The Vicksburg campaign was a series of maneuvers and battles in the Western Theater of the American Civil War directed against Vicksburg, Mississippi, a fortress city that dominated the last Confederate-controlled section of the Mississippi River. The Union Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the river by capturing this stronghold and defeating Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton's forces stationed there.

The campaign consisted of many important naval operations, troop maneuvers, failed initiatives, and eleven distinct battles from December 26, 1862, to July 4, 1863. Military historians divide the campaign into two formal phases: operations against Vicksburg (December 1862 – January 1863) and Grant's operations against Vicksburg (March – July 1863).

Grant initially planned a two-pronged approach in which half of his army, under Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman, would advance to the Yazoo River and attempt to reach Vicksburg from the northeast, while Grant took the remainder of the army down the Mississippi Central Railroad. Both of these initiatives failed. Grant conducted a number of "experiments" or expeditions—Grant's bayou operations—that attempted to enable waterborne access to the Mississippi south of Vicksburg's artillery batteries. All five of these initiatives failed as well. Finally, Union gunboats and troop transport boats ran the batteries at Vicksburg and met up with Grant's men who had marched overland in Louisiana. On April 29 and April 30, 1863, Grant's army crossed the Mississippi and landed at Bruinsburg, Mississippi. An elaborate series of demonstrations and diversions fooled the Confederates and the landings occurred without opposition. Over the next 17 days, Grant maneuvered his army inland and won five battles, captured the state capital of Jackson, Mississippi, and assaulted and laid siege to Vicksburg.

After Pemberton's army surrendered on July 4 (one day after the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg), and when Port Hudson surrendered to Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks on July 9, Texas and Arkansas were effectively cut off from the Confederacy, and the Mississippi River was once again open for northern commerce to reach the Gulf of Mexico, and as a supply line for the Union Army. Grant's Vicksburg campaign is studied as a masterpiece of military operations and a major turning point of the war.

Background

Military situation

Vicksburg was strategically vital to the Confederates. Jefferson Davis said, "Vicksburg is the nail head that holds the South's two halves together." While in their hands, it blocked Union navigation down the Mississippi; together with control of the mouth of the Red River and of Port Hudson to the south, it allowed communication with the states west of the river, upon which the Confederates depended extensively for horses, cattle and reinforcements. The natural defenses of the city were ideal, earning it the nickname "The Gibraltar of the Confederacy". It was located on a high bluff overlooking a horseshoe-shaped bend in the river, De Soto Peninsula, making it almost impossible to approach by ship. North and east of Vicksburg was the Mississippi Delta (sometimes known as the Yazoo Delta), an area 200 miles (320 km) north to south and up to 50 miles (80 km) across, which has been described by geographer Warren E. Grabau as an "astonishingly complex network of intersecting waterways", some of which were navigable by small steamboats. The regions between modern rivers and bayous formed closed basins called backswamps, of which Grabau judged, "Whether permanently flooded or not, the backswamps were, for all practical purposes, untamed wildernesses, utterly impassable by a man on horseback or by any form of wheeled vehicle, and very difficult even for a man on foot." About twelve miles (19 km) up the Yazoo River were Confederate batteries and entrenchments at Haynes Bluff. The Louisiana land west of Vicksburg was also difficult, with many streams and poor country roads, widespread winter flooding, and it was on the opposite side of the river from the fortress.

The city had been under Union naval attack before. Admiral David Farragut moved up the river after his capture of New Orleans and on May 18, 1862, demanded the surrender of Vicksburg. Farragut had insufficient troops to force the issue, and he moved back to New Orleans. He returned with a flotilla in June 1862, but their attempts (June 26–28) to bombard the fortress into surrender failed. They shelled Vicksburg throughout July and fought some minor battles with a few Confederate vessels in the area, but their forces were insufficient to attempt a landing, and they abandoned attempts to force the surrender of the city. Farragut investigated the possibility of bypassing the fortified cliffs by digging a canal across the neck of the river's bend, the De Soto Peninsula. On June 28, Brig. Gen. Thomas Williams, attached to Farragut's command, began digging work on the canal by employing local laborers and some soldiers. Many of the men fell victim to tropical diseases and heat exhaustion, and the work was abandoned by July 24. (Williams was killed two weeks later in the Battle of Baton Rouge).

In the fall of 1862, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck was promoted from command of the Western Theater to General-in-Chief of all Union armies. On November 23, he indicated to Grant his preference for a major move down the Mississippi to Vicksburg; in Halleck's style, he left considerable initiative to design a campaign, an opportunity that the pugnacious Grant seized. Halleck has received criticism for not moving promptly overland from Memphis, Tennessee, to seize Vicksburg during the summer when he was in command on the scene. He believed that the Navy could capture the fortress on its own, not knowing that the naval force was insufficiently manned with ground troops to finish the job. What might have achieved success in the summer of 1862 was no longer possible by November because the Confederates had amply reinforced the garrison by that time.  Also, reliable navigation on the river was seasonal, and the natural fall in the level of the river during the fall and winter months limited the utility of shipping, the usable draft of riverboats, and the quantity of men, supplies, and equipment, they could transport.

Grant's army marched south down the Mississippi Central Railroad, making a forward base at Holly Springs. He planned a two-pronged assault in the direction of Vicksburg. His principal subordinate, Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman, was to advance down the river with four divisions (about 32,000 men) and Grant would continue with the remaining forces (about 40,000) down the railroad line to Oxford, where he would wait for developments, hoping to lure the Confederate army out of the city to attack him in the vicinity of Grenada, Mississippi.

On the Confederate side, forces in Mississippi were under the command of Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton, an officer from Pennsylvania who chose to fight for the South. Pemberton had approximately 12,000 men in Vicksburg and Jackson, Mississippi, and Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn had approximately 24,000 at Grenada.

Meanwhile, political forces were at work. President Abraham Lincoln had long recognized the importance of Vicksburg; he wrote "Vicksburg is the key. ...The war can never be brought to a close until that key is in our pocket." Lincoln also envisioned a two-pronged offensive, but one up and down the river. Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand, a War Democrat politician, had convinced Lincoln that he could lead an army down the river and take Vicksburg. Lincoln approved his proposal and wanted Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks to advance up river from New Orleans at the same time. McClernand began organizing regiments, sending them to Memphis. Back in Washington, D.C., Halleck was nervous about McClernand and gave Grant control of all troops in his own department. McClernand's troops were split into two corps, one under McClernand, the other under Sherman. McClernand complained but to no avail. Grant appropriated his troops, one of several maneuvers in a private dispute within the Union Army between Grant and McClernand that continued throughout the campaign.

Battles in the operations against Vicksburg, December 1862 – January 1863

The "operations against Vicksburg" phase of the Vicksburg campaign comprises the following battles:

Chickasaw Bayou (December 26–29, 1862)

Sherman disembarked with three divisions at Johnson's Plantation on the Yazoo River to approach the Vicksburg defenses from the northeast. On December 27, the Federals pushed their lines forward through the swamps toward the Walnut Hills, which were strongly defended. On December 28, several futile attempts were made to get around these defenses. On December 29, Sherman ordered a frontal assault, which was repulsed with heavy casualties, and then withdrew.

During this period, the overland half of Grant's offensive was failing. His lines of communication were disrupted by raids by Van Dorn and Brig. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, who destroyed his large supply depot at Holly Springs. Unable to subsist his army without these supplies, Grant abandoned his overland advance.

In early January, McClernand arrived at Memphis with the corps he had recruited (the XIII Corps under Brig. Gen. George W. Morgan) and commenced his operation down the Mississippi. On January 4, he ordered Sherman to attach his XV Corps to the expedition, calling his combined 32,000-man force the Army of the Mississippi. This was a direct provocation against Grant, but Sherman acceded to the senior officer. Sherman suggested beginning with a combined land and naval movement against Fort Hindman, on the Arkansas River at Arkansas Post, 50 miles up the Arkansas from its confluence with the Mississippi, a base from which Confederate gunboats were attacking Union shipping on the river. The expedition started without notifying Grant.

Arkansas Post (January 9–11, 1863)

Union boats under Rear Adm. David Dixon Porter began landing troops near Arkansas Post in the evening of January 9. The troops started up river towards Fort Hindman. Sherman's corps overran Confederate trenches, and the defenders retreated to the protection of the fort and adjacent rifle-pits. Porter, on January 10, moved his fleet towards Fort Hindman and bombarded it, withdrawing at dusk. Union artillery fired on the fort from positions across the river on January 11, and the infantry moved into position for an attack. Union ironclads commenced shelling the fort and Porter's fleet passed it to cut off any retreat. As a result of this envelopment, and the attack by Morgan's troops, the Confederate command surrendered in the afternoon. Although Union losses were high and the victory did not contribute to the capture of Vicksburg, it did eliminate one more impediment to Union shipping on the Mississippi.

Grant was not happy to learn that McClernand had conducted the operation without his approval, considering it a distraction from his main objective of Vicksburg, but since it had been successful and his ally Sherman had suggested it, he took no punitive action. However, he ordered McClernand back to the Mississippi and assumed personal command of the campaign on January 13 at Milliken's Bend, 15 miles northwest of Vicksburg.

Grant's bayou operations, January–March 1863
That winter, Grant conducted a series of initiatives to approach and capture Vicksburg, termed "Grant's bayou operations". Their general theme was to use or construct alternative waterways so that troops could be positioned within striking distance of Vicksburg, without requiring a direct approach on the Mississippi under the Confederate guns.

Grant's Canal
The Williams Canal across De Soto Peninsula had been abandoned by Adm. Farragut and Brig. Gen. Williams in July 1862, but it had the potential to offer a route downriver that bypassed Vicksburg's guns. In late January 1863, Sherman's men, at the urging of Grant—who was advised by the navy that President Lincoln liked the idea—resumed digging. Sherman derisively called the work "Butler's Ditch" (since it was Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler who had sent Williams upriver to do the work), which was barely 6 feet wide by 6 feet deep. Grant, undoubtedly influenced by Lincoln's continual inquiries as to the status of the canal, ordered Sherman to expand the canal to 60 feet wide and 7 feet deep and the effort became known as Grant's Canal. It was not properly engineered based upon the hydrology of the Mississippi River, however, and a sudden rise in the river broke through the dam at the head of the canal and flooded the area. The canal began to fill up with back water and sediment. In a desperate effort to rescue the project, two huge steam-driven dipper dredges, Hercules and Sampson, attempted to clear the channel, but the dredges were exposed to Confederate artillery fire from the bluffs at Vicksburg and driven away. By late March, work on the canal was abandoned. (Remnants of about 200 yards of Grant's Canal are maintained by the Vicksburg National Military Park in Louisiana).

Lake Providence expedition
Grant ordered Brig. Gen. James B. McPherson to construct a canal of several hundred yards from the Mississippi to Lake Providence, northwest of the city. This would allow passage to the Red River, through Bayous Baxter and Macon, and the Tensas and Black Rivers. Reaching the Red River, Grant's force could join with Banks at Port Hudson. McPherson reported that the connection was navigable on March 18, but the few "ordinary Ohio River boats" that had been sent to Grant for navigation of the bayous could only transport 8,500 men. The boats through Lake Providence increased the Union soldiers to a force of 30,000 and provided the field commander the flexibility of a 4:1 advantage, potentially more than enough to ensure a successful siege of Port Hudson. Although this was the only one of the bayou expeditions to successfully bypass the Vicksburg defenses, historian Ed Bearss diminishes this exploit as the "Lake Providence Boondoggle".

Yazoo Pass expedition

The next attempt was to get to the high ground of the loess bluffs above Hayne's Bluff and below Yazoo City by blowing up the Mississippi River levee near Moon Lake, some 150 miles (240 km) above Vicksburg, near Helena, Arkansas, and following the Yazoo Pass (an old route from Yazoo City to Memphis, which was curtailed by the 1856 levee construction that sealed off the Pass from the Mississippi River to Moon Lake) into the Coldwater River, then to the Tallahatchie River, and finally into the Yazoo River at Greenwood, Mississippi. The dikes were blown up on February 3, beginning what was called the Yazoo Pass Expedition. Ten Union boats, under the command of Lt. Cmdr. Watson Smith, with army troops under the command of Brig. Gen. Benjamin Prentiss, began moving through the pass on February 7. But low-hanging trees destroyed anything on the gunboats above deck and Confederates felled more trees to block the way. These delays allowed the Confederates time to quickly construct a "Fort Pemberton" near the confluence of the Tallahatchie and Yalobusha Rivers near Greenwood, Mississippi, which repulsed the naval force on March 11, March 14, and March 16. The Union effort collapsed in early April.

Steele's Bayou expedition

Admiral Porter started an effort on March 14 to go up the Yazoo Delta via Steele's Bayou, just north of Vicksburg, to Deer Creek. This would outflank Fort Pemberton and allow landing troops between Vicksburg and Yazoo City. Confederates once again felled trees in their path, and willow reeds fouled the boats' paddlewheels. This time the Union boats became immobilized, and Confederate cavalry and infantry threatened to capture them. Sherman sent infantry assistance to repel the Confederates bedeviling Porter, but Porter's approach was abandoned as too difficult.

Duckport Canal

Grant's final attempt was to dig another canal from Duckport Landing to Walnut Bayou, aimed at getting lighter boats past Vicksburg. By the time the canal was almost finished, on April 6, water levels were declining, and none but the lightest of flatboats could get through. Grant abandoned this canal and started planning anew.

From December through March, including Chickasaw Bayou and the Mississippi Central advance, seven initiatives, or "experiments", by Grant had failed. Grant claimed in his memoirs that he had undertaken these experiments primarily to keep his troops busy during the flooded and disease-laden winter months and that he had had no expectation of success. This claim is contradicted by correspondence from Grant at the time.

Plan for the 1863 campaign and initial movements

All of the bayou operations were failures, but Grant was well known for his stubborn determination and would not quit. His final option was bold but risky: March the Union army down the west side of the Mississippi, cross the river south of Vicksburg, and either attack Vicksburg from the south and the east or join forces with Banks, capture Port Hudson, and then together reduce Vicksburg. Porter would have to sneak past the guns to get sufficient gunboats and transport ships south of the city. Once they had completed the downstream passage, they would not be able to return past Vicksburg's guns because the river current would slow them too much.

On March 29, McClernand set his troops to work building bridges and corduroy roads. They filled in the swamps in their way as well, and by April 17 they had a rough, tortuous 70-mile (110 km) road from Milliken's Bend to the proposed river crossing at Hard Times, Louisiana, below Vicksburg.

On April 16, a clear night with no moon, Porter sent seven gunboats and three empty troop transports loaded with stores to run the bluff, taking care to minimize noise and lights. But the preparations were ineffective. Confederate sentries sighted the boats, and the bluff exploded with massive artillery fire. Fires were set along the banks to improve visibility. The Union gunboats answered back. Porter observed that the Confederates mainly hit the high parts of his boats, reasoned that they could not depress their guns, and had them hug the east shore, right under Confederate cannon, so close he could hear their commanders giving orders, shells flying overhead. The fleet survived with little damage; thirteen men were wounded and none killed. The Henry Clay was disabled and burned at the water's edge. On April 22, six more boats loaded with supplies made the run; one boat did not make it, though no one was killed.  The crew floated downstream on the boat's remnants.

The final piece of Grant's strategy was to divert Pemberton's attention from the river crossing site that the Union troops would use. Grant chose two operations: a feint by Sherman against Snyder's Bluff, Mississippi, north of Vicksburg (see the Battle of Snyder's Bluff below), and a daring cavalry raid through central Mississippi by Col. Benjamin Grierson, known as Grierson's Raid. Both were eminently successful. Of Sherman's feint, Grant writes:"My object was to compel Pemberton to keep as much force about Vicksburg as I could, until I could secure a good footing on high land east of the river. The move was eminently successful and, as we afterwards learned, created great confusion about Vicksburg and doubts about our real design."Grierson was able to draw out significant Confederate forces to chase him, and Pemberton's defenses were dispersed too far around the state. (Pemberton was also wary of Nathaniel Banks's impending advance up the river from Baton Rouge to threaten Port Hudson.). Of Grierson's raid, Grant writes:"It was at Port Gibson I first heard through a Southern paper of the complete success of Colonel Grierson, who was making a raid through central Mississippi...This raid was of great importance, for Grierson had attracted the attention of the enemy from the main movement against Vicksburg."

Opposing forces

Union

Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army of the Tennessee started the campaign with about 44,500 men, which grew by July to 75,000. The army was composed of five corps: the XIII Corps, under Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand; the XV Corps, under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman; the XVII Corps, under Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson; a three-division detachment of the XVI Corps, under Maj. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn; and a detachment from the District of Northeast Louisiana, under Brig. Gen. Elias S. Dennis. The IX Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, joined the army in mid-June.

Confederate

Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton's Confederate Army of Mississippi, approximately 30,000 men, consisted of five divisions, under Maj. Gens. William W. Loring, Carter L. Stevenson, John H. Forney, Martin L. Smith, and John S. Bowen.

General Joseph E. Johnston's forces in Raymond and Jackson, Mississippi, about 6,000 men, were elements of his Department of the West, including the brigades of Brig. Gen. John Gregg, and Col. Peyton H. Colquitt. Loring's division had joined Johnston on May 17 after the retreat from Champion Hill and Johnston was further reinforced by Brig. Gen. William H.T. Walker's division, and the cavalry division of Brig. Gen. William Hicks Jackson in late May, followed by the divisions of Maj. Gens. John C. Breckinridge and Samuel G. French in June, bringing his total strength to about 36,000 when Vicksburg surrendered.

Battles in Grant's operations against Vicksburg, April – July 1863

The "Grant's operations against Vicksburg" phase of the Vicksburg campaign comprises the following battles:

Grand Gulf (April 29, 1863)

Admiral Porter led seven ironclads in an attack on the fortifications and batteries at Grand Gulf, Mississippi, with the intention of silencing the Confederate guns and then securing the area with troops of McClernand's XIII Corps who were on the accompanying transports and barges. The attack by the seven ironclads began at 8 a.m. and continued until about 1:30 p.m. During the fight, the ironclads moved within 100 yards of the Confederate guns and silenced the lower batteries of Fort Wade. The Confederate upper batteries at Fort Cobun remained out of reach and continued to fire. Due to the strong Confederate resistance, Grant and Porter decided it was not feasible to make an amphibious landing at Grand Gulf, but later landed at Bruinsburg, Mississippi, instead. The Union ironclads (one of which, the Tuscumbia, had been put out of action) and the transports temporarily drew off, but later that afternoon, while the angle of the sun interfered with Confederate aiming, Porter again sent his ships to Grand Gulf. While the ironclads screened them, the steamboats and barges ran the gauntlet. Meanwhile, Grant marched his men overland across Coffee Point to below the Gulf. After the transports had passed Grand Gulf, they embarked the troops at Disharoon's plantation and disembarked them on the Mississippi shore at Bruinsburg, below Grand Gulf. Grant landed 17,000 soldiers there, the largest amphibious operation in American military history until the Invasion of Normandy. The men immediately began marching overland towards Port Gibson, Mississippi, where, on May 1, they fought the Battle of Port Gibson with Bowen's Confederates.  Bowen's right flank was driven in, and Bowen's men conducted a fighting withdrawal from the field.  On May 3, the Confederates abandoned the fortifications at Grand Gulf. The Confederates had won a hollow victory, since the loss at Grand Gulf caused just a slight change in Grant's offensive.

Snyder's Bluff (April 29 – May 1)

To ensure that troops would not be withdrawn to Grand Gulf to assist Confederates there, a combined Union army-navy force feigned an attack on Snyder's Bluff. After noon on April 29, Lt. Cdr. K. Randolph Breese, with his eight gunboats and ten transports carrying Maj. Gen. Francis P. Blair's division, inched up the Yazoo River to the mouth of Chickasaw Bayou where they spent the night. At 9 a.m., the next morning, the force, minus one gunboat, continued upriver to Drumgould's Bluff and engaged the enemy batteries. During the fighting, Choctaw suffered more than fifty hits, but no casualties occurred. Around 6 p.m., the troops disembarked and marched along Blake's Levee toward the guns. As they neared Drumgould's Bluff, a battery opened on them, creating havoc and casualties. The Union advance halted and, after dark, the men reembarked on the transports. The next morning, transports disembarked other troops. The swampy terrain and enemy heavy artillery fire forced them to retire. The gunboats opened fire again, about 3 p.m. on May 1, causing some damage. Later, the boats' fire slackened and stopped altogether after dark. Sherman had received orders to land his troops at Milliken's Bend, so the gunboats returned to their anchorages at the mouth of the Yazoo.

Port Gibson (May 1)

Grant's army began marching inland from Bruinsburg. Advancing on the Rodney Road towards Port Gibson, they ran into Confederate outposts after midnight and skirmished with them for around three hours. After 3 a.m., the fighting stopped. Union forces advanced on the Rodney Road and a plantation road at dawn. At 5:30 a.m., the Confederates engaged the Union advance and the battle ensued. Federals forced the Confederates to fall back. The Confederates established new defensive positions at different times during the day but they could not stop the Union onslaught and left the field in the early evening. This defeat demonstrated that the Confederates were unable to defend the Mississippi River line, and the Federals had secured their beachhead.

At this point, Grant faced a decision. His original orders were to capture Grand Gulf and then proceed south to link up with Banks and reduce Port Hudson, after which their combined armies would return and capture Vicksburg. Unfortunately for Grant, such a course would put him under the command of the more senior major general and the credit for any success in the theater would go to Banks. Since Banks was occupied with operations on the Red River and had informed Grant that he was not ready to begin operations against Port Hudson within the next few days, Grant decided to move on his own against Vicksburg. He sent a message to Halleck about his intentions, knowing that it would take as many as eight days for Washington to receive the message and respond.

After the Union army seized the crossing at Grindstone Ford, any Confederate forces between the Big Bayou Pierre and the Big Black River were compromised. Realizing this, Bowen evacuated Grand Gulf and proceeded with all speed to Hankinson's Ford across the Big Black, barely escaping the Union trap. Grant's intention at this time was to move north over this same route and advance directly on Vicksburg. However, scouting parties that he sent out found that Pemberton had good defensive positions to the south of the city. Instead, he decided to break the city's supply line by seizing the railroad from Jackson to Vicksburg. He gave orders for his three corps (Sherman having arrived across the river) to advance over three separate routes to attack the railroad at Edwards Station (the westernmost objective, with McClernand's corps), Clinton (easternmost, with McPherson's) and Midway Station (center, with Sherman's).

Raymond (May 12)

On May 10, Pemberton ordered all reinforcements arriving at Jackson to march to Raymond, 20 miles (32 km) to the southwest. Brig. Gen. John Gregg's overstrength brigade, having endured a grueling march from Port Hudson, Louisiana, began marching to Raymond the next morning, arriving late in the afternoon of May 11. On May 12, Gregg's brigade moved to ambush a Union raiding party at Fourteen Mile Creek. The raiding party turned out to be Maj. Gen. John A. Logan's Division of the XVII Corps. Gregg decided to dispute the crossing of Fourteen Mile Creek and arrayed his men and artillery accordingly. As Logan's men approached, the Confederates opened fire, initially causing heavy casualties. Some Union troops broke, but Logan rallied a force to hold the line. Confederate troops attacked the line but were forced to retire. Additional Union troops arrived and counterattacked. Heavy fighting ensued that continued for six hours, but the overwhelming Union force prevailed. Gregg's men left the field. Although they lost the battle, they had held up a much superior Union force for a day. General Gregg, under orders to withdraw to Jackson in the face of a superior force, withdrew five miles (8 km) in the direction of Jackson to Mississippi Springs, Mississippi. This retrograde movement exposed the Southern Railroad of Mississippi to Union forces, thus severing the lifeline of Vicksburg.

Despite McPherson's victory, the presence of Confederate forces attacking Grant's right flank caused him to reconsider his plan. He learned that Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was due in Jackson with reinforcements within the next couple of days, and there was a rumor that Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard would also arrive on the scene. In this situation, the Union army would be between enemy forces on each flank. Therefore, he chose to deal with the threat from the east first and ordered Sherman and McPherson to seize Jackson.

Jackson (May 14)

On May 9, Gen. Johnston received a dispatch from the Confederate Secretary of War directing him to "proceed at once to Mississippi and take chief command of the forces in the field". When he arrived in Jackson on May 13 from Middle Tennessee, he learned that two army corps—Sherman's and McPherson's—were advancing on Jackson and that Gregg had only about 6,000 troops available to defend the city. Johnston ordered the evacuation of Jackson, but Gregg was to defend Jackson until the evacuation was completed. By 10 a.m., both Union army corps were near Jackson and had engaged the enemy. Rain, Confederate resistance, and poor defenses prevented heavy fighting until around 11 a.m., when Union forces attacked in numbers and slowly but surely pushed the enemy back. In mid-afternoon, Johnston informed Gregg that the evacuation was complete and that he should disengage and follow. Soon after, the Union troops entered Jackson and had a celebration hosted by Grant, who had been traveling with Sherman's corps, in the Bowman House. They then burned part of the town, destroyed numerous factories, and cut the railroad connections with Vicksburg. Johnston's evacuation is seen as a mistake because he could, by late on May 14, have had 11,000 troops at his disposal and by the morning of May 15, another 4,000. The fall of the Mississippi state capital was a blow to Confederate morale.  Having broken the rail links, Grant temporarily abandoned the city to allow his troops to concentrate on Vicksburg.

Johnston retreated with most of his army up the Canton Road, but he ordered Pemberton to leave Edwards Station and attack the Federals at Clinton. Pemberton and his generals felt that Johnston's plan was dangerous and decided instead to attack the Union supply trains moving from Grand Gulf to Raymond. On May 16, however, Pemberton received another order from Johnston repeating his former directions. Pemberton had already started after the supply trains and was on the Raymond-Edwards Road with his rear at the crossroads one-third mile south of the crest of Champion Hill. Thus, when he ordered a countermarch, his rear, including his many supply wagons, became the vanguard of his force.

Champion Hill (May 16)

On May 16, about 7 a.m., the Union forces engaged the Confederates and the Battle of Champion Hill began. Pemberton's force drew up into a defensive line along a crest of a ridge overlooking Jackson Creek. Pemberton was unaware that one Union column was moving along the Jackson Road against his unprotected left flank. For protection, Pemberton posted Brig. Gen. Stephen D. Lee's men atop Champion Hill where they could watch for the reported Union column moving to the crossroads. Lee spotted the Union troops and they soon saw him. If this force was not stopped, it would cut the Confederates off from their Vicksburg base. Pemberton received warning of the Union movement and sent troops to his left flank. Union forces at the Champion House moved into action and emplaced artillery to begin firing. When Grant arrived at Champion Hill, around 10 a.m., he ordered the attack to begin. By 11:30 a.m., Union forces had reached the Confederate main line and about 1 p.m., they took the crest while the Confederates retreated in disorder. The Federals swept forward, capturing the crossroads and closing the Jackson Road escape route. One of Pemberton's divisions (Bowen's) then counterattacked, pushing the Federals back beyond the Champion Hill crest before their surge came to a halt. Grant then counterattacked, committing forces that had just arrived from Clinton by way of Bolton. Pemberton's men could not stand up to this assault, so he ordered his men from the field to the one escape route still open: the Raymond Road crossing of Bakers Creek. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman's brigade formed the rearguard, and they held at all costs, including the loss of Tilghman. In the late afternoon, Union troops seized the Bakers Creek Bridge, and by midnight, they occupied Edwards. The Confederates were in full retreat towards Vicksburg.

Big Black River Bridge (May 17)

The Confederate retreat reached Big Black River Bridge the night of May 16–17. Pemberton ordered Brig. Gen. Bowen, with three brigades, to man the fortifications on the east bank of the river and impede any Union pursuit. Three divisions of McClernand's corps moved out from Edwards Station on the morning of May 17. The corps encountered the Confederates behind breastworks and took cover as enemy artillery began firing. Union Brig. Gen. Michael K. Lawler formed his 2nd Brigade, Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Carr's Division, which surged out of a river meander scar, across the front of the Confederate forces, and into the enemy's breastworks, held by Brig. Gen. John C. Vaughn's inexperienced East Tennessee Brigade. Confused and panicked, the Confederates began to withdraw across the Big Black on two bridges: the railroad bridge and the steamboat dock moored athwart the river. As soon as they had crossed, the Confederates set fire to the bridges, preventing close Union pursuit. The fleeing Confederates who arrived in Vicksburg later that day were disorganized. The Union forces captured approximately 1,800 troops at Big Black, a loss that the Confederates could ill afford.

Siege of Vicksburg (May 18 – July 4)

The Union army converged on Vicksburg, trapping Pemberton's force. Grant attempted two assaults to break through the strong Confederate fieldworks: May 19 and May 22. The latter assault initially achieved some success in McClernand's sector, but it was repulsed with 3,200 casualties. Johnston ordered Pemberton to evacuate the city and save his army, but Pemberton thought it impossible to withdraw safely. Johnston planned to attack Grant and relieve Pemberton but was unable to arrange it in time. Grant besieged the Confederate army. On July 4, after six weeks in which the soldiers and civilians of Vicksburg had no food supplies and were bombarded constantly, Pemberton surrendered the city and his army.

In addition to Pemberton at his front, Grant had to be concerned with Confederate forces in his rear. He stationed one division in the vicinity of the Big Black River bridge and another reconnoitered as far north as Mechanicsburg, both to act as a covering force. By June 10, the IX Corps, under Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, was transferred to Grant's command. This corps became the nucleus of a special task force whose mission was to prevent Johnston, gathering his forces at Canton, from interfering with the siege. Sherman was given command of this task force and Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele replaced him at the XV Corps on June 22. Johnston eventually began moving to relieve Pemberton and reached the Big Black River on July 1, but he delayed a potentially difficult encounter with Sherman until it was too late for the Vicksburg garrison, and then fell back to Jackson.

Louisiana operations
During the siege of Vicksburg, three other battles took place in the vicinity:

Milliken's Bend (June 7)

In an effort to cut Grant's supply line during the siege, the Confederates attacked the Milliken's Bend supply area up the Mississippi. This was mainly defended by untrained black troops, who fought with inferior weaponry and finally repelled the Confederates with help from gunboats, although at significant cost; the defenders lost 652 to the Confederate 185.

Goodrich's Landing (June 29–30)

After Union forces began occupying the Louisiana river parishes, thousands of escaped slaves flocked to them. The Federals, therefore, leased some plantations and put the freedmen to work growing cotton or other crops; the proceeds from the sale of the crops helped defray expenses for food, clothing, etc. African-American troops were assigned to protect these plantations, releasing other troops to fight. Confederates, determined to recapture some of these freedmen and destroy the crops, undertook an expedition from Gaines's Landing, Arkansas, to Lake Providence. Although the Confederates disrupted these operations, destroyed much property, and captured many supplies and weapons, the raid was only a minor setback for the Union. The Confederates could cause momentary disturbances, but they were unable to effect any lasting changes.

Helena (July 4)

Confederate Lt. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes's troops attacked Helena, Arkansas, in an attempt to relieve pressure on Vicksburg. Although the Confederates had more troops and did initially capture some of the fortifications, the Union forces repelled them.

Aftermath

Although the Confederate killed and wounded in the battle and siege of Vicksburg were a relatively small 2,872, and Union 4,910, Grant captured his second Confederate army in its entirety (the first being at Fort Donelson): 29,495 surrendered. Most of the Confederates were paroled. The Union also captured significant quantities of artillery, small arms, and ammunition. The full campaign, since March 29, claimed 10,142 Union and 9,091 Confederate killed and wounded.

This was the second major blow to the Confederacy in the summer of 1863. On July 3, Gen. Robert E. Lee's invasion of the North collapsed at Gettysburg. On July 4, the Stars and Stripes rose over Vicksburg. To the Confederates, surrendering on Independence Day was a bitter defeat. Union troops behaved well, mixing with Confederates and giving rations to starving soldiers. Speculators who had been hoarding food for higher prices saw their stores broken open and the contents thrown on the streets for the starving rebels. In his Personal Memoirs, Grant observed, "The men of the two armies fraternized as if they had been fighting for the same cause." But resentments lingered: allegedly tradition holds that the Fourth of July holiday was not celebrated by Vicksburg until World War II. This claim has been challenged because large Fourth of July celebrations were being held by 1907.
The most significant result of the campaign was control of the Mississippi River, which the Union obtained completely after Port Hudson, which had been besieged by Banks since May 27, heard news of Vicksburg's fall and surrendered on July 9. The Confederacy was now cut in two; one week later, an unarmed ship arrived in Union-held New Orleans from St. Louis after an uneventful trip down the river. President Lincoln announced, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea."

Grant deployed Sherman and 50,000 troops against Johnston's 31,000 in Jackson. Johnston tried to lure Sherman into a frontal assault, but Sherman had seen the results of such at Vicksburg. He demurred and began surrounding the city. Johnston escaped with his army, which was more than Pemberton had achieved, but all of central Mississippi was now under Sherman's control. He used a subsequent operation against Meridian, Mississippi, as a harbinger of the scorched earth tactics he later employed in his March to the Sea through Georgia, and then South Carolina.

One of Grant's actions during the siege was to settle a lingering rivalry. On May 30, General McClernand wrote a self-adulatory note to his troops, claiming much of the credit for the soon-to-be victory. Grant had been waiting six months for him to slip, ever since they clashed early in the campaign, around the Battle of Arkansas Post. Grant finally relieved McClernand on June 18. McClernand's XIII Corps was turned over to Maj. Gen. Edward Ord. In May 1864, McClernand was restored to a command in remote Texas.

Grant was the undisputed victor of the Vicksburg campaign. He was rewarded for his victory with a promotion to major general in the regular army, effective on July 4, 1863. He also received an unusual letter:

Grant went on to rescue Union forces besieged at Chattanooga and then replaced Halleck as general in chief of all Union armies, with the recently re-activated rank of lieutenant general. Despite his ultimate success in winning the war, historians have often considered Vicksburg his finest campaign—imaginative, audacious, relentless, and a masterpiece of maneuver warfare. James M. McPherson called Vicksburg "the most brilliant and innovative campaign of the Civil War"; T. Harry Williams described it as "one of the classic campaigns of the Civil War and, indeed, of military history"; and the U.S. Army Field Manual 100–5 (May 1986) called it "the most brilliant campaign ever fought on American soil".

Historian Steven E. Woodworth wrote that Pemberton "had a strong claim to the title of the most hated man in the South, certainly the most hated to wear a Confederate uniform". There were accusations that adequate supplies had been on hand and that it was only his treachery that caused the surrender. Even his friend, Confederate general Richard Taylor, wrote after the war that a large part of the population believed "He had joined the South for the express purpose of betraying it, and this was clearly proven by the fact that he surrendered on the 4th of July, a day sacred to the Yankees."  Davis maintained full confidence in Pemberton, pointing out that he would have been severely criticized and denounced if he had not attempted to defend Vicksburg, but had wound up with the same result by trying to do so.  Still, Pemberton's unpopularity made it impossible for Davis to assign him another command after he returned to the Confederate army once he was exchanged.  Eventually he resigned his rank of Lt. General to receive a commission as lieutenant colonel in command of the artillery defenses of Richmond.

The blame for losing Vicksburg fell not only on John Pemberton, but on the overcautious Joseph E. Johnston. Jefferson Davis said of the defeat, "Yes, from a want of provisions inside and a General outside who wouldn't fight." Anguished soldiers and civilians starving in the siege held hopes that he would come to their aid, but he never did. Accusations of cowardice that had dogged him since the 1862 Peninsula Campaign continued to follow him in the 1864 Atlanta Campaign against Sherman. However, Johnston was far outnumbered. While he was one of few Confederate generals whom Grant respected, he was outgeneraled.

See also

 Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863
 List of costliest American Civil War land battles
 Armies in the American Civil War
 Commemoration of the American Civil War
 Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps
 Vicksburg National Military Park

References
Notes

Bibliography
 Ballard, Michael B. Vicksburg, The Campaign that Opened the Mississippi. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. .
 Bearss, Edwin C. The Campaign for Vicksburg. Vol. 1, Vicksburg is the Key. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1985. .
 Bearss, Edwin C. The Campaign for Vicksburg. Vol. 2, Grant Strikes a Fatal Blow. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1986. .
 Bearss, Edwin C. The Campaign for Vicksburg. Vol. 3, Unvexed to the Sea. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1986. .
 Bonekemper, Edward H. A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 2004. .
 Catton, Bruce. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 3, Never Call Retreat. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965. .
 Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
 Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.
 Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. .
 Gabel, Christopher R., Staff ride handbook for the Vicksburg Campaign, December 1862 – July 1863.  Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2001. .
 Grabau, Warren E. Ninety-Eighty Days: A Geographer's View of the Vicksburg Campaign. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000. .
 Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. .
 Korn, Jerry, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. War on the Mississippi: Grant's Vicksburg Campaign. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. .
 McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
 Smith, Jean Edward. Grant. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .

 Winschel, Terrence J. Vicksburg: Fall of the Confederate Gibraltar. Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 1999. .
 Woodworth, Steven E. Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. .
 National Park Service battle descriptions

Memoirs and primary sources
 Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. .
 U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Organization of the Department of the Tennessee, Major General Ulysses S. Grant, U. S. Army, commanding, April 30, 1863: Official Records, Series I, Volume XXIV, Part 3, pages 250–259.

Further reading
 Bearss, Edwin C. Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2010. .
 Groom, Winston. Vicksburg, 1863. New York: Knopf, 2009. .
 Huffstodt, James. Hard Dying Men: The Story of General W. H. L. Wallace, General Thomas E. G. Ransom, and the "Old Eleventh" Illinois Infantry in the American Civil War (1861–1865). Bowie, MD: Heritage Press. .
 Smith, Timothy B. Champion Hill: Decisive Battle for Vicksburg. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2004. .
 Winschel, Terrence J. Triumph & Defeat: The Vicksburg Campaign. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing Company, 1999. .
Woodworth, Steven E., ed. Grant's Lieutenants: From Cairo to Vicksburg. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001. .
Woodworth, Steven E. Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. .

External links

 National Park Service, Vicksburg
Vicksburg Battlefield: Battle maps, photos, history articles, and battlefield news (Civil War Trust)
Animated map of the Vicksburg Campaign (Civil War Trust)
 First Vicksburg Campaign
 Animated history of the Siege of Vicksburg
 Confederate Command Failure at Vicksburg

Military operations of the American Civil War in Mississippi
Campaigns of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Battles commanded by Ulysses S. Grant

Vicksburg campaign


Federico Del Cupolo (Naples, 1884-Milan, 1974) was an Italian orchestra conductor whose activity mainly focussed on Italian opera. His career developed in Italy and abroad spanning 60 years and including some recordings from the early 1950s which have been recently resumed for their historical and artistic significance.

Discography

In 1929 in Philadelphia he recorded the ouverture of La gazza ladra by Rossini; in 1951 he recorded with the Orchestra of La Scala the operas L'arlesiana and Adriana Lecouvreur by Francesco Cilea, the latter interpreted by Mafalda Favero, Elena Nicolai and Nicola Filacuridi.

In 1953, he recorded two operas by Puccini: La rondine with the Antonio Guarnieri Orchestra and Chorus of Milan, and Manon Lescaut, with the Turin RAI Orchestra.

Notes

Italian male conductors (music)
1884 births
1974 deaths
20th-century Italian conductors (music)
20th-century Italian male musicians

Federico Del Cupolo


Lechaeum or Lechaion (), also called Lecheae and Lecheum, was the port in ancient Corinthia on the Corinthian Gulf connected with the city of Corinth by means of the Long Walls, 12 stadia in length. The Long Walls ran nearly due north, so that the wall on the right hand was called the eastern, and the one on the left hand the western or Sicyonian. The space between them must have been considerable; since there was sufficient space for an army to be drawn up for battle. Indeed, the area was the scene of battles between Sparta and Athens in 391 BCE, leaving Spartans in command of Lechaeum, which they garrisoned with their troops (see Battle of Lechaeum).

The flat country between Corinth and Lechaeum is composed only of the sand washed up by the sea; and the port must have been originally artificial, though it was no doubt rendered both spacious and convenient by the wealthy Corinthians. Lechaeum was the chief station of the Corinthian ships of war; and during the occupation of Corinth by the Macedonians, it was one of the stations of the royal fleet. It was also the emporium of the traffic with the western parts of Greece, and with Italy and Sicily. The proximity of Lechaeum to Corinth prevented it from becoming an important town like Piraeus. The only public buildings in the place mentioned by Pausanias, who visited in the 2nd century, was a temple of Poseidon, who is hence called Lechaeus by Callimachus. The temple of the Olympian Zeus was probably situated upon the low ground between Corinth and the shore of Lechaeum.

Its site is located near the modern village of Lechaio.

References

Populated places in ancient Corinthia
Former populated places in Greece
Gulf of Corinth

Lechaeum


Reiden Patera is a volcanic feature on Jupiter's moon Io. It was first detected by the Galileo SSI Team during the spacecraft Galileo's first orbit around Jupiter, initially detected as a hotspot. It was once thought that the activity there had stopped or waned below the limits of the spacecraft's Solid State Imager or Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer. However, it was noticed in 2002 that Reiden Patera has darkened considerably since the 24th orbit of Galileo. It has been spouting bright red pyroclastic deposits of its own. It is located at  and is 70 kilometers in diameter. It is named after a Japanese thunder god ("Raijin" in current English nomenclature). Asha Patera can be found to the east, and Kami-Nari Patera can be found to the north.

References

Volcanoes of Io (moon)
Active volcanoes

Reiden Patera


Julia is a 1977 American WWII drama film directed by Fred Zinnemann, from a screenplay by Alvin Sargent. It is based on a chapter from Lillian Hellman's 1973 book Pentimento about the author's relationship with a lifelong friend, Julia, who fought against the Nazis in the years prior to World War II. The film stars Jane Fonda, Vanessa Redgrave, Jason Robards, Hal Holbrook, Rosemary Murphy, Maximilian Schell, and Meryl Streep in her film debut.

Julia was released theatrically on October 2, 1977 by 20th Century Fox. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed $20.7 million against its $7 million budget. It received a leading 11 nominations at the 50th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and won three awards: Best Supporting Actor (for Robards), Best Supporting Actress (for Redgrave) and Best Adapted Screenplay.
At the 35th Golden Globe Awards it received a leading seven nominations, including for the Best Motion Picture – Drama, with Fonda and Redgrave winning for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, respectively. The film also received a leading ten nominations at the 32nd British Academy Film Awards and won four: Best Film, Best Actress (for Fonda), Best Screenplay, and Best Cinematography.

Plot
The young Lillian Hellman and her friend Julia, daughter of a wealthy family being brought up by her grandparents in the United States, enjoy a childhood together and a very close friendship in late adolescence. Later, while medical student Julia attends the University of Oxford and the University of Vienna and studies with such luminaries as Sigmund Freud,  Lillian, a struggling writer, suffers through revisions of her play with her mentor and lover, famed author Dashiell Hammett, at a beach house.

Julia's university in Vienna is overrun by Nazi thugs, and she is severely injured trying to protect others.  Lillian receives word of Julia's condition and rushes to Vienna to be with her.  Julia is taken away for "treatment", and Lillian is unable to find her again since the hospital denies any knowledge of her being treated there.  She remains in Europe to try to find Julia, but is unsuccessful.

Later, during the Nazi era, Lillian has become a celebrated playwright and is invited to a writers' conference in the USSR. Julia, having taken on the battle against Nazism, enlists Lillian en route to smuggle money into Germany to assist the anti-Nazi cause. It is a dangerous mission, especially for a Jewish intellectual on her way to Russia.

Lillian departs for the USSR via Berlin, and the movements of her person, and the placement of her possessions (a hat and a box of candy), are carefully guided by colleagues of Julia through border crossings and inspections. In Berlin, Lillian is told to go to a cafe, where she finds Julia. They are able to speak only briefly. Julia divulges that the "treatment" she received in the hospital in Vienna was the amputation of her leg.  Julia tells her that the money she has brought will save 500 to 1,000 people, many of them Jews. Lillian also learns that Julia has a daughter, Lily, who is living with a baker in Alsace. After Lilian leaves Julia in the cafe and boards the train to Moscow, a man tells her to avoid passing through Germany again after she leaves the USSR.

When Lillian reaches Moscow, the atmosphere is gloomy and oppressive. She receives word that Julia is dead. Returning to London, she is told that Julia has been killed in the Frankfurt apartment of a friend by Nazi agents, although the details of her death are shrouded in secrecy. Lillian unsuccessfully looks for Julia's daughter in Alsace. She returns to the United States and is reunited with Dashiell Hammett.  She is haunted by memories of Julia and is distraught at not finding Julia's baby. She is shocked that Julia's family pretends not to remember Lillian as Julia's friend, clearly wanting to excise from their memory a granddaughter who refused to conform.

The film ends with an image of Lillian Hellman many years later seated in a boat alone, fishing.  She reveals in voiceover that she continued to live with Hammett for another thirty years and outlived him.

Cast

The film marked the film debut of Meryl Streep and Lisa Pelikan.

Production
The film was shot on location in England and France. Although Lillian Hellman claimed the story was based on true events that occurred early in her life, the filmmakers later came to believe that most of it was fictionalized. Director Fred Zinnemann would later comment, "Lillian Hellman in her own mind owned half the Spanish Civil War, while Hemingway owned the other half. She would portray herself in situations that were not true. An extremely talented, brilliant writer, but she was a phony character, I'm sorry to say. My relations with her were very guarded and ended in pure hatred."

The 1977 film Julia was based on the "Julia" chapter of Hellman's memoir Pentimento. On June 30, 1976, as the film was going into production, Hellman wrote about the screenplay to its producer:

In a 1979 television interview with Dick Cavett, author Mary McCarthy, long Hellman's political adversary and the object of her negative literary judgment, said of Hellman that "every word she writes is a lie, including 'and' and 'the'." Hellman responded by filing a US$2,500,000 defamation suit against McCarthy, interviewer Dick Cavett, and PBS. McCarthy produced evidence she said proved that Hellman had lied in some accounts of her life. Cavett said he sympathized more with McCarthy than Hellman in the lawsuit, but "everybody lost" as a result of it. Norman Mailer attempted unsuccessfully to mediate the dispute through an open letter he published in the New York Times. At the time of her death in 1984, Hellman was still in litigation with McCarthy; her executors dropped the suit.

In 1983, New York psychiatrist Muriel Gardiner had become involved in the libel suit between McCarthy and Hellman. She claimed to be the model for the character named Julia in Pentimento, and in the movie Julia based on a chapter of that book. Hellman, who never met Gardiner, said that "Julia" was somebody else.

Gardiner wrote that, while she never met Hellman, she had often heard about her from her friend Wolf Schwabacher, who was Hellman's lawyer. By Gardiner's account, Schwabacher had visited Gardiner in Vienna. After Muriel Gardiner and Joseph Buttinger moved into their house at Brookdale Farm in Pennington, New Jersey in 1940, they divided the house in two. They rented half of it to Wolf and Ethel Schwabacher for more than ten years.

Many people believe that Hellmann based her story on Gardiner's life. Gardiner's editor cited the unlikelihood that there were two millionaire American women who were medical students in Vienna in the late 1930s.

Reception
The film earned $7.5 million in North American rentals.

It holds a 74% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 31 reviews.

The response varied from positive to mixed, usually praising the period setting and acting, but criticizing the script and failure to adequately portray the friendship between the two leads. Variety gave it a positive review, praising Jane Fonda and Vanessa Redgrave as being "dynamite together on the screen", Richard Roth's production as "handsome and tasteful", as well as the period costumes and production design.

Roger Ebert called the film a "fascinating story", but felt the movie suffered from being told by Lillian Hellman's point of view. "The film never really establishes a relationship between the two women," he wrote. "It's awkward, the way the movie has to suspend itself between Julia – its ostensible subject – and Lillian Hellman, its real subject." He gave it two and a half out of four stars.

John Simon said of Julia- "Very little of what happens in the film is intrinsically interesting".

TV Guide gave it three out of five stars and declared it "Beautifully crafted, nominated for eleven Academy Awards, a big hit at the box office--and a dramatic dud ... If you like red nail polish, faux-cynicism, painfully brave smiles and European train stations, Julia may be your kind of cocktail."

Awards and nominations

After Redgrave was nominated for Best Supporting Actress, the Jewish Defense League objected to her nomination because she had narrated and helped fund a documentary entitled The Palestinian, which supported a Palestinian state. They also picketed the Oscar ceremony.

Notes

References

External links

1977 films
1977 drama films
20th Century Fox films
American drama films
Best Film BAFTA Award winners
British drama films
Films shot at EMI-Elstree Studios
Films scored by Georges Delerue
Films about the German Resistance
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Fred Zinnemann
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films set on trains
Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award
Films whose writer won the Best Screenplay BAFTA Award
Films with screenplays by Alvin Sargent
Dashiell Hammett
1970s English-language films
1970s female buddy films
1970s American films
1970s British films

Julia (1977 film)


The Firestone Grand Prix of Monterey is an IndyCar Series race held at WeatherTech Raceway Laguna Seca near Monterey, California. The event dates back to 1960, and became an American open wheel race in 1983. The race was part of the CART/Champ Car series from 1983 through 2004. After a fifteen-year hiatus, the event returned in 2019 as part of the IndyCar Series, replacing Sonoma.

Since its inception as an Indy car race in 1983, for nearly it entire existence, it has been held at or very near the end of the season. From 1989 to 1996, it served as the CART season finale. It was once again the season finale when it returned in 2019. Due to its placement near the end of the season, the race has often been pivotal to the points championship. Several drivers have clinched the Indy car title at Laguna Seca. In addition, Laguna Seca was the site of the final Indy car race for legend Mario Andretti, who retired at the end of the 1994 season.

Laguna Seca is perhaps best-remembered as the site of one of the most legendary moments in the history of CART. On the final lap of the 1996 Monterey Grand Prix, Alex Zanardi executed a daring, diving pass inside of Bryan Herta through the difficult "Corkscrew" turns. Zanardi bounced wildly through the dirt and over the curbing, sliding across the track, narrowly missing a collision, and astonishingly made the pass stick for the win. The spectacular overtaking maneuver by Zanardi later became known in racing circles simply as "The Pass".

The driver with the most wins is Bobby Rahal, who won the CART series race four years in a row from 1984 to 1987, and three additional times as an owner (1998, 1999, 2001). Rahal also won the race in 1979 when it was a Can-Am series event.

History
The event dates back to 1960, and has traditionally been held in the fall (September or October). The event was first held as a USAC Road Racing Championship race, following the success of the SCCA's Pebble Beach Road Races. After USAC's road racing series disbanded in 1962, the race became a non-championship sports car race for three years. The race then joined the Can-Am schedule for 1966–1973. After the demise of Can-Am in 1974, the event shifted to Formula 5000 for two years, then to IMSA for two more years. This race encompasses a separate history from another event at Laguna Seca, the sports car race traditionally held in the spring.

The revived Can-Am series returned from 1978 to 1982, after which time the event became a CART Indy car race. The CART race was held every year from 1983 to 2004. The race continued to be held in the fall with the exception of 2002–2003 when it was briefly moved to June. The final CART/Champ Car race was held in 2004. Its spot on the calendar was shifted to San Jose.

In 1989 and 1991, the Marlboro Challenge all-star exhibition race was part of the CART race weekend. In 1991, Michael Andretti swept the weekend, winning both the Challenge on Saturday and Grand Prix on Sunday.

After a hiatus from 2005 to 2007, the race was set to return as part of the Champ Car World Series in 2008. However, after the 2008 open wheel unification, the race went back on hiatus. With the top-level Indy cars absent, and now competing instead at Sonoma, the Atlantic Championship briefly headlined at the track from 2008–2009. In 2015–2016, the track hosted the Mazda Road to Indy championship weekend. All three lower tiers of INDYCAR – Indy Lights, Pro Mazda, and U.S. F2000 participated in a standalone event. However, the top-level IndyCar Series still stayed away, and continued to race at Sonoma.

In 2018, a renewed effort to return Indy car racing to Laguna Seca was spearheaded by Monterey County and track officials. In their favor, the IndyCar races at Sonoma were said to be money-losers. Sonoma, which is also located in the Northern California region, is only about 150 miles north of Monterey by car. Sonoma held a "geographical exclusion" clause which effectively precluded IndyCar races from being held at both venues. In July 2018, it was announced that Sonoma would be removed from the IndyCar schedule after the 2018 season, and Laguna Seca would be added for 2019. The track signed an initial three-year deal and would take over the spot as the IndyCar season finale.

In 1999, driver Gonzalo Rodríguez was fatally injured in a practice crash. Five different drivers have won the Indy car race consecutively, including Bobby Rahal who won four years in a row from 1984 to 1987. Rahal's mark ties a CART series record for most consecutive wins at an individual circuit.

In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the race was to become a doubleheader, however the pandemic got worse and on July 27, IndyCar officials announced the cancellation of the race for 2020.

Race results

Sports car & Formula 5000 races

IndyCar Series races

From 1983 to 1987, the course was .
From 1988 to 1995, the course was .
From 1996 onward, the course is .
The 2001 race was scheduled for 83 laps but was shortened due to a 2-hour time limit.
The 2003 race was scheduled for 87 laps (194.7 miles) or a 2-hour, 10 minute time limit.
The 2004 race was scheduled for 80 laps (179.04 miles) or a 1-hour, 45 minute time limit.
The race in 2019 was scheduled for 90 laps [], with subsequent events being 95 laps [].

Support races

Race summaries

CART PPG Indy Car World Series

1983: In front of a crowd of 50,000 spectators, the CART series visited Laguna Seca for the first time in 1983. It was the second-to-last race of the season. The focus of attention going into the race was the championship battle between Al Unser and rookie Teo Fabi. Unser (137) led Fabi (102) by 35 points, and could wrap up the title with a 5th-place finish or better. Fabi qualified for the pole position, and proceeded to dominate the weekend. Fabi led 95 of the 98 laps, only giving up the lead for a few hundred feet after a restart on lap 29, and during a sequence of pit stops on lap 63–65. Fabi beat second place Mario Andretti by 22-seconds at the finish line. Meanwhile, points leader Al Unser broke a halfshaft with 11 laps to go and dropped to 11th place at the finish. Fabi narrowed the points lead, sending the championship battle to the finale at Phoenix. Fabi also clinched the 1983 CART rookie of the year award. Two controversies flared up during qualifying on Saturday. Johnny Rutherford's qualifying speed was thrown out after officials found a taped-over pop-off valve. The team declined a provisional, and Rutherford sat out the race. With Fabi (120.169 mph) on the pole, and Chip Ganassi (118.746 mph) second, officials later discovered that they had overlooked Derek Daly's best lap of the day. Daly had turned a lap of 119.048 mph, and officials corrected the error, elevating him to second on the grid, and bumping Ganassi back to row two.

1984: In its second running, Laguna Seca was again the second-to-last race of the CART schedule. Points leader Mario Andretti started on the pole position, but Bobby Rahal took the lead on lap 20. Rahal dominated the rest of the race, leading by as many as 18 seconds. He gave up the lead for only five laps during his second pit stop. Andretti settled into a comfortable second position after contender Danny Sullivan experienced brake trouble. Andretti elected to drive an easy race, and protect his points lead. With his second-place finish, Mario all but sewed up the 1984 title. Despite winning the race and leading the most laps, Rahal was mathematically eliminated from championship contention. Tom Sneva, the only other driver still alive for the title, was two laps down in 10th place. Rookie Michael Andretti enjoyed his fifth top-3 finish of the year, and it was the first time he joined his father Mario on the podium at Indy car race.
1985: Bobby Rahal started on the pole and led the first 35 laps. After giving up the lead briefly during a sequence of pit stops, Rahal was back in the lead on lap 37. He stretched his margin out to nearly 29 seconds over second place Al Unser Jr. On lap 59, Tom Sneva crashed bringing out a caution. Most of the leaders pitted, including Rahal and Unser Jr. Rookie Roberto Moreno stayed out and took over the lead, with Geoff Brabham now in second. The race went back to green on lap 66 (of 98) with Moreno leading. Three laps later, however, Moreno slowed with transmission problems, handing the lead to Al Unser Jr., who was locked in a tight battle with his father Al Unser Sr. for the points championship. Brabham was now running second, with Rahal close behind in third. Unser Jr. and Brabham battled for the lead over the next several laps. With 12 laps to go, Brabham attempted to pass Unser Jr. for the lead in the final turn, but locked up his brakes. Unser Jr. had to take evasive action. Rahal pounced and passed both cars in one move to sweep into the lead. Moments later, Brabham blew his engine, and Unser Jr. faded with worn out tires. Rahal pulled away to a 12-second lead, and won at Laguna Seca for the second year in a row. Al Unser Sr. came home second, while Al Jr. held on for third.
1986: Bobby Rahal won at Laguna Seca for the third consecutive year, a pivotal victory on his way to the 1986 CART title. Mario Andretti started from the pole position and led the first eight laps. Rahal took the lead on lap 9 with a decisive pass entering the corkscrew. Rahal pulled out to a mostly comfortable lead, giving up the lead only during pit stops. Rahal led 86 of the 98 laps, but had to race hard over the final twenty laps to ensure victory. During pit stops on lap 69, Danny Sullivan took over second place from Michael Andretti. Then Sullivan went on a charge to try and catch Rahal. Sullivan closed the gap to 1.41 seconds on the final lap, but he was no match for Rahal. It was Rahal's sixth victory of the season, and gave Rahal a 9-point advantage in the championship standings with two races remaining.
1987: Bobby Rahal won at Laguna Seca for the fourth consecutive year, and also clinched the 1987 CART championship. It was Rahal's second CART title in a row, and was mathematically clinched with still one race renaming. Mario Andretti dominated the race's early going, lapping all but the second and third place cars. Meanwhile, Michael Andretti was forced to pit multiple times with alternator trouble. Michael was second in points going into the race, and when he finally dropped out on lap 36, it effectively handed the title to Rahal. Mario Andretti blew his engine while leading on lap 67. Rahal moved into the lead, with Danny Sullivan in second. Rahal cruised over the final 31 laps, and beat Sullivan by a margin of 23.6 seconds at the finish. Also making news at Laguna Seca was the debut of the Porsche Indy car team led by Al Holbert. Al Unser Sr. was behind the wheel, but the car dropped out after only 6 laps with a broken water pump.
1988: Danny Sullivan started from the pole position, led 70 of 84 laps, and won at Laguna Seca. He also clinched the 1988 CART championship, with one race remaining in the season. It was the first race to take place on the new 2.124-mile redesigned layout. A record crowd of 70,000 spectators watched Sullivan take the lead for the final time on lap 61 after Mario and Michael Andretti pitted on laps 60 and 61, respectively.
1989: For the first time, Laguna Seca served as the CART season finale. Going into the race, Emerson Fittipaldi had already clinched the 1989 CART title, but second and third place were still up for grabs. Rick Mears started from the pole and led 47 of 84 laps en route to victory. It was the first road course victory for Mears since Riverside in 1982, and the first since he suffered serious leg injuries in 1984. It was also the last road course win of his career. It what was the final Indy car race of the 1980s, Mears also became the winningest driver of the decade with twenty victories. Mears held off a hard-charging Mario Andretti, and cemented second place in the final points standings. Mears and Andretti both pitted during a caution on lap 48 and ran 1st–2nd after leader Al Unser Jr. was forced to pit under green on lap 63.
1990: Danny Sullivan started on the pole position, and led wire-to-wire, winning in his final race for Penske Racing. The race was slowed by only one full course caution which came out when Willy T. Ribbs and Dean Hall banged wheels at the start. Sullivan beat second place Al Unser Jr. by 29.799 seconds. Unser had already wrapped up the 1990 CART championship, and ran second most of the day. With Sullivan well ahead, and Unser solidly in second, the focus of attention in the closing laps was the fierce battle for third between Rick Mears and Michael Andretti. With two laps to go, Mears passed Andretti in spectacular fashion along the Rahal straight. Exiting turn 6, Mears diced around the lapped car of Mike Groff and ahead of Andretti, and carried the lead to the outside going into the corkscrew. However, coming off the final turn of the final lap, Mears ran out of fuel in sight of the checkered flag. Michael Andretti caught up and slipped by Mears about 100 yards from the finish line to steal third place.

1991: Michael Andretti started from the pole position and led 83 of the 84 laps in a dominating victory. With the win, Andretti clinched the 1991 CART championship. It was his eighth win of the season, and first ever at Laguna Seca. Going into the race, the championship battle was down to Andretti and Bobby Rahal. Andretti needed to finish 6th or better to win the championship, and when Rahal dropped out on lap 24 with overheating problems, Andretti mathematically clinched the title. With Michael out in front, the battle for second and third was the most competitive. While running second on lap 38, Emerson Fittipaldi experienced troubles when his water bottle broke loose and fell between his feet. Al Unser Jr. got by for second, and Fittipaldi tangled with Rick Mears bending his suspension. Fittipaldi recovered, battling Mario Andretti over the final 25 laps for third. Mario held off Fittipaldi to round out the podium.
1992: Bobby Rahal needed to finished 4th or better at Laguna Seca to clinch the 1992 CART championship. His closest competitor in the title hunt was Michael Andretti, who won the pole position and led wire-to-wire in a dominating victory. It was Michael's second win in a row at Laguna Seca, and he finished 4.72 seconds ahead of his father Mario. With five laps to go, Paul Tracy was chasing down Michael Andretti for the lead, but tangled with the lapped car of Jimmy Vasser, and broke his front wing. Tracy subsequently went off course, and dropped out. Bobby Rahal elevated to third position, scoring enough points to secure his third CART championship. Michael Andretti won the race, but finished second in points, in his final Indy car race before heading to Formula One in 1993.

1993: Penske teammates Emerson Fittipaldi and Paul Tracy started on the front row, with Tracy jumping into the lead at the start. Tracy led all but three laps, en route to a dominating victory. Tracy accidentally unbuckled his seatbelts with about twenty laps to go, and struggled to keep himself comfortable in the car, all while battling through heavy traffic. Fittipaldi closed the gap, and with ten laps to go, was right on the back bumper of Tracy. Fittipaldi, however, had a hard time getting by the lapped car of Hiro Matsushita. With five laps to go, Fittipaldi lost control and spun off course in turn five, hitting the tire barrier. He recovered and was able to re-join the race, and did not lose any positions. Tracy went on to win, with Fittipaldi second, and Arie Luyendyk third. Nigel Mansell, who had already clinched the 1993 CART championship two weeks earlier at Nazareth, tangled with Mark Smith, injuring his wrist, and dropped out.
1994: The attention for the day focused on Mario Andretti, who was driving in his final Indy car race before retirement. Nigel Mansell, the 1993 CART champion, was also competing in his final Indy car race, as he was preparing to return to Formula One. The morning was marked with festivities and honors for Mario Andretti. Unfortunately, he would finish 19th after suffering contact on the first lap, and a blown engine with four laps to go. Paul Tracy won the race for the second year in a row, starting on the pole and leading wire-to-wire. Al Unser Jr., who had already clinched the 1994 CART championship, stayed within striking distance of Tracy until his transmission broke on lap 75. Raul Boesel finished second, tying his career best, while Mansell finished a lap down in 8th.
1995: Gil de Ferran won his first career Indy car race, taking the lead from polesitter Jacques Villeneuve on lap 29. Villeneuve was forced to make an unscheduled pit stop for tires, giving up the lead, and dropped to 11th place at the finish. Going into the race, the 1995 CART championship title was mathematically down to two drivers – Jacques Villeneuve and Al Unser Jr. However, the championship points situation was complicated due to a pending appeals decision stemming from a penalty at the race earlier in the year at Portland. Al Unser Jr. had been stripped of victory (and docked the 21 championship points) at Portland in June. The Penske team filed an appeal, and the decision was not expected until after the season finale at Laguna Seca. Villeneuve unofficially led Unser in the points standings 169–132 (37 points ahead). But if Unser were to win his appeal, and be reinstated the 21 points, Villeneuve's lead would shrink to 17 points, putting Unser within striking distance. Villeneuve had to finish 8th or better to clinch the title outright, but managed only an 11th-place finish. Unser made a charge through the standings late in the race, but managed only a 6th-place finish, not enough to take the points lead. Jacques Villeneuve won the CART championship, despite Unser being reinstated his Portland win two weeks later on September 22. It was Villeneuve's final Indy car win, and final Indy car race before leaving for Williams in Formula One.

1996: One of the most legendary moments in the history of the Grand Prix of Monterey, and the CART series itself, occurred in 1996. Bryan Herta led most of the race during the second half, and in the closing laps, was leading Alex Zanardi. Zanardi was in close pursuit, but Herta had been successful thus far holding him off, and appeared to be en route to his first-career Indy car victory. With Zanardi's Ganassi teammate Jimmy Vasser essentially wrapping up the series title already, the attention in the closing laps focused in on the battle for the race lead. On the final lap, the cars approached the famous "Corkscrew" turns, with Herta leading. It was a spot on the track where competitive passes were seldom, due to being a tight, blind, downhill segment. Zanardi made a daring, diving pass to the inside as Herta was under braking, and slid into the lead. Zanardi, however, slid forward off the track, and his two right wheels went into the dirt. His left wheels also nearly left the apron, as he attempted to negotiate the car through the turns. As the hill dipped, and the corkscrew turns reversed, the inside lane became the outside line. His car bounced wildly over the curbing, throwing up dirt, and narrowly missed a barrier. He swung back across the track in front of Herta, with Herta narrowly missing a collision. Zanardi was able to gather control, and astonishingly made the pass stick. Zanardi held Herta off over the final two turns, and scored an improbable victory. A surprised and dejected Herta was in total shock afterwards, naturally never expecting a pass of that nature in that location. Zanardi himself admitted it was an extremely high risk pass with little chance of success. In post-race evaluation, CART officials allowed the pass, but banned such moves in future races. The spectacular overtaking maneuver by Zanardi later became known in racing circles simply as "The Pass."
1997: Chip Ganassi Racing was the story of the day at Laguna Seca. Jimmy Vasser won the race, and Alex Zanardi who finished third, clinched the 1997 CART championship. Vasser led the final 58 laps, and beat second place Mark Blundell by 0.534 seconds. Bryan Herta, who nearly won the race the year before, started on the pole position, and led the first 21 laps. However, on lap 22, Alex Zanardi went side-by-side attempting to pass for the lead on the outside of turn one. Zanardi's wheels went off into the dirt, and Herta's car also touched the curbing. That allowed Scott Pruett to slip by both of them to grab the lead going into turn 3. Moments later, Jimmy Vasser tried to pass Herta in turn 5, and Herta slid off course losing several positions. Herta would finish 6th.

CART FedEx Championship Series

1998: Two years after the shocking disappointment of losing to Alex Zanardi in "The Pass", Bryan Herta triumphed at Laguna Seca for his long-awaited first career Indy/Champ Car victory. The win came on the same day his car owner Bobby Rahal, in the midst of his "Last Ride" tour before retirement, drove in his final race at Laguna Seca. Herta started on the pole and led 81 of the 83 laps, but Alex Zanardi was close behind. A bevy of cautions late in the race bunched up the field, and restart with two laps to go would decide the winner. Herta got a good jump on the restart, but Zanardi was all over his back bumper. On lap 82, Zanradi took a look outside to make a pass entering the Corkscrew, but backed out. That gave Herta just enough of a margin to hold him off on the final lap. Zanardi made one last-ditch effort on the final turn, but Herta held him off. Herta took the checkered flag by a mere 0.343 seconds over Zanardi.
1999: Tragedy struck at Laguna Seca when rookie driver Gonzalo Rodríguez was fatally injured in a violent practice crash. During a practice session on Saturday September 11, Rodríguez lost control of his car entering the Corkscrew. The car went straight off the pavement and slid head-on into a concrete and tire retaining wall. The car's nose had pitched down, and the car flipped forward on impact, launching high over the wall and catch fence. The car landed hard and came to rest upside-down in a hillside area behind the retaining wall. Rodríguez was killed instantly of massive head and neck injuries. The crash cast a pall over the weekend, and Team Penske withdrew for the weekend. On race day, Bryan Herta started from the pole position and dominated the race leading all 83 laps. It was Herta's second win in a row at Laguna Seca, in his final start at Team Rahal. Roberto Moreno finished second, his best-career finish in the CART series, gaining three spots on his final pit stop, and two more positions on the final restart.
2000: Penske Racing finished 1st–2nd with Hélio Castroneves winning the race and Gil de Ferran taking over the points lead (which he would not relinquish on his way to the 2000 CART championship). Castroneves led 81 of the 83 laps, giving up the lead only once to Juan Pablo Montoya during a pit stop. Montoya fell out of contention after a pit stop on lap 48 in which his air jack collapsed. Gil de Ferran ran close behind Castroneves most of the day, and finished 0.954 seconds behind at the finish. Castroneves proceeded to climb from his car and climb the catch fence in celebration. Castroneves and the entire Penske team dedicated the victory to the memory of their driver Gonzalo Rodríguez, killed one year earlier.
2001: A crash-filled race, shorted from 83 laps to 76 laps due to a two-hour time limit, saw Max Papis win from the 25th starting position, the furthest back any driver has won at Laguna Seca. Papis made five pit stops (most contenders made two), and steadily worked his way up the standings, helped by the numerous full-course cautions and high attrition. At the start, polesitter Gil de Ferran grabbed the lead. Deep in the field, Kenny Brack banged wheels with Maurício Gugelmin, then was hit from behind by Michael Andretti. Moments later, Brack again collided with Gugelmin, suffering enough damage that he was forced to eventually drop out. On the second lap Alex Tagliani and Patrick Carpentier collided. A pit fire on lap 7 in the pits of Chip Ganassi Racing burned two mechanics, but the team was able to continue. Several other incidents occurred during the day, including a spectacular crash on lap 65 between Oriol Servia and Maurício Gugelmin. Servia came upon the back of Gugelmin's car going into the Andretti Hairpin, and rode over his rear wheel. The car sailed over, then the nose dug into the ground, causing the car to flip about 20 feet into the air. Servia was not seriously injured. Pitting out of sequence from the other leader, Papis took the lead on lap 61, and held on to win as the race was ended on lap 76. It was Team Rahal's third win at Laguna Seca, and Bobby Rahal's seventh win combined as driver or owner.
2002: After many years of being held in the fall, for 2002 the race was moved to June. Newman/Haas Racing finished 1st–2nd, with Cristiano da Matta finishing 19.087 seconds ahead of teammate Christian Fittipaldi. Cristiano da Matta led 82 of the 87 laps, giving up the lead only during pit stops. A seven-car pileup in the Andretti Hairpin on the first lap was triggered after Michel Jourdain Jr. was sent spinning. Dario Franchitti and Adrián Fernández dropped out. Later on lap 16, Paul Tracy exited the pits after a seemingly routine pit stop. The left rear wheel was not properly fastened, however, and came off entering turn four on his out-lap. Tracy's car was sent spinning wildly into a tire barrier and out of the race.
2003: Patrick Carpentier started from the pole position and led all 87 laps to victory. At the start, as the field was coming around the final corner to take the green flag, Paul Tracy (on the inside of row two) bumped into the back of polesitter Carpentier, nearly checking-up the field. Neither car was seriously damaged, but the start was waved off until the next time around. Carpentier, Tracy, and Bruno Junqueira were running 1–2–3 when they all pitted together on lap 48. Tracy clipped an errant tire exiting his pit stall, then on the out-lap, challenged Carpentier for the lead going into the Andretti Hairpin. Tracy locked up the brakes, and could not make the pass. He suffered flat-spotted tires, and was forced to nurse an ill-handling car during the stint. With Carpentier pulling out to a comfortable lead, Tracy veered off course at the exit of turn six on lap 56, allowing Junqueira to take over second position. Junqueira charged but could not catch Carpentier for the win.

Champ Car World Series
2004: The final Champ Car race at Laguna Seca was held in 2004. After two years of being held in June, the race moved back to its familiar date in the fall. For the second year in a row Patrick Carpentier dominated much of the race, leading 40 of the 79 laps. The race was shortened to 79 laps from the scheduled 80 due to a 1:45 time limit. Polesitter Sébastien Bourdais led the first lap, but was in the pits on lap 2 due to a punctured tire from contact out on the track. It would happen again for Bourdais later on. He wound up 8th, but not before he went off-course on the final lap, losing 7th in the process. With the series leaving Laguna Seca after 2004, it remained one of the few Champ Car tracks in which Bourdais failed to score a victory.

IndyCar Series
2019: After a fifteen-year absence, Laguna Seca returned to the IndyCar Series schedule in 2019 as the season finale. Rookie Colton Herta took pole position and dominated the race en route to his second career victory but the battle for the season long championship came down to the last lap. Josef Newgarden finished in eighth, scoring enough points to clinch the season championship for a second time, even with his two close championship rivals Simon Pagenaud and Alexander Rossi finishing ahead of him, in fourth and sixth places respectively.
2020: On July 27, 2020, IndyCar officials were forced to cancel the 2020 edition of the race due to the state of California's ban on large gatherings because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2021: The new Roger Penske led IndyCar returned to Laguna Seca as the penultimate round of 2021. The race was notable for its championship implications. Defending series champion Scott Dixon, his Chip Ganassi Racing teammates Marcus Ericsson and Alex Palou, Penske driver Josef Newgarden, Arrow McLaren SP driver Pato O'Ward were all in the hunt for the championship heading into season finale at Long Beach. Colton Herta took his second consecutive pole position at Laguna Seca while championship points leader Palou would qualify fourth, O'Ward sixth, Ericsson seventh, Dixon eighth, and Newgarden seventeenth. In a race that featured only one brief yellow when Alexander Rossi spun out on the first lap Herta would lead all but one lap of the race to win from pole while Palou secured a thirty five point advantage in the championship with a second-place finish. Behind them former Haas F1 and IndyCar rookie Romain Grosjean took third place at his first ever race at Laguna Seca while O'Ward secured himself a shot at the title with a fifth-place finish and Newgarden managed to secure his shot at the title with a seventh-place finish. Both Dixon and Ericsson were mathematically eliminated from title contention.
2022: IndyCar returned to Laguna Seca as the season finale for the first time since 2019 in 2022. In what would be the closest championship battle in IndyCar history, five drivers would head into the race with a mathematical shot at the Astor Cup; Will Power, Josef Newgarden, Scott Dixon, Marcus Ericsson, and Scott McLaughlin. Power held the points lead at just over 20 points ahead of his rivals and had to finish no worse than third to clinch the championship. Power took the pole position, breaking Mario Andretti's record for IndyCar pole positions in the process. His closest competitors for the championship, Scott Dixon and Josef Newgarden, qualified thirteenth and twenty fifth respectively, the latter suffering from a spin while going through the Corkscrew. More distant but still viable championship contenders Scott McLaughlin and Marcus Ericsson qualified eighth and tenth respectively. Power led the early stint of the race before being passed after the first series of pit stops by Alex Palou, who would from then on dominate the race to take his only win on the season. Newgarden thrust himself back into contention for the championship with a furious drive from twenty fifth all the way to second place. Power hung on through the remaining pitstop sequences and one caution to finish third, clinching his second IndyCar title ahead of his rivals.
2023: Felix Rosenqvist qualified on pole. Rosenqvist held the lead through early caution periods before surrendering it to Alex Palou. More caution periods saw Romain Grosjean take the lead in a series of pit sequences. More cautions led to Scott Dixon taking the lead and ultimately holding on for his third win of the season.

See also
Hyundai Monterey Sports Car Championship

References

External links
Ultimate Racing History: Laguna Seca archive
Racing Sports Cars: Laguna Seca archive

Monterey Grand Prix
Can-Am races
IMSA GT Championship races
Champ Car races
Recurring sporting events established in 1960
Recurring sporting events disestablished in 2004
Recurring sporting events established in 2019
IndyCar Series races

IndyCar Monterey Grand Prix


William Neil Rowe,  (born June 4, 1942) is a former politician, lawyer, broadcaster, and writer in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada.

Rowe was born in Grand Bank and is the son of the late Liberal Senator Frederick William Rowe and the late Edith Laura Butt.

Rowe attended Memorial University of Newfoundland where he earned a Bachelor of Arts. He studied for a Bachelor of Law at the University of New Brunswick on a Sir James Hamet Dunn Scholarship, and went on to become a Rhodes Scholar, graduating with an Honours M.A in Law from the University of Oxford.

He entered politics and was elected to the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly five times as a Liberal MHA, first at the age of twenty-four. He was appointed, at twenty-six, as a Cabinet Minister in the Government of Joey Smallwood and became responsible for several departments. He was later elected as Leader of the Opposition, holding that position from 1977 to 1979. He resigned his position prior to the 1979 general election, in favour of Don Jamieson, but kept his own seat.

One of Rowe's political aides while he was Opposition Leader was a young Brian Tobin.

In 1982, Rowe lost his seat in the Newfoundland general election, which saw the Progressive Conservatives under the leadership of Brian Peckford, win by a landslide, taking 44 seats.

After leaving politics, Rowe resumed his law practice. As a lawyer, he practiced in St. John's for over three decades, concentrating for years on labour-management arbitrations. During the 1980s he was retained by the federal Minister of National Revenue to conduct a nationwide inquiry into fishermen's perceived income tax problems with Revenue Canada.

Rowe was appointed to Queen's Counsel in 2007.

A long-time public affairs commentator, Rowe has appeared regularly on national and local television and radio. He has hosted a daily call-in show on VOCM and CFCB radio for nearly thirty years, which focuses on public issues and is carried throughout the province and around the world. Rowe was instrumental in exposing the Mount Cashel Orphanage scandal when he was host of VOCM's Open Line radio show.

Rowe also wrote weekly public affairs columns for St. John's daily newspaper, The Telegram, the Corner Brook Western Star, and other newspapers.

In 2004, Premier Danny Williams appointed him Provincial Representative in Ottawa, where he advised the Premier during the crucial negotiations with the Government of Canada that led to the Atlantic Accord, which secured more than two billion dollars for Newfoundland and Labrador.

Rowe has written five books: Clapp's Rock, a best-selling novel published by McClelland & Stewart of Toronto and serialized on CBC Radio; The Temptation of Victor Galanti, a second novel published by McClelland and Stewart; Is That You, Bill?, a volume of essays on politics and public affairs published by Jesperson Press of St. John's; Danny Williams: The War with Ottawa, published in 2010 by Flanker Press; and Danny Williams, Please Come Back, a compilation of his columns and commentaries, published in 2011 by Flanker Press. In 2012, Flanker Press published Rosie O'Dell, a novel whose cover featured a prominent "Warning: Graphic Content and Mature Subject Matter."

Rowe is a member of the Writers' Union of Canada and has served on the executive of the Writers' Alliance of Newfoundland and Labrador.

On June 22, 2011, Rowe announced on his radio show his intention to retire from VOCM after nearly thirty years to write full-time. He has agreed to fill in periodically for the regular talk show hosts. His last day as host of his show, BackTalk, was Friday, June 24, 2011. Paddy Daly took over for him on August 1, 2011.  On March 8, 2013, Rowe once again took over the hosting duties at VOCM Open Line, a week after the resignation of Open Line host Randy Simms over controversial comments made on-air to Natuashish Innu Band Chief Simeon Tshakapesh.

References

Living people
Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador MHAs
Newfoundland and Labrador political party leaders
Lawyers in Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland Rhodes Scholars
Canadian radio personalities
Members of the Executive Council of Newfoundland and Labrador
Writers from Newfoundland and Labrador
1942 births
People from Grand Bank
Canadian King's Counsel

Bill Rowe


Gotthilf August Freiherr von Maltitz (July 9, 1794 – June 7, 1837) was a German writer.

Von Maltitz was born in Königsberg (then in the Kingdom of Prussia). He studied forestry in Tharandt, and became a forest overseer (Oberförsterstelle) in Prussia in 1821. However he left the position the next year because a satirical work of his offended his superiors.

He moved to Berlin, where he wrote satires and plays and became well known in high-society circles. His humorous works were probably most popular, including Ränzel und Wanderstab (1821) and Gelasius (1826). He also wrote some well-received dramas, including Schwur und Rache (1826) and Hans Kohlhaas (1828). Another 1828 play, however, Der alte Student, had a Polish protagonist and was judged to contain political agitation for Poland by the Prussian authorities, leading to his banishment from Berlin.

In 1828, he moved to the state of Hamburg, where he became editor of the journal Norddeutscher Courrier. In 1829, he wrote Das Pasquill, a dramatization of transparent versus concealed political culture, which "became quite popular in German theatres of the time." He went to Paris in 1830 following the July Revolution, but was soon disappointed and returned to the German states, where he lived in Dresden, Saxony until his death there in 1837. He published a collection of political poems as Pfefferkörner in four booklets from 1831 to 1834, and a collection of his satirical writings was published posthumously as Humoristische Raupen in 1839.

References

1794 births
1837 deaths
Writers from Königsberg
Royal Saxon Academy of Forestry alumni
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German poets
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers

Gotthilf August von Maltitz