio, and color quebrado ("broken color", indicating a mixed-race person). In some parishes in colonial Mexico, indios were recorded with other non-Spaniards in the color quebrado register. Españoles and mestizos could be ordained as priests and were exempt from payment of tribute to the crown. Free black people, Amerindians, and mixed-race castas were required to pay tribute and barred from the priesthood. Being designated as an español or mestizo conferred social and financial advantages. Men of color began to apply to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, but in 1688 Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza attempted to prevent their entrance by drafting new regulations barring black peoples and mulattoes. In 1776, the crown issued the Royal Pragmatic on Marriage, taking approval of marriages away from the couple and placing it in their parents' hands. The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville and Miguel Rodríguez, a white Segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States.

Long lists of different terms found in casta paintings do not appear in official documentation or anywhere outside these paintings. Only counts of Spaniards, mestizos, black peoples and mulattoes, and indigenes (indios), were recorded in censuses.

Casta paintings of the 18th century

Artwork created mainly in 18th-century Mexico purports to show race mixture as a hierarchy. These paintings have had tremendous influence in how scholars have approached difference in the colonial era, but should not be taken as definitive description of racial difference. For approximately a century, casta paintings were by elite artists for an elite viewership. They ceased to be produced following Mexico's independence in 1821 when casta designations were abolished. The vast majority of casta paintings were produced in Mexico, by a variety of artists, with a single group of canvases clearly identified for 18th-century Peru. In the colonial era, artists primarily created religious art and portraits, but in the 18th century, casta paintings emerged as a completely secular genre of art. An exception to that is the painting by Luis de Mena, a single canvas that has the central figure of the Virgin of Guadalupe and a set of casta groupings. Most sets of casta paintings have 16 separate canvases, but a few, such as Mena's, Ignacio María Barreda, and the anonymous painting in the Museo de Virreinato in Tepozotlan, Mexico, are frequently reproduced as examples of the genre, likely because their composition gives a single, tidy image of the racial classification (from the elite viewpoint).

It is unclear why casta paintings emerged as a genre, why they became such a popular genre of artwork, who commissioned them, and who collected them. One scholar suggests they can be seen as "proud renditions of the local," at a point when American-born Spaniards began forming a clearer identification with their place of birth rather than metropolitan Spain. The single-canvas casta artwork could well have been as a curiosity or souvenir for Spaniards to take home to Spain; two frequently reproduced casta paintings are Mena's and Barreda's, both of which are in Madrid museums. There is only one set of casta paintings definitively done in Peru, commissioned by Viceroy Manuel Amat y Junyent (1770), and sent to Spain for the Cabinet of Natural History of the Prince of Asturias.

The influence of the European Enlightenment on the Spanish empire led to an interest in organizing knowledge and scientific description might have resulted in the commission of many series of pictures that document the racial combinations that existed in Spanish territories in the Americas. Many sets of these paintings still exist (around one hundred complete sets in museums and private collections and many more individual paintings), of varying artistic quality, usually consisting of sixteen paintings representing as many racial combinations. It must be emphasized that these paintings reflected the views of the economically established Criollo society and officialdom, but not all Criollos were pleased with casta paintings. One remarked that they show "what harms us, not what benefits us, what dishonors us, not what ennobles us." Many paintings are in Spain in major museums, but many remain in private collections in Mexico, perhaps commissioned and kept because they show the character of late colonial Mexico and a source of pride.

Some of the finer sets were done by prominent Mexican artists, such as José de Alcíbar, Miguel Cabrera, José de Ibarra, José Joaquín Magón, (who painted two sets); Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz, José de Páez, and Juan Rodríguez Juárez. One of Magón's sets includes descriptions of the "character and moral standing" of his subjects. These artists worked together in the painting guilds of New Spain. They were important transitional artists in 18th-century casta painting. At least one Spaniard, Francisco Clapera, also contributed to the casta genre. In general, little is known of most artists who did sign their work; most casta paintings are unsigned.

Certain authors have interpreted the overall theme of these paintings as representing the "supremacy of the Spaniards", the possibility that mixtures of Spaniards and Spanish-Indian offspring could return to the status of Spaniards through marriage to Spaniards over generations, what can be considered "restoration of racial purity," or "racial mending" was seen visually in many sets of casta paintings. It was also articulated by a visitor to Mexico, Don Pedro Alonso O'Crouley, in 1774. "If the mixed-blood is the offspring of a Spaniard and an Indian, the stigma [of race mixture] disappears at the third step in descent because it is held as systematic that a Spaniard and an Indian produce a mestizo; a mestizo and a Spaniard, a castizo; and a castizo and a Spaniard, a Spaniard. The admixture of Indian blood should not indeed be regarded as a blemish, since the provisions of law give the Indian all that he could wish for, and Philip II granted to mestizos the privilege of becoming priests. On this consideration is based the common estimation of descent from a union of Indian and European or creole Spaniard."

O'Crouley says that the same process of restoration of racial purity does not occur over generations for European-African offspring marrying whites. "From the union of a Spaniard and a Negro the mixed-blood retains the stigma for generations without losing the original quality of a mulato." Casta paintings show increasing whitening over generations with the mixes of Spaniards and Africans. The sequence is the offspring of a Spaniard + Negra, Mulatto; Spaniard with a Mulatta, Morisco; Spaniard with a Morisca, Albino (a racial category, derived from Alba, "white"); Spaniard with an Albina, Torna atrás, or "throw back" black. Negro, Mulatto, and Morisco were labels found in colonial-era documentation, but Albino and Torna atrás exist only as fairly standard categories in casta paintings.

In contrast, mixtures with Black people, both by Indians and Spaniards, led to a bewildering number of combinations, with "fanciful terms" to describe them. Instead of leading to a new racial type or equilibrium, they led to apparent disorder. Terms such as the above-mentioned tente en el aire ("floating in mid air") and no te entiendo ("I don't understand you")—and others based on terms used for animals: coyote and lobo (wolf).

Castas defined themselves in different ways, and how they were recorded in official records was a process of negotiation between the casta and the person creating the document, whether it was a birth certificate, a marriage certificate or a court deposition. In real life, many casta individuals were assigned different racial categories in different documents, revealing the malleable nature of racial identity in colonial, Spanish American society.

Some paintings depicted the supposed "innate" character and quality of people because of their birth and ethnic origin. For example, according to one painting by José Joaquín Magón, a mestizo (mixed Indian + Spanish) was considered generally humble, tranquil, and straightforward; while another painting claims "from Lobo and Indian woman is born the Cambujo, one usually slow, lazy, and cumbersome." Ultimately, the casta paintings are reminders of the colonial biases in modern human history that linked a caste/ethnic society based on descent, skin color, social status, and one's birth.

Often, casta paintings depicted commodity items from Latin America like pulque, the fermented alcohol drink of the lower classes. Painters depicted interpretations of pulque that were attributed to specific castas.

The Indias in casta paintings depict them as partners to Spaniards, Black people, and castas, and thus part of Hispanic society. But in a number of casta paintings, they are also shown apart from "civilized society," such as Miguel Cabrera's Indios Gentiles, or indios bárbaros or Chichimecas barely clothed indigenous in a wild, setting. In the single-canvas casta painting by José María Barreda, there are a canonical 16 casta groupings and then in a separate cell below are "Mecos". Although the so-called "barbarian Indians" (indios bárbaros) were fierce warriors on horseback, indios in casta paintings are not shown as bellicose, but as weak, a trope that developed in the colonial era. A casta painting by Luis de Mena that is often reproduced as an example of the genre shows an unusual couple with a pale, well-dressed Spanish woman paired with a nearly naked indio, producing a Mestizo offspring. "The aberrant combination not only mocks social protocol but also seems to underscore the very artificiality of a casta system that pretends to circumscribe social fluidity and economic mobility." The image "would have seemed frankly bizarre and offensive by eighteenth-century Creole elites, if taken literally", but if the pair were considered allegorical figures, the Spanish woman represents "Europe" and the indio "America." The image "functions as an allegory for the 'civilizing' and Christianizing process."

Sample sets of casta paintings
Presented here are casta lists from three sets of paintings. Note that they only agree on the first five combinations, which are essentially the Indian-White ones. There is no agreement on the Black mixtures, however. Also, no one list should be taken as "authoritative". These terms would have varied from region to region and across time periods. The lists here probably reflect the names that the artist knew or preferred, the ones the patron requested to be painted, or a combination of both.

Casta paintings

See also

 Caste system
 Castizo
 Dominant minority
 Filipino Mestizos
 Mestizo
 Mexican art
 Ordenanzas del Baratillo de México
 Race and ethnicity in Latin America
 La Raza
 Zambo

References

Further reading

Race and race mixture

Burns, Kathryn. "Unfixing Race," in Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires, ed. Margaret Greer et al. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2007.

Chance, John K. Race and class in Colonial Oaxaca, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1978.
Cope, R. Douglas. The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico City, 1660-1720. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994.
Fisher, Andrew B. and Matthew D. O'Hara, eds. Imperial Subjects: Race and Identity in Colonial Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 2009.

Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Pilar, "La trampa de las castas," in Alberro, Solange y Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Pilar, La sociedad novohispana. Estereotipos y realidades, México, El Colegio de México, 2013, p. 15-193.
Hill, Ruth. "Casta as Culture and the Sociedad de Castas a Literature," in Interpreting Colonialism. ed. Byron Wells and Philip Stewart. New York: Oxford University Press 2004.
Jackson, Robert H. Race, Caste, and Status: Indians in Colonial Spanish America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1999.
Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, "Reckoning with Mestizaje," Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820 (2015). http://www.fordham.edu/vistas.
MacLachlan, Colin M. and Jaime E. Rodríguez O. The Forging of the Cosmic Race: A Reinterpretation of Colonial Mexico, expanded edition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
Martínez, María Elena, Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico, Stanford: Stanford University Press 2008,

Mörner, Magnus. Race Mixture in the History of Latin America. Boston: Little Brown, 1967.
O'Crouley, Pedro Alonso. A Description of the Kingdom of New Spain. Translated and edited by Sean Galvin. John Howell Books 1972.
O'Toole, Rachel Sarah. Bound Lives: Africans, Indians, and the Making of Race in Colonial Peru. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 2012.
Pitt-Rivers, Julian, "Sobre la palabra casta", América Indígena, 36-3, 1976, pp. 559-586.
Ramos-Kittrell, Jesús. Playing in the Cathedral: Music, Race, and Status in New Spain. New York: Oxford University Press 2016.
Rappaport, Joanne. The Disappearing Mestizo: Configuring Difference in the Colonial Kingdom of New Granada. Durham: Duke University Press 2014.
Rosenblat, Angel. El mestizaje y las castas coloniales: La población indígena y el mestizaje en América. buenos Aires, Editorial Nova 1954.
Seed, Patricia. To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts Over Marriage Choice, 1574-1821. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988.

Twinam, Ann. Purchasing Whiteness: Pardos, Mulatos, and the Quest for Social Mobility in the Spanish Indies. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2015.

Vinson, Ben III. Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018

Casta painting

Carrera, Magali M. Imagining Identity in New Spain: Race, Lineage, and the Colonial Body in Portraiture and Casta Paintings. Austin, University of Texas Press, 2003.

Estrada de Gerlero, Elena Isabel. "Representations of 'Heathen Indians' in Mexican Casta Painting," in New World Orders, Ilona Katzew, ed. New York: Americas Society Art Gallery 1996.
García Sáiz, María Concepción. Las castas mexicanas: Un género pictórico americano. Milan: Olivetti 1989.
García Sáiz, María Concepción, "The Artistic Development of Casta Painting," in New World Orders, Ilona Katzew, ed. New York: Americas Society Art Gallery, 1996.
Katzew, Ilona. "Casta Painting: Identity and Social Stratification in Colonial Mexico," New York University, 1996.
Katzew, Ilona, ed. New World Orders: Casta Painting and Colonial Latin America. New York: Americas Society Art Gallery 1996.
Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004.

External links

"Casta Paintings" An example of one of the many things that can be found in Breamore House that has attracted a lot of interest over the years. This collection of Casta paintings is believed to be the only one in United Kingdom. The collection of fourteen paintings, was commissioned for the King of Spain in 1715 and painted by Mexican artist Juan Rodríguez Juárez.
Castas paintings and discussion on Nuestros Ranchos Genealogy of Mexico website
Safo, Nova. "Casta Paintings: Inventing Race Through Art/Mexican Art Genre Reveals 18th-Century Attitudes on Racial Mixing." The Tavis Smiley Show. June 30, 2004.
Soong, Roland. Racial Classifications in Latin America. 1999.

Former peoples of the African diaspora
African–Native American relations
Historiography of the Americas
Spanish colonization of the Americas
New Spain
Colonial Mexico
Colonial Peru

Spanish language
Racism
Interracial relationships

Casta


"Litoria" castanea, also known as the yellow-spotted tree frog, New England swamp frog, tablelands bell frog or yellow-spotted bell frog is a frog from eastern Australia. People thought these frogs were extinct, but then scientists found some in 2009.

There used to be two groups of yellow-spotted bell frogs, one in the north on the New England Tableland and one in the south near Canberra.  Some scientists said these should count as two different species of frogs.  The northern frogs lived between 1000 and 1500 meters above sea level and the southern frogs lived between 700 and 800 meters above sea level.  Both groups of frogs lived in permanent bodies of water, like swamps, lagoons, and the parts of rivers where the water flows slowly.

People thought these frogs all died from a fungus disease in the 1970s, but in 2009 some were found alive in the Southern Tablelands.  At first, the scientists did not tell anyone where they found the frog. They were worried that frog fans would come to take photographs of them, try to catch them, or scare them away.  The scientists took some of the frogs and tadpoles to the Taronga Zoo. The scientists left the other yellow-spotted tree frogs where they were. The person who owned the land where the frogs were living agreed to help protect them.

Sometime after that, the wild frogs all died. In 2018, scientists took some of the frogs they had raised at the Taronga Zoo and set them free in another part of the Southern Tablelands.  The scientists asked any person who thought they'd heard the frogs to make a recording of their calls with their phones.

The largest yellow-spotted tree frogs are 8 cm long.  They have yellow or white spots on their legs and bellies.  Their feet are completely webbed. Their backs are green with bronze and black spots. Their voices sound like a car engine failing to start.

These frogs look for food at night and like to sit in the sun during the day.  They lay their eggs on underwater plants.  During the winter, these frogs hide under stones, logs, or plants.

The government of Australia has made programs to protect these frogs.  They are in danger from feral cats that like to eat them and from a fungus that causes a disease called chytridiomycosis.  Scientists think that invasive species of fish and more ultraviolet radiation may also be killing these frogs.  Too much ultraviolet light can stop their eggs from hatching.

As of 2016, this frog is incertae sedis.  That means the scientists aren't sure what genus the species should be in.  That is why they put quotation marks around the genus, in "Litoria" castanea.

References

Pelodryadidae

"Litoria" castanea


Reid Neibaur Nibley (5 January 192325 February 2008) was an American pianist, composer and music educator. He wrote the words and music to the Latter-day Saint hymn "I Know My Father Lives".

Nibley was born to Alexander Nibley and his wife Agnes Sloan. He was the younger brother of Hugh Nibley. He had another brother, Richard Nibley, who was also a music educator.  Nibley's ancestry was Scottish, English, French and Jewish. Nibley was raised mainly in the Los Angeles area, where he was friends with Ray Bradbury, also a youth at the time. They would jointly write the music and scripts of roadshow productions of area youth groups of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Nibley became involved in music while still a child. He made his debut with the Glendale Symphony Orchestra at age eleven, and performed as a soloist with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at age 17.  He was the principal pianist for the Utah Symphony Orchestra for ten years. Among Nibley's later instructors were Leroy J. Robertson and Gyorgy Sandor.

Nibley was a professor at the University of Utah, the University of Michigan, The University of Southern California and Brigham Young University (BYU). At BYU, Nibley also held the position of pianist-in-residence.  Among Nibley's students at BYU was Kevin Kenner.

Nibley married Marjorie McBride in 1947 and they had six children: Stephen, Breta, Richard, Garn, Virginia, and Jonathan. Marjorie died in 2000. In 2001, Nibley married Nona Gallacher.

Nibley's hymn "I Know My Father Lives" is in both the Primary Children's Songbook and the 1985 hymnal of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In 1998, a CD of some of Nibley's works, Quiet Classics: Piano Meditations, was released. Nibley also wrote at least one sonata.

References

 "Obituary: Reid Neibauer Nibley", Deseret Morning News, 2008-02-28, p. B07
 Church News, September 15, 2001

1923 births
2008 deaths
American male composers
American Latter Day Saint hymnwriters
American people of Scottish descent
Brigham Young University faculty
Michigan State University faculty
University of Utah faculty
American music educators
Piano pedagogues
University of Michigan faculty
American people of English descent
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American composers
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians

Reid N. Nibley


A bird cage (sometimes birdcage) is a cage to hold a bird. Bird cages are used in the home to contain a pet bird, such as a parakeet or a canary. Bird cages used in the home are made of metal wire. A bird cage usually has seed and water dishes, a cuttle bone, and toys such as little bells and mirrors. However, the best ones available are shredding and foraging toys, which are more expensive than the "classic" bird accessories. These keep the birds engaged and prevent boredom. There are perches for the bird to sit on. A cage may be hung from a ceiling or a floor stand. The floor of the cage is usually lined with some sort of paper to absorb the bird's droppings, water spills, etc.

When a bird cage is round, tall and narrow or made of galvanized metal it should be avoided. Round cages confuse the birds and cause behavioral issues due to their shape, narrow and tall cages don't let the bird fly properly and any type of galvanized metal can potentially cause a lethal heavy metal intoxication.

Size
Bird cages should be at least 18x18x18 inches when it comes to small birds. For bigger species an aviary can be the best option.
Breeding birds will need a very big cage and a nest box.
If a bird is going to be caged many hours everyday it will need at least a small aviary with a lot of shredding and foraging toys to not develop behavioral issues such as feather plucking.

Animal enclosures
Birds

Bird cage


Despite the Falling Snow is a 2004 book by Shamim Sarif. It was first published on May 4, 2004 through Headline Book Publishing and is set during two different time periods. One part of the story is set in 1950s Moscow, Russia during the Cold War years, while the other follows the story of 1992 Moscow and London in the period after the collapse of USSR.

Critical reception for the novel was mostly positive, with The Bulletin praising it as a "mature romance". The Boston Globe also praised the novel, citing the character of Katya as a highlight.

Plot summary

After an early career amongst the political elite of Cold War Russia, Alexander Ivanov has lived in America for forty years and has managed to bury the tragic memories surrounding his charismatic late wife, Katya – or so he believes.

For into his life come two women – one who will start to open up the heart he has protected for so long; another who is determined to uncover the truth about what really happened to Katya all those years ago. The novel's journey back to the snowbound streets of post-Stalinist Moscow reveals a precarious, dangerous world of secrets and treachery.

Film adaptation

A film adaptation of the novel was announced in early 2013 at the Cannes Festival. The film starring Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation Swedish actress Rebecca Ferguson, Game of Thrones actor Charles Dance, Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Antje Traue, Sam Reid, Anthony Head, and Danish actor Thure Lindhardt was released in UK on April 15, 2016.

When the preview of Despite The Falling Snow the film appeared on YouTube a song performed by Ella Henderson called "Now You Say You Love Me" featured prominently toward the end. The film was directed by the author of the original book – Shamim Sharif. Hanan Kattan and Lisa Tchengiuz served as the Executive producers. The music was composed by Rachel Portman and the cinematography was by David Johnson.

References

External links

2004 British novels
British novels adapted into films

Despite the Falling Snow