Murus gallicus or Gallic wall is a method of construction of defensive walls used to protect Iron Age hillforts and oppida of the La Tene period in Western Europe.

Basic features
The distinctive features are:
 earth or rubble fill
 transverse cross beams at approximately 2 ft (60 cm) intervals
 longitudinal timbers laid on the cross beams and attached with mortice joints, nails, or iron spikes through augered holes
 outer stone facing
 cross beams protruding through the stone facing

Technique and utility
The technique of construction and the utility of the walls was described by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War:
But this is usually the form of all the Gallic walls. Straight beams, connected lengthwise and two feet distant from each other at equal intervals, are placed together on the ground; these are morticed on the inside, and covered with plenty of earth. But the intervals which we have mentioned, are closed up in front by large stones. These being thus laid and cemented together, another row is added above, in such a manner, that the same interval may be observed, and that the beams may not touch one another, but equal spaces intervening, each row of beams is kept firmly in its place by a row of stones. In this manner the whole wall is consolidated, until the regular height of the wall be completed. This work, with respect to appearance and variety, is not unsightly, owing to the alternate rows of beams and stones, which preserve their order in right lines; and, besides, it possesses great advantages as regards utility and the defense of cities; for the stone protects it from fire, and the wood from the battering ram, since it [the wood] being mortised in the inside with rows of beams, generally forty feet each in length, can neither be broken through nor torn asunder.

Examples
About 30 structures of this type have been excavated, mainly in Gaul, but extending to the upper reaches of the Rhine and Danube. The example at the sea promontory fort of Le Camp d'Artus, at Huelgoat, was excavated and reported by Mortimer Wheeler.

At Manching an earlier murus gallicus wall was rebuilt in the pfostenschlitzmauer style.

Comparison with other construction styles
The murus gallicus contrasts with other construction styles:
 Pfostenschlitzmauer – characterised by upright wooden posts in the outer wall, typical in central Europe.
 Dacian Wall – inner and outer stone walls reinforced with inner horizontal timber tie beams.

See also
 Murus Dacicus
 Pfostenschlitzmauer
 Kelheim
 Titelberg

References

Sources
 Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar, 7.23
 Barry Cunliffe (1997), The Ancient Celts,  (Contains the cross-section of Huelgoat drawn by Mortimer Wheeler.)
 Ian Ralston (2006), Celtic Fortifications,  (The definitive modern reference on hillfort construction, with extensive descriptions, comparative analysis, photographs of modern reconstructions, and even results of experiments burning reconstructed walls.)

External links

Oppida
Hill forts
Fortification lines
Iron Age Europe

Murus gallicus


The Cornish Seal Sanctuary is a sanctuary for injured seal pups, and is owned by The SEA LIFE Trust.  The centre is on the banks of the Helford River in Cornwall, England, UK, next to the village of Gweek.

History
The origins of the seal sanctuary go back to 1958 when the founder, Ken Jones, discovered a baby seal washed up on the beach near his home at St Agnes. This was the first of many rescues. By 1975, the work had outgrown the single pool at St Agnes and a new site was found at Gweek. The Gweek site slowly grew, and today has five pools and a specially designed hospital.

Rescue work

On average the centre has between sixty and seventy seals pups in their care, and in 2018 over eighty have been rescued from the wild. Main reasons for a pup's rescue can be because it is separated from their mothers and are unable to feed, or they can be entangled in marine litter. The aim is to release them back into the wild having given them the best chance of survival.

The rescue normally starts with a call about an apparently abandoned pup. If the rescue team decide that the pup is in danger, it is captured and taken to the sanctuary. Upon arrival, a full medical assessment is carried out, and a course of treatment is decided. Many of the pups are malnourished, with infected wounds. When the seal starts to recover and gain weight, it is transferred to a convalescence pool, where it interacts with convalescing and resident seals, and learns to compete for its food. After a few months, when the seal has reached a good weight and is back to full health, it is released into the sea, preferably near where it was originally discovered. Before release each seal is given a flipper tag, and recently also a hat tag which falls off at the first moult. These provide useful information on the survival rate of the rescues.

The sanctuary aims to rehabilitate all rescued pups and has an impressive record. Between 1981 and 2013 only four seals have been considered as unlikely to be able to survive in the wild. They have joined the full-time residents at the sanctuary Like Ray who has brain damage and is partially blind and is a favorite to many.. The long-term residents are seals unable to survive in the wild due to health reasons or just because they have been in captivity too long. Some of the residents share a pool with the rescue pups. They help at feeding times by demonstrating to the pups the best way to compete for their food.

Some of the other animals in the sanctuary are  South American sea lion, southern sea lion (Otaria flavescens), Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti), Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and common seal (Phoca vitulina).

See also

 List of topics related to Cornwall

References

External links

 British Divers Marine Life Rescue website

1975 establishments in England
Seal sanctuaries
Tourist attractions in Cornwall
Wildlife sanctuaries of the United Kingdom

Cornish Seal Sanctuary


George Camocke () was an Irish Royal Navy captain. Camocke was a Jacobite renegade who became an admiral for Spain. He served under William III, Queen Anne, and George I. He was dismissed from the English service for disciplinary breaches. Camocke then joined the Spanish navy. He died in exile after his favour had run out with the Spanish navy.

Early life and rise

George Camocke was born in Ireland around 1666 to an Essex family. He entered the navy in 1682. After serving eight years, Camocke safely brought a French privateer with twelve guns back to England and was promoted to lieutenant.

Service to England

Camocke was made a commander of the Lion, a 60-gun ship, and fought with her at the Battle of Beachy Head (1690) and at the Battle of Barfleur (1692). He was later wounded while setting fire to a three-deck French ship at La Hogue and was promoted to first lieutenant of the Loyal Merchant soon after (1692–93). The Loyal Merchant was part of the fleet that sailed to the Mediterranean with Sir George Rooke.

Camocke became the commander of the Owner's Goodwill fire ship in 1695 and a promotion to the brigantine Intelligence  followed afterwards. With Camocke aboard his new vessel, Intelligence bombarded Calais. In December 1697, she was decommissioned and Camocke's circumstances became grim. He repeatedly appealed to the Admiralty for assistance which he they soon granted him. He was then appointed to a guard ship but was not content to be stationed on an uncommissioned ship. Camocke sought help from the Admiralty again.

On 11 September, Camocke was appointed commander of the sloop Bonetta. She sailed the North Sea and the northern coast of Ireland. In June 1702, Camocke was promoted in rank and took command of the frigate Speedwell that sailed along the coasts of Ireland. Over the next eight years, Camocke used the Speedwell successfully against the enemy's privateers. He became commander of the Monck (60 guns) in the spring of 1711 and once again captured troublesome privateers. In May 1712, Camocke wrote that he had been "used ill by the whigs". He claimed that he had a promise of a vice admiralship in the service of the Tsar of Muscovy. Camocke also suggested that the King should pardon the West Indies pirates who were in possession of several ships. Camocke wanted the Royal Navy sent to the Bahamas to force the reduction of trade between the West Indies and Guinea and had considered a 50-gun Cadiz ship for this task.

On orders from the Commander-in-Chief Sir John Jennings to sail to Port Mahon, Camocke embarked to Palermo, Italy, via the Mediterranean in February 1713. The order included instructions for Camocke to transport soldiers to Britain.  He transported Spanish soldiers from Palermo to Alicante instead. He eventually took the English soldiers on board at Port Mahon before putting into Cadiz and Lisbon, Portugal. These actions were considered violations of his duty and were cited as the reason for his suspension. Camocke's explanation for his actions was considered unsatisfactory, and he was told that he was suspended until he could be cleared by a court-martial.

In a letter Camocke wrote in January 1714–15 to the secretary of the admiralty, he stated that the late Queen had approved of his actions and had given orders to call off Camocke's suspension. These statements served as a rejection of his court-martial offer and left the matter in the Admiralty's hands. Camocke had wanted to acquit himself by telling the lordship of all of the deeds that he did in his service to King George. However, he was struck off the list of captains soon after.

Treason

Once again Camocke considered joining the Russian Navy but he instead became a rear admiral in the Spanish Navy three years later. Camocke held a junior command in the fleet that Sir George Byng destroyed near Cape Passaro on 31 July 1718. He escaped and returned to Messina. In mid-August, with respect to Camocke's rebellion, Byng wrote to Craggs  and relayed the order that he had received—ignore Camocke when he came ashore. Camocke tried to engage Byng and offered him, in the name of King James, £100,000 and the title of Duke of Albemarle, if he would take the fleet to Messina or any Spanish port. Camocke later sent a similar letter to Captain Walton offering him a commission as an admiral of the blue and an English peerage.

During the Atterbury Plot, Camocke convinced the King of Sweden to send 12,000 Swedish troops to England as opposed to reimbursing a loan to Charles XII.

While Messina was blockaded, several ships were captured trying to leave port. One of the ships, a small frigate sailed by Camocke, was captured in January 1718–19 by the Royal Oak but Camocke escaped. He was so scared that he left everything behind, including his treasonable papers. He made it to Catania.

Later life and death

Once back in Spain, he was banished to Ceuta and he died either there or in Rouen a few years later.

References

Further reading

Royal Navy officers
Admirals
1732 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
1666 births
Irish Jacobites

George Camocke


Abdul Rahman Bin Mohammed Al Owais  (1967) is the minister of health in the United Arab Emirates.

A graduate of the United Arab Emirates University, Al Owais attained a bachelor's degree in Accounting and Information. He then became the Minister of Culture, Youth and Community Development in 2006. Thereafter, Al Owais was appointed as Acting Minister of Health in 2011 and served until 2013.

In 2013, Al Owais was appointed as minister of health. In this capacity, he was later appointed by WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus to serve on the Independent High-level Commission on Non-Communicable Diseases from 2018 until 2019.

References

1967 births
Health ministers of the United Arab Emirates
Living people
United Arab Emirates University alumni

Abdul Rahman Mohammed Al Owais


Hurricane Mills is an unincorporated community in Humphreys County, Tennessee, United States. Its ZIP code is 37078.

The community is centered on Loretta Lynn's Ranch, which features a small number of businesses and a post office. Each year, the ranch hosts several concerts and motocross races, including the AMA Amateur National Motocross Championship, which it has hosted since 1982.

Most or all of the community is included in the Hurricane Mills Rural Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The Buffalo community, located at I-40 exit 143, is in Hurricane Mills' zip code and features several gas stations, restaurants and hotels.

Notes

Unincorporated communities in Humphreys County, Tennessee
Unincorporated communities in Tennessee

Hurricane Mills, Tennessee


Friedrich Noack, who wrote under the pseudonym F. Idus, (20 April 1858, Gießen – 1 February 1930, Freiburg im Breisgau) was a German cultural historian and author, who wrote several articles for the Künstlerlexikon (arts dictionary) Thieme-Becker.

In 1886, he translated Sebastian Brant's "Narrenschiff" and published it with his own illustrations.

For his work on the Germans in Rome in the 18th century, he devised a comprehensive archive of notes.  On 18,000 slips of paper, it contains over 11,000 entries on artists active in Rome and their clients, usually in Gabelsberger shorthand, but also in newspaper cuttings and archive statements.  Today the material is stored in the archive of the Bibliotheca Hertziana in Rome and is accessible online.

Works
 Des alten Sebastian Brand Neues Narrenschiff. Entdeckt und herausgegeben von Dr. F. Idus. Düsseldorf: Bagel 1886.
 Deutsches Leben in Rom 1700 bis 1900. Stuttgart 1907
 Das Deutsche Rom. Rome 1912
 Das Deutschtum in Rom seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters. 2 volumes., Stuttgart 1927.

External links
  Literature on and by Friedrich Noack in the Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
  Friedrich Noack: Schedarium der Künstler in Rom Online version of the Bibliotheca Hertziana archive

1858 births
1930 deaths
German art historians
People from Giessen
German male non-fiction writers

Friedrich Noack


The Market-Based Management Institute (MBM) is a non-profit organization based in Wichita, Kansas that researches management strategies, and utilizes their expertise to educate students, educators, community leaders, non-profit organizations, and government leaders in the concepts and methods of management that their research has developed.

History
The MBM Institute was founded in 2005 by Charles G. Koch, Chairman and CEO of Koch Industries, and author of The Science of Success, in which he introduced his concept of "Market-Based Management."  Koch developed his idea of MBM after some study into the nature of free market economies, likely influenced, in part, by his father's experiences.

His father (and co-founder of Koch Industries), Fred C. Koch, had spent time developing petroleum cracking units in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin's regime between 1929 and 1932, and came back with a deep disdain for the communist regime's totalitarianism.  He described the nation as "a land of hunger, misery, and terror," and later, lamented the fact that many of the engineers he had worked with there had been purged by Stalin's regime, along with a great many other "intellectuals".

The Kochs saw the necessity of freedom to the success of societies, and translated that into their business practices—this is the basis of Market-Based Management; the implementation of which was a major factor in allowing Koch Industries to grow to become the second largest privately held company in the United States.

Market-Based Management approach
MBM challenges traditional American business practices, and encourages a relatively flat hierarchical structure, with the free flow of ideas between all levels of an organization.  Employees are encouraged to approach their work from an entrepreneurial perspective, and be rewarded based on the value that they bring to the company, rather than only the amount of time that they spend at work.  This encourages workers to use their own deductive powers to overcome obstacles and be creative in their decision-making, rather than waiting for orders from higher-ups. Problem solving, the theory contends, is best carried out by those closest to the problem - the workers. This, they say, is the best way to utilize the "collective brainpower" of the entire organization, rather than just that of the few top decision-makers. Research fellow Tony Woodlief explains:
At the biggest level, essentially what we're talking about is helping the owner or the manager transition from being somebody who makes all the decisions and has to deal with all the problems, into being a coach and a leader on a team of people who can use their own brains. And that, I think, not only leads to a more successful company because you've got more brains involved, but it also allows the manager to be the person that he probably envisioned being when he first got into management, instead of a prison warden or a babysitter or somebody who has to solve problems that common sense ought to be able to solve.
Woodlief goes on to note, however, that this is not always the best system for organizations to implement immediately, as it puts a lot of responsibility on individual employees to make decisions on their own, and consequently be held accountable for them, and it can also be difficult for managers to adjust to their role to "coach and lead" employees rather than the broad decision-making roles they are more accustomed to.

Operations of the MBM Institute

Training
The MBM Institute has conducted training and consultation for businesses and other organizations in the implementation of Marked-Based Management.  Among them are several other non-profit organizations such as the Youth Entrepreneurs of Kansas, the Bill of Rights Institute, and the Wichita Non-profit Chamber.
They have also supported through teaching and mentoring the Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation's Associate Program, a year-long program for college graduates to learn how to apply market-based management.

Research
Through a partnership with Wichita State University(WSU), in 2007, the MBM Institute opened an experimental economics laboratory based in the university's W. Frank Barton School of Business, the first of its kind in the nation.  The laboratory uses human participants who respond to sets of experimental situations in ways to maximize their efficiency.  Their success is rewarded with cash awards that vary based on their success, creating a more realistic experimental environment in which to test new ideas.  The efficient concepts learned can then be applied in real-world situations to measure their efficacy.

Teaching
Staff from the institute teach classes at the W. Frank Barton School of Business, also through their partnership with WSU. The classes are in experimental economics, as well as a course called "Economic Thinking Inside an Organization," a multidisciplinary survey of how MBM is implemented and its real-world applications.

References

Business schools in Kansas
2005 establishments in Kansas

Market-Based Management Institute


Morton Edgar Gottlieb (May 2, 1921 – June 25, 2009) was an American producer of Broadway theatre whose play Sleuth won the Tony Award for Best Play in 1971, in addition to three of his other plays that were nominated for the same award.

Early life and education
Born in Brooklyn on May 2, 1921, Gottlieb attended Erasmus Hall High School and majored in drama at Yale University. Gottlieb got a job with Columbia Pictures after graduating from Yale in 1941. He later became a press agent for actress Gertrude Lawrence. She, in turn, introduced him to producer Gilbert Miller, for whom he worked as a general manager. His initial stage-related work was as company manager or general manager, and his first production role was for a summer stock theatre production of Arms and the Man in 1953 that featured Marlon Brando in his last stage role.

Theatrical and film production
His 1963 production of Joseph Stein's comedy Enter Laughing launched Alan Arkin to fame and ran for 419 performances into the following year. The 1966 Broadway production of the play The Killing of Sister George by Frank Marcus and the 1969 comedy Lovers by Brian Friel and starring Art Carney, were both nominated as Tony Award for Best Play.

Gottlieb achieved theatrical success with the 1970 thriller Sleuth by Anthony Shaffer that ran for three years, winning that year's Tony Award for Best Play. A film adaptation of the play, starring Laurence Olivier and Michael Caine and directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz debuted in 1972, while the show was still running on Broadway.

Gottlieb's next production, Same Time, Next Year, brought to the Broadway stage Bernard Slade's story of two people, each married to someone else, who meet once a year for a romantic tryst. The play opened in March 1975 with Ellen Burstyn and Charles Grodin and ran on Broadway until September 1978 and was also nominated for a Tony as Best Play, losing to Peter Shaffer's Equus. The play was also adapted into a film of the same name that opened in the play's final year on stage, with Alan Alda playing the film role that Grodin had filled on stage.

Gottlieb was an "old-fashioned producer" who preferred to work with original scripts that he would take to the stage and on to film, focusing on "middlebrow" material. His material had popular appeal, though  critics weren't always as appreciative of his work. Brian Friel's 1979 Faith Healer, one of the few exceptions to his middlebrow standards, ran for only 20 performances.

He was known, even considered "notorious" for what The New York Times described as his "professional parsimony", which extended to having staff reuse envelopes. Gottlieb's concern for his investors was such that he was careful to pay his investors back as quickly as possible, extending to his production of the 1978 play Tribute starring Jack Lemmon, for which he was able to distribute checks to investors at the party celebrating opening night, using the proceeds generated from tryouts before opening on Broadway. For the 1985 play ultimately named Dancing in the End Zone by Bill C. Davis, Gottlieb lined up 92 investors. While most producers preferred to have a very small number of large investors, allowing them to avoid Securities and Exchange Commission disclosure rules, Gottlieb felt that "[i]t's fun to have as many people as possible", with a diverse group of investors ranging from stagehands to millionaires, with whom he was happy to disclose details of his prior successes and failures.

Looking back on his career, Gottlieb analyzed Broadway theatre as a profession where it's easiest to start right at the top, noting that "You don't need experience, you don't need a license, you don't need money. All you need is chutzpah. You call all the agents and say, 'Here I am — a producer!'".

Personal
In 1972, Gottlieb bought a set of four interconnected barns in Warren, Connecticut, parts of which dated back to 1769, which he called "Hodgepodge Farm". Many of the home's furnishings were items that had been used on the sets of his theatrical productions that had completed their runs. An upholstered chair was a gift from Gilbert Miller, and had appeared in Gigi in a scene with Audrey Hepburn. Chairs from The Killing of Sister George and a table from Enter Laughing adorned the living room.

Gottlieb died at age 88 on June 25, 2009, in Englewood, New Jersey, due to natural causes. He had never married, and was even honored by a men's toiletries firm as its Bachelor of the Year for 1968. He left no immediate survivors.

References

External links
Morton Gottlieb production files, 1961-1966, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

1921 births
2009 deaths
American theatre managers and producers
People from Brooklyn
People from Warren, Connecticut
Yale University alumni
Erasmus Hall High School alumni

Morton Gottlieb


The Portland Railroad Company Substation, now the Scarborough Historical Museum, is a former power substation of the Portland Railroad Company, a trolley service provider, at 649 United States Route 1 in Scarborough, Maine. The station was built in 1911, and is one of the few trolley-related facilities surviving in the state.  The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 22, 1991.

Description and history
The former Portland Railroad Company Substation is located in southwestern Scarborough (the area known as Dunstan Corner), on the north side of US 1, at the back of a parking lot separating the Scarborough Fire Station and Alger Hall, the local Masonic lodge.  The building consists of a single story front section, and a taller, yet also single story, rear section.  Both parts are built out of brick, and have shallow-pitch gabled roofs.  The front facade is three bays wide, with sash windows in segmented-arch openings flanking a larger central bay.  That bay originally housed a large equipment entrance with tall double doors, but has been infilled with a pedestrian entrance flanked by sidelights and paneling, and topped by a broad transom window.  Original pedestrian entrances (some now closed off) were located on the southwest and northeast sides of the front block, and also in the larger rear section.  The interior of the building has no original equipment related to its use as an electrical power substation, and now houses the museum displays of the Scarborough Historical Society.

The building was erected in 1911 as a power substation for the Saco Division of the Portland Railway Company, a trolley operator in southern Maine.  It is the best preserved building from the state's period when it had an extensive light rail network, most of the others having been either demolished or substantially altered for other purposes.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cumberland County, Maine

References

External links
Scarborough Historical Society & Museum - Maine Memory Network

Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, Maine
Energy infrastructure completed in 1911
Transport infrastructure completed in 1911
1911 establishments in Maine
Museums in Cumberland County, Maine
History museums in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Cumberland County, Maine

Portland Railroad Company Substation


In electronics, a norator is a theoretical linear, time-invariant one-port which can have an arbitrary current and voltage between its terminals. A norator represents a controlled voltage or current source with infinite gain.

Inserting a norator in a circuit schematic provides whatever current and voltage the outside circuit demands, in particular, the demands of Kirchhoff's circuit laws. For example, the output of an ideal opamp behaves as a norator, producing nonzero output voltage and current that meet circuit requirements despite a zero input.

A norator is often paired with a nullator to form a nullor.

Two trivial cases are worth noting: A nullator in parallel with a norator is equivalent to a short (zero voltage any current) and a nullator in series with a norator is an open circuit (zero current, any voltage).

References

External links
 Norator article from Analog Insydes reference

Electrical components
Control theory
Signal processing
Analog circuits
Electronic design

Norator


A World of Difference  is a 1990 science fiction novel by American writer Harry Turtledove.

The book begins with a space voyage that departed Earth in an alternate 1989. In the universe of the book, the fourth planet from the Sun, in the orbit occupied by Mars in our reality, is named Minerva, which is similar in size and makeup to Earth. The book contrasts Earth's culture during the ongoing Cold War with Minerva's feudal culture which resembles the European culture of the Late Middle Ages. Mercantilism is just emerging in Minerva during the events of the book.

Plot summary
When the Viking 1 space probe lands on Minerva in 1976 it takes a picture of a native Minervan wielding a primitive tool, thus proving the existence of intelligent life on other worlds.

The main action of the story involves separate American and Soviet missions, who both pay lip service to non-interference with Minervan society, but in the course of their research, the teams' respective political ideologies inevitably come to the fore. This leads the teams and their commanders back home to use the Minervans in a transparent analogy to Third World/Cold War proxy conflicts on Earth. One of the Americans saves the life of a female Minervan after she gives birth. Eventually Minervans get their hands on high tech items like steel hatchets, rubber rafts, and finally AK-74s, which severely disrupt their way of life.

The planet Minerva
Minerva has an atmosphere similar to Earth's and breathable by humans, and liquid water exists in significant quantities on the surface. The planet's mean atmospheric temperature is lower than Earth's due to the greater distance from the sun, although the greenhouse effect of its thicker atmosphere means that it is not as cold as our universe's Mars. The ancient astronomers of the novel name the bright blue/gray planet Minerva after the goddess of wisdom.

Minervan biology and society
Minervan animals (including the sentient Minervans) are hexameristically radially symmetrical. This means that they have six eyes spaced equally all around, see in all directions and have no "back" where somebody could sneak on them unnoticed. The different way that Minervans perceive their environment, and its major influence on their culture and way of life, is a significant plot element – especially important in the battle scenes towards the end.

Females (referred to as "mates" by the Minervans) give birth to litters that consist of one male and five females, and the "mates" always die after reproducing because of torrential bleeding from the places where the six fetuses were attached; this gives a population multiplication of 5 per generation if all females live to adolescence and reproduce. Females reach puberty while still hardly out of childhood, and typically experience sex only once in the lifetime – leading to pregnancy and death at birth-giving.

Thus, in Minervan society male dominance seems truly determined by a biological imperative – though it takes different forms in various Minervan societies: in some females are considered expendable and traded as property, in other they are cherished and their tragic fate mourned – but still their dependant status is taken for granted.

The American women arriving on Minerva and discovering this situation consider it intolerable; a major plot element is their efforts, using the resources of Earth medical science, to find a way of saving the Minervan females and let them survive birth-giving. At the end, they do manage to save a particularly sympathetic Minervan female – potentially opening the way for a complete upheaval in Minervan society.

Technically, the Minervans can be said to be living in a neolithic society, since they use stone tools. However, though using no metals, their society is actually feudal and comparable to Europe during the Late Middle Ages, and actually one of the Minervan societies depicted – the one contacted by the Soviets – shows the beginnings of mercantile capitalism (which is directly related to its being the more aggressive and predatory one).

It is this nascent capitalist society which the Soviets decide to support in its effort to invade and conquer its feudal rival. This raises some eyebrows among the cosmonauts; however, as the resident ideologue explains to his bemused comrades, it is quite sound Marxist doctrine, based on Marx's theory of history: Capitalism is more progressive than Feudalism; therefore, helping it win will help prepare Minervan society to get to Socialism some centuries hence.

Earth
In addition to the existence of Minerva the book alludes to a variety of subtle differences between its history and ours. The fact that the fourth planet was blue rather than red as in our universe, and named for a different deity of the Classical pantheon, did not significantly change life on Earth. Galileo is mentioned as having seen Minerva in his telescope and made the first drawing of its surface; this did not, however, make his general career significantly different from in our timeline.

However, fundamental differences seem to have started to develop since the mid-1970s. Following the discovery of intelligent life on Minerva, both superpowers engaged energetically on efforts to launch a crewed spacecraft there. This evidently had an effect of exacerbating tensions on Earth, with American and Soviet planes engaging three times in direct aerial combat over Beirut – presumably drawn, after the Israeli Invasion of Lebanon in 1982, into a far deeper involvement than in our history.

An escalation into all-out nuclear war was avoided only with difficulty, and though things have calmed down a bit by 1989 when the plot takes place, the Cold War is still very much on, and the Soviet Union is still very much a police state keeping its citizens (even cosmonauts millions of miles from home) on a short leash. Mikhail Gorbachev had led for only nine months, and barely got started on Glasnost, before dying from a stroke (though there are rumors of a secret assassination, which Soviet characters prudently avoid discussing too loudly).

Allusions to other works
The Georgian member of the Soviet crew, who has some frictions with his Russian crewmates due to cultural differences, is named "Shota Rustaveli" after the 12th century poet Shota Rustaveli.

Publication history
A World of Difference has been published in hardcover in Great Britain by Hodder & Stoughton.

Translations
 Italian:  (Mission to Minerva) (transl. by Carlo Borriello) Fanucci Editore, 2000.
 Russian:  (A Space Battle) (transl. by G.A. Il'insky) Rusich, 1997, .

See also

 Barsoom
 The Sky People
 In the Courts of the Crimson Kings
 Old Mars
 Hard to Be a God
 Kepler 186f, an exoplanet discovered in 2014 with a size and temperature very similar to Minerva

References

1990 American novels
Novels set during the Cold War
Novels set on fictional planets
Novels set on Mars
Novels by Harry Turtledove
1990 science fiction novels
Planetary romances
American alternate history novels
American science fiction novels
Del Rey books
Fiction set in 1989
Novels set in the 1980s
Fiction set in the Late Middle Ages
Cultural depictions of Galileo Galilei
Cultural depictions of Mikhail Gorbachev

A World of Difference (novel)


Barents Sea dike swarm consists of two groups of dolerite dikes across the Svalbard and Franz Josef Land regions. The emplacement of dikes was associated with the Cretaceous High Arctic Large Igneous Province (HALIP).
As revealed by aeromagnetic data, the dolerite dikes in the northern Barents Sea can be grouped in two regional dike swarms running oblique to the northern passive margin of the Barents Sea: the Franz Josef Land and Svalbard dike swarms, respectively. Multichannel seismic data indicate that the dikes fed the dolerite sills, resided in Permian to Early Cretaceous sedimentary strata in the East Barents Sea sedimentary basin. U/Pb dating of dolerites indicate an emplacement age of 121-125 Ma.

References

Geology of Svalbard
Geology of Russia
Cretaceous magmatism
Landforms of the Barents Sea
Dike swarms

Barents Sea dike swarm


Goodenow Grove Nature Preserve is a unit of the Forest Preserve District of Will County located in Crete Township in Will County, Illinois. The closest town is Crete, Illinois. The preserve covers  and contains  of trails and a man-made  hill which is a sledding hill in the winter.

Goodenow Grove Nature Preserve contains mostly woods, but has some prairie. It is moderately hilly with one small pond. Plum Creek crosses the preserve.

Amenities include primitive campsites, picnic shelters available for reservation, and an ice-skating pond when conditions allow.

In 1996, Goodenow Grove was dedicated as a State Nature Preserve for its diverse ecosystems, including forests, floodplain, seeps, savanna, prairies, meadows, and marshes. The nature preserve provides protection for the habitat of state-threatened or endangered species, including the eastern massasauga rattlesnake, the spotted coral root orchid, and more.

Plum Creek Nature Center
The nature preserve features the Plum Creek Nature Center, one of several nature centers and visitor centers operated by the Forest Preserve District of Will County.  The Center features hands-on nature exhibits.  Outside there is a natural playscape for outdoor educational experiences including a pollinator garden, rain garden and interactive play elements. There is also a bird observation area, including birdhouses fitted with "Spy-On-A-Bird" cameras.

References

External links
 Goodenow Grove Nature Preserve
 Plum Creek Nature Center

Nature reserves in Illinois
Protected areas of Will County, Illinois
Nature centers in Illinois

Goodenow Grove Nature Preserve


Manitou Camp is a logging and fishing camp started in the 1890s on Manitou Island, part of the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore.  Today, as historically, Manitou Camp is used as a campground and as a facility for fishing. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1983 and is owned by the National Park Service.

In the 1890s four Swedes who were cutting cedar on the island built a cabin in a northern European style. Their cabin remains at the camp to this day, built of cedar logs hand-flattened on two sides, joined with half-dove-tailed notches, chinked with moss, with a small cellar beneath a trapdoor in the floor. When the Swedes finished logging three of them left, but John Hanson stayed on.

Hanson fished year-round, smoked meat, gardened, and had a horse on this remote island. He built a twine shed which remains today. He was joined by a Frenchman, Gus Plud. In the 1920s or 1930s Frank Childs built a cabin there and fished in the winter with a man named Black Pete. In the early 1930s John Hanson built a smokehouse for smoking herring and venison. Later a Captain Bark winter-fished from the camp.

One objective of these fishermen was the November–December herring run. The herring were cleaned and salted right at Manitou camp, then packed into barrels for transport to Bayfield. After the lake froze, the fishermen drove dogsleds out over the ice. They hung gill nets on lines and poles under the ice and after a day or two, collected a catch of whitefish and lake trout. (One wooden fish sled remains at the camp.)

In the 1930s two Norwegian brothers, Theodore and Hjalmer Olson, fished out of Manitou Camp in winters.  In 1938 they bought the camp and lived there year-round.  They constructed a 14 by 18 foot log bunkhouse in a Scandinavian style, which remains, and a twine shed for storing fishing nets. The Olsons rented cabins to loggers and fishermen, and lived at Manitou camp at least into the 1980s.

Around camp there are also a couple old outhouses, a handmade windlass, boat skids, the remains of a pier, handmade fish boxes, a net reel, a net fork, tarring tank, gutting board, and salt barrels.  These remnants of the fishing industry remain where they were used and left. That they were not cleaned up and redeveloped like the valuable land around most docks is what makes Manitou Camp unique in the area.

Notes

External links
National Register of Historic Places—Wisconsin, Ashland County

Park buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
Buildings and structures in Ashland County, Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Apostle Islands National Lakeshore
National Register of Historic Places in Ashland County, Wisconsin

Manitou Camp


占士曲船長(Captain James Cook,)係英國航海兼探險家,皇家海軍做上尉(captain),佢係第一個歐洲人去到澳洲嘅東岸,同埋係首次有記錄嘅紐西蘭環島航行(circumnavigation of New Zealand)。

曲船長參海軍,時爲1755年,佢目睹七年戰爭,以致圍魁北克時,佢測量過聖羅倫斯河口,繪製地圖。

1779年曲船長同船員響第三次探索太平洋期間,同夏威夷島民打鬥,結果畀人打死。

榮譽
 F.R.S. (1776年2月29號獲得)
 科普利獎章 (1776年獲得)

用佢個名嘅地方
 曲克群島(庫克群島):響南太平洋法屬波利尼西亞同斐濟之間
 曲海峽(庫克海峽):響紐西蘭北島同南島之間

相關
 地理大發現
 哥倫布
 達伽馬
 麥哲倫
 鄭和
 未知南方大陸
 三文治勳爵
 佐治溫哥華
 班克斯
 經線儀
 西北航道
 HMS奮進號

註

出面網站

 'Cook, James (1728 - 1779)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, Melbourne University Press, 1966, pp 243-244
 http://www.newendeavour.com - New Endeavour - a recent revisit of Captain Cook's first Pacific voyage
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 James Cook Links Page
 Captain Cook Society
 JamesCook: Celebrated North Country Explorer
 Explorer voyage maps including those of James Cook
 The Endeavour journal (1) and The Endeavour journal (2), as kept by James Cook - digitised and held by the National Library of Australia
 Captain James Cook: The World's Explorer
 Life in the Pacific of the 1700s: The Cook/Forster Collection of the Georg August University of Göttingen exhibition at the Honolulu Academy of Arts, 23 February - 14 May 2006
 The South Seas Project: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage. 1768-1771, Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage.
 The Endeavour Replica A replica of Captain Cook's vessel.

 Find-A-Grave profile for James Cook
 See a c. 1780 map of Cook's third voyage by Rigobert Bonne, Carte de la Côte N.O. de l'Amérique et de la Côte N.E. de l'Asie reconnues en 1778 et 1779 / par M. Bonne, Ingenieur-Hydrographe de la Marine hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
 Photos of James Cook monument at Halifax
 Discovery of New Zealand
 Cook's Voyages of Discovery - State Library of NSW
 Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook.
 Into the Blue: Voyages of Discovery 1700-1850 An opportunity to hear the tales behind some of the most adventurous (and, in some cases, disastrous) seafaring journeys. Images include illustrations and atlases from famous names such as Captain Cook, Baron von Humboldt and Commodore Anson.

英國人
航海家

占士曲船長


Muzzy in Gondoland (often shortened to simply Muzzy) is a British animated direct-to-video film, first created by the BBC in 1986, as a way of teaching English as a second language. The English version of Muzzy features the voices of Willie Rushton, Miriam Margolyes, Susan Sheridan, Derek Griffiths, Jack May, and Benjamin Whitrow. DMP Organization later acquired the rights to Muzzy and translated it into other languages (see below). It is unknown, however, who plays whom in the various dubbed versions of the film.

A sequel, Muzzy Comes Back, was released in 1989.

Digital Education developed a new version of the course, which was released in 2013. The 2013 version is CGI and is close to a shot-for-shot remake of the original film, but some changes have been made to modernize, e.g. The queen is 'fat' in the original version, this is removed in the CGI version.

Plot
Muzzy, a large extraterrestrial with greenish-blue fur, who eats clocks and metallic objects, arrives from outer space to visit Gondoland, which is ruled over by the King and Queen. Their daughter is Princess Sylvia; Bob is their gardener; and Corvax is a scientist who works for the King. Bob and Sylvia are secretly in love and decide to elope. However, Corvax, who also loves Sylvia, sees what is happening, and informs the King and Queen. Angered, the King pursues and catches them. The King orders that Bob be sent to jail, while Sylvia is taken back to the palace. Bob shares a cell with Muzzy, who tells him that he has been jailed for eating parking meters. Realising Muzzy's unusual diet, Bob encourages Muzzy to eat the bars of the prison cell, and they escape.

Meanwhile, back at the palace, Corvax tries flirting with Sylvia, but she angrily protests that she loves Bob. Crestfallen, Corvax uses his computer to clone her, saying body parts, but the duplicate hates him just as much as the original. Furious, Corvax hits his computer in frustration, causing it to malfunction and produce five more duplicates who roam around the palace.

Bob returns to the palace with Muzzy, where they find the real Sylvia in the garden. She tells them to hide in the tool shed and wait for her to bring them food there. Sylvia had to fake a headache so her parents wouldn't suspect anything. However, they encounter the healthy clones doing various activities at the same time.

Back in the computer lab, Corvax attempts to recall the six duplicates of Sylvia, but the computer malfunctions and begins to infinitely produce Sylvia clones. Before long, hundreds of duplicates are swarming the palace.

Down on the ground floor, the King notices that the Sylvia duplicates are coming from Corvax's room, and decides to investigate. Seeing that Corvax cannot stop the computer, the King decides to fix it himself. He pulls a plug attached to the computer, which stops the process, but he is sucked up inside the computer himself as a result. Not knowing how to save the King, Corvax decides to escape by helicopter, with Bob in pursuit.

Sylvia and Muzzy enter the computer lab, and Muzzy is able to release the King from inside the machine. Bob then returns with Corvax, and Bob is exonerated while Corvax is taken away by the King's troops to pay for his crimes. Bob and Sylvia are reunited; by then, the King's hostile feelings towards the couple have dissolved. The King and Queen, Bob, Sylvia and Muzzy have themselves a laugh.

During the film, a human named Norman is the star of several skits teaching the viewers how to say certain things in different languages.
Near the beginning where everyone is introduced, Norman pops out of the clock tower when he lives and greets the viewers depending on the time.
When Sylvia gets food for Bob, Norman goes to a restaurant and orders stuff from the waiter, ending with him getting soaked when asked for a wash.
During "The Big Muzzy Story", Norman and his wife talk about the word "what" by identifying close up objects.
While Muzzy tries to get food, Norman and Corvax talk about "this and that".
After Muzzy and Bob introduce themselves, Norman, as a postman, talks about "who" while delivering a letter eventually to Corvax.
After Muzzy tells Bob where he came from, Norman interviews many bikers in a race from different countries.
While spelling Sylvia's name, Bob and Muzzy say the Alphabet depending on the country. (For example, they include Ñ if the video is in Spanish.)
When Corvax tries to woo Sylvia, Norman escapes an arrow chasing him by using commands like "come here" and "go away".
When Muzzy gets wet after escaping prison with Bob, Norman has various conditions like that and his wife gives him stuff to get rid of them.
While Muzzy is looking for Bob, Norman talks about "where" using a box.
After Norman encounters the six Sylvia clones together, he acknowledges that they're all Sylvia then says the names of colors after they talk about the color of the dress they are each wearing.
Before it's lunch time at the castle, Norman does various activities at different times and keeps being interrupted by the phone.
When Sylvia fakes a headache, Norman becomes a doctor and gives various items to his patients. After that, the King and Queen talk about "him and her".
After Bob tells Muzzy that it gets dark earlier in Autumn, Norman talks about the seasons, months and days.
When Sylvia questions why Muzzy likes clocks, Norman talks about "why" with a boy who can't reach an apple.
When Muzzy, Bob and Sylvia find the Sylvia clones, Norman compares them and sees how they are all different.

Afterwards, Muzzy manages to send all of the Sylvia duplicates back into the computer. Norman inquires of Sylvia, causing Bob to become angry and knock him off his bike. Bob and Sylvia get married, while Corvax is given clock duty. Muzzy leaves Gondoland in his spaceship, while the King thanks him for his help and hopes that he will one day return.

Cast
 Jack May as Muzzy (a furry, greenish-blue extraterrestrial)
 Willie Rushton as the King (a lion), and some additional voices
 Miriam Margolyes as the Queen (a rat), and Norman's human wife
 Susan Sheridan as Princess Sylvia (a rat), and some additional voices
 Derek Griffiths as Bob (a mouse), Corvax (a green goblin), and some additional voices
 Benjamin Whitrow as Norman (a human)

As a language course
DMP Organization, the worldwide distributor of the Muzzy courses, has licensed the development of the New Muzzy to Digital Education SA. There are various distributors of the course around the world. The original system was available in the following languages: French, Spanish, Italian, German, Welsh (advertised only on S4C in Wales), Irish (advertised as Muzzy Mór, literally Big Muzzy) Scottish Gaelic (Muzzy Mòr), Esperanto, Japanese (vocabulary builder only) and Mandarin Chinese.

Notes

References

External links

1986 films
BBC Film films
British direct-to-video films
British animated short films
English-language education television programming
1980s English-language films
1980s British films

Muzzy in Gondoland


The history of construction traces the changes in building tools, methods, techniques and systems used in the field of construction. It explains the evolution of how humans created shelter and other structures that comprises the entire built environment. It covers several fields including structural engineering, civil engineering, city growth and population growth, which are relatives to branches of technology, science, history, and architecture. The fields allow both modern and ancient construction to be analyzed, as well as the structures, building materials, and tools used.

Construction is an ancient human activity that began at around 4000 BC as a response to human's need for shelter. It has evolved and undergone different trends over time, marked by a few key principles: durability of the materials used, increase in building height and span, the degree of control exercised over the interior environment, and finally, the energy available for the construction process.

Prehistoric Era

Stone Age
Humans during the Paleolithic era were hunter-gatherers. Their nomadic lifestyle led to temporary and short-lived buildings leading to a lack of surviving evidences of construction. However, it is believed that the earliest evidence of construction in the world is the 1.8 million year-old stone circle found at Olduvai Gorge representing the remains of a windbreak.

By the mesolithic era, humans started to develop agriculture. Hunter-gatherers built temporary shelter for hunters who would ambush their prey. Currently, the first evidence of man-made shelter dates back to 400,000 B.C. in Terra Amata, France which served as housing for hunters.

Neolithic Era

By the Neolithic era, also known as the New Stone Age, humans developed agriculture and  started to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. This change from the nomadic lifstyle meant that humans started building walls and forming cities. In addition to living in caves and using rock shelters, the first buildings were simple tents, like the Inuit's tupiq, and huts. Huts were built as protection from the elements like pit-houses, and as fortifications for safety like crannog.

Their shelters were built self-sufficiently by their inhabitants rather than by specialist builders, using locally available materials and traditional designs and methods. Because of this, what little can be said about very early construction is mostly conjecture and based on vernacular architecture or what is known about the way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remote areas build shelters today. For example, the first bridges made by humans were probably simple wooden logs placed across a stream and later on evolved into timber trackways.

Building materials and tools

Pre-historic men made tools out of bone, ivory, antler, hide, stone, wood,  grass, metals (gold, copper and silver) and animal fibers. Various tools for cutting (hand axe, chopper, adze and celt),  scrape or chop (flake tool), and tools to pound, pierce, roll, pull and lever were made and used. As building materials, they used bones such as mammoth ribs, hide, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, and animal dung.

Pre-historic men also used bricks and lime plaster as building materials. For example, mud bricks and clay mortar dated to 9000 BC were found in Jericho. These mudbricks were formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds and herringbone pattern were made by the brick-maker's thumbs.

Building Techniques
The absence of metal tools placed limitations on the materials that could be worked, but it was still possible to build quite elaborate stone structures with ingenuity using dry stone walling techniques such as at Skara Brae in Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. Another example of a settlement built in the neolithic is the Göbekli Tepe. It is made with T-shaped limestone pillars carved out using flint points and other rock-cut architecture methods. The corbelled roof of Newgrange (c. 3,200 BC) shows that corbel archs were used since the neolithic age.

One of the largest structures of this period was the Neolithic long house. It was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers in Europe at least as early as 5000 to 6000 BC. Like all timber-framed and log structures (stilt houses) in early cultures, only the very lowest parts of the walls and post holes are unearthed in archaeological excavations; making reconstruction of the upper parts of these buildings largely conjectural.

The most remarkable Neolithic structure in Western Europe is the iconic megalith known as Stonehenge, regarded by some archaeologists as displaying methods of timber construction such as at woodhenge translated into stone, a process known as petrification. The now ruinous remains are of post and lintel construction and include massive sandstone lintels which were located on supporting uprights by means of mortise and tenon joints; the lintels themselves being end-jointed by the use of tongue and groove joints. There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays of stone clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated surveying methods.

Gallery of Neolithic tools

Copper Age and Bronze Age

Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and was one of the early metals used by humans for producing tools, alongside with gold, silver and lead. Unrefined copper was malleable, tough, strong, resistant to corrossion and much more versatile than stone causing a shift in preference of tool-making material. During this period, the saw was developed and was used as a building tool.

At around 3,100 BC, humans started experimenting with metals and forming alloys such as bronze (made when tin is added to copper) and brass (made when zinc is added to copper). Bronze could be cast into desired shapes and, if damaged, could be recast increasing the types of tools developed in this period. Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone but the less brittle, more durable material cut better. These advantages caused the switch from stone tools to metal tools.  Both were also used to "harden" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture.

During the copper age, the ancient Chinese invented fired bricks as early as 4400BC. In Chengroushand fired bricks were used as flooring for houses.  Clay was also used as sewer pipes by the Mesopotamians at around 4000 BC, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel in Babylonia. Latrines in the city of Uruk have raised fired brick foot platforms at around 3200 BC. Mudbricks faced were burnt brick set in bitumen were used to originally construct the Ziggurat of Ur.

The wheel was invented by the Sumerians in the copper age but it will not be until around 3500 BC when it will be used in transportation.  Heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers. The oldest-preserved measuring rod made of copper-alloy bar dates back to 2650 BC and was found at the Sumerian city, Nippur (modern-day Iraq)

The post and lintel construction method was popularized by the Egyptians at around 3100 BC to build temples such as the Great Pyramid of Giza(c. 2560). This technique was later on adapted by the Greek, as seen in the Tomb of Agamemnon (c.1250 BC), and by the Romans. Cyclopean masonry used in the Arkadiko Bridge, was also widely used by the Mycenean.

Iron Age

The Iron Age began around 1200 BC and ended at around 500 BC. Humans may have smelted iron sporadically throughout the Bronze age but was thought to be an inferior metal because iron tools and weapons weren't as hard or durable as bronze counterparts.  It was not until the creation of steel, combining iron and carbon, that iron became prominent. Steel can be hardened and tempered producing a sharp, durable cutting edge allowing for the creating of better tools such as hammers, chisels, knives and axes.

The most common type of building during the iron age the present-day United Kingdom were roundhouses. These were made from stone or wooden posts joined by wattle-and-daub panels topped with a conical thatched roof. Archeologists presume that the walls were made of timber planking using a side ax to remove excess timber.

Civilizations

Ancient Mesopotamia
The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilizations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. Cities created demands for new technologies such as drains for animal and human sewage and paved streets.

Archaeological evidence has shown the existence of pitched-brick vaults such as at Tell al-Rimah in what is now Iraq.

Building Techniques and Materials
The chief building material was the mud-brick, formed in wooden moulds similar to those used to make adobe bricks. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, fired bricks came into use and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Fired bricks and stone were used for pavement.

Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.

Building Code

The Code of Hammurbi by the Babylonians of Ancient Mesopotamia is known to contain the earliest written building code.

Ancient Egypt

As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings.

Materials
Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork.

The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete.

Building Technology

Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of workers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with inventing the ramp, lever, lathe, oven, ship, paper, irrigation system, window, awning, door, glass, a form of plaster of Paris, the bath, lock, shadoof, weaving, a standardized measurement system, geometry, silo, a method of drilling stone, saw, steam power, proportional scale drawings, enameling, veneer, plywood, rope truss, and more. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps.

Imhotep, who lived circa 2650–2600 BC, is credited with being the first recorded architect and engineer.

Achievements
The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force.

The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion (see Egyptian pyramid construction techniques).

Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However, many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. The Greeks made many advances in technology including plumbing, the spiral staircase, central heating, urban planning, the water wheel, the crane, and more.

The oldest construction drawing is in the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. An unfinished stone wall was etched with the profiles of columns and mouldings, and the wall was never finished so the drawing was not erased: a rare glimpse into the history of working construction drawings.

No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc.), so knowledge of how these were put together is limited. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans, it is uncertain if the Greeks or Romans invented the truss but the Romans certainly used timber roof trusses. Before 650 BC the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry.

Fired clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. The roof tiles allow a low roof pitch characteristic of ancient Greek architecture. Fired bricks began to be employed with lime mortar. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion.

Building structures mostly used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could be achieved. However, the Greeks did construct some groin vaults, arch bridges and, with the Egyptians, the first high rise, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Greek mathematics was technically advanced and it is certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was usually left until after the drums of the columns were put in place.

The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction.

Roman Empire

In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The first surviving treatise on architecture is by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. His writings reinforced the difference between a master builder and an architect.

Materials
The great Roman development in building materials was the use of hydraulic lime mortar called Roman cement. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash called a pozzolana the mortar would harden under water thus creating a self-healing cement. This provided them with a strong material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering (formwork). Later they used wooden shuttering that was removed for the concrete to cure.

An example of a temple made of Roman concrete in the 1st century BC is the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy. The concrete was made of nothing more than rubble and mortar. It was cheap and very easy to produce and required relatively unskilled labour to use, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths.

The Romans substituted bronze for wood in the roof truss(s) of the Pantheon's portico which was commissioned between 27 BC and 14 AD. The bronze trusses were unique but in 1625 Pope Urban VIII had the trusses replaced with wood and melted the bronze down for other uses. The Romans also made bronze roof tiles.

Lead was used for roof covering material and water supply and waste pipes. The Latin name for lead is , thus plumbing. Romans also made use of glass in construction with colored glass in mosaics and clear glass for windows. Glass came to be fairly commonly used in windows of public buildings. Central heating in the form of a hypocaust, a raised floor heated by the exhaust of a wood or coal fire.

Organisation of labour
The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or free men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task.

Technology
The inventions of the waterwheel, sawmill, and arch were by the Romans. The Romans also began using glass for architectural purposes after about 100 CE and used double glazing as insulated glazing. Roman roads included corduroy roads and paved roads, sometimes supported on raft or pile foundations and bridges. Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajan's column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved.

A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres (see List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs).

Ancient China

China is a cultural hearth area of eastern Asia. Many Far East building methods and styles evolved from China. A famous example of Chinese construction is the Great Wall of China, built between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. The Great Wall was built with rammed earth, stones, and wood and later bricks and tiles with lime mortar. Wooden gates blocked passageways. The oldest archaeological examples of mortise and tenon type woodworking joints were found in China dating to about 5000 BC.

The Yingzao Fashi is the oldest complete technical manual on Chinese architecture. The Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years so many of the ancient, surviving buildings were built with the methods and materials still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples are typically wooden timber frames on an earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating from 782 AD. However, Chinese temple builders regularly rebuild the wooden temples so some parts of these ancient buildings are of different ages. Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on post and lintel construction. An important architectural element are the dougong bracket sets. The Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It was built with yellow fired bricks laid in clay mortar, with twelve sides and fifteen levels of roofs. The Anji Bridge is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge built in 595–605 AD. The bridge is built with sandstone joined with dovetail, iron joints.

Most of the (restored) Great Wall sections seen today were built with bricks, and cut stone blocks/slabs. Where bricks and blocks were unavailable, tamped earth, uncut stones, wood, and even reeds were used as local materials. Wood was used for forts and as an auxiliary material. Where local timber was not enough, it was delivered in.

Stone Great Wall sections
In mountain areas, workers quarried stone to build the Great Wall. Using the mountains themselves as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available (like earth and dead workers).

Soil Great Wall sections
On the plains, Great Wall workers made use of local soil (sand, loess, etc.) and rammed it into compact layers. Jiayuguan's Great Wall section in west China was mainly built with dusty loess soil, claimed as "the most erodible soil on the planet".

Sand (and reed/willow) Great Wall sections
Sand does not stick together, so it was used as a fill material between reed and willow layers to build sections of the wall.

West China around Dunhuang is desert. Innovative builders there made use of reeds and willow brought in from rivers and oases to build a strong wall. Jade Gate Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was built with 20-cm layers of sand and reed, an impressive 9 meters high.

Brick Great Wall sections
The Ming Dynasty Great Wall was mostly built with bricks. To build a strong wall with bricks, they used lime mortar. Workers built brick and cement factories with local materials near the wall.

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and is divided into Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque periods. The downfall of the Roman empire led to a decline in building activities and technology. Construction efforts were mostly done by the Roman Catholic Church. Craft training and education became a major focus in this period and craft guilds were organized. Three distinct levels of ability (master, journeyman, and apprentice) were recognized.

Fortifications, castles and cathedrals were the greatest construction projects. The Middle Ages began with the end of the Roman era and many Roman building techniques were lost. But some Roman techniques, including the use of iron ring-beams, appear to have been used in the Palatine Chapel at Aachen, c. 800 AD, where it is believed builders from the Lombard Kingdom in northern Italy contributed to the work. A revival of stone buildings in the 9th century and the Romanesque style of architecture began in the late 11th century. Also notable are the stave churches in Scandinavia.

Materials

Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD. In Southern Europe adobe remained predominant. Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD but elsewhere the craft of brick-making had largely disappeared and with it the methods for burning tiles. Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large communal hall. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The Cistercians may have been responsible for reintroducing brick-making to the area from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland leading to Backsteingotik. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period. Elsewhere buildings were typically in timber or where it could be afforded, stone. Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill, with weak lime mortars. The poor hardening properties of these mortars were a continual problem, and the settlement of the rubble filling of Romanesque and Gothic walls and piers is still a major cause for concern.

Design
There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman's livelihood. Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full size on tracing floors, some of which survive.

Techniques
Romanesque buildings of the period 600–1100 AD were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecture with its vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches developed in the twelfth century, and in the centuries that followed ever more incredible feats of constructional daring were achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and error. Failures were frequent, particularly in difficult areas such as crossing towers.

The pile driver was invented around 1500.

Achievements
The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are: Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral, King's College Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris.

Renaissance

The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of construction. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. During the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the people that built them. The master mason and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and rules of thumb to determine the sizes of building elements. Vitruvius, however, describes in detail the education of the perfect architect who, he said, must be skilled in all the arts and sciences. Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the first of the new style of architects. He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Materials
The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brickmakers were organised into guilds although the kilns were mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and brickearth. Brickmakers were typically paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result, legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes and each town kept measures against which bricks had to be compared. An increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts. The screw-threaded bolt (and nut) could be made and are found in clockmaking in this period, but they were labour-intensive and thus not used on large structures. Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles. In Italy they followed Roman precedents. In northern Europe plain tiles were used. Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings.

Design
The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Renaissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level, defining architecture as something worthy of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technical art, suited only to the artisan. The resulting change in status of architecture and more importantly the architect is key to understanding the changes in the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (a painter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of building technology but a keen grasp of the rules of classical design. The architect thus had to provide detailed drawings for the craftsmen setting out the disposition of the various parts. This was what is called the process of design, from the Italian word for drawing. Occasionally the architect would get involved in particularly difficult technical problems but the technical side of architecture was mainly left up to the craftsmen. This change in the way buildings were designed had a fundamental difference on the way problems were approached. Where the Medieval craftsmen tended to approach a problem with a technical solution in mind, the Renaissance architects started with an idea of what the end product needed to look like and then searched around for a way of making it work. This led to extraordinary leaps forward in engineering.

Techniques
The wish to return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was Brunelleschi's project for the dome of Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi managed to devise a way of building a huge dome without formwork, relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the way they were laid to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the dome was built is still subject to debate today as it is not possible to take the dome apart to study its construction without destroying it. The dome is a double skin, linked by ribs, with a series of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals to attempt to deal with hoop stresses.

Brunelleschi's dome was completed (up to the base of the lantern) in 1446. Its size was soon surpassed by the dome of St Peter's, built using flying scaffolding supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells.

Early Modern

17th century
The birth of the modern science in the 17th century greatly affected building construction. Towards the end of the centuy, architect-engineers began to use experimental science to analyse the forms of their buildings. Seventeenth-century structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models. It was not until the eighteenth century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated.

Major improvements to the manufacturing process of glass was happening during the 17th century. The first cast plate glass were developed in France and iron was increasingly employed in structures. For example, Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace, and iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul's Cathedral. Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores, held together with lime mortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with other materials to provide a hydraulic mortar, but there was still no equivalent of the Roman concrete. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged brickwork was used to provide detailed and ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss was introduced to England and used by Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren.

Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square, the spirit level, and the drafting compass are still in regular use.

Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of crane that had been used in previous centuries were still being employed. Flying scaffolds were employed at St Paul's Cathedral, England and in the dome of St Peters, Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber scaffolding that had been in use centuries before were retained. Cranes and scaffolding depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted, and long ramps were used to haul loads up to the upper parts of buildings.

18th century
The 18th century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late 17th century. The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalised. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly sophisticated and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in the pace and quantity of construction.

The use of cast and wrough iron brough breakthroughs in this period. Iron columns had been used in Wren's designs for the House of Commons and were used in several early 18th-century churches in London, but these supported only galleries.  In the second half of the 18th century the decreasing costs of iron production allowed the construction of major pieces of iron engineering. The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale (1779) is a particularly notable example. Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors. The Louvre in Paris boasted an early example of a wrought-iron roof. Steel was used in the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient quantities to be used for building.

Brick production increased markedly during this period. Many buildings throughout Europe were built of brick, but they were often coated in lime render, sometimes patterned to look like stone. Brick production itself changed little. Bricks were moulded by hand and fired in kilns no different to those used for centuries before. Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as an artificial stone in the UK.

Industrial Revolution

1st Industrial Revolution (19th century)

Construction became recognized as separate from design. Theoretical concepts on physics, mathematics, chemistry and thermodynamics were being developed and applied to create building science as a discpline. The various building professions (architecture, engineering, and consruction) were becoming defined.

The industrial revolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations, such as railways, canals and macadam roads. These required large amounts of investment. New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical surveying. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the nineteenth century, the circular saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of balloon framing and the decline of traditional timber framing.

As steel was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used in the form of I-beams and reinforced concrete. Glass panes also went into mass production, and went from a luxury to a commonplace item. Plumbing appeared, and gave common access to drinking water and sewage collection.

Building codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to fire safety.

2nd Industrial Revolution (20th century)

With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century, elevators and cranes made high rise buildings and skyscrapers possible, while heavy equipment and power tools decreased the workforce needed. Skyscrapers dominated the construction field and new technologies like prefabrication and computer-aided design emerged.

Trade unions were formed to protect construction workers' interests and occupational safety and health. Personal protective equipment such as hard hats and earmuffs also came into use, and have become mandatory at most sites.

Governmental construction projects were used as a part of macroeconomic stimulation policies, especially during the Great Depression (see New Deal). For economy of scale, whole suburbs, towns and cities, including infrastructure, are often planned and constructed within the same project (called megaproject if the cost exceeds US$1 billion), such as Brasília in Brazil, and the Million Programme in Sweden.

3rd Industrial Revolution (21st century)

By the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development had become important issues of construction. Construction methods prioritize sustainability and the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification was created.

Innovators utilized the concepts of lean manufacturing developed in the early industrial revolution to develop lean construction concepts. Advances in technology such as 3D Printing, drones and robotics, GPS, building information modelling and pre-fabrication increased the efficiency of construction. The United States was the first adopter of 3D printing technology in construction where huge machines would "print-out" cement in layers to form the walls of buildings. The development of robots and drones allowed constructors to view hard to reach areas. Modern residential homes would be built at fabrication homes and assembled on-site. Computer softwares could produce 3D versions of the buidling allowing construction managers to analyze the constructability of builings before construction starts reducing the costs brought by change orders.

The Digital age also led to various construction methods such as fast-track construction. Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.

Academic discipline
There is no established academic discipline of construction history but a growing number of researchers and academics are working in this field, including structural engineers, archaeologists, architects, historians of technology and architectural historians. Although the subject has been studied since the Renaissance and there were a number of important studies in the nineteenth century, it largely went out of fashion in the mid-twentieth century. In the last thirty years there has been an enormous increase in interest in this field, which is vital to the growing practice of building conservation.

Early writers
The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius, but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance, Vasari mentions Filippo Brunelleschi's interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not survive. In the seventeenth century, Rusconi's illustrations for his version of Leon Battista Alberti's treatise explicitly show Roman wall construction, but most of the interest in antiquity was in understanding its proportions and detail and the architects of the time were content to build using current techniques. While early archaeological studies and topographic works such as the engravings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi show Roman construction they were not explicitly analytical and much of what they do show is made up.

19th century studies
In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustrated their lectures with images of building techniques used in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction textbooks, such as Rondelet's. The greatest advances, however, were made by English and French (and later German) architects attempting to understand, record and analyse Gothic buildings. Typical of this type of writing are the works of Robert Willis in England, Viollet-le-Duc in France and Ungewitter in Germany. None of these however were seeking to suggest that the history of construction represented a new approach to the subject of architectural history. Auguste Choisy was perhaps the first author to seriously attempt to undertake such a study.

Early 20th century studies
 has suggested that it was modernism, with its emphasis on the employment of new materials, that abruptly ended the interest in construction history that appeared to have been growing in the last few decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth.  With the advent of concrete and steel frame construction, architects, who had been the chief audience for such studies, were no longer as interested as they had been in understanding traditional construction, which suddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thus published between 1920 and 1950. The revival of interest started in archaeology with the studies of Roman construction in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1980s that construction history began to emerge as an independent field.

Late 20th century
By the end of the twentieth century, steel and concrete construction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation. The Construction History Society was formed in the UK in 1982. It produces the only academic international journal devoted to the subject, Construction History, twice annually.  The International Congress on Construction History is held every three years, with the First International Congress on Construction History held in Madrid in 2003. This has been followed by editions held in Queens College, Cambridge, England (2006), Cottbus (2009), Paris (2012), Chicago (2015), Brussels (2018), and Lisbon (2021).

See also

 History of architecture
 History of structural engineering
 History of water supply and sanitation
 Construction History Society
 Timeline of architecture

References

External links

Construction

History of construction


Banya is a village in Razlog Municipality, in Blagoevgrad Province, Bulgaria, laying 4 km to the east of the town of Razlog and at about the same distance to the north of the ski resort of Bansko.

Banya was first settled by the Thracians around the 4th century BC because of its thermal springs. Its mineral waters source at temperature ranging between 37 and 57 degrees Celsius are used for spa, recreational and industrial purposes. It is currently being developed into a spa and mountain resort with new hotels, restaurants and other tourist facilities emerging each season.

References

Villages in Blagoevgrad Province

Banya, Blagoevgrad Province


Jan Mankes (15 August 1889 – 23 April 1920) was a Dutch painter. He produced around 200 paintings, 100 drawings and 50 prints before dying of tuberculosis at the age of 30. His restrained, detailed work ranged from self-portraits to landscapes and studies of birds and animals. His work is now exhibited in his native Netherlands in the Museum Arnhem, Museum Belvédère and Museum MORE.

Biography
Mankes had a reputation as an ascetic living in a kind of self-chosen isolation in De Knipe, Friesland, far from the heart of the country's culture. In reality he was well aware of what was going on, read the leading newspapers and magazines, and was supplied by friends with newspaper clippings and other material. In addition, he had lived in The Hague and (because of his tuberculosis) in Eerbeek, in Gelderland, but preferred to keep an "intimate distance". A progressive Protestant, in 1915 he married Anne Zernike, the country's first female minister with a doctoral degree. Zernike was a Mennonite; a drawing of her, made by Mankes in 1911, is in the collection of the Fries Museum in Leeuwarden.

From 1909 onwards he was financially supported by A.A.M. Pauwels (1875–1952), a tobacco merchant and art collector from The Hague. Mankes' letters to Pauwels, in which he often thanks him for money and material sent to him, take up seven hundred pages (including annotations) and were published in 2012 by the Netherlands Institute for Art History; Pauwels' letters are not preserved.

Style and technique
He is sometimes categorized as a symbolic realist, though Carel Peeters notes that the abstract qualities of Mankes's work remove him from both symbolism and realism. When working with oil paints he was able to bring a kind of transparency to the paint especially when he was working with white, which acquired a pearly lustre because of his soft brush strokes. In self-portraits, observers noted, this gave his white skin a rather sickly appearance.

Mankes studied and then sketched his subjects (often birds and farm animals) "until he knew them by heart, and then painted them from memory". One of his favorite animals (he kept it in his room) was an owl, sent to him by his benefactor Pauwels. Mankes used a glazing technique, in which a large number of layers of paint on an opaque base "lend a fairytale-like quality to the owl".

Gallery

References

External links

Jan Mankes at the Netherlands Institute for Art History

1889 births
1920 deaths
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
People from Meppel
Tuberculosis deaths in the Netherlands
20th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
20th-century Dutch male artists

Jan Mankes