The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light; it is the inverse of the system's optical power. A positive focal length indicates that a system converges light, while a negative focal length indicates that the system diverges light. A system with a shorter focal length bends the rays more sharply, bringing them to a focus in a shorter distance or diverging them more quickly. For the special case of a thin lens in air, a positive focal length is the distance over which initially collimated (parallel) rays are brought to a focus, or alternatively a negative focal length indicates how far in front of the lens a point source must be located to form a collimated beam. For more general optical systems, the focal length has no intuitive meaning; it is simply the inverse of the system's optical power.

In most photography and all telescopy, where the subject is essentially infinitely far away, longer focal length (lower optical power) leads to higher magnification and a narrower angle of view; conversely, shorter focal length or higher optical power is associated with lower magnification and a wider angle of view. On the other hand, in applications such as microscopy in which magnification is achieved by bringing the object close to the lens, a shorter focal length (higher optical power) leads to higher magnification because the subject can be brought closer to the center of projection.

Thin lens approximation
For a thin lens in air, the focal length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci (or focal points) of the lens. For a converging lens (for example a convex lens), the focal length is positive and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens (for example a concave lens), the focal length is negative and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens.

When a lens is used to form an image of some object, the distance from the object to the lens u, the distance from the lens to the image v, and the focal length f are related by

The focal length of a thin convex lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until a sharp image is formed on the screen. In this case  is negligible, and the focal length is then given by

Determining the focal length of a concave lens is somewhat more difficult.  The focal length of such a lens is defined as the point at which the spreading beams of light meet when they are extended backwards. No image is formed during such a test, and the focal length must be determined by passing light (for example, the light of a laser beam) through the lens, examining how much that light becomes dispersed/ bent, and following the beam of light backwards to the lens's focal point.

General optical systems

For a thick lens (one which has a non-negligible thickness), or an imaging system consisting of several lenses or mirrors (e.g. a photographic lens or a telescope), there are several related concepts that are referred to as focal lengths:
Effective focal length (EFL) The effective focal length (previously equivalent focal length but not to be confused with 35mm-equivalent focal length), is the inverse of the optical power of the optical system, and is the value used to calculate the magnification of the system. The imaging properties of the optical system can be modeled by replacing it with an ideal thin lens with the same EFL. The EFL also provides a simple method for finding the nodal points without tracing any rays.
Front focal length (FFL) The front focal length f is the distance from the front focal point F to the front principal plane H.
Rear focal length (RFL) The rear focal length f''' is the distance from the rear principal plane H' to the rear focal point F'.
Front focal distance (FFD) The front focal distance (FFD) (sF) is the distance from the front focal point of the system (F) to the vertex of the first optical surface (S1). Some authors refer to this as "front focal length".
Back focal distance (BFD) Back focal distance (BFD) (s′F′) is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system (S2) to the rear focal point (F′). Some authors refer to this as "back focal length".

For an optical system in air the effective focal length, front focal length, and rear focal length are all the same and may be called simply "focal length".

For an optical system in a medium other than air or vacuum, the front and rear focal lengths are equal to the EFL times the refractive index of the medium in front of or behind the lens (n1 and n2 in the diagram above). The term "focal length" by itself is ambiguous in this case. The historical usage was to define the "focal length" as the EFL times the index of refraction of the medium. Simpson MJ, "Nodal points and the eye," Appl. Opt. 61, 2797-2804 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.455464  For a system with different media on both sides, such as the human eye, the front and rear focal lengths are not equal to one another, and convention may dictate which one is called "the focal length" of the system. Some modern authors avoid this ambiguity by instead defining "focal length" to be a synonym for EFL.

The distinction between front/rear focal length and EFL is important for studying the human eye. The eye can be represented by an equivalent thin lens at an air/fluid boundary with front and rear focal lengths equal to those of the eye, or it can be represented by a different equivalent thin lens that is totally in air, with focal length equal to the eye's EFL.

For the case of a lens of thickness d in air (), and surfaces with radii of curvature R1 and R2, the effective focal length f is given by the Lensmaker's equation:

where n is the refractive index of the lens medium. The quantity  is also known as the optical power of the lens.

The corresponding front focal distance is:

and the back focal distance:

In the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the second surface is convex, and positive if concave. Sign conventions vary between different authors, which results in different forms of these equations depending on the convention used.

For a spherically curved mirror in air, the magnitude of the focal length is equal to the radius of curvature of the mirror divided by two. The focal length is positive for a concave mirror, and negative for a convex mirror. In the sign convention used in optical design, a concave mirror has negative radius of curvature, so

where R is the radius of curvature of the mirror's surface.

See Radius of curvature (optics) for more information on the sign convention for radius of curvature used here.

 In photography

Camera lens focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but some older lenses are marked in centimetres (cm) or inches.

Focal length (f) and field of view (FOV) of a lens are inversely proportional. For a standard rectilinear lens, FOV = 2 arctan , where x is the width of the film.

When a photographic lens is set to "infinity", its rear principal plane is separated from the sensor or film, which is then situated at the focal plane, by the lens's focal length. Objects far away from the camera then produce sharp images on the sensor or film, which is also at the image plane.

To render closer objects in sharp focus, the lens must be adjusted to increase the distance between the rear principal plane and the film, to put the film at the image plane. The focal length (f), the distance from the front principal plane to the object to photograph (s1), and the distance from the rear principal plane to the image plane (s2) are then related by:

As s1 is decreased, s2 must be increased.  For example, consider a normal lens for a 35 mm camera with a focal length of f = 50 mm. To focus a distant object (s1 ≈ ∞), the rear principal plane of the lens must be located a distance s2 = 50 mm from the film plane, so that it is at location of the image plane. To focus an object 1 m away (s1 = 1,000 mm), the lens must be moved 2.6 mm farther away from the film plane, to s''2 = 52.6 mm.

The focal length of a lens determines the magnification at which it images distant objects.  It is equal to the distance between the image plane and a pinhole that images distant objects the same size as the lens in question.  For rectilinear lenses (that is, with no image distortion), the imaging of distant objects is well modelled as a pinhole camera model.
This model leads to the simple geometric model that photographers use for computing the angle of view of a camera; in this case, the angle of view depends only on the ratio of focal length to film size.  In general, the angle of view depends also on the distortion.

A lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of the film or sensor format is known as a normal lens; its angle of view is similar to the angle subtended by a large-enough print viewed at a typical viewing distance of the print diagonal, which therefore yields a normal perspective when viewing the print;
this angle of view is about 53 degrees diagonally. For full-frame 35 mm-format cameras, the diagonal is 43 mm and a typical "normal" lens has a 50 mm focal length.  A lens with a focal length shorter than normal is often referred to as a wide-angle lens (typically 35 mm and less, for 35 mm-format cameras), while a lens significantly longer than normal may be referred to as a telephoto lens (typically 85 mm and more, for 35 mm-format cameras). Technically, long focal length lenses are only "telephoto" if the focal length is longer than the physical length of the lens, but the term is often used to describe any long focal length lens.

Due to the popularity of the 35 mm standard, camera–lens combinations are often described in terms of their 35 mm-equivalent focal length, that is, the focal length of a lens that would have the same angle of view, or field of view, if used on a full-frame 35 mm camera.  Use of a 35 mm-equivalent focal length is particularly common with digital cameras, which often use sensors smaller than 35 mm film, and so require correspondingly shorter focal lengths to achieve a given angle of view, by a factor known as the crop factor.

Optical power

The optical power of a lens or curved mirror is a physical quantity equal to the reciprocal of the focal length, expressed in metres. A dioptre is its unit of measurement with dimension of reciprocal length, equivalent to one reciprocal metre, 1 dioptre = 1 m−1. For example, a 2-dioptre lens brings parallel rays of light to focus at  metre. A flat window has an optical power of zero dioptres, as it does not cause light to converge or diverge.

The main benefit of using optical power rather than focal length is that the thin lens formula has the object distance, image distance, and focal length all as reciprocals. Additionally, when relatively thin lenses are placed close together their powers approximately add. Thus, a thin 2.0-dioptre lens placed close to a thin 0.5-dioptre lens yields almost the same focal length as a single 2.5-dioptre lens.

See also
 Depth of field
 Dioptre
 f-number or focal ratio

References

Geometrical optics
Length
Science of photography
Optical quantities

Focal length


Campaign 972 (28 October 1972 – 22 February 1973) was the final offensive in the south of the Kingdom of Laos by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN). After fending off a score of Royal Lao Government attacks against the Ho Chi Minh Trail between June 1969 and late 1972, the PAVN attacked and essentially cut Laos in two at Khong Sedone by November 1972. Sporadic ongoing fighting, especially for control of Paksong, continued until 8 February 1973. Although a ceasefire officially ended the Laotian Civil War at noon on 23 February with Salavan, Thakhek, and Lao Ngam in Communist hands, the PAVN launched another successful assault on Paksong 15 minutes later.

Overview

The Ho Chi Minh Trail was central to the PAVN strategy for the conquest of South Vietnam during the Second Indochina War. Over the course of the Laotian Civil War, the Central Intelligence Agency directed a series of offensive attacks by Laotian irregulars against the Trail, which the Communists opposed. Operation Lam Son 719 was a larger and more forceful failed attempt at interdiction of the Trail by the South Vietnamese military in February 1971.

In 1972, the PAVN took the offensive.

Background

Planning for Campaign 972 began as early as February 1972. The Communist leaders in Hanoi ordered increased assistance to the Pathet Lao stationed near the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The PAVN Military Region 4 in Vinh was charged with planning an offensive to increase the Pathet Lao holdings in Khammouane and Borikhane Provinces of Laos. Each of the Lao provinces would be invaded by a PAVN provincial battalion. The 4th Battalion of the PAVN 270th Regiment was assigned as additional force. The operation was named Campaign 972 because it would take place in the ninth month of 1972.

Campaign 972

On 25 September 1972, the Pathet Lao political commissar for Borikhane Province arrested his PAVN adviser before deserting to the Royalists. He took over 300 troops of the Pathet Lao 24th Battalion with him. There was a month's delay while PAVN and loyalist Pathet Lao pursued the dissidents, then regrouped for the assault.

On 28 October, the two PAVN columns launched their attacks. In the wake of the defections, the PL contributed just three companies to the offensive. The Royal Lao Army (RLA) struggled to resist, fielding the 21st Brigade from Thakhek. Bataillon Infanterie 233 (BI 233) and two SPECOM teams were rushed north from Savannakhet to aid in the resistance. Despite their efforts, the PAVN probes neared the Mekong River, essentially cutting Laos in two while threatening the Kingdom of Thailand. One of the Communist columns threatened Thakhek. The other neared the Mekong in the vicinity of the Nam Kading tributary and Pakxan.

On 17 November, two Royalist irregular battalions from Groupement Mobile 34 (GM 34), Bataillon Guerrier 308 (BG 308) and Bataillon Guerrier 311 (BG 311), were airlifted north to Thakhek. They moved southeast along Route 13 on the Mekong riverbank until they ran into the PAVN 42nd Provincial Battalion. The engagement would last until 5 December, when the PAVN broke contact. They then attacked back eastward 20 kilometers, inundating RLA forces on Route 12. BG 311 moved to halt the PAVN thrust 11 kilometers east of Thakhek. When GM 308 showed up, they forced the PAVN troops back another 10 kilometers.

Having quieted that sector, the two irregular battalions returned to Route 13. However, on 22 December, the PAVN again struck. Their infantry now backed up by PT-76 tanks, they ejected a RLA garrison from a Route 13 bridge 40 kilometers south of Thakhek. On the 27th, the GM 34 battalions moved down Route 13 to attack the Communists. The next day, the retreating Vietnamese brought down a highway bridge behind them.

On 5 January 1973, the GM 34 irregulars began an anticlockwise sweep back towards Thakhek, searching for any stray Vietnamese units. After some skirmishes, the irregular force dispersed, to rendezvous in Thakhek for further deployment. However, during January, the Royalist held positions at Thateng, Salavan, and Lao Ngam fell to the Communists.

By 6 February, Groupement Mobile 31 (GM 31) with its 1,444 soldiers had returned from duty in Operation Maharat II. They joined the GM 34 battalions in defending Thakhek for the next couple of weeks until the ceasefire ended the war.

On 8 February, six PAVN tanks backed by infantry assaulted Paksong. When the AC-130 gunship flying support had difficulty getting clearance to strike the Vietnamese, the Communists overran the town. U.S. Air Force General John W. Vogt, Jr. laid on an air campaign to recapture Paksong. He directed 76 preliminary B-52 Stratofortress strikes in the area. Tactical air support for the Royalist counter-attackers amounted to 254 sorties expended. On 12 February, the Royalists retook Paksong.

Aftermath
The ceasefire ending the war came into effect at noon 22 February 1973. U.S. air power was grounded at that time. Fifteen minutes into the truce, a Communist offensive began to retake Paksong from the Royalists. On 23 February 1972, nine B-52s dropped a retaliatory strike on the Communists. These were the last American combat sorties of the war in southern Laos.

Notes

References

 Anthony, Victor B. and Richard R. Sexton (1993). The War in Northern Laos. Command for Air Force History. OCLC 232549943.
 Castle, Timothy N. (1993). At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: U.S. Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government 1955–1975. .
 Conboy, Kenneth and James Morrison (1995). Shadow War: The CIA's Secret War in Laos. Paladin Press. .
 Nalty, Bernard C. (2005). The War Against Trucks: Aerial Interdiction In Southern Laos 1968–1972. Air Force History and Museums Program. .

Laotian Civil War
1972 in Laos
1973 in Laos

Campaign 972


Perm State Institute of Culture (PSIC; , Permskiy gosudarstvennyy institut kul'tury; PGIK) is a state institution of higher education in Volga Federal District of Russia located in the city of Perm, the administrative centre of Perm Krai. This is the only musical institution of higher education in the region.

History
On 26 March 1975, the Perm Institute of Culture (PIC) was formed, which trained librarian and club workers for the Kirov and Perm Oblasts, as well as the Udmurt ASSR and Komi ASSR. From the moment of its foundation, the institute had the only musical specialty – folk instruments. A few years later, the institute added training for pianists and other musical specialties.

In 1991, the PIC was renamed into the Perm State Institute of Art and Culture (PSIAC).

In 2013, the experimental faculty "Conservatory" was created at PSIAC, which teaches in all musical specialties. In the same year, PSIAC was renamed into the Perm State Academy of Arts and Culture.

In 2015, it was renamed into the Perm State Institute of Culture (PSIC).

For the period from 1975 to 2020, the PSIC produced 14.5 thousand specialists.

Structure
The institute has 5 faculties (Faculty of Cultural Studies and Socio-Cultural Technologies; Faculty of Documentary and Information Communications; Faculty of Arts; Faculty of Arts and Education; Faculty of Additional and Innovative Education) and 15 departments (chairs).

References

External links
 Official site

Universities and colleges in Perm, Russia
Educational institutions established in 1975
1975 establishments in the Soviet Union

Perm State Institute of Culture


Masoom () is a 1983 Indian Hindi-language drama film, the directorial debut of Shekhar Kapur. It is an adaptation of the 1980 novel Man, Woman and Child by Erich Segal which was also adapted into a Malayalam movie Olangal and an American movie Man, Woman and Child. The film stars Naseeruddin Shah and Shabana Azmi in lead roles along with Tanuja, Supriya Pathak and Saeed Jaffrey. It features Jugal Hansraj, Aradhana and Urmila Matondkar as child actors. The screenplay, dialogues and lyrics are by Gulzar with music by R.D. Burman. The film has been remade into a Telugu movie named Illalu Priyuralu and in Turkish as Bir Akşam Üstü.

Plot
Indu and DK have a happy marriage and two daughters — Pinky and Minni — and live in Delhi. The tranquility of their life is interrupted when DK receives word that he has a son, Rahul, the result of an affair with Bhavana during his 1973 visit to Nainital when his wife Indu was about to give birth to their first child Pinky. Bhavana did not tell DK about their son as she did not want to disturb DK's matrimonial life. Now that she has died, her guardian Masterji sends word to DK informing him that his son, Rahul, who is nine years old, needs a home. Despite the objections of Indu, who is devastated to learn of her husband's infidelity, DK brings the boy to stay with them in Delhi. Rahul is never told that DK is his father as he bonds with DK and his daughters. But Indu can't bear to look at him, a tangible reminder of DK's betrayal.

DK, worried by the effect Rahul is having on his family, decides to put him in a boarding school in St. Joseph's College, Nainital; Rahul accepts with reluctance. After gaining admission at the school and returning to Delhi before his permanent move to Nainital, Rahul figures out that DK is his father and runs away from home. After he is escorted home by a police officer, Rahul confesses his awareness of the identity of his father to Indu. Indu is unable to bear his heartbreak and intercepts Rahul before he is put on the train to Nainital, thereby accepting him into the family and wholeheartedly forgiving DK, after which they drive home happily.

Cast
 Naseeruddin Shah as Devendra Kumar Malhotra (DK)
 Shabana Azmi as Indu Malhotra
 Supriya Pathak as Bhavana
 Jugal Hansraj as Rahul Malhotra, DK's son by Bhavana
 Urmila Matondkar as Pinky Malhotra, DK and Indu's elder daughter
 Aradhana Srivastav as Minni Malhotra, DK and Indu's younger daughter and Pinky's younger sister
 Tanuja as Chanda, Indu's friend, a socialite
 Saeed Jaffrey as Suri, DK's family friend
 Paidi Jairaj as Master Ji, Bhavana's guardian
 Satish Kaushik as Tiwari
 Malvika Singh as Mrs. Suri

Soundtrack
The music of the movie was composed by R. D. Burman and the lyrics were penned by the noted lyricist Gulzar who also wrote the screenplay for the film. Burman won the Filmfare Award for Best Music for this film.

Awards

References

External links

Films scored by R. D. Burman
1982 films
1980s Hindi-language films
Hindi remakes of Malayalam films
Films directed by Shekhar Kapur
Films set in Delhi
Films set in Uttarakhand
Indian children's films
Films based on American novels
Films shot in Uttarakhand
Hindi films remade in other languages
1982 directorial debut films

Masoom (1983 film)


The Aptucxet Trading Post Museum is a small open-air historical museum in Bourne, Massachusetts. The main attraction is a replica of the 17th-century Aptucxet Trading Post which was built by the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony in order to trade with the Wampanoag Indians and the Dutch. The museum also features a replica of a 19th-century saltworks, the relocated 19th-century Gray Gables Railroad Station, and a wooden smock windmill.  The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2021.

Aptucxet Trading Post
In 1627, English colonists from Plymouth Colony established a trading post  south of Plymouth at Aptucxet on the Manamet River (also known as the Manomet or Monument River) on upper Cape Cod. The post was the colonists' first permanent settlement on Cape Cod, although they had previously visited the Manamet River area to trade for corn and beans and to search for a missing colonist. The name Aptucxet is a Wampanoag word meaning "little trap in the river", possibly referring to a fishing weir.

The post was established primarily to trade with the Wampanoags, which was desirable for the colonists for several reasons. The colony relied in part on corn and beans supplied by the Indians, and some colonists hoped to start a fur trade in order to repay their debts to England. The trading post also came to be used for trade between the English colonists and the Dutch colonists of New Amsterdam to the south, today New York City.

Aptucxet was the first trading post established by the Plymouth colonists, and it was followed in 1633 by the Metteneque Trading Post in Windsor Locks, Connecticut and the Cushnoc Trading Post in Augusta, Maine. Aptucxet was located some distance from the colony and was staffed year-round by colonists. The Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635 damaged one of the buildings, and the post was abandoned by the 1650s. The land later became part of a farm.

The first archaeological dig on the property was conducted in 1852 when John Batchelder and William Russell undertook a partial excavation of a double cellar hole foundation. They believed that the foundation was part of the original Aptucxet Trading Post, although some researchers have suggested that it may have belonged to a later building. The Bourne Historical Society acquired the land in 1922, and a thorough excavation was conducted between 1926 and 1929 by Percival Hall Lombard and Nathan Bourne Hartford. The current replica building was constructed in 1930 upon these original foundations, using findings from the archaeological digs.

The Manamet and Scusset Rivers were widened early in the 20th century and connected to form the Cape Cod Canal, following a route very similar to the one used by Plymouth colonists to travel to the Aptucxet Trading Post. Consequently, the Aptucxet Trading Post Museum is now located on the banks of the Cape Cod Canal rather than the Manamet River.

Saltworks
The museum also features a replica saltworks similar to ones that were used in the area to manufacture sea salt in the 1800s. The saltworks consist of square wooden vats where seawater was left to evaporate. Each vat is equipped with a sliding hipped roof that can be used to protect it from dew and rain. The replica was built in 1967 and rebuilt in 2000 and 2014.

Gray Gables Railroad Station

The museum houses the original station building of the nearby defunct Gray Gables Railroad Station. It was built in 1892 near President Grover Cleveland's summer home of Gray Gables and included a direct telegraph line to Washington, D.C. The station closed in the 1940s and was purchased by the Bourne Historical Society in 1976. It was relocated to the Aptucxet Trading Post Museum in 1977 and renovated in 2014.

See also
 List of museums in Massachusetts
 List of windmills in Massachusetts
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Barnstable County, Massachusetts

References

External links

Archaeological sites in Massachusetts
Bourne, Massachusetts
Historic sites in Massachusetts
Native American museums in Massachusetts
Museums in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Plymouth Colony
Tourist attractions in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Trading posts in the United States
Wampanoag
Museums established in 1930
1930 establishments in Massachusetts

Aptucxet Trading Post Museum


The national flag of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (; ), adopted on 15 August 2021 following the Taliban's victory in the 2001–2021 war, features a white field with a black Shahada inscribed. Since the Anglo-Afghan War of 1919, also known as the War of Independence, Afghanistan has used about 19 national flags, more than any other country in this period. The national flag had black, red and green colors most of the time during the period.

In contrast, the tricolor flag of the internationally recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, still in use internationally and by internal resistance groups, consists of three vertical stripes in black, red and green, with the national emblem at the center in white. This emblem is encircled by sheaves of wheat and encompasses several elements: a Shahada, a Takbir, rays of the sun, a mosque with a mihrab and minbar, two miniature Afghan flags, the year 1298 in the Solar Hijri calendar (corresponding to 1919 in the Gregorian calendar), and the name of the nation. A version of this tricolor flag, introduced by King Amanullah Khan in July 1928, similarly featured three vertical stripes and an emblem within wheat sheaves.

During the Afghan Independence Day rallies in Jalalabad and other cities on 18 and 19 August 2021, the Taliban killed three people and injured over a dozen others for removing Taliban flags and displaying the tricolor Afghan flags. The Taliban has issued a decree requiring the use of the Islamic Emirate's flag in all official settings.

Current symbolism
The current flag of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is a plain white flag with the black words of the shahada in the centre. The white stands for "the (Islamic Movement of Taliban's) purity of faith and government"; the flag incorporated the shahada, the Islamic declaration of faith, after 1997.

The current national flag differs from the banners of other jihadist groups, including those of al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, in having white as its chief colour and the shahada in black, an inversion of the design of the coloring of most jihadist groups' banners. This current Afghan flag likely was inspired by the historic Umayyad caliphate, which began the Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent, the Ghazwa-e-Hind: Islam entered Afghanistan with the Umayyad invasion, begun in 663–665 A.D. as a prelude to the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana from 673 to 751 A.D.

Islamic Republic tricolor

The national flag of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan set out in the 2004 Constitution consists of a vertical tricolor with the classical national emblem in the center. The latest version was adopted on August 19, 2013, but many similar tricolor designs had been in use throughout most of the 20th century, starting in 1928. Due to the lack of diplomatic recognition of the Taliban government, this tricolor remains in use by most diplomatic missions of Afghanistan, despite the overthrow of the Islamic Republic in 2021. It is also used by the Afghan diaspora and republican insurgents, and is considered a symbol of resistance within the country.

History of Afghanistan's tricolor flags

The black color represents its troubled 19th century history as a protected state, the red color represents the blood of those who fought for independence (specifically, the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919), and the green represents hope and prosperity for the future. Some have alternatively interpreted the black to represent history, the red to represent progress, and the green to represent either agricultural prosperity or Islam.

The tricolor was supposedly inspired by the Afghan King Amanullah Khan when visiting Europe with his wife in 1928. The original horizontal tricolor design was based on that of the Weimar Republic-era flag of Germany.

Almost every Afghan tricolor flag since 1928 has had the Emblem of Afghanistan in the center. Almost every emblem has had a mosque in it, which first appeared in 1901, and wheat, first appearing in 1928.

The last tricolor flag took its current form in 2002 with modifications later on in 2004 and 2013, with some variants containing differing coloured emblems.

Following the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan after the Fall of Kabul in 2021, protests took place in Jalalabad and other cities, where protesters were seen waving Afghan tricolor flags protesting its removal in defiance of Taliban rule, due to the reinstatement of the white Shahada flag and the abolishment of the former black, red and green tricolor flag.

The tricolor flag was used by the Afghan delegation at the 2020 Summer Paralympics between 25 August and 5 September 2021, as well as at the 2021 Cricket T20 World Cup between 26 October and 4 November 2021, both after the fall of Kabul.

The color video approximations (valid for flags 1928–1978 and 1980–2021) are listed below:

Historical flags

Black Standard in central Asia and the first flag

Black Standard is one of the flags flown by the Islamic prophet Muhammad according to Muslim tradition. It was historically used by Abu Muslim in his uprising leading to the Abbasid Revolution in 747 and is therefore associated with the Abbasid Caliphate in particular. The revolution began with a rebellion in Khorasan. After this event, in the world of Islam, black banners were strongly associated with Khorasan and the East in general.

The next dynasty associated with the use of the Black Banner was the Hotak dynasty in the early 18th century, following Mirwais Hotak's Sunni rebellion against the Twelver Shi'i Safavid dynasty. The flags of the Hotak dynasty are remembered as solid black, but sometimes there were also white shahada inscriptions.

The use of black banners is also attributed to the Principality of Qandahar.

Solid black flag was last used during the reign of Abdur Rahman Khan in the Emirate of Afghanistan and in 1901, after his death, a white seal was added to it.

Herat flag (1818–1842)

The Hotak dynasty was overthrown by Persian King, Nader Shah. Following his assassination in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani rose to power in Kandahar. He rapidly expanded into neighboring countries such as the Mughal Empire, Afsharids, and others. Ahmad Shah became the first Amir of modern Afghanistan (ruled 1747–1772). After the Durranis were deposed from power and forced to exile in Herat after the assassination of Fateh Khan Barakzai, the flag was implemented during the reign of Kamran Shah Durrani in the Emirate of Herat.

Second flag (1901–1919)

State flag and royal banner introduced around 1901, when Habibullah Khan ascended the throne, and replaced in 1919. Its use was limited to the king, the army and some state services (e.g. customs). Overlaid on a black field was a white emblem with a schematic drawing of a mosque, inside of which could be seen the mihrâb, a niche for prayer facing Mecca, and the minbar (pulpit). The mosque rested on crossed arms and weather vanes and was crowned with a royal headdress (Kolah namadi), all encased in a garland of leaves. The mosque has been used as a national emblem before, but its inclusion on the flag in 1901 is considered the first adoption of an official emblem. Since then, most of the later flags include the emblem.

Third flag (1919–1921/29)

First flag flown under the rule of Emir Amanullah. He expanded his father's flag by removing the cannons and replacing the wreath with rays emanating from the seal in the form of an octagram. This new style of seal was common in the Ottoman Empire.

Fourth flag (1921–1926/29)

An oval replaced the circle inscribing the mosque in 1921. In 1926, Amanullah was proclaimed King and changed the national flag by modernizing the arms.

Fifth flag (1926–1928)

After being crowned the first king of Afghanistan, Amanullah Khan replaced the star with a wreath, which, depending on the version, consisted of olive and oak leaves. The swords and kolah were removed from the emblem, and the mosque was redrawn to be more complex. Despite these changes, during King's trip to Europe in 1928, he was greeted with flags with star. In addition to changing the national flag, the king also introduced a personal flag, which contained elements removed from the emblem on a red background on the obverse and royal tughra on the reverse.

Sixth flag (1928)

Next flag flown under King Amanullah, introduced around June 1928. The Black Banner was replaced by the tricolor for the first time. Consisting of black, red and green respectively, symbolizing the past (previous flags), bloodshed for independence (Third Anglo-Afghan War) and hope for the future, it was probably influenced by the king's visit to Europe, and especially the Weimar Republic (which at the time had a black-red-gold flag) in 1927/8.

Seventh flag (1928–1929)

Fifth flag flown under the rule of Amanullah, introduced about a month after the last change. It was the first vertical-tricolored flag which would be used throughout most of the remainder of the 20th century. The emblem was completely changed in the style of socialist heraldry, removing religious, military and royal references. The new emblem shows the sun rising over two snow-capped mountains, representing a new beginning for the kingdom. This emblem also contained heaps of wheat, an icon that would be present on all future emblems of Afghanistan throughout different regimes. Notably, only the Soviet emblem had wheat at the time, and would in the future appear on many communist states' flags. The flag is known only through abbreviated descriptions; the chromatics of the central emblem are uncertain, as is the presence of the star. This short-lived innovative emblem did not appear on the currency. The symbol of the sun rising over the mountains appears later in the 1940s on the flag of Pashtunistan.

Eighth flag (1929)

In January 1929, in opposition to Amrullah's reformist rule, the Saqqawists approached Kabul. The king abdicated, leaving power to his brother. During the 3 days of his reign, Inayatullah Khan reportedly hoisted old flags with a solid black background.

Ninth flag (1929)

Flag used for several months in 1929 in areas not under Saqqawist control. During Amarullah's struggle to regain power the tricolor flag was restored however, in the center was the old radial emblem – with some modifications – in an elliptical version.

Tenth flag (1929–1931)

Saqqawist forces under Habibullāh Kalakāni establishmen government of Emirate of Afghanistan on 17 January 1929. Flag flown under the brief rule of Habibullah Kalakani – a red, black and white vertical tricolor, like the ones used by the Mongols during their occupation of Afghanistan in the 13th century. Saqqawist Emirate of Afghanistan controlled only part of Afghanistan, mainly around Kabul and a wide north–south strip along the border with British India, present-day Pakistan. The exception was the city of Herat, which was conquered in an uprising and held long after the fall of the Emirate and Kalakani's death. The insurgents in Herat used a modified Saqqawi flag with a crescent moon.

Eleventh flag (1929)

Transitional flag used by Ali Ahmad Khan's short-lived rival government in Jalalabad, in opposition to the Kalakani rebellion.

Twelfth flag (1929–1930)

Direct development of the ninth flag under Mohammad Nadir Shah which will still retain the emblem in the star.

Thirteenth flag (1930–1973)

The national and state flag, the longest existing in modern Afghanistan, adopted in 1930 and confirmed the constitution of	October 1964. The flag was adopted under King Nadir Shah and survived his assassination on 8 November 1933 and lasted until the end of his son, Mohammad Zahir Shah's reign. The octagram rays were removed, and the seal enlarged – the mosque design is based on that of 1926. In between the mosque and the seal is the year ١٣٤٨ (1348 of the lunar Islamic calendar, or 1929 AD of the Gregorian calendar), the year Mohammed Nadir Shah's dynasty began. New royal flags were also introduced, which included the national emblem on a red background and new royal tughras on the reverse.

Fourteenth flag (1973–1974)

First flag flown for the Republic of Afghanistan, proclaimed after the 1973 Afghan coup d'état by the king's cousin, Army General Mohammad Daoud Khan, who became the first president. It is identical to the previous flag, except that the year ١٣٤٨ was removed as Zahir Shah's monarchy ended, this was probably not followed because of the poverty of the country, the low level of public instruction and the family links between Daoud and King Zahir Shah.

Fifteenth flag (1974–1978)

Second flag flown for the Republic of Afghanistan. The same colors were used, but the meanings reinterpreted: black for the obscure past, red for blood shed for independence, and green for prosperity from agriculture. In the canton is a new seal, with a golden eagle with spread wings, a pulpit (minbar) on the eagle's chest (for a mosque), wheat surrounding the eagle, and the sun's rays above the eagle (for the new republic). The cartouche bears the name of the country and the date of the revolution according to the local solar calendar, 26 changash 1352, or 17 July 1973. President Daoud also changed the flag of the head of state by replacing it with a new emblem, and the flag became double-sided.

Sixteenth flag (1978)

When the republic's president Mohammad Daoud Khan was killed in a coup, the new regime under the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) established a communist state. For a brief period of time, during the transition, the same flag design was kept, but no seal. A similar flag was used by the Junbish-e Milli party which controlled autonomous northern Afghanistan from 1992 to 1998.

Seventeenth flag (1978–1980)

A radical change, this flag used a red field with a yellow seal in the canton, a common design for socialist states in the 20th century. In fact, the design was very similar to the flag of the neighboring Soviet Union. It consisted of the PDPA's Khalq (, ) faction's emblem with wheat, a star at the top (representing the five ethnic groups of the nation), the term 'Khalq' in Arabic script in the center, and a subtitle reading 'Saur Revolution ١٣٥٧' and the full name of the state. All religious references are gone.

Eighteenth flag (1980)

After the overthrow of the Khalq faction by the Parcham faction during the Soviet invasion, the flag of the People's Democratic Party, featuring a cogwheel representing industry and an ear of wheat to represent agriculture, was additionally used as a national flag.

Nineteenth flag (1980–1987)

Under the Fundamental Principles program of the new leadership under Babrak Karmal, the traditional black, red and green tricolor was re-established, representing the past, blood shed for independence, and the Islamic faith, respectively. A new seal was designed, with a rising sun (a reference to the former name, Khorasan, meaning "Land of the Rising Sun"), a pulpit and a book (considered to be the Communist Manifesto or the Capital by Karl Marx ), ribbons with the national colors, a cogwheel for industry, and a red star for communism. The seal's ribbons and wheat has similarities to the then-East German and Romanian seals.

Twentieth flag (1987–1992)

The flag was changed as part of Mohammad Najibullah's National Reconciliation constitution changes. Same as the previous flag, except that in the national seal, the cogwheel is moved from the top to the bottom, the red star and the book are removed, and the green field curved to resemble the horizon.

Twenty-first flag (1992)

This flag was used as a provisional flag after the fall of the Najibullah pro-Soviet regime. It appeared in many variants of which two are shown here. The upper stripe contains the Takbir, whereas the center stripe (now white, with the red entirely removed from the flag) contains the Shahada.

Twenty-second flag (1992–2002)

The new Islamic government under Rabbani featured a flag change. The color scheme is similar to several Middle Eastern Muslim nations' flags. Elements from the times of the monarchy returned to the emblem, but with the addition of the Shahada and drawn completely differently swords representing the mujahideen's victory. It now shows the year ١۲۹٨ (1298), the solar Islamic calendar equivalent of AD 1919 of the Gregorian Calendar, the year of full independence. On the bottom part of the emblem was written "", Islamic State of Afghanistan. The rays of the rising sun have survived on the emblem. This pattern was used longer in areas that the Taliban did not control after winning the battle for Kabul, i.e. the north of the country. In 2021, the flag returned among the flags of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan.

Twenty-third flag (1996–1997)

A plain white banner was used by the Taliban. In the Islamic tradition, the white banner is attributed to the Umayyad dynasty, which was overthrown by the Abbasids associated with black banners.

Twenty-fourth flag (1997–2001)

In 1997, the Taliban introduced the Arabic Shahada in black on a white flag as the national flag of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.

Twenty-fifth flag (2001–2002)

This flag was used by President Rabbani along with the national flag after the fall of the Taliban government. Same as the 1992 flag, but with Pashto and Dari texts.

Twenty-sixth flag (2002)

After the fall of the Taliban, the traditional black, red and green colors were restored and in a vertical pattern, just as the ones flown from 1928 to 1974. The center emblem is the classical emblem of Afghanistan – it is the same version as used in the 1992 flag, but with the swords removed.

Twenty-seventh flag (2002–2004)

The Loya Jirga of spring 2002 voted the Afghan national flag with some changes including the coat of arms being gold instead of white, the year now dating "1380" under the mosque instead of "1348". In June 2002, Afghanistan officially changed its national flag from a white coat of arms in the center of the flag to a gold coat of arms which symbolizes the colour of a wheat wreath.

Twenty-seventh flag (2004–2021)

The 2004 constitution adopted under Hamid Karzai's presidency adopts an emblem more akin to the last emblem from the reign of the kingdom. The flag was used in many variants by the Islamic State of Afghanistan, and after its collapse is one of the flags of the anti-Taliban opposition. In 2004, the flag of the head of state was introduced again, this time in opposite colors than the flag from the time of Daud. However, a newer emblem appeared only in 2013, when Karzai was replaced by Ashraf Ghani.

Twenty-eighth flag (2021–present)

In 2021, the Taliban re-introduced the flag of the Islamic Emirate. As with the first adoption of the Taliban flag, many variants appeared this time, among others, Shahada on a white flag with "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" in Pashto written below the Arabic Shahada; a Dari Persian version of the flag has also been observed, although less frequently.

Islamic Emirates flags

Unlike the Taliban, the Salafi Islamists in Afghanistan use a black banner with a white Shahada. In the 1990s, Salafist organizations managed to establish two small, unrecognized states: Islamic Emirate of Kunar (1991) and Islamic Emirate of Badakhshan (1996). This usage, however, is not related to the early flags of the Emirate of Afghanistan, but to Jihadist flag, widely adopted by Sunni Islamists since the 1990s.

Gallery

See also

List of Afghan flags
Afghan rebel flags
Emblem of Afghanistan
Flags of Asia

Notes

References

External links

Afghantribes: Afghan National Flags Timeline
Encyclopedia Iranica: FLAGS OF AFGHANISTAN
Flag of Afghanistan
Flags of Afghanistan

National symbols of Afghanistan

Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan

Flag of Afghanistan


Third normal form (3NF) is a property of a relational model, specifically tables that is a criterion of database normalization.

The first criterion of being third normal form is that the table be second normal form.

Within a table that is in third normal form, the data in each column in each row are dependent only on columns that are part of the primary key. A primary key is one or more columns in a row that is used to identify and index that row of the table. Columns that are not related to any column in the primary key are removed.

Database modeling

Third normal form


East Otago is the name given to that part of Otago, in the South Island of New Zealand that lies directly to the north of Dunedin. To the south, its limit is approximately the rough hill pass of the Kilmog, 25 kilometres north of Dunedin city centre, and in the north the limit is the Shag River.

The population of East Otago is 2,500 (est 2001)

Expected population in 2006 is 3,000 with 1,400 expecting to live in the Main town of Waikouaiti

Census provisional count for East Otago as of 2006 was 4,991

Census provisional count for East Otago towns was:

Waikouaiti: 1,620
Palmerston: 1,246
Karitane: 720
Dunback: 320
Moeraki: 682

4,588 Live in the 5 main centers

403 Live in the rural areas

Total: 4,991

The area contains two main towns, Waikouaiti and Palmerston along with the smaller settlements of Karitane and Dunback.

The name East Otago has fallen somewhat out of favour since the expansion of the city limits of Dunedin to encompass much of this area in the 1990s.

See also
 Otago Gold Rush

Geography of Otago

East Otago


Thomas Derrick Turnbow (born January 25, 1978) is an American former professional baseball right-handed relief pitcher, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Anaheim Angels and Milwaukee Brewers.

Early career
Turnbow was born in Union City, Tennessee, and played baseball at Franklin High School, where he compiled a 30-4 record over four years. In his senior year, he posted a Franklin High single-season best 0.77 ERA. The school retired Turnbow's number (20) in 2001, and he is currently the only baseball player to have been awarded that honor. He was drafted in  by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 5th round of the Major League Baseball Draft. He was then acquired by the Anaheim Angels in the  Rule 5 draft. In October , Turnbow became the first major league player to test positive for a banned steroid. The positive test came during tryouts for USA Baseball's Olympic qualifying team. He did not face sanctions from Major League Baseball, because they did not begin testing for or penalizing steroid use until the  season. He was banned for two years from international competition. He got out to a promising start in his career, even representing the Brewers at the 2006 MLB All-Star Game.

2004–2005
Claimed off waivers by the Milwaukee Brewers following the 2004 season, Turnbow worked with Brewers pitching coach Mike Maddux before the  season to help control his fastball, which routinely clocked in at 97-98 mph. Turnbow became the Brewers' closer in April 2005 and finished the 2005 season with 39 saves, matching the team record set previously by Dan Kolb in 2004, and setting personal bests with a 1.74 ERA and 7-1 record in 67.1 innings pitched. Turnbow was rewarded with a three-year $6.5 million contract, which ran through  and "bought out" his first two seasons of arbitration eligibility.

Turnbow picked up his first career save on April 24, 2005, at San Francisco. He finished the 2005 season with an ERA of 1.74, the second lowest among National League relievers. He finished second, by just 3 points, behind Washington's Chad Cordero for the 2005 Rolaids Relief Man of the Year Award.

2006 season
Before the  season, Turnbow signed a three-year contract extension worth a guaranteed $6.5 million. In April , Turnbow made major league history since saves became an official statistic in 1969 by earning a save in each of the first four games of the season. In 2006, he was selected to his first All-Star team. Turnbow struggled with his command through the 2006 season, however, converting only 1 of 5 save opportunities and posting a 21.32 ERA in July 2006, and causing manager Ned Yost to remove Turnbow from the closer role in favor of Francisco Cordero.

2007 & 2008 seasons
Turnbow struggled throughout much of . In eight relief appearances with Milwaukee in , he accumulated an 0-1 record with one save and a 15.63 ERA (11 earned runs in 6 innings). On May 1, 2008, Turnbow was designated for assignment by the Brewers. He was given the choice of reporting to the minors, being claimed off waivers by another team, or becoming a free agent and thus forfeiting his $3.2 million salary. On May 9, Turnbow was outrighted to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds. He joined the team on May 12. During his short tenure with the Sounds, Turnbow suffered a complete loss of command; in the 18 innings he pitched, he walked 41 batters and threw 10 wild pitches. Turnbow finished the 2008 season without being on any minor league roster due to a slight labrum tear. He was granted free agency during the Brewers' brief playoff run.

2009 season
Just after the New Year, Turnbow signed with the Texas Rangers.  Texas released him on May 1, 2009.

2010 season
On January 29, 2010, Turnbow agreed to a minor league contract with the Florida Marlins with an invite to spring training.  After only two appearances in the Grapefruit League, Turnbow injured his shoulder while throwing thus putting his comeback on hold.

On March 17, 2010, Turnbow was released by the Florida Marlins and shortly thereafter announced his retirement from baseball.

References

External links

1978 births
Living people
Anaheim Angels players
Milwaukee Brewers players
Baseball players from Tennessee
Baseball players suspended for drug offenses
Major League Baseball pitchers
National League All-Stars
Sportspeople from Franklin, Tennessee
Martinsville Phillies players
Piedmont Boll Weevils players
Arkansas Travelers players
Arizona League Angels players
Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players
Salt Lake Stingers players
Nashville Sounds players
Oklahoma City RedHawks players
People from Union City, Tennessee

Derrick Turnbow


Ibrahim K. Sundiata is an American scholar of West African and African-American history. He received his undergraduate education at Ohio Wesleyan University (B.A., 1966), and a Ph.D. (1972) at Northwestern University, where he studied under Ivor Wilks. He is currently the Samuel J. and Augusta Spector Professor of History and African and African-American Studies at Brandeis University.

Previously, Sundiata served as the chairman of the history department of Howard University, and taught at Rutgers University, Northwestern University, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and the Universidade Federal da Bahia. He has received grants from the Ford Foundation, Woodrow Wilson Center, and Fulbright Program, and was a fellow at the W.E.B. DuBois Institute at Harvard University. He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.

Sundiata's research has focused on Atlantic slavery, migration and colonialism and its legacies in Equatorial Guinea and Liberia, and, more recently, on race relations in the United States and Latin America, particularly in Brazil.

Works
 Brothers and Strangers: Black Zion, Black Slavery, 1914-1940. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003.
 From Slaving to Neoslavery: The Bight of Biafra and Fernando Po in The Era of Abolition, 1827-1930. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996.
 "State Formation and Trade: The Rise and Fall of the Bubi Polity, c.1840-1910", The International Journal of African Historical Studies 27, 3 (1994): 505–23.
 Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990.
 "Equatorial Guinea: The Structure of Terror in a Small State", in African Islands and Enclaves, ed. Robin Cohen, Sage Publications, 1983, 81–100.
 Black Scandal: The United States and the Liberian Crisis of 1929. Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1980.
 "The Rise and Decline of Kru Power: Fernando Po in the 19th Century", Liberian Studies Journal 6, 1 (1975): 25–43.
 "Prelude to Scandal: Liberia and Fernando Po, 1880-1930", The Journal of African History 15, 1 (1974): 97–112.
 The Fernandinos : Labor and Community in Santa Isabel de Fernando Poo, 1827-1931. Ph.D., Northwestern University, 1972.

Sources
 Sundiata's biography at Brandeis University

21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Historians of the United States
Latin Americanists
Social historians
Ohio Wesleyan University alumni
Harvard University faculty
Northwestern University alumni
Brandeis University faculty
Howard University faculty
Northwestern University faculty
Rutgers University faculty
University of Illinois Chicago faculty
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
American male non-fiction writers

Ibrahim K. Sundiata


Live event support includes staging, scenery, mechanicals, sound, lighting, video, special effects, transport, packaging, communications, costume and makeup for live performance events including theater, music, dance, and opera. They all share the same goal: to convince live audience members that there is no better place that they could be at the moment. This is achieved through establishing a bond between performer and audience. Live performance events tend to use visual scenery, lighting, costume amplification and a shorter history of visual projection and sound amplification reinforcement.

Visual support

Live event visual amplification

Introduction
Live event visual amplification is the display of live and pre-recorded images as a part of a live stage event. Visual amplification began when films, projected onto a stage, added characters or background information to a production.
35 mm motion picture projectors became available in 1910 - but which theatre or opera company first used a movie in a stage production is not known. In 1935, less costly 16 mm film equipment allowed many other performance groups and school theaters to use motion pictures in productions.

In 1970, closed circuit video cameras and videocassette machines became available and Live Event Visual Amplification came of age. For the first time live closeups of stage performers could be displayed in real time. These systems also made it possible to show pre-recorded videos that added information & visual intensity to a live event.

One of the first video touring systems was created by video designer TJ McHose in 1975 for the rock band The Tubes using black and white television monitors.    In 1978, TJ McHose designed a touring color video system that enlarged performers at the Kool Jazz Festivals in sports stadiums across the United States.

Live event visual reinforcement

Introduction
Live event visual reinforcement is the addition of projected lighting effects and images onto any type of performance venue.

Visual Reinforcement began more than 2000 years ago. In China during the Han Dynasty, Shadow puppetry was invented to "bring back to life" Emperor Wu's favorite concubine. Mongolian troops spread Shadow play throughout Asia and the Middle East in the 13th century. Shadow puppetry reached Taiwan in 1650, and missionaries brought it to France in 1767.

The next major advance in Visual reinforcement for events was the magic lantern, first conceptualized by Giovanni Battista della Porta in his 1558 work Magiae naturalis. The Magic Lantern became practical by 1750 with the oil lamp and glass lenses. Special effect animation attachments were added in the 1830s. In 1854, the Ambrotype positive photographic process on glass made Magic lantern slide creation much less expensive.

Magic lanterns were greatly improved by the application of limelight to live stage production in 1837 at Covent Garden Theatre and improved again when electric arc lighting became available in 1880.

In 1910, Adolf Linnebach invented the Linnebach lantern, a lensless wide angle glass slide projector.

In 1933, the Gobo metal shadow pattern for the ellipsoidal spotlight allowed images to appear and disappear by dimmer control.

In 1935, 16 mm Kodachrome film projectors added the first fully animated visual reinforcement to live events.

Timeline
1600: Shadow play leather or paper puppets cast shadows on a translucent screen
1760: magic lantern painted slide projector Phantasmagoria ghost effects projector
1905: Linnebach lantern Munich Opera
1933: Gobo metal shadow mask adds patterns to ellipsoidal spotlights
1940: Overhead projector Later used for psychedelic light shows
1950: Slide projector 35 mm Kodak Carousel
1965: Thomas Wilfred describes A highly detailed system to create event scenery using rear projections
1967: Liquid Projector psychedelic Liquid light shows
Joshua Light Shows at The Fillmore for The Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company and many other Summer of Love bands

Audio support

Live event sound reinforcement

Introduction
A sound reinforcement system is professional audio, was first developed for movie theatres in 1927 when the first ever talking picture was released, called The Jazz Singer. Movie theatre sound was greatly improved in 1937 when the Shearer Horn system debuted. One of the first large-scale outdoor public address systems was at 1939 New York World's Fair.

In the 1960s, rock and roll concerts promoted by Bill Graham at The Fillmore created a need for quickly changeable sound systems. In the early 1970s, Graham founded FM Productions to provide touring sound and light systems. By 1976 in San Francisco, the technical debate over infinite baffle vs horn-loaded enclosures, and line arrays vs distributed driver arrays, was ongoing at FM because of the proximity of The Grateful Dead and their scene Ultrasound, John Meyer, and others. But at that time there were parallel developments in other parts of the United States - Showco (Dallas) and Clair Bros (Philadelphia) had different approaches; Clair in particular was moving in the direction of modular full-range enclosures. They would rig as many as needed (or clients like Bruce Springsteen could afford) in whatever configuration they thought would cover a particular venue. Stanal Sound in southern California used fiberglass futuristic looking equipment for artists like Kenny Rogers.

Timeline
1876: Loudspeaker Alexander Graham Bell
1878: Carbon microphone / amplifier
1924:  Loudspeaker - moving-coil -patent Chester W. Rice & E. Kellogg
1924:  Loudspeaker - ribbon Walter H. Schottky
1930: Vacuum tube amplifier
1937:  Loudspeaker - Shearer Horn movie theatre system
1939: public address outdoor system 1939 New York World's Fair
1945:  Loudspeaker - coaxial Altec "Voice of the Theatre"
1953:  Loudspeaker - electrostatic -patent Arthur Janszen
1953:  Microphone - wireless
1965:  Loudspeaker - woofer
1965:  Loudspeaker - subwoofer
1970:  Microphone - condenser
1974:  Loudspeaker - Sensurround movie sound system for "Earthquake"
1974:  Loudspeaker - Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track
1975:  Loudspeaker - touring - McCune JM-3 John Meyer
1979:  Loudspeaker - Meyer Sound Laboratories - Grateful Dead wall of sound
1983:  Loudspeaker - THX movie sound system for Star Wars

Transportation support
Efficient and timely transportation is essential for live event productions.

Touring packaging

Well designed touring systems unload from the truck gently, roll easily into their stage location, connect to each other quickly. A well designed system includes duplicates of critical components and "field-replaceable" items such as cables, switches and fuses. Every component should be protected by a well padded road case that has room for all connector cables and allows easy access to the components for fast cable re-patching to bypass a bad component and for repairs during a tour. The road cases need good ventilation and for outdoor use should be white to minimize solar heat buildup. Road case sizes should be modular to pack tightly together on the truck.

Packaging images

See also

References

Video
Theatre
Stagecraft
Packaging
Sound production technology

Live event support


Luke George-Blakely (born 13 July 1988) is an English-born Antiguan international footballer who played for Antigua Barracuda FC in the USL Professional Division. Blakely started his youth career playing for Highfield Rangers in his hometown of Leicester, England. In 2007, he relocated to the U.S to play college soccer for Marshalltown Community College in the NJCAA.

Career

College and amateur
Blakely played the 2007 season with Marshalltown Community College where he helped MCC win the Iowa Conference and finish 3rd in the NJCAA national tournament. Blakely was awarded an honorable mention in the 2007 Iowa Regional team. Blakely transferred to Illinois Institute of Technology of the NAIA for the 2008 season where he helped IIT win two CCAC Conference Championships in 2008 and 2010. While captaining the side for his junior and senior year, Blakely was CCAC All-Conference honorable mention in 2008 and CCAC first team all-Conference in 2010.

During his college years Blakely also played for the Chicago Fire Premier in the National Premier Soccer League and Chicago Fire Premier U23 in the United States Adult Soccer Association. In 2010 Blakely helped the Chicago Fire Premier U23 to a national championship.

Professional
Blakely signed with USL Professional Division club Antigua Barracuda FC in March 2012. He made his professional debut on 6, April 2012 in the Barracudas season opening game against the Pittsburgh Riverhounds.

International career
Blakely received his first call up to the Antigua and Barbuda national football team in March 2012 and was included in the squad for a friendly against St Kitts. Blakely received his first cap on 12, March 2012 when he started in the 1–0 defeat against St Kitts. On 30, March 2012 Blakely received his second cap when he started for Antigua against St Vincent. Blakely was starting defensive midfielder in the Antigua and Barbuda World Cup Qualifiers squad that is competed in a group with USA, Jamaica and Guatemala.

External links
 Marshalltown Stats

1988 births
Living people
English men's footballers
Antigua and Barbuda men's footballers
Antigua and Barbuda men's international footballers
Antigua Barracuda FC players
Barwell F.C. players
Stamford A.F.C. players
Loughborough Dynamo F.C. players
USL Championship players
English sportspeople of Antigua and Barbuda descent
Sportspeople from Leicester
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football defenders

Luke Blakely


A political general is a term used by historians and most often applies to the American Civil War. In this context, it means a General officer who does not have formal military training or experience and who gained his position through political influence. To a lesser degree, it can also mean generals who engaged in politics during or after their time as a general. A "political general" can seem to be a contradiction in terms in a country such as the United States where by law the military is under civilian authority. An example was Dwight D. Eisenhower, who graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in the class of 1915. He was an experienced staff officer who commanded the invasions of North Africa and Western Europe. Eisenhower developed the political skills to deal with his British and American officers as well as political leaders. He later became President of the United States.

Background
In history, many great generals were also political leaders. Julius Caesar was a general who became the dictator of Rome in 44 BC. Genghis Khan was the son of a Mongol chieftain who became a general and then the leader of the Mongol Empire. As a general, Alexander the Great never lost a battle. He was a king who was also a general. In the British Army of the 17th and 18th centuries, the officers were often aristocrats and most obtained their rank by purchase.

In American history up to the Civil war, there had been a long line of amateur military leaders going back to the colonial militias. Before he led the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War, George Washington had little military experience. Andrew Jackson only had experience in the American Indian Wars. But he successfully defeated a larger and more professional British army at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812.

During the American Civil War, two great armies were raised that were made up largely of citizen-soldiers. There simply were not enough trained generals to lead all these men. Both Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis appointed political generals, some of whom later proved to be incompetent. Others proved to be good or even great generals. Many of these generals had very little or no military training before being commissioned a general. Confederate general Patrick Cleburne was such a leader. He earned his nickname as the "Stonewall Jackson of the West" by being a great general. One of the worst examples was Union general Daniel Sickles. He was a Tammany Hall politician who used his influence to rise to the rank of major general. Sickles nearly lost the Battle of Gettysburg for the North yet, after 34 years of lobbying, managed to get himself awarded the Medal of Honor.

Notes

References

Other websites
 The Civil War in Four Minutes: Political Generals; YouTube

Politicians

Political general


Shikasta is a 1979 science fiction novel. The full title is Re: Colonised Planet 5, Shikasta. British Nobel Prize in Literature-winner Doris Lessing wrote it as the first book in her five-book Canopus in Argos series. Alfred A. Knopf published it first in the United States in October 1979. Jonathan Cape published the book in the United Kingdom in November 1979. Shikasta is also the name of the fictional planet featured in the novel.

The book has a subtitle, "Personal, psychological, historical documents relating to visit by Johor (George Sherban) Emissary (Grade 9) 87th of the Period of the Last Days". 'The novel is the history of the planet Shikasta under the influence of three galactic empires: Canopus, Sirius, and their shared enemy, Puttiora. The book is a series of reports by Canopean visitors to Shikasta. They record what happens on the planet which is very similar to Earth. The novel shows the Earth's prehistory, how things became worse, the "Century of Destruction" (the 20th-century), and the Apocalypse (World War III).

Shikasta uses stories and images from the Old Testament and is influenced by spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism. Lessing had become interested in this Islamic belief system in the mid-1960s. The book was a major shift of focus in Lessing's writing, from realism to science fiction. Many of her readers were unhappy with the change. Critics gave the book both good and bad reviews. Some were impressed by the way the book showed a wide view of humanity and the universe. One reviewer called it a brave "and disturbing work from one of the world's great living writers". Others reviewers disliked the novel because it was depressing and humanity had no free will. People's lives were controlled by galactic empires.

The story of Shikasta is retold in the third book of the Canopus series, The Sirian Experiments (1980). In that book, the story is told from the point of view of Sirius. Shikasta appears again in the fourth book in the series, The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982). The Zones that are briefly mentioned in Shikasta are the subject of the second book in the series, The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980).

References

Science fiction books
1979 books

Shikasta (novel)


Stephen Leonard Snow (born March 2, 1971) is a retired American soccer forward who was a dominant goal scorer at the high school, college and junior national level.  He played professionally in Belgium and in the United States.   He also earned two caps with the U.S. national team.

High school and college
Snow was born and grew up in Illinois, and attended Hoffman Estates High School from 1985 to 1989 where he played soccer.  While playing for Hoffman, Snow scored in 49 consecutive games, ranking him first on the Illinois High School Association's list of consecutive matches scored in.   He finished his high school career with 92 goals.

After graduating from high school, Snow attended Indiana University, where he played NCAA soccer.  As a freshman in 1989, he was the NCAA post-season tournament leading goal scorer with 4 goals and 1 assist.  That year the Indiana Hoosiers lost to Santa Clara 1-0 in the semifinals.

Professional career
Snow left Indiana after his freshman year to pursue a professional career in Belgium where he signed with Standard Liège.   He had no first team appearances for Standard and moved to Boom following the 1992 Summer Olympics. After scoring 3 goals in his first 7 games, he suffered a major knee injury and returned to the U.S. where he had at least two surgeries to repair his anterior cruciate ligament.  He never returned to play with Boom and instead signed with the Chicago Power of the National Professional Soccer League on December 10, 1993.    He played thirty games, scoring twenty-seven goals, in 1994–1995, but saw time in only nine games, scoring four goals, in the 1995–1996 season before knee problems cut his playing career short.  Snow retired from soccer and opened a pizza parlor on the north side of Indianapolis.

National teams

U-16 World Championship
Snow gained his first taste of top level international competition with the U.S. U-16 national team as it qualified for the 1987 FIFA U-16 World Championship.  At the championship, the U.S. went 1-2 and failed to qualify for the second round.  Snow scored one of the U.S. goals in its 4-2 loss to South Korea.

U-20 World Championship
Snow starred for the U.S. U-20 national team in 1988 and 1989.  During qualification for the 1989 U-20 World Cup, Snow scored 5 of the team's 11 goals.  Then at the championship the next year, he scored 3 goals, including the goal in the team's 1-1 tie with Mali.  That year, the U.S. finished fourth, losing its semifinal match to Nigeria 2-1 in overtime, despite yet another Snow goal.

Pan American Games
Snow continued his torrid scoring pace with the junior national teams at the 1991 Pan American Games, where the U.S. won its first gold medal.  Snow was the team's leading scorer with 4 goals.

Olympics
Snow continued his success during qualifications for the 1992 Summer Olympics.  He scored 11 goals in 9 games, including a hat trick in a 4-3 victory over Honduras, as the U.S. easily qualified for the games.  However, for reasons that have never been fully explained, the U.S. coach, Lothar Osiander benched Snow for the team's opening game of the tournament against Italy.  The U.S. would lose that game 2-1.  Osiander was known to dislike Snow, calling him a "cocky twerp" and accusing him of being egotistical and not a team player.  However, he played Snow in the next two games, a 3-1 win against Kuwait and a 2-2 tie against Poland the eventual silver medal winner.  Snow scored in both games, but the U.S. failed to advance out of group play.  Osiander's refusal to play Snow would lead to his being fired as Olympic coach after the games.

Senior team
Despite his success at the junior international level, Snow played only two full internationals for the U.S. national team.  His first cap came in a June 14, 1988 victory over Costa Rica when he came on as a second-half substitute for Charlie Raphael.    On August 13, 1989, Snow came on for Bruce Murray in a 2-1 loss to South Korea.

External links

References

1971 births
Living people
American men's soccer players
American expatriate men's soccer players
People from Hoffman Estates, Illinois
Soccer players from Illinois
Olympic soccer players for the United States
Footballers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Indiana Hoosiers men's soccer players
Standard Liège players
Chicago Power players
National Professional Soccer League (1984–2001) players
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' soccer)
Belgian Pro League players
Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium
United States men's youth international soccer players
United States men's under-20 international soccer players
United States men's under-23 international soccer players
United States men's international soccer players
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in football
Men's association football forwards
Hoffman Estates High School alumni
Footballers at the 1991 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1991 Pan American Games

Steve Snow


Louis-Charles Malassez (21 September 1842 – 22 December 1909) was a French anatomist and histologist born in Nevers, department of Nièvre.

He studied medicine in Paris, where he worked as an interne from 1867. He served with the 5th Ambulance Corps during the Franco-Prussian War, afterwards returning to Paris, where he worked with distinguished physicians that included Claude Bernard, Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Potain. In 1875, he attained the chair of anatomy at Collège de France, and in 1894 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine.

He conducted histological research of the blood, and is credited for design of the hemocytometer, a device used to quantitatively measure blood cells. In the field of dentistry, he described residual cells of the epithelial root sheath in the periodontal ligament. These remaining cells are referred to as epithelial cell rests of Malassez (ERM).

A genus of fungi called Malassezia bears his name. The species in the genus include: Malassezia furfur, Malassezia ovalis, Malassezia pachydermatis, Malassezia sympodialis and Malassezia orbiculare. Malassezia furfur is a lipophilic species that forms on human skin and can cause seborrheic dermatitis and tinea versicolor, Malassezia pachydermatis is a species that is associated with otitis externa in dogs.

Selected publications
 'De la numération des globules rouges du sang. I. Des méthodes de numération. II. De la richesse du sang en globules rouges dans les différentes parties de l'arbre circulatoire. Paris 1873
 Sur les lésions histologiques de la syphilis testiculaire. Paris, 1881 - (with Paul Reclus 1847-1914).
 Sur l'existence d'amas épithéliaux autour de la racine des dents chez l'homme adulte et a l'état normal (débris épithéliaux paradentaires. Paris, 1885
 Sur les role des débris épithéliaux paradentaires. In: Archives de physiologie normale et pathologique. Paris, S. 309–340, 1885

References
 Dorlands's Medical Dictionary, Definition of Malassezia species & Cell rests

  Malassezia Infections of the Skin, D. R. Thomas, MD, FRCPC

 "List of publications copied from the equivalent article at the German Wikipedia.''

French histologists
French anatomists
Academic staff of the Collège de France
1842 births
1909 deaths
People from Nevers
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Louis-Charles Malassez


Barnwell Manor is a Grade II listed country estate near the village of Barnwell, about  south of Oundle, in Northamptonshire, England. The historic former home of the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, as of 2017 it was occupied by Windsor House Antiques. In September 2022, Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, put the manor up for sale for £4.75 million.

History
The estate was granted to the Montagu family in 1540 by King Henry VIII, and they kept it until 1913, when it was sold by the 6th Duke of Buccleuch. In the interim period (1913–1938), Prince Philip's future Private Secretary Sir Brian McGrath (1925–2016) grew up at the manor until his parents bought their own house. The house may have been rented to a series of tenants.

In 1938 Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, the third son of King George V, bought the house and estate with the bulk of his legacy from the late king.  The Duke's wife Alice was the daughter of the 7th Duke of Buccleuch, and had a fondness for the house which her grandfather had sold.

It was announced in January 1995 that the Gloucesters would vacate the house, so that Princess Alice could move to Kensington Palace to be with her son, Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester. As of 2017, Windsor House Antiques occupies the estate.

In 2013 the High Court disallowed an application by West Coast Energy to build a wind farm close to the manor's lodge.  An appeal was subsequently dismissed. The appeal gained increased media attention because Justine Thornton, wife of the Labour leader Ed Miliband, was representing the appellant. The Duke of Gloucester had supported the proposal.

Architecture and grounds
The house has four reception rooms, seven principal bedrooms, and six bathrooms. It is a 40-room  Grade II eighteenth-century manor house, with origins dating to 1586. The estate now comprises  farmed by the present Duke of Gloucester, and the ruined Barnwell Castle, built c.1266 by Berenger le Moyne, who sold it to Ramsey Abbey in 1276. The abbey held the castle until 1536, when it passed to the king. The Elizabethan manor house became the principal residence, and the living quarters and all internal buildings of the castle were demolished in 1704.

The house is listed Grade II on the National Heritage List for England.

References

External links

Country houses in Northamptonshire
North Northamptonshire
Grade II listed buildings in Northamptonshire
Grade II listed houses
Royal residences in the United Kingdom

Barnwell Manor


Jonson Ben, (gerçek ismi Benjamin Jonson) (11 Haziran 1572 -  6 Ağustos 1637), 17.  yüzyıl İngiliz oyun yazarı, şair, oyuncu ve eleştirmen.

İngiltere'nin ikinci büyük tiyatro adamı (Shakespeare'dan sonra) olarak kabul edilir. Yaşamının İngiltere'de oyuncu ve yazar olarak adını duyurana kadarki bölümü hakkında pek fazla bir şey bilinmemektedir. 1598 yılında Every man in his humour adlı komedisi William Shakespeare'in kurduğu tiyatro topluluğu tarafından oynanmıştır. Shakespeare ile Jonson özel yaşamlarında da birbirlerinin yakın arkadaşlarındandır. 1604 yılında I. James tarafından saraya çağrılmış bu işte 20 yılını harcamıştır, artık sarayda gözden düşünce yeni komediler yazmaya karar vermişse de eski gücünü yitirdiğini fark etmiştir. Hayatının bir kısmına 2011 yapımı Anonymous filminde değinilmiştir.

Oyunlar
 A Tale of a Tub, komedi 1640)
 The Case is Altered komedi 1597-8
 Every Man in His Humour komedi
 Every Man out of His Humour komedi
 Cynthia's Revels
 The Poetaster,
 Sejanus: His Fall, trajedi
 Eastward Ho, komedi
 Volpone, comedy
 Epicoene, or the Silent Woman, komedi
 The Alchemist, komedi
 Catiline: His Conspiracy, trajedi
 Bartholomew Fair, komedi
 The Devil is an Ass, komedi
 The Staple of News, komedi
 The New Inn, or The Light Heart, komedi
 The Magnetic Lady, or Humors Reconciled, komedi
 The Sad Shepherd,  pastoral (tamamlanmamış)
 Mortimer his Fall, tarih

Maskeli piyesler
 The Coronation Triumph, or The King's Entertainment (performed March 15, 1604; printed 1604); with Thomas Dekker
 A Private Entertainment of the King and Queen on May-Day (The Penates) (May 1, 1604; printed 1616)
 The Entertainment of the Queen and Prince Henry at Althorp (The Satyr) (June 25, 1603; printed 1604)
 The Masque of Blackness (Jan. 6, 1605; printed ca. 1608)
 Hymenaei (Jan. 5, 1606; printed 1606)
 The Entertainment of the Kings of Great Britain and Denmark (The Hours) (July 24, 1606; printed 1616)
 The Masque of Beauty (Jan. 10, 1608; printed ca. 1608)
 The Masque of Queens (Feb. 2, 1609; printed 1609)
 Hue and Cry after Cupid, or The Masque at Lord Haddington's Marriage (Feb. 9, 1608; printed ca. 1608)
 The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers, or The Lady of the Lake (Jan. 6, 1610; printed 1616)
 Oberon, the Faery Prince (Jan. 1, 1611; printed 1616)
 Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly (Feb. 3, 1611; printed 1616)
 Love Restored (Jan. 6, 1612; printed 1616)
 A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage (Dec. 27, 1613/Jan. 1, 1614; Printed 1616)
 The Irish Masque at Court (Dec. 29, 1613; printed 1616)
 Christmas, his Masque (Christmas 1616; printed 1641)
 The Vision of Delight (Jan. 6, 1617; printed 1641)
 Lovers Made Men, or The Masque of Lethe, or The Masque at Lord Hay's (Feb. 22, 1617; printed 1617)
 Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue (Jan. 6, 1618; printed 1641) The masque was a failure; Jonson revised it by placing the anti-masque first, turning it into:
 For the Honor of Wales (Feb. 17, 1618; printed 1641)
 News from the New World Discovered in the Moon (Jan. 7, 1620: printed 1641)
 The Entertainment at Blackfriars, or The Newcastle Entertainment (May 1620?; MS)
 Pan's Anniversary, or The Shepherds' Holy-Day (June 19, 1620?; printed 1641)
 The Gypsies Metamorphosed (Aug 3 and 5, 1621; printed 1640)
 The Masque of Augurs (Jan. 6, 1622; printed 1622)
 Time Vindicated to Himself, and to his Honors (Jan. 19, 1623; printed 1623)
 Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion (Jan. 26, 1624; printed 1624)
 The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth (Aug. 19, 1624; printed 1641)
 The Fortunate Isles and their Union (Jan. 9, 1625; printed 1625)
 Love's Triumph Through Callipolis (Jan. 9, 1631; printed 1631)
 Chloridia: Rites to Chloris and Her Nymphs (Feb. 22, 1631; printed 1631)
 The King's Entertainment at Welbeck in Nottinghamshire (May 21, 1633; printed 1641)
 Love's Welcome at Balsover'' ( July 30, 1634; printed 1641)

Diğer
 Epigrams (1612)
 The Forest (1616)
 A Discourse of Love (1618)
 Barclay's Argenis, (1623)
 The Execration against Vulcan with Epigrams (1640)
 Horace's Art of Poetry(1640)
 Underwoods (1640)
 Timber or Discoveries

Kaynakça

1572 doğumlular
1637 yılında ölenler
İngiliz yazarlar
17. yüzyılda İngilizler

Ben Jonson


Peter Moore (1753–1828) was an English civil servant of the East India Company and politician.

Life
Born at Sedbergh, then in Yorkshire, on 12 February 1753, Peter Moore was the fifth son of Edward Moore, LL.B., vicar of Over, Cheshire, and Mary his wife. His father dying when he was quite young, he was educated by his eldest brother, Edward Moore, a barrister who had influence with Lord Holland and the Whig party. An appointment in the East India Company's service was found for him.

Moore returned to England a rich man, supplied material to Edmund Burke and Richard Brinsley Sheridan for their attack on Warren Hastings. He became a sort of whip for the radical section of the Whig party, while his manor-house at Hadley, Middlesex served as a rendezvous, with Sheridan a frequent visitor.

In 1796 Moore himself stood as parliamentary candidate for , with Sir Philip Francis, and they obtained a majority of the householders in their favour; but were unseated on the House of Commons resolving that the free men and freeholders alone had a right to vote. In 1802, with Wilberforce Bird, he contested  without success. One of the members, however, was unseated on petition, and Moore, after another contest, was returned on 30 March 1803. The initial cost of his seat was £25,000, but he was re-elected for Coventry in subsequent parliaments (29 October 1806, 11 May 1807, 5 October 1812, 25 June 1818, and 8 March 1820) at comparatively little expense.

Moore took a prominent part in the  election of 1804, as the proposer of Charles James Fox, and many scurrilities were levelled against him. In 1806, when Fox was trying to form a ministry, Moore was selected as second on the Indian council, and was proposing to return to India when the king dissolved parliament. He continued in opposition, and frequently spoke in the house, supported Samuel Romilly and other advanced Whigs, and in 1807 voted in a minority of ten against the Duke of Wellington's Irish Insurrection Bill.

Moore was a member of the Beefsteak Club, and maintained close relations with leading Whigs. He had the memorial tablet placed above Sheridan's grave. He was also noted as promoter of the rebuilding of Drury Lane Theatre, where he served for some time on the management committee, the Highgate tunnel, and the floating of the Imperial Gas Light Company. He became known as a successful manager of private members bills of his time, and after the loss of his seat for Coventry in 1824 continued to promote them.

Company promotion eventually proved Moore's downfall, and in 1825 he left for Dieppe to escape arrest. He gave up nearly all his property for the benefit of persons who had lost money in companies with which he was associated, and spent the remainder of his days in writing memoirs, which remained unpublished.

Moore died at Abbeville in France on 5 May 1828. He is said to have been the last wearer of a pigtail in London society.

Family
Moore married, in India, Sarah, one of the coheiresses of Colonel Richmond, alias Webb (the other became the wife of W. M. Thackeray, the grandfather of the novelist William Makepeace Thackeray). Their children included:

George Peter Moore (baptized 25 May 1778 at St. John's Church, Calcutta), who was returned for Queenborough in 1806, but vacated his seat at Fox's request, to make way for Romilly.
Macartney Moore (born 7 June 1788; died 15 June 1831, the only son to survive the father, shortly after returning from India), who left two sons, Captain Richard Moore, R.N., and the Rev. Peter Halhed Moore, vicar of Chadkirk, Cheshire, and a daughter, who married Captain Gorle.

The art collector Godfrey Windus was a great-nephew.

Notes

Attribution

1753 births
1828 deaths
British East India Company civil servants
Members of Parliament for Coventry
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1818–1820
UK MPs 1820–1826
Whig (British political party) MPs for English constituencies

Peter Moore (British politician)


Hurra, die Schule brennt! (German: "Hurrah, the School Is Burning!") is a 1969 German comedy film directed by Werner Jacobs and starring Peter Alexander, Heintje Simons and Theo Lingen. It is the fourth of a series of school comedy films under the collective title  ("The Brats from the Front Bench Row"), all of them starring Hansi Kraus and Theo Lingen.

Plot
Dr. Peter Bach (Peter Alexander), a young and excellent teacher, has been mistakenly diverted to the village of Tuttelbach, where he teaches at the local elementary school. When the head of the Education Ministry, von Schnorr, attempts to correct that mistake, he finds Dr. Bach unwilling to leave since he has come to enjoy the easy and picturesque village life. However, in the end Bach is left with no other choice when von Schnorr accidentally drops his burning cigar into the school room's waste basket, where it quickly starts a fire that burns the school to the ground.

Dr. Bach and his nephew Jan (Heintje Simons) move to Baden-Baden, where Bach is assigned to the notorious Class 12a of the Mommsen-Gymnasium. Pepe Nietnagel (Hansi Kraus) and his classmates initially meet their new teacher with little enthusiasm, but Bach's easy-going and frank personality soon gains their genuine sympathy and support. Oberstudiendirektor Dr. Taft (Theo Lingen), as the old-fashioned traditionalist he is, however, just as quickly disapproves of Bach's approach to the students, and together with the teaching staff's majority (not including young music teacher Julia Schumann, played by Gerlinde Locker) decide to get rid of him as quickly as possible. When Pepe and his friends learn about this, they begin to fight tooth and nail to keep Bach at their school, culminating in a school play in which Bach and the students present a very liberal re-interpretation of Schiller's William Tell. The film ends with Kurt Nietnagel, Pepe's father, asking Dr. Taft to attend the christening and maiden flight of a new glider at Nietnagel's glider club, which ends with Taft and Bach accidentally making the flight and a subsequent parachute dive to get back to Earth.

Cast
 Hansi Kraus as Pepe Nietnagel
 Peter Alexander as Dr. Peter Bach
 Heintje Simons as Jan
 Theo Lingen as Oberstudiendirektor Dr. Taft
 Gerlinde Locker as Julia Schumann
 Werner Finck as von Schnorr
 Rudolf Schündler as Studienrat Dr. Knörz
 Ruth Stephan as Studienrätin Dr. Pollhagen
 Alexander Golling as Blaumeier
 Hans Terofal as Pedell Bloch
 Harald Juhnke as Referent
 Wolfgang Gruner as Kurt Nietnagel
 Carola Höhn as Frau Nietnagel

Songs
 "" ("Hooray, the School Is Burning") ... Peter Alexander and children's choir
 "" ("The Two of Us Get Along Well") ... Peter Alexander and Heintje
 "" ("When Bohemia was still part of Austria") ... Peter Alexander
 "" ("Being Young is Nice") ... Heintje
 "Wilhelm Tell-Song" ... Peter Alexander and choir
 "" ("Again and Again") ... Peter Alexander and Heintje
 "" ("Love Dreams") ... Peter Alexander
 "Bonanza" ... Peter Alexander
 "" ("Follow Your Way") ... Heintje

Awards
1970: Goldene Leinwand

References

External links

1969 films
1969 musical comedy films
Films about educators
Films directed by Werner Jacobs
German musical comedy films
1960s German-language films
West German films
1960s German films

Hurra, die Schule brennt!


A hash table is a type of tool for storing information. In computer science, these tools for keeping track of information, or data, are called data structures.
A hash table is a data structure that uses a hash function to keep track of where data is put.
Each piece of information to be stored has a name, which is called a key. For example, a key might be a person's name. Each name is matched up to one piece of data called a value, like the person's telephone number.

The data is kept in another data structure called an array, which is like many boxes, or buckets, in a column to hold data. Each box has a number starting from 0 and counting up.

The idea behind a hash table is to figure out which box to put data by using only its name. This means, no matter how many boxes are filled up, you can always find information quickly if you have its name. The hash table uses a hash function to figure out which number to put data in from its name. The hash function reads a name and gives back a number.

A good Hash Table will always find information at the same speed, no matter how much data is put in. A lot of Hash Tables also let the user put key/value pairs (a name and its data) in and take them out at the same speed.

Because of this, Hash Tables can often find information faster than other tools, such as search trees or other table lookup structure. As a result, they are used in many kinds of computer software. They are used most for associative arrays, databases, caches, and sets.

References

Data structures

Hash table


Grama Kanya () is a 1936 Hindi melodrama film directed by Sarvottam Badami. The film produced by Sagar Movietone had cinematography by Faredoon Irani, story by Jayant Shyam and dialogue by Waqif. The music was composed by the renowned bhajan singer Shankarrao Khatu. The cast included Surendra, Sabita Devi, Yakub, Aruna, Kayam Ali, and Gulzar.

The story is about a young man, Kumar (Surendra), who loves a girl, Vilas (Aruna), but has to marry another Bansari (Sabita Devi), due to family obligations. The film follows the complications arising from the situation.

Plot
Kumar (Surendra ) comes to the city from his village to study in college. His father has been sanctioned a loan from the rich Dinanath (Kayam Ali) to enable Kumar to study. Dinanath gives the loan on the basis of Kumar marrying his daughter Bansari (Sabita Devi). Kumar is in love with another girl Vilas (Aruna), and wants to marry her. Parental obligations and duty make him forgo Vilas who is pregnant and marry Bansari. The story continues with the accidental killing of his father by Kumar, and Vilas' narrative from thereon.

Cast
 Sabita Devi as Bansari
 Surendra as Kumar
 Yakub as Vinod
 Aruna as Vilas
 Kayam Ali as Dinanath
 Gulzar
 Sankatha Prasad
 Baby Indira
 Pande
 Jamu Patel

Music
The music director was the renowned bhajan singer Shankarrao Khatu. According to Ranade, the songs from the film like "Tulsi Mata Pyari" and "Kanhaiya Bansiwale Re" became popular. There were nine songs in the film and the singers were Surendra, Rajkumari and Sabita Devi.

Soundtrack

References

External links

1936 films
1930s Hindi-language films
Indian drama films
1936 drama films
Indian black-and-white films
Melodrama films
Hindi-language drama films

Grama Kanya


The Communist Party of Pakistan () is a communist party in Pakistan.

The CPP was founded in Calcutta, Union of India on March 6, 1948. A decision was taken at the Second All India Conference of the Communist Party of India, which was held in Calcutta at that time, that a separate communist party ought to be created in the new State of Pakistan. It was thought that Pakistan, being a relatively small country (in comparison to India) and suffering from instability, was ripe for revolution. The delegates from Pakistan separated themselves and held a separate session were they constituted the CPP.

Political parties in Pakistan
Communist parties in Asia

Communist Party of Pakistan