Moritz Wagner (Bayreuth, 3 October 1813 – Munich, 31 May 1887) was a German explorer, collector, geographer and naturalist.

Wagner devoted three years (1836–1839) to the exploration of Algiers. It was there that he made an important discovery in natural history, which he later developed.

His idea, first based on a study of flightless beetles, was that geographical isolation could play a key role in speciation. Although at first rejected, this idea turned out to be important in the theory of evolution.

From 1852–1855, together with a companion, Wagner travelled through North and Central America and the Caribbean. In May 1843, Wagner toured the Lake Sevan region of Armenia. In his old age he committed suicide in Munich, aged 73. His brother Rudolf was a physiologist and anatomist.

Wagner's significance
Wagner's early career was as a geographer, and he published a number of geographical books about North Africa, the Middle East, and tropical America.

He was also a keen naturalist and collector, and it is for this work he is best known among biologists. Ernst Mayr, the evolutionist and historian of biology, has given an account of Wagner's significance.

During his three years in Algeria, Wagner studied (amongst other activities) the flightless beetles Pimelia and Melasoma. Each genus is split into a number of species, each of which is confined to a stretch of the north coast between rivers which descend from the Atlas mountains to the Mediterranean. As soon as one crosses a river, a different but closely related species appears.

Wagner was able to make similar observations in the Caucasus and in the Andean valleys, leading him to conclude, after the Origin of Species had been published:
"... an incipient species will only [arise] when a few individuals transgress the limiting borders of their range... the formation of a new race will never succeed... without a long continued separation of the colonists from the other members of their species."

This was an early description of a process of geographical speciation. Another formulation of this idea came later: "Organisms which never leave their ancient area of distribution will never change". This cannot be literally true, and is an overstatement of his idea.

The fate of this idea was unhappy. "Unfortunately, Wagner combined [his idea] with some peculiar ideas on variation and selection" (Mayr). The leading evolutionists (Darwin, Wallace, Weismann) attacked Wagner's idea of geographic speciation, and it suffered a long decline. However, in 1942 it was reintroduced by Mayr, and the importance of geographic speciation became one of the core ideas of the evolutionary synthesis.

Criticism
Modern experts such as Ernst Mayr, Jerry Coyne & Allen Orr, agree that Wagner first identified geographical speciation. However, his "migration theory" was based on a rather simple, Lamarckian idea of evolution. Wagner argued in letters to Darwin that he had missed a vital geographic component in understanding the evolution of new species. Darwin at first responded in a friendly way to these letters, and agreed that geographic isolation was important (although not the only mode of speciation). Later, he found Wagner's increasingly hysterical tone and one-sided argument upsetting, and wrote across his copy of Wagner's 1875 paper "most wretched rubbish," partly because Wagner ignored the importance of natural selection, and lifted parts of Darwin's theory that he liked without attribution, all the while claiming that Darwin's views were incorrect.

As well as Darwin, the Reverend J.T. Gulick also found Wagner's theories overstated., but in a later paper Gulick says that "Moritz Wagner, in his Law of the Migration of Organisms, was the first to insist on the importance of geographical isolation as a factor in evolution, but when he asserted that, without geographical isolation, natural selection could have no effect in producing new species, he went beyond what could be sustained by facts".

Ernst Mayr's formulation cleared up the issues which Wagner had left unresoved: "A new species develops if a population which has become isolated from its parental species acquires during this period of isolation characters which promote or guarantee isolation when the external barriers break down". The zoological taxonomist Bernhard Rensch was also significant in keeping geographical speciation on the evolutionary menu. He identified geographical separation as the most frequent initial step towards kladogenesis (species splitting).

The importance of Wagner's insight is undeniable today. It was obscured for many years by his other, mistaken, ideas, but it was a genuine natural history insight gained by observation of insects in their natural habitats.

"It took more than 60 years after 1859 until the leading specialists... [agreed] that this geographical approach was the way to solve the problem of speciation... a new species may evolve when a population acquires isolating mechanisms while isolated from its parent population."

Wagner's publications
Reisen in der Regentschaft Algier in den Jahren 1836, 1837 und 1838. 3 Bde. Leipzig 1841.
Der kaukasus und das Land der Kosaken. 2 Bde. Leipzig 1847.
Reise nach Kolchis. Leipzig 1850.
Reise nach dem Ararat und dem Hochlande Armeniens. Stuttgart 1848.
Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden. 2 Bde. Leipzig 1851.
Die Republik Costa-Rica. Leipzig 1856.
Über die hydrogaphischen Verhältnisse und das Vorkommen der Süßwasserfische in den Staaten Panama und Ecuador. Abhandlungen der königlich bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, II Classe 11 (I Abt.)
Reisen in Nordamerika in den Jahren 1852 und 1853. (with Carl Scherzer) 3 vols, Gotha 1861.
Die Darwinsche Theorie und das Migrationsgesetz der Organismen. Leipzig 1868. English edition: Wagner M. 1873. The Darwinian theory and the law of the migration of organisms. Translated by I.L. Laird, London.
Naturwissenschaftliche Reisen im tropischen Amerika. Stuttgart 1870.
Über den Einfluß der geographischen Isolierung und Kolonienbildung auf die morphologischen Veränderungen der Organismen. München 1871.
Die Entstehung der Arten durch räumliche Sonderung. [The origin of species by spacial separation] Gesammelte Aufsätze. Benno Schwalbe, Basel 1889.

References

Other websites
 Short biography  (in German)

1813 births
1887 deaths
German naturalists
German evolutionary biologists
German explorers

Moritz Wagner


The John Strong Mansion Museum or John Strong House is a historic house museum on Vermont Route 17W in Addison, Vermont.  It was built in 1795-96 by John Strong, a Vermont politician and veteran of the American Revolutionary War.  It is one of Vermont's grandest examples of late 19th-century Federal architecture.  It is now operated as a museum by the Daughters of the American Revolution, open between Memorial Day and Labor Day.  It is surrounded by D.A.R. State Park.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

Description and history
The John Strong Mansion stands on the west side of Vermont Route 17W, overlooking Lake Champlain in western Addison.  It occupies a modest square parcel, now completely surrounded by D.A.R. State Park.  It is a large two-story brick building, covered by a hipped roof with a triangular gable at the center of the east-facing front facade.  The roofline has a dentillated cornice, with a half-round fan in the front gable.  The main facade is five bays wide and symmetrical, with the main entrance at the center of the ground floor, and an elaborate Palladian window above it on the second floor.  The entrance is flanked by wide sidelight windows, and is sheltered by an early 20th-century Colonial Revival gabled porch.  The interior has well-preserved original details, including a fine central staircase and fireplace surrounds.

John Strong was a native of Connecticut who moved to the area in 1765.  He built his first house not far from the site of this one, supposedly on the site of a previous French home that had been burned during the French and Indian War.  He served in the Vermont militia during the Revolution, and his house was burned by the British during the war.  He rebuilt that house after the war ended, and built this imposing residence in the 1790s as its replacement.  His land was acquired in 1934 by the state chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, who donated most of it to the state for the formation of the state park.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Addison County, Vermont

References

External links
John Strong Mansion web site

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Addison County, Vermont
Georgian Revival architecture in Vermont
Federal architecture in Vermont
Houses completed in 1795
Houses in Addison County, Vermont
Buildings and structures in Addison, Vermont
Historic house museums in Vermont
Museums in Addison County, Vermont
1795 establishments in Vermont

John Strong Mansion Museum


Kingston Penitentiary (known locally as KP and Kingston Pen) is a former maximum security prison located in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, between King Street West and Lake Ontario.

History

Constructed from 1833 to 1834 and opened on June 1, 1835, as the "Provincial Penitentiary of the Province of Upper Canada", it was one of the oldest prisons in continuous use in the world at the time of its closure in 2013. Kingston Penitentiary was one of nine prisons in the Kingston area, prisons which had ranged from low-security facilities to the maximum-security facilities of Kingston Penitentiary and of Millhaven Institution, which was initially built to replace Kingston Pen.

The institution was built on land described as "lot number twenty, in the first concession of the Township of Kingston". The cells originally measured 73.7 cm (29 inches) wide by 244 cm (8 feet) deep and 200.7 cm (6 feet, 7 inches) high. The area had a 12-foot high wooden picket fence. In 1845, towers, stock walls, and the north gate house were completed. From 1859 through 1861 a dome was added connecting four cellblocks.

The site was chosen for "combining the advantages of perfect salubrity, ready access to the water, and abundant quantities of fine limestone." Six inmates were accepted when the penitentiary was opened. English author Charles Dickens visited Kingston in 1842 and commented in his American Notes: "There is an admirable jail here, well and wisely governed, and excellently regulated, in every respect. The men were employed as shoemakers, ropemakers, blacksmiths, tailors, carpenters, and stonecutters; and in building a new prison, which was pretty far advanced towards completion. The female prisoners were occupied in needlework."

The penitentiary's western wall adjoins the Portsmouth Olympic Harbour, which hosted the sailing events for the 1976 Summer Olympics. Immediately across the road to the north is the now-closed Kingston Prison for Women, which functioned from January 24, 1934, to May 8, 2000, taking female prisoners who had been housed in segregated quarters in the main facility.  The property was bought by Queen's University in January 2008.

Riots

1954
On August 14, 1954, a two-hour riot broke out in the penitentiary—the worst in its history up to that point—involving 900 inmates. During the riot a breakout was attempted, but was foiled by the guards at the gate. The trouble apparently began during a morning baseball game in the exercise yard, when a guard was attacked, followed by several inmates setting fire to various buildings in the yard, including the shops and a warehouse, causing an estimated $2 million in damages. The disturbance was quelled by the guards aided by 160 Canadian Army troops and a squad of Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers. The 50 ringleaders were placed in solitary confinement.

1971

On April 14, 1971, a riot led by the prison barber, Billy Knight, lasted four days and resulted in the death of two inmates and destruction of much of the prison. Security was substantially increased and prison reforms were instituted. Six correctional officers were held hostage, but all were eventually released unharmed. The prisoners issued formal grievances to the media including lack of recreational time, lack of work, and concerns about their future conditions in the newly built Millhaven Prison. During the riot, two prisoners, the child molester, Brian Ensor, and Bertrand Robert, a man who killed his five children, were murdered by the other prisoners. To put a stop to what was threatening to become a massacre, another inmate, Barrie MacKenzie, made a decision to release the hostages early on the morning of 18 April 1971. On 22 November 1971, the Crown made a plea bargain with the charges of two counts of first-degree murder against Brian Beaucage, who had organized the murders, were dropped in exchange for Beaucage making a guilty plea to one count of assault causing bodily harm with regard to the beating he had inflicted on Ensor. The plea bargain was and still is very controversial.

A 1971 inquiry into the riot, chaired by Justice J.W. Swackhamer, reported that they had "already noted a number of causes for Kingston's failure: the aged physical facilities, overcrowding, the shortage of professional staff, a program that had been substantially curtailed, the confinement in the institution of a number of people who did not require maximum security confinement, too much time spent in cells, a lack of adequate channels to deal with complaints and the lack of an adequate staff which resulted in the breakdowns of established procedures to deal with inmate requests. The polarization between inmates and custodial staff, between custodial staff and professional staff, led inevitably to the destruction of the program and deterioration in the life of the institution." This riot, together with successors in 1975, led to an official Sub-Committee on the Penitentiary System in Canada, chaired by Justice Mark MacGuigan. The 1977 MacGuigan Report recommended the creation of an Independent Chairperson (ICP) to investigate prisoner complaints.

1971–1981
From 1971 to 1981, the penitentiary served as Corrections Canada's Ontario Region Reception Centre. Before it closed, the facility housed between 350 and 500 inmates plus another 120 at the Regional Treatment Centre contained within the prison. Every inmate was given an individual cell.

In its later years, Kingston Penitentiary became known as a "dumping ground for bad guards", and after an investigation by the RCMP, eight guards were terminated.

In 1990, Kingston Penitentiary was designated a National Historic Site of Canada.

On April 19, 2012, the Government of Canada announced plans to close the Kingston Penitentiary, along with the Leclerc Institution in Laval, Quebec and the Regional Treatment Centre in Kingston, Ontario. Kingston Penitentiary officially closed on September 30, 2013. The penitentiary was opened during October/November 2013 for public tours hosted by the United Way of KFL&A and Habitat for Humanity Canada.

Escapes
On September 10, 1923, inmate Norman "Red" Ryan planned and carried out an escape with several other inmates.  After setting fire to a shed as a distraction, the gang used a ladder and went over the wall.  They stole a car from a nearby property and fled the city.

On August 17, 1947, inmates Nicholas Minelli, Ulysses Lauzon, and Donald "Mickey" Macdonald climbed over the wall behind the east cell block, after cutting through the bars on their cell. Both Minelli and Lauzon were recaptured, but Macdonald was never found.

In 1999, inmate Ty Conn escaped from the facility. Although there had been at least 26 escape attempts since 1836, Conn was the first to evade capture for weeks since 1958. Two weeks later, surrounded by police in Toronto, Conn suffered a fatal self-inflicted gunshot wound while speaking on the telephone to CBC producer Theresa Burke.

Notable inmates

Kingston Penitentiary had been home to many of Canada's most dangerous and notorious criminals. James Donnelly, patriarch of the Black Donnellys, was sentenced to be hanged on September 17, 1859, for the murder of Patrick Farrell. A petition for clemency started by his wife Johannah saw his sentence reduced to seven years in Kingston Penitentiary.

Other notable inmates include Lizzie Lessard, Wayne Ford, Russell Williams,<ref>[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/two-life-sentences-for-sex-killer-williamss-despicable-crimes/article1766784/  'Two life sentences for sex killer Williams's 'despicable crimes] Retrieved: October 21, 2010</ref> Paul Bernardo, Clifford Olson, Roger Caron and Grace Marks. Wayne Boden, the Canadian "Vampire Rapist" died there in March 2006. Tim Buck, leader of the Communist Party, was a prisoner at Kingston Penitentiary convicted under Section 98 of the Criminal Code during the early 1930s. Bernie Guindon, the president of the Satan's Choice Motorcycle Club who served part of his rape sentence at Kingston penitentiary in 1969-1970 described Kingston penitentiary as a very harsh prison where the other prisoners were not permitted to speak to one another outside of their cells unless a guard was present. Several of the Port Hope 8 such as Gary Comeau, Merv Blaker, Jeff McLeod, and Richard Sauvé were held at Kingston Penitentiary in 1979-1980.

Marie-Anne Houde, formerly convicted for the murder of her stepdaughter Aurore Gagnon, was sentenced to life in Kingston Penitentiary, following the appeal to commute her sentence to death citing health reasons. She was released on June 29, 1935.
Robert Gentles, was killed by six guards in 1993. Gentle's mother Carmeta believed that the guards were motivated by racism in their attack on her son but was unsuccessful in bringing charges against the guards independent of the Crown. Two men, Ravin Gill and Bradley Waugh, placed wanted posters for the six guards around Kingston which led to their being charged with criminal libel. The ensuing criminal case resulted in the law being struck down in Ontario. A coroner's inquest concluded Gentle's death was accidental.

Mohammad and Hamed Shafia were imprisoned in the penitentiary after being convicted of killing Mohammad's three daughters and first wife. Michael Rafferty was serving a life sentence for his role in the kidnapping, rape and murder of eight-year-old Victoria Stafford of Woodstock, but has since been relocated.

 In popular media

Much of Alias Grace is set in Kingston Penitentiary where the real life Grace Marks was imprisoned.

In Cataract City one of the main characters is imprisoned at Kingston Penitentiary for 20 years following a murder.

In the Canadian novel In the Skin of a Lion, the Carravagio chapter begins at Kingston Penitentiary.

The Lawrence Gowan song "A Criminal Mind" was inspired by a cell block at Kingston Penitentiary.

Television series Mayor of Kingstown was filmed at the penitentiary.

 Correctional Service of Canada Museum

Located directly across from Kingston Penitentiary, the Correctional Service of Canada Museum (also known as "Canada's Penitentiary Museum") explains the history of Kingston Penitentiary and other correctional centres using displays that incorporate artifacts, photographs, equipment, and replicas. The museum also houses most of the institution's historical records as well as those of other Canadian penitentiaries, and provides the only penitentiary research service in Canada. The museum is located in "Cedarhedge", the former Warden's residence of Kingston Penitentiary that was constructed between 1870 and 1873.

 See also
 List of Canadian correctional workers who have died in the line of duty

Books

 References

 External links
 Official website
 Correctional Service of Canada Museum website
 Friends of the Penitentiary Museum - Canada's Penitentiary Museum
 Kingston Pen's children, child killers, murderers and monsters, CBCNews.ca, April 22, 2012
 "In pictures: A look at the notorious Kingston Penitentiary (1835-2012)",  The Globe & Mail'', April 20, 2012)

2013 disestablishments in Ontario
Correctional Service of Canada institutions
Buildings and structures in Kingston, Ontario
Defunct prisons in Ontario
1835 establishments in Canada
National Historic Sites in Ontario
1971 riots
Prison uprisings

Kingston Penitentiary


Devil in a Blue Dress is a 1995 crime drama movie. It is set in the summer of 1948 in Los Angeles. It is about a World War II veteran who has been unfairly laid off from an aircraft manufacturer. Denzel Washington plays Ezekiel "Easy" Rawlins, a detective. Jennifer Beals plays Daphne Monet. It was based on the 1990 novel of the same name by Walter Mosley.

This movie was released on September 29, 1995. Most critics liked the movie.

1995 crime drama movies
American crime drama movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Carl Franklin

Devil in a Blue Dress


The Military Order of Maria Theresa (; ; ; ; ; ) was the highest military honour of the Habsburg monarchy, Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire.

History
Founded on 18 June 1757, the day of the Battle of Kolín, by the Empress Maria Theresa, the honour was to reward especially meritorious and valorous acts by commissioned officers, including and especially the courageous act of defeating an enemy, and thus "serving" their monarch. It was specifically given for "successful military acts of essential impact to a campaign that were undertaken on [the officer's] own initiative, and might have been omitted by an honorable officer without reproach." This gave rise to a popular myth that it was awarded for (successfully) acting against an explicit order. It is considered to be the highest honour for a soldier in the Austrian armed services.

Originally, the order had two classes: the Knight's Cross and the Grand Cross. On 15 October 1765, Emperor Joseph II added a Commander's Cross, and a breast star to be worn by holders of the Grand Cross.

Prospective recipients were considered only in regard to their military service records; their ethnicity, birth and rank (as long as they were commissioned officers) were irrelevant. Knight's Cross recipients were automatically ennobled with the title of  in the Austrian nobility for life, and admitted to court. Upon further petition, they could claim the hereditary title of Baron (). They were also entitled to a pension. Widows of the order's recipients were entitled to half of their spouse's pension during the remainder of their lives.

The order ceased to be awarded by the Austrian emperor on the fall of the Habsburg Dynasty in 1918, when its last sovereign, Charles I, transferred his powers concerning this honour to the Order Chapter. The Chapter then processed applications until its last meeting in 1931, when it was decided that further awards should not be made. Membership of the order was awarded a total of 1241 times. Alois Windisch and Friedrich Franek were the only two men who were awarded both the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa and the German Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.

On 4 November 1938, it was decided in Hungary to award further decorations of the order, citing legal continuity as long as Hungary's royal powers were exercised by the Regent Miklós Horthy; the Regent performed the duties of the Order's Grand Master in Hungary. During World War II, only one person received the Knight's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa: Major General Kornél Oszlányi, commanding officer of the Royal Hungarian Army's 9th Light Infantry Division, for the battles at the river Don near Voronezh.

The last surviving knight of the Order was k.u.k. Fregattenleutnant Gottfried Freiherr von Banfield. He received the honour in 1917 for his services as a maritime aviator during World War I, and he headed the Tripcovich Shipping Company in Trieste after the war. He died in 1986, aged ninety-six.

Insignia
 The badge of the order was a gilt, white-enamelled cross. The central disc is also in enamel, bearing the coat-of-arms/national flag of Austria, surrounded by a white ring bearing the motto "Fortitudini" (For Courage).
 The star of the order was a silver faceted cross of the same shape as the badge, with a wreath of green-enameled oak leaves between the arms of the cross. The central disc is the same as the one on the badge.
 The ribbon of the order was red-white-red, from the national flag of Austria.

Recipients of the Order (examples)

Grand Cross
 Field Marshal H.I.& R. Ap. M. Franz Joseph I, emperor and king of Austria-Hungary.
 Count Eduard Clam-Gallas (14 March 1805, Prague – 17 March 1891, Vienna) was an Austrian General.
 Count Leopold Joseph von Daun (or Dhaun) (24 September 1705 – 5 February 1766), later Prince of Thiano, Austrian field marshal, was born at Vienna, as son of Count Wirich Philipp von Daun.
 András Hadik de Futak (German: ; Hungarian: ; Slovak: ; 16 October 1710 – 12 March 1790) was a Hungarian Count. He was commander of a Habsburg army corps in the Seven Years' War under Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine.
 Paul von Hindenburg (2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934.
 Anton Ludwig August von Mackensen (6 December 1849 – 8 November 1945), born August Mackensen, was a German soldier and field marshal. He commanded with success during the First World War and became one of the German Empire's most prominent military leaders.
 Archduke John of Austria (German: Johann von Österreich; 20 January 1782 – 11 May 1859) was a member of the Habsburg dynasty, an Austrian field marshal and German Imperial regent (Reichsverweser).
 Johann Josef (Joseph) Wenzel (Anton Franz Karl) Graf Radetzky von Radetz (English: John Joseph Wenceslaus, Count Radetzky of Radetz, Czech: ) (Schloss Trebnitz; Czech: ), Bohemia, 2 November 1766 – Milan, Italy, 5 January 1858) was a Czech nobleman and Austrian general, immortalised by Johann Strauss I's Radetzky March. General Radetzky was in the military for over 70 years, until his death at age 91, and is known for the victories at the Battles of Custoza (24–25 July 1848) and Novara (23 March 1849) during the First Italian War of Independence.
 H.I.&.R.M. Wilhelm II, German Emperor (German: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht; English: Frederick William Victor Albert) (27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German emperor and king of Prussia.

Commander's Cross
Feldmarschall Johann Karl, Graf von Kolowrat-Krakowsky (21 December 1748 – 5 June 1816) was an Austrian Field Marshal general who fought against Napoleon and also was the last governor of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1791.
Feldmarschalleutnant Emanuel Cvjetićanin (b. 8 August 1833). In the war of 1878–1882, Cvjetićanin was the main organizer of the gendarmerie in Sarajevo. He received numerous decorations, including the Order of Maria Theresa, and the title of baron. He was the first adjutant of Emperor Franz Josef I.
 Count Eduard Clam-Gallas (14 March 1805, Prague – 17 March 1891, Vienna) was an Austrian General.
 Svetozar Boroević (or Borojević) von Bojna (13 December 1856 – 23 May 1920) was an Orthodox Croat Austro-Hungarian Field Marshal during World War I.
 Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli (12 February 1856 – 9 December 1941) was an Austrian general during World War I.
 Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Bülow, Graf von Dennewitz (16 February 1755 – 25 February 1816) was a Prussian general of the Napoleonic Wars.
 Count Viktor Dankl von Krasnik (German: , born as Viktor Dankl on 18 September 1854, in Udine, died 8 January 1941 in Innsbruck) was a highly decorated career Austro-Hungarian officer who reached the pinnacle of his service during World War I with promotion to the rare rank of Colonel General ().
 Anton Haus (13 June 1851 – 8 February 1917) was an Austrian naval officer.
 Julius Jacob von Haynau (14 October 1786, Kassel – 14 March 1853) was an Austrian general.
 Heinrich Hermann Josef Freiherr von Heß (1788, Vienna – 1870, Vienna), Austrian soldier, entered the army in 1805.
 Count Josip Jelačić von Bužim (16 October 1801, Peterwaradein – 20 May 1859, Zagreb); also spelled Jellachich, Jellacic or Jellasics) was the Ban of Croatia between 23 March 1848 and 19 May 1859.
 Archduke Joseph August Viktor Klemens Maria of Austria, Prince of Hungary and Bohemia (9 August 1872 – 6 July 1962) was for a short period head of state of Hungary, a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine and the eldest son of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria (1833–1905)
 Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza (30 March 1854 – 22 September 1924) was the final, and completely ceremonial, Commander-in-Chief of Austria-Hungary. He served as a generally competent and unremarkable commander in the Austro-Hungarian Army and was close to retirement in 1914 when The First World War broke out and he was given a command post.
 Laval Graf Nugent von Westmeath (Ballynacor, Ireland, 3 November 1777 – Karlovac, Croatia, 21 August 1862) was a soldier of Irish birth who fought in the armies of Austria and the Two Sicilies.
 Arthur Freiherr Arz von Straussenburg (or Straußenburg) 16 June 1857 – 1 June 1935, was an Austro-Hungarian Colonel-General and last Chief of General Staff to the Austro-Hungarian Army.
 Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey (17 May 1768 – 29 April 1854), also known as Lord Uxbridge. Commanded the Cavalry Corps of the Anglo-Allied Army at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
 Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill (11 August 1772 – 10 December 1842), Lord Hill commanded the II Corps of the Anglo-Allied Army at Waterloo.

Knight's Cross
Feldmarschalleutnant Emanuel Cvjetićanin (8 August 1833). In the war of 1878–1882, Cvjetićanin was the main organizer of the gendarmerie in Sarajevo. He received numerous decorations, including the Order of Maria Theresa, and the title of baron. He was the first adjutant of Emperor Franz Josef I.
 Count Eduard Clam-Gallas (14 March 1805 in Prague – 17 March 1891 in Vienna) was an Austrian General.
 Major-General Sir Robert Henry Dick, KCB, KCH – 73rd Foot – died of wounds, 10 February 1846.
 Sir John Elley, British officer in the Napoleonic Wars.
 Karl Mack von Leiberich, Freiherr (25 August 1752 – 22 December 1828) was an Austrian soldier. He is best remembered as the commander of the Austrian forces defeated and captured by Napoleon's Grande Armée in the Battle of Ulm in 1805.
 Tadeusz Rozwadowski, known in Austria as Thaddäus Ritter (later Count, after his father's death) Jordan-Rozwadowski von Groß-Rozwadów,(19 May 1866 – 18 October 1928) was a Polish military commander, diplomat, and politician, a general of the Austro-Hungarian Army and then the Polish Army.  His family came from Lwow, Galicia, the part of Poland ruled by Austria-Hungary. He was a Feldmarschall-Leutnant and became the commanding officer of the 43rd Infantry Division, which he led during the victorious battle of Gorlice. After World War I he was one of the founders of the modern Polish State and Army and is credited as one of the victors of the Battle of Warsaw (1920).
 Korvettenkapitän Georg Ludwig von Trapp. Father of the famous Von Trapp family that inspired the movie The Sound of Music. He was awarded the order for becoming "the dread of the Adriatic" for sinking 13 ships as a submarine commander during the First World War. Born on 4 April 1880, he died of lung cancer in Vermont on 30 May 1947. He received lung cancer from the toxic fumes emitted from his submarine during the war. Out of all the medals he was awarded, this one was his favorite, and the only one he was able to smuggle out of Austria.
 Viktor Weber Edler von Webenau (* 13 November 1861 in Neuhaus; † 6 May 1932 in Innsbruck), General in the Austro-Hungarian army while World War I, military governor of Montenegro between 1916 and 1917 and head of the Austro-Hungarian armistice commission (Armistice of villa Giusti)
 Ferdinand, Freiherr of Wintzingerode (15 February 1770, Allendorf – 16 June 1818, Wiesbaden) was a German nobleman and officer in several different armies of the Napoleonic Wars, finally ending up as a general in the Imperial Russian army and fighting in the War of the Sixth Coalition against the French invasion of Russia and the subsequent campaigns in Germany and France. He appears in Tolstoy's War and Peace.
 Eugen Count Wratislaw von Mittrowitz-Nettolitzky (* 8 July 1786, in Wischopol (Czech: ), Bohemia; † 14 February 1867, in Vienna) was an Austrian Fieldmarshal.
 Maximilian Daublebsky Freiherr von Sterneck zu Ehrenstein (14 February 1829, Klagenfurt – 5 December 1897, Vienna) was an Austrian admiral who served as the chief administrator of the Austro-Hungarian Navy from 1883 until his death.
 Feldmarschalleutnant Nikolaus Esterhazy, prince Eszterhazy of Galantha (18 December 1714 – 28 September 1790). Universally recognized for his patronage of the Austrian Composer Joseph Haydn. He received the Order upon his bravery in the Battle of Kolín
 Andreas Graf O'Reilly von Ballinlough (3 August 1742 – 5 July 1832) was an Austrian soldier and military commander of Irish origin. His military service extended through the Seven Years' War, War of the Bavarian Succession, Austro-Turkish War, French Revolutionary Wars, and Napoleonic Wars. He retired from the army in 1810 and died at age 89.
 Johann Iskrić  (3 March 1884 – 14 June 1961) who received the Knight's cross for his conduct and bravery in the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo in the World War I.
Josef Bartos (1889–1941) was a Czech commander of an Austrian Artillery unit that was surrounded by Czarist Russians after their offensive broke through Austrian lines in Galacia (c.1914), and successfully fought their way out of the encirclement.
 Miklós Horthy (18 June 1868 – 9 February 1957) was a Hungarian naval officer, commanding officer of the SMS Novara received the Knight's Cross in 186th promotion on 10 March 7, 1921. for the Battle of the Strait of Otranto.
 Oberleutnant IR.102 Theodor Wanke (25 Sept. 1887, Iglau – 10. August 1944, Hrvatska Kostajnica) who received the Knight's cross for his conduct and bravery in the 8th Battle of the Isonzo (October 1916)in the World War I. in 186th promotion on 10 March 1921
 Oberleutnant IR 102 Johan Fousek (1892–1980) who received the Knight's cross for his conduct and bravery in the 7th Battle of the Isonzo in the World War I. on March, 1921
 Hauptmann IR 16 (originally IR 102) Gottlieb Vojáček who received the Knight's Cross for his conduct and bravery in the Battle near Dolina (1917) in the World War I. in 187th promotion on 10 June 1921
Linienschiffskapitän Gottfried Freiherr von Banfield, K.u.K. Kriegsmarine top ace in WW1, received the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa on 17 August 1917. Banfield was the last surviving member of the Military Order, dying in 1986, 69 years after his medal was awarded.

See also
 Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
 Order of Franz Joseph
 Order of Leopold
 Order of St. George (Habsburg-Lorraine)
 Order of the Iron Crown
 Orders, decorations, and medals of Austria-Hungary
 Order of chivalry

References

External links

 2
Awards established in 1757
Maria Theresa

Military Order of Maria Theresa


Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (known as Percy Jackson & the Lightning Thief in the UK and Australia) is a fantasy-adventure movie directed by Chris Columbus. The movie is based on The Lightning Thief, the first novel in the Percy Jackson & The Olympians series by Rick Riordan. It stars Logan Lerman as the main character, Percy Jackson, alongside an ensemble cast which includes Brandon T. Jackson, Alexandra Daddario, Jake Abel, Rosario Dawson, Steve Coogan, Uma Thurman, Catherine Keener, Sean Bean and Pierce Brosnan. It was released to theaters on February 12, 2010.

In its opening weekend the movie ranked #2; and in its first week the movie grossed $40 million, comprising 40% of its "$95 million budget". Critical reception was mixed. The movie made a worldwide total of $191,143,508 after 28 days of  release. In 2013, a sequel to the film was released and it was titled Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters.

Release dates

Plot
At the top of the Empire State Building, Poseidon (Kevin McKidd) meets with Zeus (Sean Bean), who comments that the storm clouds have no lightning and that his master bolt has been stolen. He blames Poseidon's son for the theft. Despite Poseidon's claims of his son's innocence, Zeus gives Poseidon 14 days to return it, lest war break out.

During a field trip to a display of Greek and Roman art, teenager Percy Jackson (Logan Lerman), is lured away from the crowd by a Fury disguised as his substitute English teacher, who then attacks him, questioning him about the lightning bolt. Percy, who has no knowledge of this, is rescued by his Latin teacher, Mr. Brunner (Pierce Brosnan). After getting rid of the Fury, Brunner gives Percy a magical pen. On Brunner's instruction, Percy's best friend, Grover (Brandon T. Jackson), takes Percy to a training camp for demigods (half-human, half-gods), Camp Half-Blood. They are driven by Percy's mother, Sally Jackson (Catherine Keener). During their trip to the camp, Percy tries to learn about his father from Sally, but they are attacked by a Minotaur. Percy and Grover, who is revealed to be a satyr (half-goat, half-human), make it to the camp. Its defenses keep Sally from entering, she is captured by the Minotaur, and disappears before Percy. Percy engages the Minotaur with the magical pen, which turns into a sword named Riptide. He finally kills the creature with one of its horns.

In touring Camp Half-Blood, Percy learns that Brunner is the camp's trainer and the mythological centaur (half-horse, half-human) Chiron. He also finds out that his father is the god Poseidon. He meets Luke Castellan (Jake Abel), the son of Hermes, and Annabeth Chase (Alexandra Daddario), the daughter of Athena. While at the camp, Percy learns that water has the power to heal his injuries, and allows him to use his magical abilities.

Hades later appears and reveals that Sally Jackson is his prisoner, and proposes she be traded for the master bolt. Chiron instructs Percy not to bargain with the god, but to go to Olympus to convince Zeus that he did not take the bolt. Percy sneaks away from the camp to travel to the Underworld along with Grover and Annabeth, who secure for him a portable shield from Luke, flying shoes and a map to Persephone's (Rosario Dawson) pearls, one of which will reveal the exit from the Underworld.

At Aunty Em's Garden Emporium, they are attacked by Medusa (Uma Thurman), but manage to kill her, and take the pearl from her bracelet. They also take her head, which they later successfully use against a hydra that attacks them during their gaining of another pearl from the crown of a giant statue of Athena at the Parthenon replica in Nashville, Tennessee. They acquire the third and final pearl from a roulette wheel at a hotel casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, in part with help from Poseidon. The map reveals an entrance to the Underworld in Hollywood, California, beneath the Hollywood Sign.

The trio enter the Underworld and cross the River Styx. Persephone takes them to Hades. Percy tries to explain to Hades that he did not steal the bolt. During a resulting chaos, Percy drops his shield, whose handle conceals the missing master bolt, which Hades takes. However, the trio manage to get it back before escaping the Underworld with the rescued Sally, forced to leave Grover behind, in Persephone's "care", as they only had three pearls. They are transported to the top of the Empire State Building, which they learn is the entrance to Olympus. They are confronted by Luke, who reveals himself to have been the real lightning thief. Explaining his hope for new rulers to take over Olympus, he explains that he had hoped that the trio would not escape the Underworld alive. He steals the bolt from Percy and the two fight. After using his water powers to get rid of Luke, Percy arrives in Olympus, where he presents the retrieved bolt, and reveals the truth about Luke. Poseidon explains to Percy the reason why they could not know each other during Percy's childhood, but expresses his love for his son. Percy also requests that Zeus retrieve Grover from the Underworld, to which the god agrees. Percy returns to Camp Half-Blood, where he continues his training, ending the movie in the midst of a clash with Annabeth. After the end credits, a scene shows Sally forcing Gabe out of their apartment and he reads a note on the fridge from Percy that says not to open the fridge. Gabe destroys the lock on the refrigerator and as he opens it, Medusa stares right back at him, and the scene goes black while a crackling noise is heard, showing that Gabe has been turned to stone.

Cast

Main characters
 Logan Lerman as Percy Jackson, the film's protagonist (or hero), and son of Poseidon.
 Alexandra Daddario as Annabeth Chase, daughter of Athena
 Brandon T. Jackson as Grover Underwood, Percy's best friend, a satyr (half-goat, half-human)

Gods
 Sean Bean as Zeus, Lord of the Sky and Ruler of Olympus; Hera's husband and brother.
 Kevin McKidd as Poseidon, Zeus's brother; Lord of the Sea and Percy's father.
 Steve Coogan as Hades, Lord of the Dead and the Underworld; Persephone's husband.
 Melina Kanakaredes as Athena, Goddess of Wisdom and Battle Strategies (plans); mother of Annabeth.
 Dylan Neal as Hermes, Messenger of the Gods, God of Thieves and Travelers; Luke's father.
 Rosario Dawson as Persephone, Goddess of Springtime / Queen of the Dead; Hades' wife and Zeus and Demeter's daughter.
 Erica Cerra as Hera, Goddess of women and marriage; Zeus' wife and sister.
 Stefanie von Pfetten as Demeter, Goddess of the Earth and Harvest; Persephone's mother.
 Dimitri Lekkos as Apollo, God of the Sun and Music; Artemis' twin brother.
 Ona Grauer as Artemis, Goddess of the Moon and Hunting; Apollo's twin sister.
 Serinda Swan as Aphrodite, Goddess of Love; Ares' lover, Hephaestus' Wife.
 Conrad Coates as Hephaestus, God of the Forge; Aphrodite's Husband.

Demigods
 Jake Abel as Luke Castellan, son of Hermes

Mythical creatures
 Uma Thurman as Medusa
 Pierce Brosnan as Chiron, trainer of heroes
 Maria Olson as Mrs. Dodds/Alecto, servant to Hades.
 Julian Richings as Charon, ferryman of the River Styx.

Mortals
 Catherine Keener as Sally Jackson, Percy's mother
 Joe Pantoliano as Gabe Ugliano, Percy's stepfather.

Production
In June 2004, 20th Century Fox bought the movie rights to the book. In April 2007, director Chris Columbus was hired to helm the project. Filming began in April 2009 in Vancouver. Sections of the movie were shot at the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee, a full-scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens. Filming wrapped up on the morning of July 25, 2009 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Digital intermediate work began in San Francisco in November 2009. Christophe Beck composed the score.

Columbus has stated that the cast were chosen specifically with sequels in mind. " I think with Percy Jackson it was a matter of finding the right cast to fit into these roles, sort of the perfect cast for these roles, because hopefully, God willing, we will go on to do other Percy Jackson movies and you want the cast to grow with their characters."

Reception

Box office
The movie opened on February 12, 2010 in 3,356 theaters; its opening weekend box-office results totaled $31,236,067 in the U.S., finishing at #3 behind The Wolfman, which opened at #2 with $31,479,235 and Valentine's Day, which opened at #1 with $56,260,707. The movie had a strong opening weekend for its genre, posting the highest opening weekend for a fantasy movie not from the Harry Potter, Narnia, or The Lord of the Rings series. As of March 9, 2010, it grossed a total of $78,886,633, with $111,950,508 elsewhere in the world, bringing it to $190,837,141. It is the second highest grossing movie worldwide in 2010 after Alice in Wonderland.

Critical response
Critical reception of the movie has been mixed, as indicated by a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 from Metacritic. The movie currently holds a 50% 'Rotten' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 120 reviews; the site's consensus being that although the movie "may seem like just another Harry Potter knockoff, the movie benefits from a strong supporting cast, a speedy plot, and plenty of fun with Greek mythology". Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times described the movie as "standard Hollywood product... unadventurous and uninteresting." The Washington Post reviewer thought "the movie suffers by taking itself a little too seriously. It's not just that it's a lot less funny than the book. It's also a lot less fun."
On BBC Radio 5 Mark Kermode criticized the similarity of the movie to director Chris Columbus' Harry Potter films.

Video games
A Percy Jackson video game based on Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief was released on the Nintendo DS on February 11, 2010.

GameZone's Michael Splechta gave it a 6/10, saying "Percy Jackson might not make a splash when it comes to movie tie-in games, but fans of turn-based combat might find some redeeming qualities in this otherwise bare-bones game."

References

Other websites

2010 movies
American movies
Percy Jackson and the Olympians
Movies based on books
20th Century Fox movies
Movies directed by Chris Columbus
Movies set in California


Difference can mean more than one thing.

A difference is something that two or more things do not have in common.  That is, it is something that is not the same about two things.
In mathematics, the difference between two numbers is how much bigger one is than the other. Difference is the result of subtraction.

Basic English 850 words

Difference


The Natufian culture () is a Late Epipaleolithic archaeological culture of the Neolithic prehistoric Levant in Western Asia, dating to around 15,000 to 11,500 years ago. The culture was unusual in that it supported a sedentary or semi-sedentary population even before the introduction of agriculture. The Natufian communities may be the ancestors of the builders of the first Neolithic settlements of the region, which may have been the earliest in the world. Some evidence suggests deliberate cultivation of cereals, specifically rye, by the Natufian culture at Tell Abu Hureyra, the site of earliest evidence of agriculture in the world. The world's oldest known evidence of the production of bread-like foodstuff has been found at Shubayqa 1, a 14,400-year-old site in Jordan's northeastern desert, 4,000 years before the emergence of agriculture in Southwest Asia. In addition, the oldest known evidence of possible beer-brewing, dating to approximately 13,000 BP, was found in Raqefet Cave on Mount Carmel, although the beer-related residues may simply be a result of a spontaneous fermentation.

Generally, though, Natufians exploited wild cereals and hunted animals, including gazelles. Archaeogenetic analysis has revealed derivation of later (Neolithic to Bronze Age) Levantines primarily from Natufians, besides substantial admixture from Chalcholithic Anatolians.

Dorothy Garrod coined the term Natufian based on her excavations at the Shuqba cave (Wadi an-Natuf) near the town of Shuqba.

Discovery

The Natufian culture was discovered by British archaeologist Dorothy Garrod during her excavations of Shuqba cave in the Judaean Hills, on the West Bank of the Jordan River. Prior to the 1930s, the majority of archaeological work taking place in British Palestine was biblical archaeology focused on historic periods, and little was known about the region's prehistory.

In 1928, Garrod was invited by the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem (BSAJ) to excavate Shuqba cave, where prehistoric stone tools had been discovered by Père Mallon four years earlier. She discovered a layer sandwiched between the Upper Palaeolithic and Bronze Age deposits characterised by the presence of microliths. She identified this with the Mesolithic, a transitional period between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic which was well-represented in Europe but had not yet been found in the Near East. A year later, when she discovered similar material at el-Wad Terrace, Garrod suggested the name "the Natufian culture", after Wadi an-Natuf that ran close to Shuqba.

Over the next two decades Garrod found Natufian material at several of her pioneering excavations in the Mount Carmel region, including el-Wad, Kebara and Tabun, as did the French archaeologist René Neuville, firmly establishing the Natufian culture in the regional prehistoric chronology. As early as 1931, both Garrod and Neuville drew attention to the presence of stone sickles in Natufian assemblages and the possibility that this represented a very early agriculture.

Dating

Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture at an epoch from the terminal Pleistocene to the very beginning of the Holocene, a time period between 12,500 and 9,500 BC.

The period is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,000–10,800 BC) and Late Natufian (10,800–9,500 BC). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas (10,800 to 9,500 BC). The Levant hosts more than a hundred kinds of cereals, fruits, nuts, and other edible parts of plants, and the flora of the Levant during the Natufian period was not the dry, barren, and thorny landscape of today, but rather woodland.

Precursors and associated cultures
The Natufian developed in the same region as the earlier Kebaran culture. It is generally seen as a successor, which evolved out of elements within that preceding culture. There were also other industries in the region, such as the Mushabian culture of the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula, which are sometimes distinguished from the Kebaran or believed to have been involved in the evolution of the Natufian.

More generally there has been discussion of the similarities of these cultures with those found in coastal North Africa. Graeme Barker notes there are: "similarities in the respective archaeological records of the Natufian culture of the Levant and of contemporary foragers in coastal North Africa across the late Pleistocene and early Holocene boundary". According to Isabelle De Groote and Louise Humphrey, Natufians practiced the Iberomaurusian and Capsian custom of sometimes extracting their maxillary central incisors (upper front teeth).

Ofer Bar-Yosef has argued that there are signs of influences coming from North Africa to the Levant, citing the microburin technique and "microlithic forms such as arched backed bladelets and La Mouillah points." But recent research has shown that the presence of arched backed bladelets, La Mouillah points, and the use of the microburin technique was already apparent in the Nebekian industry of the Eastern Levant. And Maher et al. state that, "Many technological nuances that have often been always highlighted as significant during the Natufian were already present during the Early and Middle EP [Epipalaeolithic] and do not, in most cases, represent a radical departure in knowledge, tradition, or behavior."

Authors such as Christopher Ehret have built upon the little evidence available to develop scenarios of intensive usage of plants having built up first in North Africa, as a precursor to the development of true farming in the Fertile Crescent, but such suggestions are considered highly speculative until more North African archaeological evidence can be gathered. In fact, Weiss et al. have shown that the earliest known intensive usage of plants was in the Levant 23,000 years ago at the Ohalo II site.

Anthropologist C. Loring Brace (1993) cross-analysed the craniometric traits of Natufian specimens with those of various ancient and modern groups from the Near East, Africa and Europe. The Late Pleistocene Epipalaeolithic Natufian sample was described as problematic due to its small size (consisting of only three males and one female), as well as the lack of a comparative sample from the Natufians' putative descendants in the Neolithic Near East. Brace observed that the Natufian fossils lay between those of the Niger–Congo-speaking series included and the other samples (Near East, Europe), which he suggested may point to a Sub-Saharan influence in their constitution. Subsequent ancient DNA analysis of Natufian skeletal remains by Lazaridis et al. (2016) found that the specimens instead were a mix of 50% Basal Eurasian ancestral component (see Archaeogenetics) and 50% West-Eurasian Unknown Hunter Gatherer (UHG) population related to European Western Hunter-Gatherers.

According to Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, "It seems that certain preadaptive traits, developed already by the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran populations within the Mediterranean park forest, played an important role in the emergence of the new socioeconomic system known as the Natufian culture."

Settlements

Settlements occur mostly in Israel and Palestine. This could be deemed the core zone of the Natufian culture, but Israel is a place that has been excavated more frequently than other places hence the greater number of sites. During the years more sites have been found outside the core zone of Israel and Palestine stretching into what now is Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, the Sinai Peninsula and the Negev desert. The settlements in the Natufian culture were larger and more permanent than in preceding ones. Some Natufian sites had stone built architecture; Ain Mallaha is an example of round stone structures. Cave sites are also seen frequently during the Natufian culture. El Wad is a Natufian cave site with occupation in the front part of the cave also called the terrace. Some Natufian sites were located in forest/steppe areas and others near inland mountains. The Natufian settlements appear to be the first to exhibit evidence of food storage; not all Natufian sites have storage facilities, but they have been identified at certain sites.

Material culture

Lithics
The Natufian had a microlithic industry centered on short blades and bladelets. The microburin technique was used. Geometric microliths include lunates, trapezes, and triangles. There are backed blades as well. A special type of retouch (Helwan retouch) is characteristic for the early Natufian. In the late Natufian, the Harif-point, a typical arrowhead made from a regular blade, became common in the Negev. Some scholars use it to define a separate culture, the Harifian.

Sickle blades also appear for the first time in the Natufian lithic industry. The characteristic sickle-gloss shows that they were used to cut the silica-rich stems of cereals, indirectly suggesting the existence of incipient agriculture. Shaft straighteners made of ground stone indicate the practice of archery. There are heavy ground-stone bowl mortars as well.

Art
The Ain Sakhri lovers, a carved stone object held at the British Museum, is the oldest known depiction of a couple having sex. It was found in the Ain Sakhri cave in the Judean desert.

Burials

Natufian grave goods are typically made of shell, teeth (of red deer), bones, and stone. There are pendants, bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and belt-ornaments as well.

In 2008, the 12,400–12,000 cal BC grave of an apparently significant Natufian female was discovered in a ceremonial pit in the Hilazon Tachtit cave in northern Israel.  Media reports referred to this person as a "shaman". The burial contained the remains of at least three aurochs and 86 tortoises, all of which are thought to have been brought to the site during a funeral feast.  The body was surrounded by tortoise shells, the pelvis of a leopard, forearm of a boar, a wingtip of a golden eagle, and skull of a beech marten.

Long-distance exchange
At Ain Mallaha (in Northern Israel), Anatolian obsidian and shellfish from the Nile valley have been found. The source of malachite beads is still unknown. Epipaleolithic Natufians carried parthenocarpic figs from Africa to the southeastern corner of the Fertile Crescent, .

Other finds
There was a rich bone industry, including harpoons and fish hooks. Stone and bone were worked into pendants and other ornaments. There are a few human figurines made of limestone (El-Wad, Ain Mallaha, Ain Sakhri), but the favorite subject of representative art seems to have been animals. Ostrich-shell containers have been found in the Negev.

In 2018, the world's oldest brewery was found, with the residue of 13,000-year-old beer, in a prehistoric cave near Haifa in Israel when researchers were looking for clues into what plant foods the Natufian people were eating. This is 8,000 years earlier than experts previously thought beer was invented.

A study published in 2019 shows an advanced knowledge of lime plaster production at a Natufian cemetery in Nahal Ein Gev II site in the Upper Jordan Valley dated to 12 thousand (calibrated) years before present [k cal BP]. Production of plaster of this quality was previously thought to have been achieved some 2,000 years later.

Subsistence

The Natufian people lived by hunting and gathering. The preservation of plant remains is poor because of the soil conditions, but at some sites such as Tell Abu Hureyra substantial  amounts of plant remains discovered through flotation have been excavated. However wild cereals like legumes, almonds, acorns and pistachios have been collected throughout most of the Levant. Animal bones show that mountain and goitered gazelles (Gazella gazella and Gazella subgutturosa) were the main prey.

Additionally, deer, aurochs and wild boar were hunted in the steppe, as well as onagers and caprids (ibex). Waterfowl and freshwater fish formed part of the diet in the Jordan river valley. Animal bones from Salibiya I (12,300 – 10,800 cal BP) have been interpreted as evidence for communal hunts with nets, however, the radiocarbon dates are far too old compared to the cultural remains of this settlement, indicating contamination of the samples.

Development of agriculture
A pita-like bread has been found from 12,500 BC attributed to Natufians. This bread is made of wild cereal seeds and papyrus cousin tubers, ground into flour.

According to one theory, it was a sudden change in climate, the Younger Dryas event ( to 9500 BC), which inspired the development of agriculture. The Younger Dryas was a 1,000-year-long interruption in the higher temperatures prevailing since the Last Glacial Maximum, which produced a sudden drought in the Levant.  This would have endangered the wild cereals, which could no longer compete with dryland scrub, but upon which the population had become dependent to sustain a relatively large sedentary population.  By artificially clearing scrub and planting seeds obtained from elsewhere, they began to practice agriculture. However, this theory of the origin of agriculture is controversial in the scientific community.

Domesticated dog

At the Natufian site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together. At another Natufian site at the cave of Hayonim, humans were found buried with two canids.

Archaeogenetics

Ancient DNA analysis has confirmed the genetic relationship between Natufians and other ancient and modern Middle Easterners and the broader West-Eurasian meta-population (i.e. Europeans and South-Central Asians). The Natufian population displays also ancestral ties to Paleolithic Taforalt samples, the makers of the Epipaleolithic Iberomaurusian culture of the Maghreb, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant, the Early Neolithic Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa culture of the Maghreb, the Late Neolithic Kelif el Boroud culture of the Maghreb, with samples associated with these early cultures all sharing a common genomic component dubbed the "Natufian component", which diverged from other West-Eurasian lineages ~26,000 years ago, and is most closely linked to the Arabian lineage.

Individuals associated with the Natufian culture have been found to cluster with other West-Eurasian populations, but also have substantial higher ancestry that can be traced back to the hypothetical "Basal Eurasian" lineage, which contributed in varying degrees to all West-Eurasian lineages, except the Ancient North Eurasians, and peaks among modern Gulf Arabs. The Natufians were already differentiated from other West-Eurasian lineages, such as the Anatolian farmers north of the Levant, that contributed to the peopling of Europe in significant amounts, and who had some Western Hunter Gatherer-like (WHG) inferred ancestry, in contrast to Natufians who lacked this component (similar to Neolithic Iranian farmers from the Zagros mountains). This might suggest that different strains of West-Eurasians contributed to Natufians and Zagros farmers, as both Natufians and Zagros farmers descended from different populations of local hunter gatherers. Contact between Natufians, other Neolithic Levantines, Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG), Anatolian and Iranian farmers is believed to have decreased genetic variability among later populations in the Middle East. Migrations from the Near-East also occurred towards Africa, and the West-Eurasian geneflow into the Horn of Africa is best represented by the Levant Neolithic, and may be associated with the spread of Afroasiatic languages. The scientists suggest that the Levantine early farmers may have spread southward into East Africa, bringing along the associated ancestral components.

According to ancient DNA analyses conducted in 2016 by Iosif Lazaridis et al. and discussed in two articles "The Genetic Structure of the World's First Farmers" (June 2016) and "Genomic Insights into the Origin of Farming in the Ancient Near East (July 2016)  on Natufian skeletal remains from present-day northern Israel, the remains of 5 Natufians carried the following paternal haplgroups:

 E1b1b1b2 (xE1b1b1b2a, E1b1b1b2b) - meaning an unspecified branch of E1b1b1b2
 E1b1 (xE1b1a1, E1b1b1b1) - i.e. a branch of E1b1 that is neither E1b1a1 nor E1b1b1b1.
 E1b1b1 - originally classified as CT but further defined as E1b1b1 by Martiniano et al. 2020.

Daniel Shriner (2018), using modern populations as a reference, showed that the Natufians carried 61.2% Arabian, 21.2% Northern African, 10.9% Western Asian, and a small amount of Eastern African ancestry at 6.8% which is associated with the modern Omotic-speaking groups of southern Ethiopia. The study also suggested that this component may be the source of Haplogroup E-M96 (particularly Y-haplogroup E-M215, also known as "E1b1b") among Natufians.

Loosedrecht et al. (2018) argues that the Natufians had contributed genetically to the Iberomaurusian peoples of Paleolithic and Mesolithic northwest Africa, with the Iberomaurusians' other ancestral component being a unique one of sub-Saharan Africa origin (having both West African-like and Hadza-like affinities). The Sub-Saharan African DNA in Taforalt individuals has the closest affinity, most of all, to that of modern West Africans (e.g., Yoruba, or Mende). In addition to having similarity with the remnant of a more basal Sub-Saharan African lineage (e.g., a basal West African lineage shared between Yoruba and Mende peoples), the Sub-Saharan African DNA in the Taforalt individuals of the Iberomaurusian culture may be best represented by modern West Africans (e.g., Yoruba).

Iosif Lazaridis et al. (2018), as summarized by Rosa Fregel (2021), contested the conclusion of Loosdrecht (2018) and argued instead that the Iberomaurusian population of Upper Paleolithic North Africa, represented by the Taforalt sample, "can be better modeled as a mixture of a Dzudzuana [West-Eurasian] component and a sub-Saharan African component." Furthermore, Iosif Lazaridis et al. (2018) "also argue that..the Taforalt people..contributed to the genetic composition of Natufians and not the other way around." Fregel (2021) summarized: "More evidence will be needed to determine the specific origin of the North African Upper Paleolithic populations."

Language
Alexander Militarev,  Vitaly Shevoroshkin and others have linked the Natufian culture to the proto-Afroasiatic language, which they in turn believe has a Levantine origin. Some scholars, for example Christopher Ehret, Roger Blench and others, contend that the Afroasiatic Urheimat is to be found in North Africa or Northeast Africa, probably in the area of Egypt, the Sahara,  Horn of Africa or Sudan. Within this group, Ehret, who like Militarev believes Afroasiatic may already have been in existence in the Natufian period, would associate Natufians only with the Near Eastern Proto-Semitic branch of Afroasiatic.

Sites
The Natufian culture has been documented at dozens of sites. Around 90 have been excavated, including:

 Aammiq 2
 Tell Abu Hureyra
 Abu Salem
 Abu Usba
 Ain Choaab
 Ain Mallaha (Eynan)
 Ain Rahub
 Ain Sakhri
 Ala Safat
 Antelias Cave
 Azraq 18 (Ain Saratan)
 Baaz
 Bawwab al Ghazal
 Beidha
 Dederiyeh
 Dibsi Faraj
 El Khiam
 El Kowm I
 El Wad
 Erq el Ahmar
 Fazael IV & VI
 Gilgal II
 Givat Hayil I
 Har Harif K7
 Hatoula
 Hayonim Cave and Hayonim Terrace
 Hilazon Tachtit
 Hof Shahaf
 Huzuq Musa
 Iraq ed Dubb
 Iraq el Barud
 Iraq ez Zigan
 J202
 J203
 J406a
 J614
 Jayroud 1–3 & 9
 Jebel Saaidé II
 Jeftelik
 Jericho
 Kaus Kozah
 Kebara
 Kefar Vitkin 3
 Khallat Anaza (BDS 1407)
 Khirbat Janba
 Kosak Shamali
 Maaleh Ramon East
 Maaleh Ramon West
 Moghr el Ahwal
 Mureybet
 Mushabi IV & XIX
 Nachcharini Cave
 Nahal Ein Gev II
 Nahal Hadera I and Nahal Hadera IV (Hefsibah)
 Nahal Oren
 Nahal Sekher 23
 Nahal Sekher VI
 Nahr el Homr 2
 Qarassa 3
 Ramat Harif (G8)
 Raqefet Cave
 Rosh Horesha
 Rosh Zin
 Sabra 1
 Saflulim
 Salibiya 1
 Salibiya 9
 Sands of Beirut
 Shluhat Harif
 Shubayqa 1
 Shubayqa 6
 Shukhbah Cave
 Shunera VI
 Shunera VII
 Tabaqa (WHS 895)
 Taibé
 TBAS 102
 TBAS 212
 Tor at Tariq (WHS 1065)
 Tugra I
 Upper Besor 6
 Wadi Hammeh 27
 Wadi Jilat 22
 Wadi Judayid (J2)
 Wadi Mataha
 Yabrud 3
 Yutil al Hasa (WHS 784)

See also

 Prehistory of the Levant
 Proto-Afroasiatic language
 Afroasiatic Urheimat

References

Further reading

External links

 Epi-Palaeolithic (European Mesolithic) Natufian Culture of Israel (The History of the Ancient Near East)

The genetic structure of the world's first farmers, Lazaridis et al, 2016

Industries (archaeology)
Archaeological cultures of West Asia
Archaeological cultures of the Near East
Hunter-gatherers of Asia
Epipalaeolithic cultures
Archaeological cultures in Israel
Archaeological cultures in Jordan
Archaeological cultures in Lebanon
Archaeological cultures in Palestine
Archaeological cultures in Syria
Epipalaeolithic
Younger Dryas

Natufian culture


Mark Holtzapple is a chemical engineering professor at Texas A&M University.  His research focuses on technologies that improve sustainability.

Life

Childhood
In 1956, Mark Holtzapple was born to Joan Carol and Arthur Robert Holtzapple in Enid, Oklahoma. In his early years, Mark's father was an Air Force pilot, so the family moved frequently. After Enid, his family moved to Dover, Delaware, and then to Japan.  In 1961, his father left the Air Force to become an architect and his family returned to the United States to live in York, Pennsylvania. In 1972, the family moved to Bloomington, Minnesota where he graduated from Bloomington Lincoln High School in 1974.

Education
In 1978, Mark Holtzapple earned his B.S. in chemical engineering at Cornell University. In 1981, he earned his Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the University of Pennsylvania.

Career
From 1981 to 1985, Mark Holtzapple served in the U.S. Army, mostly stationed at the United States Army Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center, where he rose to the rank of captain.  There, he researched water desalination and microclimate cooling, a method to prevent heat stress in soldiers encapsulated in chemical protective clothing.

In 1986, he joined the Department of Chemical Engineering at Texas A&M University. Dr. Holtzapple's research interests include the following: fuels and chemicals from biomass, food and feed processing, water desalination, high-efficiency air conditioning, high-efficiency engines, jet ejectors, compressors, expanders, conversion of waste heat to electricity, high-torque electric motors, and vertical-lift aircraft.

Awards and honors

Teaching
 Fluor Distinguished Teaching Award, 2012
 Professor of the Year, AIChE Student Chapter, 2008
 Corps of Cadets Teaching Award, 2002
 Tenneco Meritorious Teaching Award, 2001
 AIChE Student Chapter Award of Excellence, 1992
 Tenneco Meritorious Teaching Award, 1991
 Texas A&M Association of Former Students Distinguished Teaching Award for Texas A&M, 1991
 Dow Excellence in Teaching Award (Tenured Faculty), 1991
 Texas A&M Association of Former Students Distinguished Teaching Award for the College of Engineering, 1990
 General Dynamics Excellence in Teaching Award, 1990
 AIChE Student Chapter Award of Excellence, 1989
 AIChE Student Chapter Award of Excellence, 1988
 Dow Excellence in Teaching Award (Untenured Faculty), 1988

Research
 Dean of Engineering Excellence Awards, 2016
 Odebrecht Award for Sustainable Development, 2014
 William Keeler Memorial Award for Contribution, 2014
 College of Engineering Faculty Fellow (sponsored by George Armistead, Jr.), 2014
 USAA (United Services Automobile Association) Distinguished Lecture, 2010
 Commercialization Rising Star Award, Research Valley Partnership, 2008
 Chevron Faculty Fellow, 2008
 Halliburton Professorship Award for Excellence in Teaching and Research, 2008
 Excellence in Innovation Award, Texas A&M University, 2007
 Walston Chubb Award for Innovation, Sigma Xi, 2006
 Top 100 Energy Technology, New Energy Congress, 2006
 Texas A&M University Distinguished Lecture, 2006
 Texas A&M Ingenuity Award, 2003
 Testified at field hearing before U.S. House of Representatives, 2003
 Halliburton Professorship, 2002–03
 Ford Fellowship, 2001
 Brockett Professor, 2000
 TEES Senior Fellow, 1999
 TEES Faculty Fellow, 1998
 McGraw-Hill Environmental Champion Award, 1997
 TEES Fellow, 1996
 Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award, 1996
 TEES Fellow, 1995
 Who's Who in Science and Engineering, 2nd Edition

Military
 First Prize, Army Science Symposium, 1986
 U.S. Army Meritorious Service Medal, 1985
 Petroleum Basic Course Distinguished Military Graduate, 1982
 Officer Basic Course Distinguished Military Graduate, 1981
 ROTC Distinguished Military Graduate, 1978
 American Society of Military Engineers National Citation, 1977
 American Society of Military Engineers Scholarship, 1977
 Four-year Army ROTC Scholarship, 1974

Academic
 Texas A&M Commencement Keynote Speaker, 2009
 McGraw-Hill Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Group's First Edition of the Year Award, 2006
 Who's Who Among America's Teachers, 1996
 Cornell Graduate with Distinction, 1978

Public Service
 Bush Excellence Award for Faculty in Public Service, 2013

Teaching
Dr. Holtzapple currently teaches thermodynamics, unit operations laboratory, foundations of engineering, bioprocess engineering, and seminar.  Previously, he has taught introduction to chemical engineering, reaction kinetics, and bioprocess engineering.  He co-authored Foundations of Engineering and Concepts in Engineering.

Commercialization Activities
Dr. Holtzapple's research has resulted in two spin-off companies.

Earth Energy Renewables
Earth Energy Renewables was founded to commercialize the following technologies:

 MixAlco process — involves the bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels, industrial chemicals, and hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and jet fuel.
 SoluPro — involves the conversion of proteins, such as chicken feathers, into a soluble syrup

StarRotor Corporation
StarRotor Corporation was founded to commercialize the following technologies:

 Compressors — these high-efficiency devices employ gerotor geometries to compress gases and vapors
 Expanders — these high-efficiency devices employ gerotor geometries to expand gases and vapors
 Engines — a gerotor compressor and expander are combined in a recuperated Brayton cycle that is 2 to 3 times more efficient than traditional piston engines

Sources
 Texas A&M Department of Chemical Engineering Faculty: Mark Holtzapple
 Texas A&M Department of Chemical Engineering Faculty: Mark Holtzapple
 StarRotor Corporation personnel
 Texas A&M Department of Chemical Engineering Research: Mark Holtzapple

References

Living people
American chemical engineers
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
Texas A&M University faculty
People from Enid, Oklahoma
1956 births

Mark Holtzapple


The Husband of the Rat's Daughter is a Japanese fairy tale.  Andrew Lang included it in The Brown Fairy Book.  It is Aarne-Thompson type 2031C, a chain tale or cumulative tale.  Another story of this type is The Mouse Turned into a Maid.

Synopsis
Two rats had a remarkably beautiful daughter. In some variants, the father would have been happy to marry her to a rat of finer family, but the mother did not want her daughter to marry a mere rat; in others, they both agreed that she must marry the greatest being in the world.  They offered her to the sun, telling him they wanted a son-in-law who was greater than all.  The sun told them that he could not take advantage of their ignorance: the cloud, which blotted out his face, was greater.  So they asked the cloud instead.  The cloud told them that the wind freely blew it about.  They asked the wind.  The wind told them that the wall could easily stop it. They asked the wall.  The wall told them that a rat could reduce it to powder with its teeth.  So they married her to a rat.

See also

The Stonecutter

References

External links
The Husband of the Rat's Daughter
"The Mouse Who Was to Marry the Sun: fables of Aarne-Thompson type 2031C -- variants

Animal tales
ATU 2000-2199
Fictional married couples
Fictional mice and rats
Japanese fairy tales
Works about marriage

The Husband of the Rat's Daughter