Kim Il Sung (; , ; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was a Korean politician and the founder of North Korea, which he ruled from the country's establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. Afterwards, he was declared its eternal president. His birth name was Kim Song Ju ().

He held the posts of the Premier from 1948 to 1972 and President from 1972 to 1994. He was the leader of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) from 1949 to 1994 (titled as Chairman from 1949 to 1966 and as General Secretary after 1966). Coming to power after the end of Japanese rule over Korea in 1945 following Japan's surrender in World War II, he authorized the invasion of South Korea in 1950, triggering an intervention in defense of South Korea by the United Nations led by the United States. Following the military stalemate in the Korean War, a ceasefire was signed in July 1953. He was the third-longest serving non-royal head of state/government in the 20th century, in office for more than 45 years.

Under his leadership, North Korea was established as a totalitarian socialist personalist dictatorship with a centrally planned economy. It had very close political and economic relations with the Soviet Union. By the late 1950s and during the 1960s and 1970s, North Korea enjoyed a higher standard of living than the South, which was suffering from political chaos and economic crises. The situation was reversed in the 1980s, as a newly stable South Korea became an economic powerhouse which was fueled by Japanese and American investment, military aid and internal economic development, while North Korea stagnated and then declined during the same period. Differences emerged between North Korea and the Soviet Union; chief among them was Kim Il Sung's philosophy of Juche, which focused on Korean nationalism, self-reliance and socialism. Despite this, the country received funds, subsidies and aid from the USSR and the Eastern Bloc until the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.

The resulting loss of economic aid negatively affected the North's economy, contributing to widespread famine in 1994. During this period, North Korea also remained critical of the United States defense force's presence in the region, which it considered imperialist, having seized the American ship  in 1968. This was part of an infiltration and subversion campaign to reunify the peninsula under North Korea's rule. Kim outlived his allies Joseph Stalin by over four decades and Mao Zedong by almost two decades and remained in power during the terms of office of six South Korean Presidents and ten United States Presidents. Known as the Great Leader (Suryong), he established a far-reaching personality cult which dominates domestic politics in North Korea. At the 6th WPK Congress in 1980, his oldest son Kim Jong Il was elected to be a Presidium member and chosen to be his successor, thus establishing the Kim dynasty.

Early life

Family background

Kim was born Kim Song-ju to father Kim Hyong Jik and mother Kang Pan Suk. Kim had two younger brothers,  and Kim Yong Ju. Kim Chul Ju died while fighting the Japanese and Kim Yong Ju   was involved in the North Korean government and considered a heir to his brother before falling out of favor.

Kim's family, part of the Jeonju Kim clan, is said to have originated from Jeonju, North Jeolla Province. In 1860, his great-grandfather, Kim Ung-u, settled in the Mangyongdae neighborhood of Pyongyang. Kim was reportedly born in the small village of Mangyungbong (then called Namni) near Pyongyang on 15 April 1912. According to a 1964 semi-official biography of Kim, he was born in his mother's home in Chingjong, and later grew up in Mangyungbong.

According to Kim, his family was always a step away from poverty. Kim said that he was raised in a very active Presbyterian Christian family. His maternal grandfather was a Protestant minister, and his father had gone to a missionary school and was an elder in the Presbyterian Church. According to an official North Korean government account, Kim's family participated in anti-Japanese activities and fled to Manchuria in 1920. Like most Korean families, they resented the Japanese occupation of the Korean peninsula (which had begun on 29 August 1910). Japanese repression of Korean opposition was harsh, resulting in the arrest and detention of more than 52,000 Korean citizens in 1912 alone. This repression had forced many Korean families to flee the Korean peninsula, and settle in Manchuria.

Nevertheless, Kim's parents, especially his mother, played a role in the anti-Japanese struggle that was sweeping the peninsula. Their exact involvement—whether their cause was missionary, nationalist, or both—is unclear.

Communist and guerrilla activities

North Korean government sources credit Kim with founding the Down-with-Imperialism Union in 1926. He attended Whasung Military Academy in 1926, but found the academy's training methods outdated and quit it in 1927. He then attended Yuwen Middle School in China's Jilin province until 1930, when he rejected the feudal traditions of older-generation Koreans and became interested in communist ideologies.  Seventeen-year-old Kim became the youngest member of the , an underground Marxist organization with fewer than twenty members. It was led by Hŏ So (), who belonged to the . The police discovered the group three weeks after it formed in 1929, and jailed Kim for several months. Kim's formal education ended after his arrest and imprisonment.

In 1931, Kim joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)—the Communist Party of Korea had been founded in 1925, but had been thrown out of the Communist International in the early 1930s for being too nationalist. He joined various anti-Japanese guerrilla groups in northern China. Feelings against the Japanese ran high in Manchuria, but as of May 1930 the Japanese had not yet occupied Manchuria. On 30 May 1930, a spontaneous violent uprising in eastern Manchuria arose in which peasants attacked some local villages in the name of resisting "Japanese aggression". The authorities easily suppressed this impromptu uprising. Because of the attack, the Japanese began to plan an occupation of Manchuria. In a speech Kim allegedly made before a meeting of Young Communist League delegates on 20 May 1931 in Yenchi County in Manchuria, he warned the delegates against such unplanned uprisings as the 30 May 1930 uprising in eastern Manchuria.

Four months later, on 18 September 1931, the "Mukden Incident" occurred, in which a relatively weak dynamite explosive charge went off near a Japanese railroad in the town of Mukden in Manchuria. Although no damage occurred, the Japanese used the incident as an excuse to send armed forces into Manchuria and to appoint a puppet government. In 1935, Kim became a member of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, a guerrilla group led by the CCP. Kim was appointed the same year to serve as political commissar for the 3rd detachment of the second division, consisting of around 160 soldiers. Here Kim met the man who would become his mentor as a communist, Wei Zhengmin, Kim's immediate superior officer, who served at the time as chairman of the Political Committee of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. Wei reported directly to Kang Sheng, a high-ranking party member close to Mao Zedong in Yan'an, until Wei's death on 8 March 1941.

Kim's actions during the Minsaengdan incident helped solidify his leadership. The CCP operating in Manchuria had become suspicious that any Korean could secretly be a member of the pro-Japanese and anti-communist Minsaengdan. A purge resulted: over 1,000 Koreans were expelled from the CCP, including Kim (who was arrested in late 1933 and exonerated in early 1934), and 500 were killed. Kim Il Sung's memoirsand those of the guerrillas who fought alongside himcite Kim's seizing and burning the suspect files of the Purge Committee as key to solidifying his leadership. After the destruction of the suspect files and the rehabilitation of suspects, those who had fled the purge rallied around Kim. As historian Suzy Kim summarizes, Kim Il Sung "emerged from the purge as a definitive leader, not only for the bold move but also for his compassion."

In 1935, Kim took the name Kim Il Sung, meaning "Kim become the sun". Kim was appointed commander of the 6th division in 1937, at the age of 24, controlling a few hundred men in a group that came to be known as "Kim Il Sung's division". On June 4th 1937, he led 200 guerrillas in a raid on Poch'onbo, destroying the local government offices and setting fire to a Japanese police station and post office. The success of the raid demonstrated Kim's talents as a military leader. Even more significant than the military success itself was the political coordination and organization between the guerrillas and the Korean Fatherland Restoration Association, an anti-Japanese united front group based in Manchuria. These accomplishments would grant Kim some measure of fame among Chinese guerrillas, and North Korean biographies would later exploit it as a great victory for Korea.

For their part, the Japanese regarded Kim as one of the most effective and popular Korean guerrilla leaders ever. He appeared on Japanese wanted lists as the "Tiger". The Japanese "Maeda Unit" was sent to hunt him in February 1940. Later in 1940, the Japanese kidnapped a woman named Kim Hye-sun, believed to have been Kim Il Sung's first wife. After using her as a hostage to try to convince the Korean guerrillas to surrender, she was killed. Kim was appointed commander of the 2nd operational region for the 1st Army, but by the end of 1940 he was the only 1st Army leader still alive. Pursued by Japanese troops, in late 1940, Kim and a dozen of his fighters escaped by crossing the Amur River into the Soviet Union. Kim was sent to a camp at Vyatskoye near Khabarovsk, where the Soviets retrained the Korean communist guerrillas. In August 1942, Kim and his army were assigned to a special unit known as the 88th Separate Rifle Brigade, which belonged to the Soviet Red Army. Kim's immediate superior was Zhou Baozhong. Kim became a Major in the Soviet Red Army and served in it until the end of World War II in 1945.

Return to Korea

The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on 8 August 1945, and the Red Army entered Pyongyang on 24 August 1945. Stalin had instructed Lavrentiy Beria to recommend a communist leader for the Soviet-occupied territories and Beria met Kim several times before recommending him to Stalin.

Kim arrived in the Korean port of Wonsan on 19 September 1945 after 26 years in exile. According to Leonid Vassin, an officer with the Soviet MVD, Kim was essentially "created from zero". For one, his Korean was marginal at best; he only had eight years of formal education, all of it in Chinese. He needed considerable coaching to read a speech (which the MVD prepared for him) at a Communist Party congress three days after he arrived.

In December 1945, the Soviets installed Kim as First Secretary of the North Korean Branch Bureau of the Communist Party of Korea. Originally, the Soviets preferred Cho Man-sik to lead a popular front government, but Cho refused to support a UN-backed trusteeship and clashed with Kim. General Terentii Shtykov, who led the Soviet occupation of northern Korea, supported Kim over Pak Hon-yong to lead the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea on 8 February 1946. As chairman of the committee, Kim was "the top Korean administrative leader in the North," though he was still de facto subordinate to General Shtykov until the Chinese intervention in the Korean War.

On 1 March 1946, while giving a speech to commemorate an anniversary of the March 1st Movement, a member of the anti-communist terrorist group the White Shirts Society attempted to assassinate Kim by lobbing a grenade at his podium. However, Soviet military officer Yakov Novichenko grabbed the grenade and absorbed the blast with his body, leaving Kim and other bystanders unharmed.

To solidify his control, Kim established the Korean People's Army (KPA), aligned with the Communist Party, and he recruited a cadre of guerrillas and former soldiers who had gained combat experience in battles against the Japanese and later against Nationalist Chinese troops. Using Soviet advisers and equipment, Kim constructed a large army skilled in infiltration tactics and guerrilla warfare. Prior to Kim's invasion of the South in 1950, which triggered the Korean War, Stalin equipped the KPA with modern, Soviet-built medium tanks, trucks, artillery, and small arms. Kim also formed an air force, equipped at first with Soviet-built propeller-driven fighters and attack aircraft. Later, North Korean pilot candidates were sent to the Soviet Union and China to train in MiG-15 jet aircraft at secret bases.

Claims that Kim Il Sung was an imposter

Several sources claim the name "Kim Il Sung" had previously been used by a prominent early leader of the Korean resistance, Kim Kyung-cheon. The Soviet officer Grigory Mekler, who worked with Kim during the Soviet occupation, said that Kim took this name from a former commander who had died. However, historian Andrei Lankov has argued that this is unlikely to be true. Several witnesses knew Kim before and after his time in the Soviet Union, including his superior, Zhou Baozhong, who dismissed the claim of a "second" Kim in his diaries. Historian Bruce Cumings pointed out that Japanese officers from the Kwantung Army have attested to his fame as a resistance figure.

According to the 2019 book Surprise, Kill, Vanish by investigative journalist Annie Jacobsen, the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) once concluded that Kim Il Sung was a blackmailed imposter operated by the Soviet Union. The dossier titled "The Identity of Kim Il Sung" ascribed the leader's true identity to Kim Song-ju, an orphaned child caught stealing money from a classmate who killed his classmate to avoid embarrassment. The dossier alleges Soviet intelligence officers identified the opportunity to blackmail Kim Song-ju into leading the North Korean Communist Party as a Soviet puppet under the name of the real war hero Kim-Il Sung, whom Stalin had disappeared. Jacobsen also writes that the CIA learned "specific instructions [were] given to the leaders of the regime that there should be no questions raised about Kim [Il Sung]'s identity."

Historians generally accept the view that, while Kim's exploits were exaggerated by the personality cult which was built around him, he was a significant guerrilla leader.

Leader of North Korea

Early years

Despite the United Nations' plans to conduct nationwide elections in Korea, on 15 August 1948, the US-occupied south proclaimed the Republic of Korea, which claimed sovereignty over all of Korea. In response, the Soviets held elections of their own in their northern occupation zone on 25 August 1948 for a Supreme People's Assembly. Voters were presented with a single list from the Communist-dominated Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was proclaimed on 9 September 1948, with Kim as the Soviet-designated premier.

On 12 October, the Soviet Union recognized Kim's government as the sovereign government of the entire peninsula, including the south. The Communist Party merged with the New People's Party of Korea to form the Workers' Party of North Korea, with Kim as vice-chairman. In 1949, the Workers' Party of North Korea merged with its southern counterpart to become the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) with Kim as party chairman. By 1949, Kim and the communists had consolidated their rule in North Korea. Around this time, Kim began promoting an intense personality cult. The first of many statues of him appeared, and he began calling himself "Great Leader".

In February 1946, Kim Il Sung decided to introduce a number of reforms. Over 50% of the arable land was redistributed, an 8-hour work day was proclaimed and all heavy industry was to be nationalized. There were improvements in the health of the population after he nationalized healthcare and made it available to all citizens.

Korean War

Archival material suggests that North Korea's decision to invade South Korea was Kim's initiative, not a Soviet one. Evidence suggests that Soviet intelligence, through its espionage sources in the US government and British SIS, had obtained information on the limitations of US atomic bomb stockpiles as well as defense program cuts, leading Stalin to conclude that the Truman administration would not intervene in Korea.

China acquiesced only reluctantly to the idea of Korean reunification after being told by Kim that Stalin had approved the action. The Chinese did not provide North Korea with direct military support (other than logistics channels) until United Nations troops, largely US forces, had nearly reached the Yalu River late in 1950. At the outset of the war in June and July, North Korean forces captured Seoul and occupied most of the South, save for a small section of territory in the southeast region of the South that was called the Pusan Perimeter. But in September, the North Koreans were driven back by the US-led counterattack that started with the UN landing in Incheon, followed by a combined South Korean-US-UN offensive from the Pusan Perimeter. By October, UN forces had retaken Seoul and invaded the North to reunify the country under the South. On 19 October, US and South Korean troops captured P'yŏngyang, forcing Kim and his government to flee north, first to Sinuiju and eventually into Kanggye.

On 25 October 1950, after sending various warnings of their intent to intervene if UN forces did not halt their advance, Chinese troops in the thousands crossed the Yalu River and entered the war as allies of the KPA. There were nevertheless tensions between Kim and the Chinese government. Kim had been warned of the likelihood of an amphibious landing at Incheon, which was ignored. There was also a sense that the North Koreans had paid little in war compared to the Chinese who had fought for their country for decades against foes with better technology. The UN troops were forced to withdraw and Chinese troops retook P'yŏngyang in December and Seoul in January 1951. In March, UN forces began a new offensive, retaking Seoul and advanced north once again halting at a point just north of the 38th Parallel. After a series of offensives and counter-offensives by both sides, followed by a grueling period of largely static trench warfare that lasted from the summer of 1951 to July 1953, the front was stabilized along what eventually became the permanent "Armistice Line" of 27 July 1953. Over 2.5 million people died during the Korean War.

Chinese and Russian documents from that time reveal that Kim became increasingly desperate to establish a truce, since the likelihood that further fighting would successfully unify Korea under his rule became more remote with the UN and US presence. Kim also resented the Chinese taking over the majority of the fighting in his country, with Chinese forces stationed at the center of the front line, and the Korean People's Army being mostly restricted to the coastal flanks of the front.

Consolidating power

With the end of the Korean War, despite the failure to unify Korea under his rule, Kim Il Sung proclaimed the war a victory in the sense that he had remained in power in the north. However, the three-year war left North Korea devastated, and Kim immediately embarked on a large reconstruction effort. He launched a five-year national economic plan (akin to Soviet Union's five-year plans) to establish a command economy, with all industry owned by the state and all agriculture collectivized. The economy was focused on heavy industry and arms production. By the 1960s, North Korea enjoyed a standard of living higher than the South, which was fraught with political instability and economic crises.

In the ensuing years, Kim established himself as an independent leader of international communism. In 1956, he joined Mao in the "anti-revisionist" camp, which did not accept Nikita Khrushchev's program of de-Stalinization, yet he did not become a Maoist himself. At the same time, he consolidated his power over the Korean communist movement. Rival leaders were eliminated. Pak Hon-yong, leader of the Korean Communist Party, was purged and executed in 1955. Choe Chang-ik appears to have been purged as well. Yi Sang-Cho, North Korea's ambassador to the Soviet Union and a critic of Kim who defected to the Soviet Union in 1956, was declared a factionalist and a traitor. The 1955 Juche speech, which stressed Korean independence, debuted in the context of Kim's power struggle against leaders such as Pak, who had Soviet backing. This was little noticed at the time until state media started talking about it in 1963. Kim developed the policy and ideology of Juche in opposition to the idea of North Korea as a satellite state of China or the Soviet Union.

Kim transformed North Korea into what Wonjun Song and Joseph Wright consider a personalist dictatorship, where power was centralized in Kim personally. Kim Il Sung's cult of personality had initially been criticized by some members of the government. The North Korean ambassador to the USSR, Li Sangjo, a member of the Yan'an faction, reported that it had become a criminal offense to so much as write on Kim's picture in a newspaper and that he had been elevated to the status of Marx, Lenin, Mao, and Stalin in the communist pantheon. He also charged Kim with rewriting history so it would appear as if his guerrilla faction had single-handedly liberated Korea from the Japanese, completely ignoring the assistance of the Chinese People's Volunteers. In addition, Li stated that in the process of agricultural collectivization, grain was being forcibly confiscated from the peasants, leading to "at least 300 suicides" and he also stated that Kim made nearly all major policy decisions and appointments himself. Li reported that over 30,000 people were in prison for completely unjust and arbitrary reasons which were as trivial as not printing Kim Il Sung's portrait on sufficient quality paper or using newspapers with his picture to wrap parcels. Grain confiscation and tax collection were also conducted with force, which consisted of violence, beatings, and threats of imprisonment.

During the 1956 August Faction Incident, Kim Il Sung successfully resisted Soviet and Chinese efforts to depose him in favor of pro-Soviet Koreans or Koreans who belonged to the pro-Chinese Yan'an faction. The last Chinese troops withdrew from the country in October 1958, which is the consensus as the latest date when North Korea became effectively independent, though some scholars believe that the 1956 August incident demonstrated North Korea's independence.

During his rise and consolidation of power, Kim created the songbun caste system, which divided the North Korean people into three groups. Each person was classified as belonging to the "core", "wavering", or "hostile" class, based on his or her political, social, and economic background – a system which persists today. Songbun was used to decide all aspects of a person's existence in North Korean society, including access to education, housing, employment, food rationing, ability to join the ruling party, and even where a person was allowed to live. Large numbers of people from the so-called hostile class, which included intellectuals, land owners, and former supporters of Japan's occupying government during World War II, were forcibly relocated to the country's isolated and impoverished northern provinces. When years of famine ravaged the country in the 1990s, those people who lived in its marginalized and remote communities were hardest hit.

During his rule, North Korea was responsible for widespread human rights abuses. Kim Il Sung punished real and perceived dissent through purges which included public executions and enforced disappearances. Not only dissenters but their entire extended families were reduced to the lowest songbun rank, and many of them were relocated to a secret system of political prison camps. These camps or kwanliso, a part of Kim's vast network of abusive penal and forced labor institutions, were fenced and heavily guarded colonies in mountainous areas of the country, where prisoners were forced to perform back-breaking labor such as logging, mining, and picking crops. Most prisoners were held in these camps for life, and their living and working conditions in them were often deadly. For example, prisoners were nearly starved to death, denied medical care, denied proper housing and clothes, subjected to sexual violence, regularly mistreated, tortured and executed by guards.

Later years

Despite his opposition to de-Stalinization, Kim never officially severed relations with the Soviet Union, and he did not take part in the Sino-Soviet Split. After Khrushchev was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964, Kim's relations with the Soviet Union became closer. At the same time, Kim was increasingly alienated by Mao's unstable style of leadership, especially during the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s. Kim in turn was denounced by Mao's Red Guards. At the same time, Kim reinstated relations with most of Eastern Europe's communist countries, primarily with Erich Honecker's East Germany and Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania. Ceauşescu was heavily influenced by Kim's ideology, and the personality cult which grew around him in Romania was very similar to that of Kim.

In the 1960s, Kim became impressed with the efforts of North Vietnamese Leader Ho Chi Minh to reunify Vietnam through guerrilla warfare and thought that something similar might be possible in Korea. Infiltration and subversion efforts were thus greatly stepped up against US forces and the leadership in South Korea. These efforts culminated in an attempt to storm the Blue House and assassinate President Park Chung Hee. North Korean troops thus took a much more aggressive stance toward US forces in and around South Korea, engaging US Army troops in fire-fights along the Demilitarized Zone. The 1968 capture of the crew of the spy ship USS Pueblo was a part of this campaign.

Albania's Enver Hoxha (another independent-minded communist leader) was a fierce enemy of the country and Kim Il Sung, writing in June 1977 that "genuine Marxist-Leninists" will understand that the "ideology which is guiding the Korean Workers' Party and the Communist Party of China ... is revisionist" and later that month he added that "in Pyongyang, I believe that even Tito will be astonished at the proportions of the cult of his host [Kim Il sung], which has reached a level unheard of anywhere else, either in past or present times, let alone in a country which calls itself socialist." He further claimed that "the leadership of the Communist Party of China has betrayed [the working people]. In Korea, too, we can say that the leadership of the Korean Workers' Party is wallowing in the same waters" and claimed that Kim Il Sung was begging for aid from other countries, especially among the Eastern Bloc and non-aligned countries like Yugoslavia. As a result, relations between North Korea and Albania would remain cold and tense right up until Hoxha's death in 1985.

Although a resolute anti-communist, Zaire's Mobutu Sese Seko was also heavily influenced by Kim's style of rule.

The North Korean government's practice of abducting foreign nationals, such as South Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, Thais, and Romanians, is another practice of Kim Il Sung which persists to the present day. Kim Il Sung planned these operations to seize persons who could be used to support North Korea's overseas intelligence operations, or those who had technical skills to maintain the socialist state's economic infrastructure in farms, construction, hospitals, and heavy industry. According to the Korean War Abductees Family Union (KWAFU), those abducted by North Korea after the war included 2,919 civil servants, 1,613 police, 190 judicial officers and lawyers, and 424 medical practitioners. In the hijacking and seizure of Korean Airlines flight YS-11 in 1969 by North Korean agents, the pilots and mechanics, and others with specialized skills, were the only ones never permitted to return to South Korea. The total number of foreign abductees and disappeared is still unknown but is estimated to include more than 200,000 people. The vast majority of disappearances occurred or were linked to the Korean War, but hundreds of South Koreans and Japanese people were abducted between the 1960s and 1980s. A number of South Koreans and nationals of the People's Republic of China have also been apparently abducted in the 2000s and 2010s. At least 100,000 people remain disappeared.

The Constitution of North Korea was proclaimed on December 27, 1972, which created the position of the President of North Korea. Kim gave up his former Premier of the Cabinet position, which he had held since 1948, and became instead president, after the 1972 North Korean parliamentary election. On 14 April 1975, North Korea discontinued most formal use of its traditional units and adopted the metric system. In 1980, he decided that his son Kim Jong Il would succeed him, and increasingly delegated the running of the government to him. The Kim family was supported by the army, due to Kim Il Sung's revolutionary record and the support of the veteran defense minister, O Chin-u. At the Sixth Party Congress in October 1980, Kim publicly designated his son as his successor. In 1986, a rumor spread that Kim had been assassinated, making the concern for Jong-il's ability to succeed his father actual. Kim dispelled the rumors, however, by making a series of public appearances. It has been argued, however, that the incident helped establish the order of succession—the first apparent patrilineal in a communist state—which eventually would occur upon Kim Il Sung's death in 1994.

From about this time, North Korea encountered increasing economic difficulties. South Korea became an economic powerhouse fueled by Japanese and American investment, military aid, and internal economic development, while North Korea stagnated and then declined in the 1980s. The practical effect of Juche was to cut the country off from virtually all foreign trade in order to make it entirely self-reliant. The economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping in China from 1979 onward meant that trade with the moribund economy of North Korea held decreasing interest for China. The Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, from 1989 to 1992, completed North Korea's virtual isolation. These events led to mounting economic difficulties because Kim refused to issue any economic or political reforms.

As he aged, starting in the 1970s, Kim developed a calcium deposit growth on the right side of the back of his neck. It was long believed that its close proximity to his brain and spinal cord made it inoperable. However, Juan Reynaldo Sanchez, a defected bodyguard for Fidel Castro who met Kim in 1986 wrote later that it was Kim's own paranoia that prevented it from being operated on. Because of its unappealing nature, North Korean reporters and photographers were required to photograph Kim while standing slightly to his left in order to hide the growth from official photographs and newsreels. Hiding the growth became increasingly difficult as the growth reached the size of a baseball by the late 1980s.

To ensure a full succession of leadership to his son and designated successor Kim Jong Il, Kim turned over his chairmanship of North Korea's National Defense Commission—the body mainly responsible for control of the armed forces as well as the supreme commandership of the country's now million-man strong military force, the Korean People's Army—to his son in 1991 and 1993. So far, the elder Kim—even though he is dead—has remained the country's president and the chairman of the Party's Central Military Commission, the party's organization that has supreme supervision and authority over military matters.

In early 1994, Kim began investing in nuclear power to offset energy shortages brought on by economic problems. This was the first of many "nuclear crises". On 19 May 1994, Kim ordered spent fuel to be unloaded from the already disputed nuclear research facility in Yongbyon. Despite repeated chiding from Western nations, Kim continued to conduct nuclear research and carry on with the uranium enrichment program. In June 1994, former US President Jimmy Carter traveled to Pyongyang in an effort to persuade Kim to negotiate with the Clinton administration over its nuclear program. To the astonishment of the United States and the International Atomic Energy Agency, Kim agreed to halt his nuclear research program and seemed to be embarking upon a new opening to the West.

Death

On the late morning shortly before 12:00 noon on 7 July 1994, Kim Il Sung collapsed from a sudden heart attack at his residence in Hyangsan, North Pyongan. After the heart attack, Kim Jong Il ordered the team of doctors who were constantly at his father's side to leave and arranged for the country's best doctors to be flown in from Pyongyang. After several hours, the doctors from Pyongyang arrived, but despite their efforts to save him, Kim Il Sung died at 02:00 PST on 8 July 1994, aged 82. After the traditional Confucian mourning period, his death was declared 34 hours later.

Kim Il Sung's death resulted in nationwide mourning and a ten-day mourning period was declared by Kim Jong Il. His funeral was scheduled to be held on 17 July 1994 in Pyongyang but was delayed until 19 July. It was attended by hundreds of thousands of people who were flown into the city from all over North Korea. Kim Il Sung's body was placed in a public mausoleum at the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun, where his preserved and embalmed body lies under a glass coffin for viewing purposes. His head rests on a traditional Korean pillow and he is covered by the flag of the Workers' Party of Korea. Newsreel video of the funeral at Pyongyang was broadcast on several networks and can now be found on various websites.

Contributions to political theory

Kim Il Sung's most notable contribution to political theory is his conceptualization of the Juche idea, originally described as a variant of Marxism–Leninism.

In his writings, Kim engaged with Karl Marx's metaphor that religion is the opium of the people. He did so both in the context of responding to his comrades who objected to working with religious groups (Chonbulygo and Chondoism, respectively). In the first instance, Kim replies that a person is "mistaken" if he or she believes Marx's proposition regarding "opium of the people" can be applied in all instances, explaining that if a religion "prays for dealing out divine punishment to Japan and blessing the Korean nation" then it is a "patriotic religion" and its believers are patriots. In the second, Kim states that Marx's metaphor "must not be construed radically and unilaterally" because Marx was warning against "the temptation of a religious mirage and not opposing believers in general." Because the communist movement in Korea was fighting a struggle for "national salvation" against Japan, Kim writes that anyone with a similar agenda can join the struggle and that "even a religionist ... must be enrolled in our ranks without hesitation."

Personal life

Kim Il Sung married twice. His first wife, Kim Jong Suk (1917–1949), gave birth to two sons and one daughter before her death in childbirth during the delivery of a stillborn girl. Kim Jong Il was his oldest son. The other son (Kim Man-il, or Shaura Kim) of this marriage died in 1947 in a swimming accident. A daughter, Kim Kyong-hui, was born in 1946.

Kim married Kim Song-ae (1924–2014) in 1952, and it is believed that he had three children with her: Kim Yŏng-il (not to be confused with the former Premier of North Korea with the same name), Kim Kyŏng-il, and Kim Pyong Il. Kim Pyong-il was prominent in Korean politics until he became ambassador to Hungary. In 2015, Kim Pyong-il became ambassador to the Czech Republic, but officially retired in 2019 and resides once again in North Korea.

Kim was reported to have had other children with women who he was not married to. They included Kim Hyŏn-nam (born 1972, head of the Propaganda and Agitation Department of the Workers' Party since 2002).

Awards

According to North Korean sources, Kim Il Sung had received 230 foreign orders, medals and titles from 70 countries since the 1940s until, and after, his death. They include: The Soviet Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Lenin (twice), Star of the Republic of Indonesia (first class), the Bulgarian Order of Georgi Dimitrov (twice), the Togolese Order of Mono (Grand Cross), the Order of the Yugoslav Star (Great Star), the Cuban Order of José Martí (twice), the East German Order of Karl Marx (twice), the Maltese Xirka Ġieħ ir-Repubblika, the Burkinabe Order of the Gold Star of Nahouri, Order of the Grand Star of Honour of Socialist Ethiopia, the Nicaraguan , the Vietnamese Gold Star Order, the Czechoslovak Order of Klement Gottwald, the Royal Order of Cambodia (Grand Cross), the National Order of Madagascar (first class, Grand Cross), the Mongolian Order of Sukhbaatar, and the Romanian orders of Order of Victory of Socialism and Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic (first class with band).

Legacy

Kim Il Sung was revered as a godlike figure within North Korea during his lifetime, but his personality cult struggled to extend beyond the country's borders. There are over 500 statues of him in North Korea, similar to the many statues and monuments that Eastern Bloc countries erected of their leaders. The most prominent are at Kim Il Sung University, Kim Il Sung Stadium, Mansudae Hill, Kim Il Sung Bridge and the Immortal Statue of Kim Il Sung. Some statues have reportedly been destroyed by explosions or damaged with graffiti by North Korean dissidents. Yŏng Saeng ("eternal life") monuments have been erected throughout the country, each dedicated to the departed "Eternal Leader".

Kim Il Sung's image is prominent in places associated with public transportation, especially his posthumous portrait released in 1994, which hangs at every North Korean train station and airport. It is also placed prominently near the border crossings between China and North Korea. At the border outside of Yanji, South Korean tourists could pay the local Chinese residents for a picture taken against the scenery of North Korea beyond the Tumen River, with the portrait of Kim Il Sung looming large at the background.

Thousands of gifts to Kim Il Sung from foreign leaders are housed in the International Friendship Exhibition.

Kim Il Sung's birthday, "Day of the Sun", is celebrated every year as a public holiday in North Korea. The associated April Spring Friendship Art Festival gathers hundreds of artists from all over the world.

There is a Kim Il Sung Park, a Kim Il Sung Alley, and a Kim Il Sung monument in Damascus, Syria.

Works

Kim Il Sung was the author of many works. According to North Korean sources, these amount to approximately 10,800 speeches, reports, books, treatises, and others. Some, such as the 100-volume Complete Collection of Kim Il Sung's Works (), are published by the Workers' Party of Korea Publishing House. Shortly before his death, he published an eight-volume autobiography, With the Century.

According to official North Korean sources, Kim Il Sung was the original writer of many plays and operas. One of these, a revolutionary theatrical opera called The Flower Girl, was adapted into a locally produced feature film in 1972.

See also

 List of international trips made by Kim Il Sung
 List of things named after Kim Il Sung
 "Song of General Kim Il Sung"
 Residences of North Korean leaders
 Communism in Korea
 Korean independence movement

Notes

References

Further reading
 Baik Bong, "From Birth to Triumphant Return to Homeland", "From Building Democratic Korea to Chollima Flight", and "From Independent National Economy to 10-Point Political Programme".
 Blair, Clay, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, Naval Institute Press (2003).
 Kracht, Christian, The Ministry Of Truth: Kim Jong Il's North Korea, Feral House, October 2007, 132 pp, 88 color photographs, .
 Lee Chong-Sik. "Kim Il-Song of North Korea." Asian Survey. University of California Press. Vol. 7, No. 6, June 1967. .
 NKIDP: Crisis and Confrontation on the Korean Peninsula: 1968–1969, A Critical Oral History
 Sudoplatov, Pavel Anatoli, Schecter, Jerrold L., and Schecter, Leona P., Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness – A Soviet Spymaster, Little Brown, Boston (1994).
 Szalontai, Balázs, Kim Il Sung in the Khrushchev Era: Soviet–DPRK Relations and the Roots of North Korean Despotism, 1953–1964. Stanford: Stanford University Press; Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press (2005).

External links

 Nicolae Ceausescu's visit to Pyongyang, North Korea, in 1971
 "Conversations with Kim Il Sung" at the Wilson Center Digital Archive

1912 births
1994 deaths
20th-century North Korean writers
Anti-capitalists
Anti-Japanese sentiment in North Korea
Collars of the Order of the White Lion
Former Presbyterians
Generalissimos
Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali
Grand Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland
Heads of state of North Korea
Juche
Korean communists
Korean expatriates in the Soviet Union
Korean revolutionaries
Socialist feminists
Kim Il-sung
Leaders of the Workers' Party of Korea and its predecessors
Members of the Presidium of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 1st Central Committee of the Workers' Party of North Korea
Members of the 2nd Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 1st Political Committee of the Workers' Party of North Korea
Members of the 1st Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of North Korea
Members of the 2nd Political Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 2nd Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 3rd Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 4th Political Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 5th Political Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 6th Politburo of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 6th Presidium of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 3rd Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 4th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 5th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 6th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea
Members of the 1st Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 2nd Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 3rd Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 4th Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 5th Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 6th Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 7th Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 8th Supreme People's Assembly
Members of the 9th Supreme People's Assembly
National Heroes of North Korea
Critics of religions
North Korean atheists
North Korean communists
North Korean people of the Korean War
North Korean people of the Vietnam War
North Korean writers
People from Pyongyang
People of 88th Separate Rifle Brigade
People of the Cold War
Politicide perpetrators
Prime Ministers of North Korea
Recipients of the Eduardo Mondlane Order
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–1989)
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic
Soviet military personnel of World War II
Stalinism
Vice Chairmen of the Workers' Party of Korea and its predecessors
World War II resistance members
Anti-revisionists
Militant Korean independence activists

Kim Il Sung


Theoretical linguistics is a term in linguistics which, like the related term general linguistics, can be understood in different ways. Both can be taken as a reference to theory of language, or the branch of linguistics which inquires into the nature of language and seeks to answer fundamental questions as to what language is, or what the common ground of all languages is. The goal of theoretical linguistics can also be the construction of a general theoretical framework for the description of language.

Another use of the term depends on the organisation of linguistics into different sub-fields. The term theoretical linguistics is commonly juxtaposed with applied linguistics. This perspective implies that the aspiring language professional, e.g. a teacher student, must first learn the theory i.e. properties of the linguistic system, or what Ferdinand de Saussure called internal linguistics. This is followed by practice, or studies in the applied field. The dichotomy is not fully unproblematic because language pedagogy, language technology and other aspects of applied linguistics include theory, too.

Similarly, the term general linguistics is used to distinguish core linguistics from other types of study. However, because college and university linguistics is largely distributed with the institutes and departments of a relatively small number of national languages, some larger universities also offer courses and research programmes in 'general linguistics' which may cover exotic and minority languages, cross-linguistic studies and various other topics outside the scope of the main philological departments.

Fields of linguistics proper
When the concept of theoretical linguistics is taken as referring to core or internal linguistics, it means the study of the parts of the language system. This traditionally means phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Pragmatics and discourse can also be included; delimitation varies between institutions. Furthermore, Saussure's definition of general linguistics consists of the dichotomy of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, thus including historical linguistics as a core issue.

Linguistic theories
There are various frameworks of linguistic theory which include a general theory of language and a general theory of linguistic description. Current humanistic approaches include theories within structural linguistics and functional linguistics. In addition to the humanistic approaches of structural linguistics and functional linguistics, the field of theoretical linguistics encompasses other frameworks and perspectives. Evolutionary linguistics is one such framework that investigates the origins and development of language from an evolutionary and cognitive perspective. It incorporates various models within generative grammar, which seeks to explain language structure through formal rules and transformations. Cognitive linguistics, on the other hand, focuses on the relationship between language and cognition, exploring how language reflects and influences our thought processes.

See also
 Theoretical Linguistics – journal
 Course in General Linguistics

References

Formal sciences
Linguistics

Theoretical linguistics


Palazzo Balbi is a palace on the Canal Grande, Venice, northern Italy. It is included in the sestiere (quarter) of Dorsoduro, to the right of Ca' Foscari. Currently it is the  seat of the President of the Veneto region and  of the regional council.

It was built from 1582, under design  by Alessandro Vittoria as the residence of the Venetian patrician family of the Balbi. In the 19th century it was acquired by Michelangelo Guggenheim and later by the Adriatic Electric Society. It became a property of the Veneto region in 1971.

Description
The palace has two floors, over a double-height rusticated basement with a mezzanine and entresol, in a symmetrical façade on the Grand Canal.

The ground floor has a large portal in the center featuring a mascaron and tympanum; there are two minor entrances at the sides. The two ashlar upper floors are divided into three sectors by Ionic and Corinthian pilasters and separated horizontally by a wide entablature. In the center are triple mullioned windows featuring paired Doric columns and parapets. Between the first-floor windows are the coat-of-arms of the Balbi family. It is the first Palazzo in Venice featuring the window decoration of the interrupted tympanum.

In a frieze under the dentilled cornice are small oval windows in elaborate stone frames. On the top are two obelisk-shaped pinnacles, similar to those in the Palazzo Belloni Battagia.

The interior contains 18th-century frescoes by Jacopo Guarana.

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1582
Balbi
Balbi
Renaissance architecture in Venice
1582 establishments in Italy

Palazzo Balbi, Venice


Shake Your Pelvis is a 2000 album released by the Red Elvises.

Track listing
Everybody Disco (Igor)
Beat of a Drum (Zhenya)
Girl from Malibu (Zhenya)
200 Lbs Of Pure Love (Igor)
Girls Gonna Boogie Tonight (Zhenya)
We Got the Groove (Igor)
Heroic Interlude
Rocketship (Zhenya)
Colors of Rainbow (Igor)
Techno Surfer (Zhenya)
City of Angels (lyrics by John Montobello/ music by Igor and Oleg)
Cosmic Surf (Zhenya)
Romantic Interlude
Good Guys (Igor)

Credits
Igor: vocals, guitars, bass
Zhenya: vocals, guitars, guitar synth, harmonica, violin, piano, bass, digital editing
Oleg: vocals, bass, keyboard, percussion, programming, digital editing
Avi: vocals, drums, percussion, cheerful spirit

Guest Performers:
Dianne Sellers - vocal
Letitia Jones - vocal
Shana Halligan - vocal
Galina Shlimovich - violin
Oleg "Schramm" Gorbunov - Hammond organ
Dmitry Mamokhin - trumpet
ххeo Chelyapov - saxophone
Jay Work - saxophones
Vladimir Tchekan - trombone
Iouri Ionidi - guitar

Recorded  at Shooba-Doobah Studios, Venice, CA   November 1999 - January 2000
Engineers: Doctor Z and Professor O.
Mixed at Shooba-Doobah Studios
Engineers: Barry Connely, Jeff King, Doctor Z and Professor O.
Mastered at Paramount Recording Studios by King himself
Photography by Tanya Thuringer
Design and layout by Christy A. Moeller-Masel
Avi Sills plays DW (Oleg's first car was VW)

Red Elvises albums
2000 albums

Shake Your Pelvis


Samuel Adams is an American brand of beer. It is brewed by the Boston Beer Company () and its associated contract brewers.  The company was founded in 1984 by Jim Koch, Harry M. Rubin, and Lorenzo Lamadrid in Boston, Massachusetts. The brand name of Samuel Adams (often abbreviated to Sam Adams, even in advertisements), was chosen in honor of Samuel Adams, an American patriot. Samuel Adams was famous for his role in the American Revolution and the Boston Tea Party. According to tradition, he was also a maltster. However, James Koch, founder of the Boston Beer Company, reports having seen a receipt for hops signed by Samuel Adams. This seems to indicate the patriot Adams may have done some brewing. Based on sales in 2011, the Boston Beer Company is tied with Yuengling for the largest American-owned beer-maker.

References

Beer
Boston

Samuel Adams (beer)


Dominic A. Cariello is a former brigadier general in the National Guard of the United States.

Biography
Cariello obtained a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Wisconsin-Parkside in 1992. As a civilian he works at a paving and construction manufacturer in Racine, Wisconsin.

Career
Cariello originally enlisted in the United States Army Reserve in 1981 before transferring to the Wisconsin Army National Guard and was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1983. His assignments have included humanitarian work during Hurricane Katrina and a tour of duty in the War in Afghanistan.

Awards he has received include the Bronze Star Medal, the Meritorious Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, the Army Commendation Medal, the Army Achievement Medal with oak leaf cluster, the Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal with silver oak leaf cluster and bronze oak leaf cluster, the National Defense Service Medal with service star, the Afghanistan Campaign Medal with two service stars, the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal, the Humanitarian Service Medal, the Armed Forces Reserve Medal with mobilization device and silver hourglass device, the Army Service Ribbon, the Overseas Service Ribbon, the NATO Medal, and the Combat Action Badge.

References

Military personnel from Wisconsin
People from Racine, Wisconsin
United States Army generals
University of Wisconsin–Parkside alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Dominic A. Cariello


Suka K. Frederiksen (July 18, 1965 – July 21, 2020) was a Greenlandic politician. She was the Foreign Minister of Greenland from 2017 until her death under the Kim Kielsen cabinet. Frederiksen was a member of the Inatsisartut from 2014 until her death. Frederiksen was a member of the Siumut party.

Frederiksen died after a long-illness on July 21, 2020 at the age of 55.

References

1965 births
Greenlandic people
Danish politicians
2020 deaths

Suka K. Frederiksen


Yehosua "Shuki" Levy is an Israel-American music composer and television producer. Levy's best known work is soundtrack compositions for childern's television programs of the 1980's, such as Inspector Gadget, The Mysterious Cities of Gold, M.A.S.K., Dinosaucers, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, She-Ra: Princess of Power, and Jayce and the Wheeled Warriors. Also in the 1990, he became know chiefly for his project such as Power Rangers franchise, Dragon Ball Z, Digimon series, Masked Rider, VR Troopers, and Big Bad Beetleborgs. He also written and directed nomberous of episodes, for some television shows, and directed a few movies, such as Eye of Doom (1987), Perfect Victims (1988) and Blind Vision (1991). Levy was also part of a musical duo named Shuky & Aviva with his partner Aviva Paz. Levy also partnered/relationship with an actress named Sarah Brown (from General Hospital), with whom he has second daughter, Jordan Levy (born in 1998).

Personal life
In 1977, Levy was married to Miss USA 1970 Deborah Shelton (from the best TV series Dallas), with a first daughter Tamara Shelton (born in 1981).

Other websites
 Shuki Levy Online
 Shuki Levy at IMDb

American composers
Saban Entertainment
1947 births
Living people

Shuki Levy


Catriona ("Cat") Morrison MBE (born 11 January 1977, in Glasgow) is a British triathlete and duathlete of Scottish origin.

Career
In 2005, she won the silver medal at the ITU Duathlon World Championships. In 2006, she followed this up with gold and took another silver medal at the Long Distance Duathlon World Championships. In 2007, she took the bronze medal at the Long Distance Triathlon World Championships in Lorient. She won the World Powerman Duathlon Long Distance Championships in 2007 and 2008.

In 2010 in Edinburgh she took gold for a second time at the Duathlon World Championships in a time of 2:02:48.

Catriona's triathlon career wins include numerous Ironman 70.3 events including St Croix (4 times), UK, Galveston and Ironman titles including Ironman Texas and Ironman Lanzarote where she famously battled back from a 45min mechanical to win the event.

Catriona retired from professional triathlon and duathlon in January 2015. Since then she has completed the prestigious Saltire Fellowship - a fast track entrepreneurial programme based in Scotland and at Babson College in Boston. She is a lay member of court at the University of Stirling. Catriona is an athlete role model for "Winning Scotland Foundation" visiting schools and junior sports clubs to encourage, inspire and motivate young people through sport.

In the 2015 Birthday Honours, Morrison was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for services to Sport and voluntary service in Scotland.

Catriona is co-founder of "Everactiv"  a sports clothing brand for young people whose philosophy is to empower, motivate and inspire young people to be physically active.

References

External links
Catriona Morrison official website

1977 births
Living people
Scottish female triathletes
Duathletes
Sportspeople from Glasgow
Members of the Order of the British Empire

Catriona Morrison


The Landowner Incentive Program is a United States Department of the Interior program that gives grants to state wildlife agencies for restoring rare wildlife habitat in cooperation with private landowners.  The program received its first $40 million in appropriations from the U.S. Congress in 2002.  Almost every state now has a funded program and $116 million has been appropriated since 2002.  A subprogram has also been established for Native American tribes to restore wildlife habitat on tribal lands.

The program is part of the Bush Administration's "Cooperative Conservation" initiative, which focuses on voluntary partnerships between government and non-government parties like private landowners, cooperations, state government and others to achieve progress in conserving or restoring natural resources.

Program mechanics
States compete for two sets of Landowner Incentive Program dollars.  Tier I grants provide funding to states to staff and operate programs to work with landowners.  Typically, these grants pay for a state program coordinator who works for the wildlife agency and field biologists who interact with landowners and help plan projects.  Tier II grants provide funding to states which the state in turn awards to private landowners for the protection, restoration, or management of rare wildlife habitats.  States are required to have an open, transparent process through which landowners can apply for funding and to establish an advisory panel that helps to oversee the program.  Most states have advisory programs that include representation from government agencies, farmers and ranchers, environmentalists, and academia.

History
The Landowner Incentive Program began as a Texas state program funded by the Administration of then-Governor George W. Bush and by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  In 2002, the program received $40 million from the U.S. Congress, but the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was unable to set up and award funding before Congress rescinded the funding from 2002 and provided $40 million in 2003.

Since 2003, state wildlife agencies have steadily accumulated more and more successes in delivering results for rare wildlife with the conservation partnerships with private landowners.  Oregon, Nebraska, Florida, Massachusetts, Hawaii, Kentucky and Minnesota have been particularly successful, winning more than $22 million in grants from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and working with hundreds of landowners to restore wildlife.

External links
 Cooperative Conservation Initiative
 Grants for state wildlife agencies
 Grants for Native American tribes

By state
 Arizona
 California
 Colorado
 Connecticut
 Delaware
 Florida
 Hawaii
 Illinois
 Iowa
 Kansas
 Maine
 Maryland
 Massachusetts
 Minnesota
 Nebraska
 New York
 Oregon
 Texas
  Wisconsin

United States Department of the Interior
Nature conservation in the United States

Landowner incentive program


Los jueves, milagro ( "On Thursday, miracle") is a 1957 Spanish comedy film directed by Luis García Berlanga. The movie is about people in a small village of Spain who decide to fake a miracle in order to increase tourism but things don't go as planned.

Most shots of the film were made in Alhama de Aragón, Zaragoza.

Plot
A small Spanish town decides to follow the example of Fátima, Lourdes and other places that have progressed thanks to religious apparitions, and its "living forces" decide to invent a miracle to promote their spa. For this, five local characters (the mayor, the teacher, the doctor, the landowner and the owner of the spa) decide to make the town believe in the appearance of a saint, in order to revitalize the visits to the town and the sale of the thermal waters of the dilapidated spa.

Once one of them has been chosen to play San Dimas, due to his resemblance to the figure of the town saint himself, they manage to deceive Mauro, the town fool, from the reality of the town with a (disastrous) fireworks and light show. appearance. At first hardly anyone believes Mauro's words, but when the following Thursday they put on the same show again in the presence of a particularly pious woman from the town, many people begin to wonder if there isn't some truth to the matter. The following Thursday the people go to the land where the previous apparitions had taken place, but everything (music, lights and the "actor" himself in charge of playing Saint Dimas) fails spectacularly and the people return to their homes disenchanted, except for Mauro, who waits for the miracle with outstretched arms.

Soon after, a mysterious character appears in the town who seems to be aware of all the machinations hatched by fraudsters. The character, who introduces himself as a magician, claims to be able to bring the fraud to fruition. Using a mirror from the top of the bell tower, he "heavenly" illuminates the figure of San Dimas. He then convinces the group to pretend to be sick and, with the complicity of the doctor, pretend to recover by drinking the waters of the spa. Strangely, other villagers are actually cured by drinking the spring waters. Soon a real fever to obtain water from the miraculous spring breaks out. When the forgers repent and confess what happened, no one listens to them, since everyone is more busy going to the spring in search of a remedy for their ills. Finally they go to the room where the foreigner is staying, but the only thing they find is a letter where it is said that the figure of San Dimas of the town does not look anything like reality and a photo of the real San Dimas is attached, which is the mysterious stranger.

References

External links

1950s Spanish-language films
Spanish black-and-white films
Spain in fiction
Films directed by Luis García Berlanga
1959 films
1957 comedy films
1957 films
Spanish comedy films
1959 comedy films
Films about Catholicism

Miracles of Thursday


William Bowen Bonnor (9 September 1920 – 17 August 2015) was a mathematician and gravitation physicist best known for his research into astrophysics, cosmology and general relativity. For most of his academic career he was a professor of mathematics at the University of London.

William Bonnor was born in London on 13 September 1920.  He was educated at County High School, Ilford, at South East Essex Technical College and at Birkbeck College.  His degrees of B.Sc., Ph.D. and D.Sc. were all obtained by part-time study.

On leaving school in 1937 Bonnor served in clerical and executive branches of the Civil Service until 1944, when he became a chemist in the Admiralty, doing development work in paint technology.  In 1946 he joined Shell Refining and Marketing Company to work on the rheology of lubricating greases.

His career as a mathematician commenced in 1949 after obtaining a degree in mathematics at Birkbeck College. He joined the Department of Applied Mathematics at the University of Liverpool, where he met his future wife, Jean Stott, a staff tutor in social science. In 1957 he was appointed Reader and head of the mathematics department at Queen Elizabeth College (QEC), University of London.  He was promoted to Professor in 1962, and stayed with the College until retirement in 1985.

This period was the golden age of general relativity, and Bonnor played a part in it, particularly in the London Relativity Seminar.  This had begun at Imperial College in the 1950s, moved to King's College and then to QEC from 1977 to 1983.  He was also active internationally, making contact with scientific workers in the socialist countries in eastern Europe, particularly those in Jena in East Germany.  During this period he published a paper on the Bonnor Beam which models the gravitational field of a beam of light.

Bonnor held visiting appointments at the Universities of Illinois (1960–61), Otago (1984) and Cape Town (1984–86).  In 1999 he was awarded the honorary degree of D.Sc. by the University of Portsmouth.

Bonnor's research was published in about 150 papers in various scientific journals.  The most cited paper described the effect of gravitation on Boyle's law; this has been extensively used in the theory of star formation. Another well-cited paper applies Newtonian dynamics to the formation of galaxies in cosmology.  However, most of Bonnor's research was on the theory of general relativity.  In this area he  worked on the theory of gravitational waves, on the field of two charged bodies, and on the interaction of spinning particles.  In 1964 he published "The Mystery of the Expanding Universe", a popular book on cosmology. Bonnor remained scientifically active long after his retirement, averaging around two papers a year in his last 30 years, and had a paper under review at the time of his death. In 1999, at the age of 78, he showed that in some cosmological models the expansion of space-time affects the size of hydrogen atoms, while in others it remains strictly constant.

He married Jean Stott, and had two children: Helen and Richard. He had four grandchildren: Amy, Tim, Jessica and George.

William Bonnor died at his home of a heart attack on 17 August 2015.

References

 Quoted on Wikiquote

External links
 List of publications at scientificcommons.org

 Essays presented to W B Bonnor on his 65th birthday
 Microsoft Academic Research
 International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation

English mathematicians
English physicists
Academics of Queen Elizabeth College
1920 births
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
2015 deaths
Mathematicians from London
British expatriate academics in the United States
British expatriates in New Zealand
British expatriates in South Africa

William B. Bonnor


Charles Beare  (born 1937) is a British violin expert, craftsman and dealer. In 2001, the New York Times described Beare as "the most esteemed authenticator in the world." In 2002, CNN characterized him as the "world's most respected violin dealer" and "king of all violin dealers." Fourth of five generations of a family of violin experts, he was the Director of the London-based John & Arthur Beare Ltd, before resigning in 2012.  He is now a Director of the family firm Beare Violins Ltd.

Career
The step-son of William Beare, Beare was born in 1937. He attended National Service before he began studying violin making in 1958. Beare studied first in Germany at the Mittenwald School before travelling to the United States at the invitation of Rembert Wurlitzer, training under Simone Fernando Sacconi. In 1961, he returned to the United Kingdom, where his family had been in the trade for three generations, initially as Beare, Goodwin & Co. from 1892, then incorporated as J & A Beare Ltd. in 1954.  During his time at the head of the family's business he became an authority on authenticating and identifying violins as well as being one of the only tradesman entrusted to repair and maintain instruments by such artists as Yehudi Menuhin, Isaac Stern, Nathan Milstein, Jacqueline du Pré, Pinchas Zukerman, Mstislav Rostropovich and Yo-Yo Ma; he also built up a workshop team of enviable reputation.

In 1998 J & A Beare Ltd changed its name to Beare Violins Ltd  and gave its old name to a new venture formed jointly with another London-based firm.  Beare was a director of both companies but resigned as a director of J & A Beare in November 2012, and from his subsequent role as consultant in September 2013.  He returned to work in November 2014 through the original family company, Beare Violins Ltd, and now concentrates primarily on writing certificates of authenticity for instruments of the violin family. It is estimated that Beare has personally signed more than 5,000 certificates of authenticity throughout his career.

Beare is an honorary member (and former president) of the EILA (l'Entente Internationale des Maîtres Luthiers et Archetiers d'Art), a member of the BADA (British Antique Dealers Association), an honorary fellow of the Royal Academy of Music and was made an honorary citizen of Cremona, Italy, following the highly successful 1987 Stradivari exhibition. He was awarded an OBE in 2004 for services to the Music Industry.

Family
Beare's sons, Peter and Freddie, are the fifth generation in the Beare family to take up the trade.

References

1937 births
Living people
Violin dealers
Date of birth missing (living people)
Bowed string instrument makers
British musical instrument makers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire

Charles Beare


The Kochi Tuskers Kerala were a franchise cricket team that played in the Indian Premier League (IPL) and will play IPL 2020 representing the city of Kochi, Kerala. The team was one of two new franchises added to the IPL for the 2011 season, alongside the Pune Warriors India. The team franchise was owned by Kochi Cricket Pvt Ltd., which was a consortium of multiple companies.

Kochi Tuskers Kerala


Trenton James Jackson (February 28, 1943 – March 25, 2007) was an American football wide receiver in the National Football League for the Philadelphia Eagles and the Washington Redskins.  He played college football at the University of Illinois.

Early life
Jackson was born in Cordele, Georgia to James and Evelyn Jackson and is the eldest of seven children.  The family later moved to Rochester, New York, where he attended Benjamin Franklin High School, where he set the National High School Record in the 100 yard dash (9.4).

College career
Jackson then attended and played college football at University of Illinois, where he was voted an All-American.  While there, he was a Big Ten and Rose Bowl champion, and lettered in track, football, basketball, and baseball.  In 1964, he won the Big Ten 100 yard Dash in 9.5, the 220 yard dash in 21.3, and anchored the championship 440 yard relay.  He also won the NCAA 4x110 yard relay championship, set the National Collegiate Record in the 100 meter dash (10.1), won the AAU 100 meter championship and then participated in the US Olympic Trials 100 meter dash.  After, he represented the United States at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan and became a member of Omega Psi Phi Fraternity.  In 1965, he finished third at the NCAA 60 yard dash.  Then, he led Illinois to the 4x440 yard relay championship at the outdoor Big Ten championship.  Jackson's record for the 100 meters held at Illinois for 40 years.

Professional sports career
In 1966, Jackson was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals baseball team.  However, he chose to play football in the National Football League for the Philadelphia Eagles and then the Washington Redskins.

Personal
Jackson married Pamela Kittelberger and had four children.  After retiring from football, Jackson taught in the Rochester City School District for over 30 years.   Also a sports coach, Jackson was inducted into the Section V Track and Field, Football, and Basketball Hall of Fames as a player and coach.  Jackson died on March 25, 2007.

Honors
Jackson was inducted as an inaugural member of the Frontier Walk of Fame in 1997 and was then an inaugural member of the Niagara Track & Field Hall of Fame in 1998.

References

External links
Obituary

1943 births
2007 deaths
American football wide receivers
Illinois Fighting Illini football players
Illinois Fighting Illini men's track and field athletes
Philadelphia Eagles players
Washington Redskins players
People from Cordele, Georgia
Track and field athletes from New York (state)
Players of American football from Rochester, New York
Athletes (track and field) at the 1964 Summer Olympics
American male sprinters
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States

T. J. Jackson (wide receiver)


Rudolf von Tiefenbach (26 November 1582 - 4 March 1653) was a German military commander who served the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.

Despite being raised a protestant, Tiefenbach joined the catholic Habsburg army in 1613.

During the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, he led the 1st Division of the Imperial Army which included the cuirassier regiment of Albrecht von Wallenstein and the horse regiment of Jean de Gauchier. When Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy died, Tiefenbach took over part of his command.

In 1631, after Torquato Conti retired from his post, Tiefenbach was elevated to the rank of Feldmarschall by the Holy Roman Emperor.

In 1639 he was named a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece.

References

Geschichte des Böhmischen Aufstandes von 1618 ("History of the Bohemian revolt of 1618") by Anton Gindely (Tempsky, 1869)
Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft für die Geschichte des Protestantismus in Österreich, Volumes 25-27 ("Yearbook of the Society for the History of Protestantism in Austria") (Lutheran Church, 1904)

1582 births
1653 deaths
Imperial Army personnel of the Thirty Years' War
Knights of the Golden Fleece
Field marshals of the Holy Roman Empire

Rudolf von Tiefenbach


The women's 5000 metres at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics was held at the Luzhniki Stadium on 14–17 August.

With Margaret Wangari Muriuki dropping out injured in the first round, the finals had three Ethiopians (four if you count Tejitu Daba) and three Americans and only two Kenyans.  Also missing by design is world record holder Tirunesh Dibaba who won the 10000 earlier, leaving Meseret Defar the 5000.

The final started slow with the Ethiopians watching the front (the reigning Olympic champion Defar watching her teammates from the back), letting Dominika Nowakowska then Dolores Checa jog through 75-second laps at the front.  With 2000 to go, the racing began, Almaz Ayana took over the lead and the crowd disappeared.  Within a lap, not surprisingly, the three Ethiopians and two Kenyans were running alone.  Lap times were dropping, 71, 69, 68.  In the next lap Buze Diriba fell back to the trailing American duo of Molly Huddle and Shannon Rowbury.  The two Ethiopians were leading, the two Kenyans trying to keep up.  Shortly after the bell, Viola Kibiwot lost touch with her teammate Mercy Cherono and then there were three.  Defar stayed tucked into second place waiting until the time was right.  The time was 200 meters to go, that was when Defar accelerated past Ayana and into the lead.  Cherono made no effort to go after Defar, she was gone sprinting to gold.  Cherono waited through the turn and executed her best move to outsprint Ayana for the silver.  So prepared for victory, Defar and Ayana had already received their flags and were displaying them while the early leaders were still finishing.

Records
Prior to the competition, the records were as follows:

Qualification standards

Schedule

Results

Heats
Qualification: First 5 in each heat (Q) and the next 5 fastest (q) advanced to the final.

Final
The final was started at 18:55.

References

External links
5000 metres results at IAAF website

5000 metres
5000 metres at the World Athletics Championships
2013 in women's athletics

2013 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 5000 metres


Pontsticill is a village within the county borough of Merthyr Tydfil in South Wales. It lies within the valley of the Taf Fechan on the southern edge of the Brecon Beacons National Park. The village lies within the community of Vaynor in an area that was, until the local government re-organisation of 1974, within the historic county of Brecknockshire.

Pontsticill is closely associated with the Brecon Mountain Railway, a tourist railway which runs along the former Brecon and Merthyr Railway line. Immediately to the north of the village is the Pontsticill Reservoir which was completed in 1927.

The village name originates from the Welsh words pont and sticill and signifies a 'bridge near a stile'.

Ponsticill Reservoir
Pontsticill Reservoir, originally Taff Fechan Reservoir, was opened in 1927 to supply water to much of the South Wales Valleys. The 110 ft high embankment holdings 15,400 megalitres of water. The reservoir is popular with sailors, anglers and picnickers.

Abercriban Quarries
To the north of Pontsticill, on the shore of the reservoir, lie Abercriban Quarries, a Site of Special Scientific Interest. Abercriban Quarries comprise two small disused quarries. The site is of special interest for the rock exposures of the Grey Grit Formation of the Upper Old Red Sandstone; these exposed rocks span the boundary between the Carboniferous and Devonian periods of geological time, approximately 360 million years ago.

Twinning
On 15 March 2023, the town of Pontsticill twinned with the town of Livré-sur-Changeon, in France

References

Villages in Merthyr Tydfil County Borough
Brecon Beacons

Pontsticill


English Freakbeat, Volume 2 is a compilation album in the English Freakbeat series, featuring recordings that were released decades earlier, in the mid-1960s.

Release data
The album was released as an LP in 1989 by AIP Records (as #AIP-10047) and as a CD in 1996 (as #AIP-CD-1047).

Vinyl-Only tracks and CD bonus tracks
The English Freakbeat LPs and CDs have most tracks in common, although not always in the same order, and some of the LP tracks were not included on the CDs.  Also, the CD bonus tracks are not always at the end of the album.  Thus, for clarity, we have shown tracks for both editions of the album, with vinyl-only tracks and CD bonus tracks indicated.

Notes on the tracks
The following information is taken mostly from the CD liner notes.  Glenn Athens & the Trojans – the leader is also known as Glen Athens – were from Surrey and won the local Beat Trophy in 1964; they were named by Mirabel Magazine as the top "semi-pro" band for two straight years.  This track is taken from a 1965 EP on Spot Records.

The song by The Sessions was written by Miki Dallon (who was featured as a solo artist on English Freakbeat, Volume 1) and was evidently released only in America.

The original incarnation of Mickey Finn as Mickey Finn & the Blue Men  in 1964-65 (see English Freakbeat, Volume 4) included a young Jimmy Page.  Both sides of their final single are included, from late 1967.

The Kubas/the Koobas had early connections with the Beatles; they had not only  toured with the legendary band but were also managed by Brian Epstein.  Also, they made an appearance in the film Ferry Cross the Mersey.  These two previously un-reissued tracks are from the flip side of their first single as the Kubas and from a later release as the Koobas.

"Messin' with the Man" by the Beat Merchants is the "B" side of their first single; the "A" side is on English Freakbeat, Volume 1.  Their second single, "So Fine" was paired with a song by Freddie and the Dreamers in its American issue.

Reportedly, the Wolf Pack is actually the Animals recording under a pseudonym for a soundtrack album called The Dangerous Christmas of Red Riding Hood.  Released on ABC-Paramount Records, the song may only have been issued in the U.S.

Members of The Syndicats include Steve Howe – a future member of Tomorrow and then Yes – who was the lead guitarist for this track.  Their classic "Crawdaddy Simone" can be found on English Freakbeat, Volume 4.

At one time, the Soul Agents reputedly included John Anthony, who later managed Genesis and other bands.  They also served as the backing band for Rod Stewart for several years.  Also, three members of this band later joined the Loot, who are featured on English Freakbeat, Volume 1.  These two tracks are from their rare third single.

The history of the Irish band the Wheels – rivals of Van Morrison's early band Them – is recounted in the original liner notes of the landmark Nuggets: Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era, 1965-1968, but only in regard to their connections with the Shadows of Knight, who covered several of their songs.  "Don't You Know" is the "B" side of their version of Gloria – the band claimed that Morrison wrote it for them! – while "Road Block" is from the flip side of the second single.  Another song by the Wheels can be found on English Freakbeat, Volume 4.

The estimable Joe Meek produced both singles by the Blueberries; "Little Baby" is their first release.  Jimmy Page is rumored to have played on this session, but this is denied by the band; their own guitarist Mike Stubbs later joined the Syndicats.

The curious "7 Pounds of Potatoes" – which "come between me and my love", claim the lyrics – is a surprising number from the Dakotas.  Although best known for backing Billy J. Kramer (see English Freakbeat, Volume 5) on several more pop-oriented recordings in the British Invasion era, the Dakotas made several hit records in their own right, notably "Cruel Sea" from 1963, which was renamed "Cruel Surf" for its U.S. release and was later covered by the Ventures.

The Limeys released six typical Mersey-oriented singles over the 1964 to 1966 period; "Cara-Lin", originally recorded by the Strangeloves is from their final single.

The Lancasters is one of several English artists that were "discovered" by Kim Fowley in the 1963-1965 period.  This is yet another track in the English Freakbeat series that was released only in the U.S., in December 1964.  Among the bandmembers are Ritchie Blackmore, one of the co-founders of Deep Purple.  "Satan's Holiday" is actually the venerable "Hall of the Mountain King".

Track listing

LP

Side 1:

 Glen Athens & the Trojans: "Let Me Show You" — rel. 1965
 The Sessions: "Let Me In" — rel. 1965
 Mickey Finn: "Garden of My Mind" — rel. 1967
 The Kubas: "I Love Her"
 The Beat Merchants: "So Fine" — rel. 1965
 Wolfpack: "We're Gonna Howl"
 The Syndicats: "Howlin' for My Baby" (Howlin' Wolf)

Side 2:

 The Soul Agents: "Gospel Train"
 The Soul Agents: "Let's Make it Pretty Easy" (John Lee Hooker), vinyl-only track
 The Muleskinners: "Back Door Man" — rel. 1965
 The Wheels: "Don't You Know"
 The Blueberries: "Please Don't Let Me Know" — rel. 1966
 The Beat Merchants: "Messin' with the Man" — rel. 1964
 The Dakotas: "7 Pounds of Potatoes" — rel. 1967

CD
 Glenn Athens & the Trojans: "Let Me Show You" — rel. 1965
 The Sessions: "Let Me In" — rel. 1965
 Mickey Finn: "Garden of My Mind" — rel. 1967
 Mickey Finn: "Time to Start Loving You" — rel. 1967, CD bonus track
 The Kubas: "I Love Her"
 The Koobas: "Face", CD bonus track
 The Beat Merchants: "So Fine" — rel. 1965
 The Beat Merchants: "Messin' with the Man" — rel. 1964
 The Wolf Pack: "We're Gonna Howl"
 The Syndicats: "Howlin' for My Baby" (Howlin' Wolf)
 The Soul Agents: "Gospel Train"
 The Soul Agents: "I Just Wanna Make Love to You", CD bonus track
 The Muleskinners: "Back Door Man" (Willie Dixon) — rel. 1965
 The Muleskinners: "Missed Your Lovin'", CD bonus track
 The Wheels: "Don't You Know" — rel. 1965
 The Wheels: "Road Block" — rel. 1965
 The Blueberries: "Please Don't Let Me Know" — rel. 1966
 The Blueberries: "It's Gonna Work out Fine" — rel. 1966, CD bonus track
 The Blue Rondos: "Little Baby", CD bonus track
 The Dakotas: "7 Pounds of Potatoes" — rel. 1967
 The Limeys: "Cara-Lin" — rel. 1966, CD bonus track
 The Lancasters: "Earthshaker" — rel. 1964, CD bonus track
 The Lancasters: "Satan's Holiday" — rel. 1964, CD bonus track

1989 compilation albums
Compilation albums by British artists
Pop rock compilation albums
Psychedelic rock compilation albums

English Freakbeat, Volume 2


Bandar Baru Nilai or Putra Nilai is a new township in Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. It is nearest to Nilai Old Town or also known as Nilai.  Due to its proximity, and connection through the KTM to Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, and Kuala Lumpur International Airport, it is a rapidly growing new town. Development projects can be seen as one drives around Nilai. Two of Malaysia's most well-known colleges and two universities are located in Nilai: Nilai University, INTI International University, Manipal International University, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia and Islamic University College of Malaysia. As a result, the town is occupied by students from all over the world. Students from over 30 countries can be seen in Nilai. Many people from other areas especially from Klang Valley live in Nilai to running from traffic congestion and crowded in Klang Valley.

Bandar Baru Nilai has become a popular shopping town with the establishment of several major shopping malls such as Nilai 3 Wholesale Centre, Nilai Square, Mydin, Giant Hypermarket, Lotus's, MesaMall and ÆON Mall Nilai.

Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as tropical rainforest (Af).

Education

An initiative by the state government to turn Negri Sembilan into an educational hub  has also borne fruit as several foreign and local institutions of higher education have agreed to set up operations here.

Among them are Britain's Epsom College which has acquired land in Bandar Enstek to set up its first institute outside England, Epsom College in Malaysia and the City University College of Science and Technology which signed an agreement to acquire a 40 ha parcel of land here recently.

The state would also benefit from the construction of the RM1.2 bil Education Ministry complex which would, among others, house the Aminuddin Baki Institute, Institut Pendidikan Guru, English Language Institute, Tunku Kurshiah College and Nilai Polytechnic as well as the International Islamic University Malaysia's medical faculty and the International University College of Nursing.

Several institutions of higher learning that have been built in the area include Nilai University, INTI International University and Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia.

See also
Nilai

References

Seremban District
Towns in Negeri Sembilan

Bandar Baru Nilai


Thomas Kevin Layne (born November 2, 1984) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He previously pitched for the San Diego Padres, Boston Red Sox, and New York Yankees of Major League Baseball.

Amateur career
Layne attended Fort Zumwalt South High School in St. Peters, Missouri, where he played baseball and soccer. He then enrolled at Southwestern Illinois College where he played college baseball for two years.  He then played at the University of Central Missouri for one year before transferring to Mount Olive College in Mount Olive, North Carolina, where he played for the Mount Olive Trojans. In 2007, Layne was named an All-American and Carolinas-Virginia Athletic Conference Baseball Pitcher of the Year.

Professional career

Arizona Diamondbacks
The Arizona Diamondbacks drafted Layne in the 26th round of the 2007 MLB Draft. Layne progressed steadily up the minor league ladder over five seasons in the Diamondbacks' system and was promoted to the Triple-A Reno Aces in early 2011. Over three seasons, Layne had posted a 3.82 earned run average (ERA) working exclusively as a starter in Double-A for the Diamondbacks,  but struggled in his time at Triple-A, accumulating a 6.21 ERA in 15 games started and 17 relief appearances in 2011.

San Diego Padres
The San Diego Padres acquired Layne from the Diamondbacks on May 3, 2012, for cash considerations. Layne made 5 starts and notched a 7.77 ERA for the Triple-A Tucson Padres before he was demoted to the Double-A San Antonio Missions and began working out of the bullpen.  Layne was noted as having a "rubber arm" and he enjoyed having the chance to pitch every day, so he welcomed the transition to a reliever role. Layne had more success at Double-A, posting a 3.28 ERA and 36 strikeouts in 35 innings.

The Padres promoted Layne to the major leagues on August 14.  Layne made his Major League debut the same night against the Atlanta Braves, striking out the side in his one inning.  Layne remained with the Padres for the rest of 2012, working out of the bullpen.  He didn't allow a run in his first 11 appearances.  Layne earned his first win as a Major Leaguer on September 4 when he struck out Adrián González, Matt Kemp, and Hanley Ramírez in order in the 10th inning.  Layne finished the season with a 3.24 ERA and 25 strike-outs versus 3 walks in 16 innings over 26 appearances. Layne was designated for assignment on October 25, 2013.

Boston Red Sox
Layne signed a minor league deal with the Boston Red Sox on November 10, 2013. He was called up for the night game of a day-night doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles on July 5, 2014. After the game, he was optioned to the Triple A Pawtucket Red Sox.  As a result of a number of trades at the 2014 trade deadline, Layne was recalled back to the Boston Red Sox.

In 2016, Layne pitched to a 3.77 ERA in 34 games for the Red Sox. After they acquired Fernando Abad at the trade deadline, the Red Sox designated Layne for assignment on August 2 and released him on August 6.

New York Yankees
The New York Yankees signed Layne on August 9, 2016. He was designated for assignment on June 10, 2017 and released on July 4, 2017.

Los Angeles Dodgers
Layne signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 19, 2017, and was assigned to the Triple-A Oklahoma City Dodgers. He pitched in three games for them and was released on August 1.

Boston Red Sox
Layne signed a minor league contract to return to the Red Sox on February 24, 2018. He was released on May 18, 2018, after failing to make an appearance in a game due to recovery from an injury.

St. Louis Cardinals
On June 15, 2018, Layne signed a minor league contract with the St. Louis Cardinals. He elected free agency on November 2, 2018. He resigned a minor league deal on November 6, 2018. Layne was released on July 3, 2019.

Personal life
Layne is the youngest of four brothers.  He currently resides in Rye, New York.

References

External links

1984 births
Living people
Baseball players from St. Louis
Major League Baseball pitchers
San Diego Padres players
Boston Red Sox players
New York Yankees players
Mount Olive Trojans baseball players
Missoula Osprey players
South Bend Silver Hawks players
Mobile BayBears players
Visalia Rawhide players
Scottsdale Scorpions players
Criollos de Caguas players
Leones de Ponce players
Reno Aces players
Tucson Padres players
San Antonio Missions players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players
People from St. Peters, Missouri
2017 World Baseball Classic players
Oklahoma City Dodgers players
Memphis Redbirds players
Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente pitchers

Tommy Layne


A dogcart (also dog-cart or dog cart) is a two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle pulled by a single horse in shafts, or driven tandem. With seating for four, it was designed for sporting shooters and their gun dogs, with a louvred box under the driver's seat to contain dogs. It was developed in the early 1800s to afford more seating than the gig, which seats only two. Seating is two back-to-back crosswise seats, an arrangement called dos-à-dos from French. There is a hinged tailboard which lowers slightly and, supported by chains, acts as a footrest for the rear-facing passengers. Some dogcarts had a mechanism to slide the entire body forward or rearward along the shafts to help balance the weight for the horse.

Other names for specific or regional designs of dogcarts include Battlesden cart, Bent panel cart, Bounder, Country cart, Essex trap, Farmer's dogcart, Going-to-cover cart, High dogcart, Hurdle cart, Leamington cart, Malvern cart, Moray car, Newport Pagnell cart, Norfolk cart, Norfolk shooting cart, Nottingham cart, Oxford bounder, Oxford dogcart, Pony dogcart, Ralli dogcart, Sliding bodied dogcart, Surrey cart, Tandem cart, To-cart, Whitechapel cart, Worcester cart, and Worthing cart.

Dogcart phaeton

A dogcart phaeton is a four-wheeled vehicle pulled by a single horse in shafts, or a pair of horses with a carriage pole. The dogcart phaeton seats four people and is arranged as two back-to-back crosswise seats, called dos-à-dos, with two people facing forward and two others facing the rear. Though the word cart generally means a two-wheeled vehicle, the name dogcart stuck when the body style was mounted on four-wheeled phaeton undercarriages.

Other names for specific or regional designs of  four-wheel dogcarts include Alexandra dogcart, Continental dogcart, Eridge car, Four-wheeled Ralli car, French Derby cart, Malvern dogcart, Martin's dogcart, and Village phaeton.

In literature

Frequent references to dog-carts are made by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in his writings about fictional detective Sherlock Holmes, and indeed by many other Victorian writers, as it was a common sight in those days.

See also
 Carriage
 American Electric (1899 automobile), early electric vehicle based on dogcart phaeton structure
 Arrol-Johnston, maker of early automobiles based on the dogcart phaeton structure

References

Carriages
Carts

Dogcart


Þórður Þórðarson (born 10 April 1972) is an Icelandic former footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He was most recently the manager of Úrvalsdeild side ÍA, from 2009 to 2013. Þórður won one cap for the Iceland national football team in 1996, coming on as a substitute for Kristján Finnbogason in the 2–1 friendly win against Cyprus.

Þórður spent the majority of his playing career in Iceland with ÍA, KA and Valur, playing more than 150 league matches in total. During the 1999 and 2000 seasons he played in Sweden with IFK Norrköping, where he made 13 appearances.

References

1972 births
Living people
Thordur Thordarson
Thordur Thordarson
Thordur Thordarson
Men's association football goalkeepers
Allsvenskan players
Thordur Thordarson
IFK Norrköping players
Thordur Thordarson
Thordur Thordarson
Thordur Thordarson
Thordur Thordarson
Expatriate men's footballers in Sweden
Íþróttabandalag Akraness managers

Þórður Þórðarson (footballer, born 1972)


A discount function is used in economic models to describe the weights placed on rewards received at different points in time.  For example,  if time is discrete and utility is time-separable, with the discount function   having a negative first derivative and with  (or  in continuous time) defined as consumption at time t, total utility from an infinite stream of consumption is given by

.

Total utility in the continuous-time case is given by

provided that this integral exists.

Exponential discounting and hyperbolic discounting are the two most commonly used examples.

See also
Discounted utility
Intertemporal choice
Temporal discounting

References
 Shane Frederick & George Loewenstein & Ted O'Donoghue, 2002. "Time Discounting and Time Preference: A Critical Review," ;;Journal of Economic Literature;;, vol. 40(2), pages 351-401, June.

Intertemporal economics

Discount function