The maravedí () or maravedi (), (from  Almoravid dinar), was the name of various Iberian coins of gold and then silver between the 11th and 14th centuries and the name of different Iberian accounting units between the 11th and 19th centuries.

Etymology

The word maravedí comes from marabet or marabotin, a variety of the gold dinar struck in Iberia by, and named after, the Moorish Almoravids (Arabic المرابطون al-Murābitũn, sing. مرابط Murābit). The Spanish word maravedí is unusual in having three documented plural forms: maravedís, maravedíes and maravedises. The first one is the most straightforward, the second is a variant plural formation found commonly in words ending with a stressed -í, whereas the third is the most unusual and the least recommended (Real Academia Española's Diccionario panhispánico de dudas labels it "vulgar in appearance").

History

The gold dinar was first struck in Iberia under Abd-ar-Rahman III, Emir of Córdoba (912–961). During the 11th century, the dinar became known as the morabit, morabotin or morabetino throughout Europe. In the 12th century, it was copied by the Christian rulers Sancho I of Portugal (1154-1211), Ferdinand II of León (1157–1188) and Alfonso VIII of Castile (1158–1214). The new version of the coin became known as the morabitino in the Kingdom of Portugal and as maravedí in the remaining Iberian Kingdoms. Alfonso's gold marabotin or maravedí retained inscriptions in Arabic but had the letters ALF at the bottom. It weighed about 3.8 grams.

In Castile, the maravedí de oro soon became the accounting unit for gold, alongside the sueldo (from solidus) for silver and the dinero (from [denarius]) for billon (vellón in Spanish).

The gold content of the maravedí fell to a gram during the reign of James I of Aragon (1213–1276), and it kept falling, eventually becoming a silver coin under Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284). By this time the word maravedí was being used for a specific coin officially, for any coin colloquially, and as a synonym for money itself, resulting in a certain confusion in interpreting 13th-century references to money, values, and coinage.

Alfonso X, for example, made three issues of billon, in each of which the new coin was called a maravedí. His basic silver coin of 1258–1271 was also called a maravedí (maravedí de plata). It weighed 6.00 g and contained 3.67 g of fine silver. It was worth 30 dineros. At that time, the money of account was the Maravedí of 15 Sueldos or 180 Dineros, so that one maravedí as an accounting unit was worth six silver maravedí coins.

The silver maravedí money of account represented (according to one interpretation) about 22 g of silver in 1258. This had fallen to 11 g by 1271, to 3 g by 1286, and to 1.91 g in 1303. The gold maravedí had disappeared as a money of account by 1300. The maravedí de plata (silver maravedí) gradually came to be used as money of account for larger sums, for the value of gold coins, and for the mint price of silver, and eventually it supplanted the sueldo as the main accounting unit. Alfonso XI (1312–1350) did not call any of his coins a maravedí, and henceforth the term was used only as a unit of account and not as the name of a coin.

In 1537 it became the smallest Spanish unit of account, the thirty-fourth part of a real. In the new world, nonetheless, there are documents which testify to the reduction of their value to less than the thirtieth part of a real. This reduction was on account of the cost and risk of their transportation from Spain, before the establishment of the first mint houses of Mexico and Santo Domingo.  The maravedí remained a money of account in Spain until 1847.

After Spain's discovery of the Americas, copper maravedís, along with silver reales, were the first coins struck in Spain for the purpose of circulation in the New World colonies. These coins, minted with a special design for specific use of the Americas, were first coined in Seville in 1505 for shipment to the colonial island of Hispaniola the following year, thus giving these coins their distinction as the first coins for the New World.  By 1531 these coins were still being minted, by now in both Seville and Burgos. These maravedís were used as Spanish Colonial change for smaller transactions and after mints were later established in the New World, in both Mexico (ordered in 1535, production began in 1536) and Santo Domingo (ordered in 1536, production began in 1542), coins of this type were also minted there.

See also
 Cornado

Rare references
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Notes

Medieval currencies
Modern obsolete currencies
Currencies of Portugal
Coins of Spain
Almoravid dynasty
Coins of the medieval Islamic world

Maravedí


Moby Zazà is a ferry operated by Moby Lines between Nice and Bastia. Until 2015 she was MS Wind Perfection, an accommodation ship owned and operated by C-bed.  She was built in 1982 as MS Olau Britannia by Weser Seebeckswerft in Bremerhaven for Olau Line, who used her on Sheerness—Vlissingen service. In 1990 she was sold to Fred. Olsen Lines and renamed MS Bayard for services between Norway and Denmark. In 1991 Fred. Olsen Lines was sold to Color Line and the Bayard passed under their ownership under the name MS Christian IV. In 2008, she was sold to Stella Lines and renamed MS Julia for service between Helsinki and St. Petersburg. This was a failure and after just two months the Julia was laid up. In 2009, she was sold to Fastnet Line and entered service on their Swansea—Cork route in 2010, retaining her earlier name.

History

1982–1990: Olau Line

The Olau Britannia was delivered as the younger sister of MS Olau Hollandia on May 5, 1982. Two days later she was christened by Princess Margaret in Sheerness and placed on the route Sheerness—Vlissingen. In August 1984 the ship collided with the freighter MS Mont Louis in the English channel. Olau Line ordered larger replacements for the Olau Hollandia and Olau Britannia in the late 1980s (which were also named Olau Hollandia and Olau Britannia).  In preparation for delivery of its replacement, the first Olau Britannia was sold to Nordström & Thulin, Sweden on October 4, 1989, to be delivered in 1990. However, already on October 11 Nordström & Thulin resold the ship to Fred. Olsen & Co.

1990–2008: Fred. Olsen Lines and Color Line
In May 1990 the ship was delivered to her new owners and renamed MS Bayard. After a refit at Blohm & Voss, Hamburg, Germany, the Bayard was set in on Kristiansand—Hirtshals route in June 1990. For the winter season she was transferred to Oslo—Hirtshals service. Fred. Olsen sold its Scandinavian ferry operations to Color Line in December 1990, and in January 1991 the Bayard was renamed MS Christian IV. The ship was kept on the Oslo — Hirtshals service until April 1994, when she returned to the Kristiansand — Hirtshals route. In March 1995 the ship temporarily sailed on the Moss—Kiel route, after which she reverted to her older route. The ship was refitted in 1999 at Fredericia Værft in Denmark, with additional restaurants and better conference facilities. She was refitted again in 2005, this time at Remontowa, Gdańsk, Poland. In March 2008 she was replaced by the new  on the Kristiansand—Hirsthals route, and laid up at Sandefjord. Between 2008-04-10 and 2008-06-15 the Christian IV sailed on the Larvik—Hirsthals route, replacing  – that had been sold to the Mediterranean Shipping Company – until the delivery of the new MS Superspeed 2.

2008: Stella Lines

On 2008-05-20 the Christian IV was sold by Color Line to Stella Naves Russia (Stella Lines), a subsidiary of the Finnish freight shipping and stevedoring operator Stella Company Group, for €13 million. The ship was delivered to her new owners in July 2008, and subsequently renamed Julia. On 2008-08-01 she entered service on Stella Lines' Helsinki—St. Petersburg route. Passenger numbers on the Julia were low due to the bureaucracy related to applying a visa in order to travel between Finland and Russia. Additionally due to restrictions imposed by the Port of Helsinki the Julia could not carry any freight on the service. On 2008-09-20 the Russian State Duma approved a law change allowing passengers arriving by scheduled ferry services to visit Russia for up to 72 hours without a visa.

Despite this legislation change the Helsinki—St. Petersburg service of the Julia was terminated due slower than expected growth of the passenger numbers, failure to acquire additional funding due to the economic crisis of 2008 and larger than expected harbour expenses in St. Petersburg. On 9 October 2008 Stella Lines CEO Kari Juvas stated that the company would make the decisions about the future of the Julia within the next few days. According to Juvas the alternatives are selling the ship or utilizing the ship on a service between Kotka, Finland and Sillamäe, Estonia. Juvas had stated that Stella was interested in operating a ship on the Kotka—Sillamäe route already in July 2007. The Russia-based companies Morskoi Voksal and Inflot, along with the City of St. Petersburg planned on acquiring the share majority of Stella Lines and providing funding for recommencing service on the Helsinki—St. Petersburg route with the Julia. However, on 3 November 2008 it was reported that the City of St. Petersburg had withdrawn from the purchase. On the same date Kim Sjöblom of Stella Lines stated the company are looking for other funders allowing the service to be restarted. These attempts failed and Stella Lines was declared bankrupt on 6 November 2008, with the ownership of the Julia passing to Stella's creditors Aktia Savings Bank.

Reportedly several companies have expressed an interest in buying the Julia, but none have been able to raise the capital needed to buy her. On 17 February 2009 it was reported that one of the potential buyers for the Julia is Irish shipowner Frank Allen, who had acquired a loan from a Finnish bank to purchase the ship for use on a service between Cork and Swansea under the brand of B&I Line, which would be re-established for this service. A public auction to sell the Julia was held on 26 February 2009, but no bids were made. In a second auction held on 12 March 2009 B&I Line made the highest bid of €6 million, but confusion surrounded the initial undertaking of €1.5 million to secure the ship and she remained unsold. No further auction was held, instead the bankrupt's estate negotiated directly with potential buyers. In addition to B&I Line, Greek Halkidon Shipping Corporation and two unnamed Finnish companies were reported to have shown interest in the ship.

2012–2015: C-Bed – Wind Perfection
From 2012 the ship was an accommodation ship owned and operated by C-bed and used at West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm and nearby Walney Wind Farm. She was sold in December 2015.

2015– : Moby Line – Moby Zazà

Following bankruptcy of former operator, SNCM, Moby Line bought the ferry to operate their new France to Corsica service, together with MV Moby Corse. She started in June 2016, but suffered an electrical fire, whilst at Nice, in August 2016.

References

External links

Ferries of the Republic of Ireland
Cruiseferries
Ships built in Bremen (state)
1981 ships
Former Color Line ships

MS Moby Zazà


Dhuoda (fl. AD 824–844) was a Frankish writer, as well as Duchess consort of Septimania and Countess consort of Barcelona. She was the author of the Liber Manualis, a handbook written for her son.

Life

Dhuoda, author of the Liber Manualis, was a significant Carolingian woman and writer from  a powerful Austrasian family in Aachen. It has been speculated that her unusual name is an attempt to render the Basque name Toda, and that she may have been daughter of Sancho I, Duke of Gascony. She married Bernard, Duke of Septimania, at the Carolingian capital of Aachen in 824. The specific date of the wedding is contested. Some believe that it fell on the feast of Saints Peter and Paul, which was the 24th of June, while others believe the date to be the 29th of June. Her husband Bernard was the son of William of Gellone, Duke of Toulouse and Charlemagne's cousin, who was later named the patron saint of knights. Bernard was a Count of Barcelona and during their marriage he was advisor to Emperor Louis and protector of the Empress Judith as well as being appointed to the office of chamberlain. There were reports of Judith and Bernard being guilty of adultery, sorcery, and attempted assassination. When Bernard broke his alliance with Charles the Bald, he took control of Toulouse but was later captured and decapitated.

Their first son, William of Septimania, was born on 29 November 826, and the second, Bernard Plantapilosa, on 22 March 841. William was taken from his parents and put under the care of Charles the Bald when he was fourteen years old. While he was away, Dhouda began to write her handbook for him. Her youngest son was also taken from her, although he was taken by his father Bernard and the Bishop of Uzes in order to keep him safe.  During this time, Bernard sent Dhuoda to live in Uzes while he was at court in Aachen. Dhuoda herself mentions very little of him during this time. According to Dhuoda, she spent this time struggling to maintain her husband's authority in their land and on the border of Francia. She fulfilled the administrative and military responsibilities of Frankish Septimania on Louis the Pious' behalf.  One scholar has suggested that a daughter was born in 844, as one chronicler reports the marriage of William's sister.

Although Dhuoda was married to the most prominent Frankish magistrate at the time, she is not mentioned in any contemporary works from that period except her own. What little we know of her life comes from her book, the Liber Manualis, or Manual, which Dhuoda wrote for her elder son, William, between 841 and 843. It is known to have been sent to William in 843. It was a work written when Dhuoda had been separated from both her husband and her two sons, the victim of the conflicting ambitions of Charlemagne's descendants. William had been sent as a hostage to the court of Charles the Bald in order to secure the loyalty of his father; Bernard was taken from her before his baptism and was sent to Aquitaine in order to keep him safe.

The context of France at the time

The context of the time was a long period of warfare among the Frankish nobility.

Emperor Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, died in 840. His three sons (Lothair, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald) fought over the partition of the empire. Eventually they divided Europe at the Treaty of Verdun. Louis would hold onto authority over the eastern Franks, Charles established himself in the west, and Lothar received territory that cut north to south from the Low Countries to Italy.

Dhuoda wrote that the Carolingian house's enmity had started over ten years before when the emperor's sons started to rebel against their father's authority. The struggle for power embroiled the nobility with the heirs, including her husband, who held a great amount of power as the ruler of Septimania. Because of this power, Bernard's son, William, was held hostage at the court of Charles the Bald, while their other son Bernard lived with his father in Aquitaine.

Eventually politics caught up with her family. Her husband, Bernard, was condemned for rebellion and executed in 844. Of her sons, William was killed in 850, Bernard in 885.

Liber Manualis

The Liber Manualis is arguably what Dhuoda is most well known for. This hand book consists of seventy-three chapters as well as an introduction, invocation, and prologue. The book is full of practical moral directives aimed to help guide her sons through life. It is an invaluable document both for the general history of the Frankish era, but also for the history of education and the standards of education which could be attained by women even within the prescriptive bounds of early medieval society. It contains numerous quotations from and allusions to the Bible, and some references to secular writers, though some of the references are incorrect and the Latin is not overly polished.

Dhuoda wrote the Liber Manualis while she was fearing for the lives of herself and her children. Christian devotion was an important part in the lives of Frankish nobility and was the main theme throughout the handbook. Although the books title doesn't contain the name of her son, William, it is made clear in the introduction and conclusion of the book that the intended audience was that of her oldest son. Some historians also believe that in addition to her son Dhuoda intended to have the extended audience of his peers at court including Charles the Bald. In addition to this she also encouraged William to share what he learned from the handbook with his younger brother when he is older.

The Liber Manualis is divided by the 1975 editor into the following books

 Prologue – the author and her reasons for writing
 Book 1 – loving God
 Book 2 – the mystery of Trinity
 Book 3 – social order and secular success
 Book 4 – moral life
 Book 5 – God's chastisement of those he loves
 Book 6 – the usefulness of the beatitudes
 Book 7 – the deaths of the body and of the spirit
 Book 8 – how to pray and for whom
 Book 9 – interpreting numbers
 Book 10 – summary of the work's major points, more on the author
 Book 11 – the usefulness of reciting the Psalms

The work is known from a manuscript of the seventeenth century in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and from fragments of a manuscript of the Carolingian epoch, found in the library of Nîmes.

Influence

Dhuoda's book is the only one known to be written by a woman to survive from the Carolingian period. Her work is important in that it offers insight into the education of women, the raising of children, the order of society, the importance of fathers, and how Christianity impacted the lives of the Frankish nobility.

Having the Liber Manualis provides one of our only looks into what an educated woman from this time would know. Dhuodas handbook showed that she was not only literate but also understood numerical learning. In addition to being a guide for William Dhuoda gave examples of her knowledge on Christian texts like the bible as well as her knowledge of the Latin language.

Pierre Riché, the 1975 French translator of Dhuoda's work, said that Dhuoda's intellectual background was representative of the education that was offered to women during the reign of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious.

Dhuoda stresses often the importance of obeying fathers, even above kings. The Frankish society was extremely patriarchal. She says: "Now I must do my best to guide you in how you should fear, love, and be faithful to your lord and father, Bernard, in all things, both when you are with him and when you are apart from him." (Book 3)

Dhuoda often references works by thinkers including Alcuin of York, Gregory of Tours, and Augustine of Hippo, among many others.

Dhuoda's work was not widely studied until 1975 when Pierre Riché translated the text in French in 1975 and it was available for wider distribution.

Duoda is the name given to the Duoda Women's Research Centre or Centre for Research on Women at the University of Barcelona, Spain

Quotations

 You will find in it [the handbook] a mirror in which you can without hesitation contemplate the health of your soul, so that you may be pleasing not only in this world, but to him who formed you out of dust. (Prologue)
 Among the human race, to attain perfection requires the application of great and constant effort. We must apply to various evils the remedies that are their antidotes. (Book 4)
 We know that poverty and want are found not only among the least of men but also frequently, for many reasons, among the great, So it is that a rich man too may be in need. Why? Because his soul is wretchedly needy. And then there is the poor man who gathers riches with great ease. Or the rich man who envies the poor man, or the poor man who wishes to become rich, just as an unlettered man wishing to become learned may desire this completely but never accomplish it. (Book 4)
 Pray for the past, if you have been neglectful, that you may finally forget this; for present evils, that you may always escape them; for the future, that you may beware those evils and that they not continue to pursue you there. (Book 8)
Because the recitation of the Psalms has such and so many powers, my son William, I urge and direct that you recite them constantly, for yourself, for your father, for all the living, for those persons who have stood lovingly by you, for all the faithful who are dead, and for those whose commemoration is written down here or who you command be added. And do not hesitate to recite the Psalms that you choose for the remedy of my soul, so that when my last day and the end of my life come for me, I may be found worthy to be raised up to heaven on the right with those good folk whose actions have been worthy, not on the left with the impious. Return frequently to this little book. Farewell, noble boy, and always be strong in Christ. (Book 11)

References

Bibliography
The Liber manualis (full title: Liber manualis Dhuodane quem ad filium suum transmisit Wilhelmum) has been edited and translated:
Thiebaux, Marcelle (ed. and tr.). Dhuoda. Handbook for her warrior son. Cambridge Medieval Classics 8. Cambridge, 1998. (English translation)
Riché, Pierre (ed.), Bernard de Vregille and Claude Mondésert (trs.), Dhuoda: Manuel pour mon Fils. Sources Chrétiennes 225. Paris, 1975.(French translation)
Bondurand, Édouard (ed. and tr.). Le Manuel de Dhuoda. Paris: Picard, 1887. French translation. PDF of reprint available from Gallica
Mabillon, Jacques (ed.). PL 106.109–118. Partial edition, available from Documenta Catholica Omnia
Neel, Carol (tr.). Handbook for William. A Carolingian woman's counsel for her son. Regents Studies in Medieval Culture. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
Thiebaux, Marcelle (tr.). The Writings of Medieval Women. New York, 1987. 65–79. Selective translation into English.

A selection of secondary literature in English and French:
Cherewatuk, Karen. "Speculum Matris: Duoda's Manual." Florilegium 10 (1988–91): 49–64. <http://gilles.maillet.free.fr/histoire/pdf/dhuoda.pdf>
Claussen, Martin A. "God and Man in Dhuoda's Liber Manualis." SCH 27 (1990): 43–52.
Claussen, Martin A. "Fathers of Power and Mothers of Authority: Dhuoda and the Liber Manualis". French Historical Studies 19 (1996): 785–809.
Dronke, Peter. Women Writers of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, 1984.
Durrens, Janine. Dhuoda, duchesse de Septimanie. Clairsud, 2003.
Godard, Jocelyne. Dhuoda. La Carolingienne. Le Sémaphore, 1997.
Marchand, James. "The Frankish Mother: Dhuoda." In Medieval Woman Writers, ed. Katharina M. Wilson. Athens, 1984. 1–29. Includes selective translation of the Liber Manualis.
Mayeski, Marie Anne. "A Troublesome Puppy: Dhuoda of Septimania."  In Women: Models of Liberation. Sheed & Ward, 1988.
Mayeski, Marie Anne. "Mother's Psalter: Psalms in the Moral Instruction of Dhuoda of Septimania." In The Place of the Psalms in the Intellectual Culture of the Middle Ages. ed. Nancy van Deusen. State University of New York Press, 1999.
Mayeski, Marie Anne. Dhuoda: Ninth Century Mother and Theologian. University of Scranton Press, 1995.
Nelson, Janet L. "Dhuoda." In Lay Intellectuals in the Carolingian World, ed. Patrick Wormald and Janet L. Nelson. Cambridge, 2007. 106–120.
Stofferahn, Steven A. "The many faces in Dhuoda's mirror: The Liber Manualis and a century of scholarship." Magistra. A journal of women's spirituality in history 4.2 (Winter 1998): 89–134.

External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
Other women's voices. Translations of women's writing before 1700

Women from the Carolingian Empire
9th-century women writers
9th-century writers in Latin
Medieval Latin poets
Writers from the Carolingian Empire

Dhuoda


The Kung Fu Scholar is a 1993 Hong Kong martial arts comedy film directed by Norman Law and starring Aaron Kwok, Vivian Chow and Dicky Cheung.

Plot
Lun Man-chui (Dicky Cheung) and Lau Sin-hoi (Aaron Kwok) are students at Ming College who always disputed with each other. Lun is a poor but smart scholar who liked to do petty tricks on others. Lau is a straightforward and smart man who is martial artist since he was a kid. They both fall for their beautiful classmate Ching-ching (Vivian Chow), who is Headmaster Heung's (Ng Man-tat) niece. Later, a competition arises between Ming College and its rival, Oriental College. To win in the competition, Headmaster Heung hires martial arts expert Lee Tai-chun (Bryan Leung) to teach the students. Lee is being pursued by Imperial Secret Agents and took the job to cover up his real identity. On the day of the competition, Lee was found by the Imperial Secret Agents, however, with the help of Lun and Lau, Lee manages to escape and they make their way back to the competition and triumphed. From then on, Lun and Lau become best friends.

Cast
Dicky Cheung as Lun Man-chui
Aaron Kwok as Lau Sin-hoi
Vivian Chow as Ching-ching
Ng Man-tat as Headmaster Heung
Bryan Leung as Lee Tai-chun / Lee Man-lung
Gordon Liu as His Excellency
Kent Cheng as Fat Cat
Kingdom Yuen as Lun Man-chui's mother
Johnny Tang as Tang Lin-yu
Anderson Junior as Oriental College's spectacled bully
Michael Chow as Oriental College's bully
Wong San as Mr. Chin
Sam Wong as Eunuch Ngai
Hoi Sang Lee as Copper Head
Chan Tik-hak as Casino manager
Teresa Ha as Granny beggar
Wong Yat-fei as Oriental College's servant
Wong Wai-wu as Waiter Shui
Bobby Yip as Lau Sin-hoi's servant beating Fat Cat
Joey Leung as Lau Sin-hoi's friend
Gabriel Wong as Oriental College's quiz contestant
Lo Hung as College quiz moderator
Peter Lai as Lu Restaurant's boss
Pak Yan as Tang Lin-yu's mother
Baby Bo as Ching-ching's cousin
Ho Pak-kwong as Cantonese Association representative
Ling Hon as Oriental College headmaster
Wong Hung as tea house waiter
Cheng Ka-sang as lecherous customer
Tony Tam as one of Eunuch's men
Wong Ka-leung as one of Eunuch's men

Box office
The film grossed HK$8,384,786 at the Hong Kong box office during its theatrical run from 13 to 16 January in Hong Kong.

External links

Kung Fu Scholar at Hong Kong Cinemagic

The Kung Fu Scholar film review at LoveHKFilm.com

1994 films
1994 action comedy films
1990s adventure comedy films
1990s martial arts comedy films
Hong Kong action comedy films
Hong Kong adventure comedy films
Hong Kong martial arts comedy films
Kung fu films
1990s Cantonese-language films
Films set in the Ming dynasty
1990s Hong Kong films

The Kung Fu Scholar


The history of the Jews in Mali dates back to the 8th century CE. Today, around 1,000 descendants of Jews live in Mali, mostly in or near Timbuktu.

History
The Jewish history of Mali begins in the 8th century, when multi-lingual African-Jewish Radhanites first settled in Timbuktu in the Songhai Empire. These medieval merchants established a trading center in the city, from which a network of trading routes were created through the desert.

After 1492, more Jews arrived in Mali following the Expulsion of Jews from Spain. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Sephardi Jews settled in Timbuktu from Portugal and Spain. In 1492, Askia Muhammad I, the ruler of the Askiya dynasty of the Songhai Empire, threatened Jews with death if they refused to convert to Islam. While some Jews chose to convert to Islam, the majority fled. In 1526, the Berber Andalusi historian Leo Africanus described the ruler's persecution of the Jewish community: "The king (Askia) is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does business with them, he confiscates his goods."

In 1496, a Jewish community was founded at Tindirma by Iberian Sephardi Jews who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal.

In 1860, the Moroccan Rabbi Mordechai Abi Serour settled in Timbuktu along with several other Moroccan Jews in order to engage in trading. The rabbi was able to negotiate with local authorities to gain a protected status for the community. The community was able to establish a new synagogue in Timbuktu, as well as a Jewish cemetery.

By the early 1900s, no organized Jewish community remained in Mali.

In 1963, the ethnic consciousness of Jewish descendants living in Tindirma was revived after local fishermen wanted to build a village on top of the remains of Al Yahudi Cemetery, causing local Jews to rise up in strong opposition.

In the 1990s, a revival of Jewish identity began in Timbuktu, as "Hidden Jews" began to reconnect with their Jewish roots. These Malians of Jewish descent are predominantly Muslim. Ismael Diadie Haidara, an historian from Timbuktu, established founded Zakhor (Timbuktu Association for Friendship with the Jewish World), an organization of Malians of Jewish descent, most of whom are Muslims. The organization, and others of Jewish descent in Mali, have worked to uncover Mali's forgotten Jewish history that had previously been concealed in order to avoid persecution. In 1996, Zakhor published a manifesto declaring themselves Jews and declaring themselves the descendants of the Jews of Tuat, a region at the edge of the Sahara in western Algeria.

See also

Jews of Bilad el-Sudan

References

External links
Mali, Jews Were Here

Mali
Algerian-Jewish diaspora
Arab-Jewish culture
Crypto-Judaism

Moroccan diaspora in Africa
Moroccan-Jewish diaspora
Portuguese-Jewish diaspora in Africa
Religion in Mali
Sephardi Jewish culture in Africa
Spanish diaspora in Africa
Spanish-Jewish diaspora

History of the Jews in Mali


A kitchenette is a small cooking area, which usually has a refrigerator and a microwave, but may have other appliances - for example a sink. They are found in studio apartments, some motel and hotel rooms, college dormitories, office buildings, furnished basements, or bedrooms in shared houses. New York City building code defines a kitchenette as a kitchen of less than 7.4 m2 (80 ft2) of floor space.

In hotels and motels
Kitchenettes are a common feature in hotel and motel guest rooms and often contain a coffeemaker, a bar refrigerator, commonly called a mini-bar. Some hotel kitchenettes have provisioned refrigerators that have an interior sensor feature used by management to monitor guest use of the refrigerator's contents and thus charge for the consumables, which typically include soda, beer, and liquor.

In Britain
In British English, the term kitchenette also refers to a small secondary kitchen in a house. Often it is found on the same floor as the children's bedrooms, and used by a nanny or au pair to prepare meals for children; the same feature can be found in hotels such as some in London.

Small apartment style
The word kitchenette was also used to refer to a type of small apartment prevalent in African American communities in Chicago and New York City during the mid-twentieth century. Landlords often divided single-family homes or large apartment units into smaller units to house more families. Living conditions in these kitchenettes were often wretched; the author Richard Wright described them as "our prison, our death sentence without a trial".

In Brazil, a kitchenette (spelled "quitinete"  in Brazilian Portuguese) is a very small apartment. It is composed of one room, one bathroom, and a kitchen, which is often in the same space as the room. It corresponds to the studio apartment in American culture (or a bedsit in the UK and Ireland).

References

External links

 Kitchenettes entry at the Encyclopedia of Chicago

Kitchen
Apartments

Kitchenette


The mountain mist frog, Henrietta Creek tree frog or Nyakala frog (Ranoidea nyakalensis) is a frog from Australia.  It lives in Queensland between 380 and 1020 metres above sea level.

This frog lives in and near streams where the water flowed so fast that it turned white.  Scientists saw the adult frogs sitting on rocks or leaves near the streams.

The tadpoles live in the fast water.  Scientists wrote that they had strong tails for swimming and bodies meant for the water to flow over them. Sometimes they would dig into the sand to hold on during floods.  The tadpoles would spend the winter in mountain streams and grow into frogs in the spring.

This frog is in danger of dying out. Scientists last saw the adult frog and tadpoles in 1990.  They saw them in the Carbine Tableland.

Scientists think pigs that escaped from humans might be one reason why the frog is endangered.  The pigs rip up the streams where the frog would live.  They also think the fungal disease chytridiomycosis might be killing these frogs.  Scientists also thought habitat loss, human beings building roads and farms where the frog would live, was killing the frogs, but the Australian government protected the frogs' home in 1988.

References

Pelodryadidae

Mountain mist frog


William Thomas Rodgers, Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank,  (born 28 October 1928) is a British politician who served as Secretary of State for Transport from 1976 to 1979, and was one of the 'Gang of Four' of senior British Labour Party politicians who defected to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP). He subsequently helped to lead the SDP into the merger that formed the Liberal Democrats in 1988, and later served as that party's leader in the House of Lords between 1997 and 2001.

Early life
Rodgers was born in Liverpool, Lancashire, and educated at Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool. After national service in the King's Regiment (Liverpool), he studied Modern History at Magdalen College, Oxford on an Open Exhibition. He was general secretary of the Fabian Society from 1953 to 1960 and a councillor on St Marylebone Borough Council from 1958 to 1962. He was instrumental in lobbying the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party to reverse its vote in favour of unilateral nuclear disarmament in 1961. He also unsuccessfully fought a by-election at Bristol West in 1957.

Member of Parliament
Rodgers first entered the British House of Commons at a by-election in 1962, representing Stockton-on-Tees, and served in Labour Governments under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan, becoming Secretary of State for Transport in Callaghan's Cabinet in 1976. Within the Labour Party he was known for being a highly effective organiser around centrist causes such as multilateral nuclear disarmament and Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. He held the post until Labour's defeat in the 1979 general election. From 1979 to 1981 he was Shadow Defence Secretary. With Labour drifting to the left, Rodgers joined Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins and David Owen in forming the Social Democratic Party in 1981. In September 1982, Rodgers stood to become President of the SDP, but took only 19.4% of the vote, and a distant second place behind Williams.

Gang of Four
At the 1983 general election the SDP–Liberal Alliance won many votes but few seats, and Rodgers lost his seat of Stockton North (known as Stockton-on-Tees before the boundary changes of 1983). He remained outside Parliament, unsuccessfully contesting Milton Keynes for the SDP in the 1987 general election, until he was created a life peer as Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank, of Kentish Town in the London Borough of Camden on 12 February 1992. During that interval he was Director-General of the Royal Institute of British Architects and also became Chairman of the Advertising Standards Authority.

In 1987, Rodgers was chairman of the successful "Yes to Unity" campaign within the SDP in favour of merger with the Liberal Party. He became the Liberal Democrats' Lords spokesman on Home Affairs in 1994 and was its leader in the Lords between 1997 and 2001. His autobiography was titled Fourth Among Equals, reflecting his position as the least prominent of the SDP's founders. Rodgers was interviewed in 2012 as part of The History of Parliament's oral history project.

Personal life
In 1955, Rodgers married Silvia Szulman (1928–2006), a Berlin-born artist and writer, who became a political hostess. The couple had three daughters, Rachel, Lucy and Juliet.

On 8 May 2001, Rodgers suffered a stroke at his home and was treated at the Royal Free Hospital and attended speech therapy sessions at North Middlesex Hospital for two and a half years. He said he was "very, very lucky not to have suffered any physical damage" as a result. He has since been a keen advocate for better treatment and care for stroke victims.

In popular culture
Rodgers was a main character in Steve Waters' 2017 play Limehouse, which premiered at the Donmar Warehouse; he was portrayed by Paul Chahidi.

References

Bibliography

External links
Lord Rodgers of Quarry Bank profile at the site of Liberal Democrats
Recent Speeches in the Lords

The Papers of Lord Rodgers of Quarry Bank held at Churchill Archives Centre

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1928 births
20th-century British Army personnel
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
British autobiographers
British Secretaries of State
Chairs of the Fabian Society
Councillors in Greater London
GMB (trade union)-sponsored MPs
General Secretaries of the Fabian Society
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Liberal Democrats (UK) life peers
Living people
Members of St Marylebone Metropolitan Borough Council
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Ministers in the Wilson governments, 1964–1970
People educated at Quarry Bank High School
British political party founders
Politicians from Liverpool
Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)
Social Democratic Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Bill Rodgers, Baron Rodgers of Quarry Bank


Midnight Beating is a 2010 Chinese horror film directed by Zhang Jiabei and starring Hong Kong veteran actors Simon Yam and Francis Ng.

Plot

In the Haibei People's Hospital, Qinghai province, China, the present day on the night of a full moon, a patient is murdered by a syringe through her chest. This adds stress to the hospital's heart surgeon Gu Zhensheng who had recently lost his wife Xia Xue (Liu Yuxin) to an illness. Since his wife's death, Gu has been suffering from nightmares that has affected his work, and Xia Xue's younger sister, Nurse Xia Xiaoyu (Yang Yuyu) also is emotionally disturbed.

The Hospital's director Wen Miao (Li Nian) is due for an operation for a weak heart. She's the fiancée of Mai Xiangyu (Francis Ng) the hospital's psychologist. Nurse Wu can't forgive Mai for breaking up with her and threatens to show his fiancée old photos of them having sex. One night, Wu is murdered in the same way as the old female patient. Gu tells hospital director Wen that Mai has been acting strangely lately, and Mai also tells him the same thing about Gu.

Cast

Release
Midnight Beating was released on December 24, 2010 in China. On its first week, Midnight Beating was the third highest-grossing film in China, being only beaten by If You Are the One 2 and Let the Bullets Fly. In total, the film grossed $4,731,045 in China.

Reception
Film Business Asia gave the film a five out of ten rating, who noted that the film is an "Okay hospital horror boasts good technique but is let down by a weak script."

References

External links

 Midnight Beating at Hong Kong Cinemagic

2010 films
Chinese horror films
2010 horror films
2010s Mandarin-language films

Midnight Beating


Thebes had been under Macedonian occupation since the battle of Chaeronea, which had resulted in the defeat and deposition of Thebes as the pre-eminent city-state of Southern Greece. The Thebans had reluctantly accepted this, as well as their compulsory membership in the League of Corinth, which had been previously imposed by Phillip II of Macedon, Alexander's father.

The expedition against Persia had been long in the works, and Alexander did not make it a secret that he planned to avenge the attacks on Greece by Persia a century and a half before, despite that at the time his kingdom had been a Persian vassal state. It was as a result of this planned expedition that King Darius III started to distribute money to the Greek city-states with the hope that they would rise against their new Hegemon. In addition to this, he had sent his most able general Memnon of Rhodes against the Macedonian troops that were already stationed in Ionia at this time.

In addition to this, news of Alexander had not reached the southern Greek city states for some time. He had been busy with the siege of Pelium and a rumour had reached them that he had died during the course of this siege. Demosthenes - a prominent Athenian politician - produced a man who claimed to have been present at the siege and claimed that Alexander was dead. Alexander had, indeed, been injured during this siege, so it was not a totally implausible claim to make.

Upon learning of the alleged death of Alexander, Theban exiles in Athens raced off to their native city in Boeotia and sought to incite a revolt from Macedonian rule there. The Cadmaea, the citadel that was situated upon a hill in Thebes, was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, and it was this place that the Thebans sought to attack. To this effect, they killed two Macedonian officers who had been roaming the city, and declared their independence from Macedonia.
Battles of ancient Greece

Battle of Thebes


During the 7th century the region of Tunisia was conquered by Arab troops led by the Ghassanid general Hassan Ibn Numan. The city had the natural advantage of coastal access, via the Mediterranean, to the major ports of southern Europe. Early on, Tunis played a military role — the Arabs recognized the strategic importance of its proximity to the Strait of Sicily. From the earliest years of the 8th century, Tunis was the chef-lieu of this area: it became the Arabs' naval base in the western Mediterranean, and took on considerable military importance, and with a strategic location, the city grew, and with it grew the mosques for the Muslims to pray in.

Rashidunids

Abbasids

Al-Zaytuna Mosque

Khurasanid dynasty
Ksar Mosque

Hafsids
Kasbah Mosque
Al Haliq Mosque
Al Haoua Mosque
Bab Bhar Mosque
Tabbanine Mosque

Ottomans

Bab Jazira Mosque
El Jedid Mosque
Hammouda Pacha Mosque
Sabkha Mosque
Saheb Ettabaâ Mosque
Sidi Belhassen El Halfaoui Mosque
Sidi Mahrez Mosque
Soubhan Allah Mosque
Youssef Dey Mosque

Modern
El Omrane Mosque
Hajjamine Mosque

See also

List of mosques in Tunisia

Tunis
Mosques in Tunis

List of mosques in Tunis


Swimbaits or swimmers are a loosely defined class of fishing lures that are designed to primarily imitate the underwater swimming motions of baitfishes.
Most trophy anglers prefer 8" to 10" swimbaits, while casual fishermen consider 4" to 6" swimbaits a suitable fit. Those looking to tempt bigger bass should feel free to throw bigger baits.

History
Swimbaits originated in the late 1980s as lures designed to imitate rainbow trout in Southern California reservoirs that largemouth bass and striped bass fed on. They were larger and more lifelike imitations than most available mass-produced lures at the time.

Types
Swimbaits are mainly broken down into 2 categories: hard body and soft body swimbaits.

Hard-body
Hard-body swimbaits are often made of either a wood or plastic material. The goal of these baits is to mimic a baitfish in which a predatory fish (such as largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, spotted bass, pike, trout etc.) would eat. These baits are designed to have a swimming action that will provoke a predatory instinct from the fish that cause it to strike the lure. The action of the lure varies based on the number of joints in the bait. A hard body bait with a single joint (or more commonly known as a glide bait) provides an serpentine or "gliding" action in the water which can be fished on a variety of retrieve methods and speeds. Multi-jointed hard baits provided a more of a natural swimming appearance to the bait but can also provide some unique action with different retrieve styles and speeds.

Soft-body
Soft-body swimbaits are almost exclusively made out of rubber or soft plastic not unlike what your favorite package of artificial worms are made of. Some soft body swimbaits are designed to draw a strike from fish while very detailed baits (usually top hook) rely more on looks than actions. Soft body swimbaits have several sub-categories including paddle tails, line through, and top hook swimbaits. Paddle tail swimbaits are by far the most common swimbait many anglers use. These baits come in an array of sizes with the smaller sizes often being used as a trailer for a spinnerbait, chatterbait or underspin. The larger sizes however are seen often being fished on a swimbait Jig head or a weighted extra wide gap hook (ewg). The paddle tail swimbait also comes in either a solid body and hollow body. Line through swimbaits are a large swimbait which allows the line to run through the body of the bait to keep the fish from using the bait as leverage to thrown the hook. Top hook swimbaits are swimbaits which utilize a large, strong, jig style hook which protrudes from the top of the swimbait.  The top hook swimbait will typically have a wedge style tail that's designed for colder water.

References

External links
 'Top Ten Swimbait Picks in my Box' -  TheWiredAngler article with images

Fishing equipment

Swimbait


A writing material is a surface that can be written on with suitable instruments, or used for symbolic or representational drawings. Building material on which writings or drawings are produced are not included. The gross characterization of writing materials is by the material constituting the writing surface (for example, paper) and the number, size, and usage and storage configuration of multiple surfaces (for example, paper sheets) into a single object (for example, a spiral notebook). Writing materials are often paired with specific types of writing instruments. Other important attributes of a writing material are its reusability, its permanence, and its resistance to fraudulent misuse.

History

Archaeology

Because drawing preceded writing, the first remains of writing materials are the stone walls of the caves on which cave paintings were drawn. Another precursor was tally sticks used to record the count of objects or the passage of discrete units of time (days). Tally sticks have been found made of wood and of bone. Knotted ropes and similar materials were also used for tallies. Such materials did not take a great deal of preparation for their use for drawing or writing. Animal hides also had potential for use as a material for writing or drawing, although the drawings and writings may have been decorative or to convey status or religious meaning. Among the barks of trees, birch bark is very well suited for use as a writing material and was so used both in Northern Europe and among native peoples in North America.

Four other classes of material were sometimes used for writing: clay, wax, cloth, and metal. The value of metal for useful implements may have made it less than useful for practical writing and drawing. The hardness of many metals that made them useful also made it an inconvenient material for many kinds of writing. But foils or sheets of soft metals like lead were usable. Lead sheets were used for curse tablets, as well as personal correspondence.

Writing seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. Parchment, using sheepskins left after the wool was removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported outside Egypt. With the invention of wood-pulp paper, the cost of writing material began a steady decline.

Cloth probably shared its mode of use with animal skins. Clay introduces the useful combination of extreme ease of making the inscription with the potential for rendering it fairly permanent. Unglazed pottery can readily accept inscription even after firing. Wax offers another novel combination of advantage: a reusable surface, easily inscribed and erased, and easy combination with materials like wood that give it durability. Stone tablets, clay and wooden writing tablets, and wax-covered wooden tablets are some of the first specialized configurations of materials in flat surfaces specifically for writing.

Unglazed pottery shards were used almost as a kind of scratch paper, as ostraka, for tax receipts, and, in Athens, to record the individual nominations of Greek leaders for ostracism.

The archaeological record contains either example of these materials used for drawing or writing or it has indirect indications of their use for writing, drawing, or tallying.

The Quipu or talking knots were recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America. Knotted strings were used by many other cultures such as the ancient Chinese and native Hawaiians, but such practices should not be confused with the quipu, which refers only to the Andean device.

Common writing materials of the Middle Ages
In western civilizations, papyrus, which originated in 3,000 B.C.E. in Egypt, was later replaced by parchment made by treating animal hide, a process starting in the second century B.C. in the Mediterranean region A wide variety of parchments from various animal skins, with different textures, quality and hue were widely used for codices, religious and cultural texts. This was replaced by the advent and increasing access and availability of paper.

In eastern civilisations such as India, the principal writing media were birch bark or bhurjapatra (Sanskrit) and dried palm leaves. The use of paper began only after the 10th century. However, birch bark and palm leaf continue to be used even today on a limited scale in a rural milieu for the use of horoscopes, wedding invitations, and other cultural uses.

In China, the early material was animal bones, later silk, bamboo and wooden slips, until the 2nd century when paper was invented. The invention of paper is attributed to a eunuch of the imperial court called Cai Lun in 105 A.D. However, paper was not introduced to Europe for another thousand years following a battle in 751 A.D. where a few paper-makers were captured and thus the technology spread from Baghdad westward, only reaching Spain in the 12th century.

Paper
Cai Lun used old rags, hemp, tree bark, and fishing nets to develop a method of paper-making fundamentally similar to that still used today.

The world of Islam acquired the art of papermaking in the 8th century, taught by Chinese prisoners who had been taken during eastward expeditions. Eventually, the Muslims brought papermaking to the Indian subcontinent and to Europe. Paper was at first called bagdatikos meaning "from Baghdad". The craft of paper making reached Spain in the twelfth century, and at subsequent hundred-year intervals arrived in Italy, Germany, and England. Yet for centuries after paper became widely available in Europe, vellum and parchment were preferred for documents that had to be long lasting. The basic ingredients of paper were linen and cotton, soaked in water and beaten into a smooth pulp, or slurry. As the pulp was drained through a wire screen, the slurry's interlocking fibers matted together, ready for the next step. First a press squeezed out water from the sheet, preparatory to drying; then, the application of a gelatin coating readied the sheet's surface for ink.

In the late 18th century, paper was still made from cloth gathered by ragpickers. Wove Paper was invented by James Whatman and John Baskerville (1706-75). They created a way to produce perfectly smooth paper, using a fine wire mesh that left no lines from the mould on the page.

Electronic media
Electronic media have utilized the keyboard developed for the typewriter, electrical and electronic circuitry and storage devices, and the viewing screen developed for reading electronic signals to provide another form of writing material. The Palm Pilot was invented in 1996 and further changed the idea of electronic devices as writing materials. It was the first consumer product which allowed people to write directly on an electronic screen using a stylus, rather than having to input their writing using a keyboard.

See also
 Notebook
 Desk pad

References

Further reading

 Harris, Roy (1985) The Origin of Writing. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
 Martin, Henri-Jean (1988) The History and Power of Writing, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Writing

Textual scholarship

Writing material


Ralph Frederick Manheim (April 4, 1907 – September 26, 1992) was a Jewish-American translator of German and French literature, as well as occasional works from Dutch, Polish and Hungarian. He was one of the most acclaimed translators of the 20th century, and likened translation to acting, the role being "to impersonate his author".

Early life
Manheim was born in New York City. He lived for a year in Germany and Austria as an adolescent, graduated from Harvard at the age of 19, and spent time in Munich and Vienna (studying at the universities) before Adolf Hitler's rise to power. He also undertook post-graduate study at Yale and Columbia universities.

Career
His career as a translator began with Hitler's Mein Kampf, commissioned by Houghton Mifflin and published in 1943. Manheim endeavored to give an exact English equivalent of Hitler's highly individual, often awkward style, including his grammatical errors.

Manheim translated the works of Bertolt Brecht (in collaboration with John Willett), Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Günter Grass, Peter Handke,  philosopher Martin Heidegger, Hermann Hesse, Novalis, and many others. His translation of Henry Corbin's work Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn 'Arabi could be considered a major contribution towards the understanding of Ibn Arabi's and Sufi philosophy in the English-speaking world.

In 1961, he rendered transcripts of the trial in Jerusalem of Adolf Eichmann into English, and Grimm's Tales For Young and Old – The Complete Stories, published in 1977. Modern readers are familiar with his 1986 translation of E.T.A. Hoffmann's "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King". It was published with illustrations by Maurice Sendak, in conjunction with the release of the 1986 film Nutcracker: The Motion Picture. Lovers of children's books also admire his agile translation of Michael Ende's The Neverending Story.

Later life and death
Manheim moved to Paris in 1950 and lived there until 1985, when he moved with his fourth wife to Cambridge, England. He died in 1992, at age 85, from complications associated with prostate cancer.

Selected translations
 The History of the Maghrib: an Interpretive Essay by Abdallah Laroui
 Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler
 Journey to the End of the Night by Louis-Ferdinand Celine
 Castle to Castle by Louis-Ferdinand Celine
 Death on the Installment Plan by Louis-Ferdinand Celine
 The Tin Drum by Gunter Grass
 Cat and Mouse by Gunter Grass
 The Rat by Gunter Grass
 Grimm's Tales for Young and Old - The Complete Stories
 The Neverending Story by Michael Ende
 The Nutcracker and the Mouse King by E.T.A. Hoffmann
 Efraim's Book by Alfred Andersch
 The Good Person of Szechwan by Bertolt Brecht
 Baal by Bertolt Brecht
 The Threepenny Opera by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill
 The Freud/Jung Letters
Knulp by Hermann Hesse
Crisis: Pages From a Diary by Hermann Hesse
 Reflections by Hermann Hesse
 From Lenin to Stalin by Victor Serge
 A Sorrow Beyond Dreams by Peter Handke
 The Guiltless by Hermann Broch
 The Left-Handed Woman by Peter Handke
 Temptation by Jànos Székely

Awards and honors

Manheim received the PEN Translation Prize in 1964.

He received the 1970 National Book Award in the Translation category for the first U.S. edition of Céline's Castle to Castle.

He was awarded a 1983 MacArthur Fellowship in Literary Studies. He won the PEN/Ralph Manheim Medal for Translation, a major lifetime achievement award in the field of translation, in 1988.

Manheim's 1961 translation of Günter Grass's Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) was elected to fourth place among outstanding translations of the previous half century by the Translators Association of the Society of Authors on the occasion of their 50th anniversary in 2008.

References

See also
Mein Kampf in English

American translators
French–English translators
German–English translators
Harvard University alumni
Columbia University alumni
Yale University alumni
MacArthur Fellows
National Book Award winners
Writers from New York City
1907 births
1992 deaths
20th-century translators
Mein Kampf
American expatriates in France

Ralph Manheim


Noel Arthur Augustine Murphy (born 22 February 1937) is a former Irish rugby union player who represented Munster, Ireland, the British Lions and the Barbarians as a flanker.  He also played club rugby for both Cork Constitution and Garryowen. Since retiring as a player, Murphy has remained involved in rugby union, both as a coach and administrator.

Family
Murphy is a member of one Ireland's most renowned rugby families. Both his father, Noel Sr, and his son Kenny Murphy have also represented Ireland at rugby. They are the first, and to date, only family to have a father, son and grandson capped at senior level.

Rugby international

Ireland
Between 1958 and 1969, Murphy won 41 caps for Ireland. He also scored 5 tries (15 points) and was Ireland captain on five occasions. He made his international debut on 18 January 1958 in a 9–6 win against Australia at Lansdowne Road. He then went on to play for Ireland in all four games during the 1958, 1959 and 1960 Five Nations Championships.  He scored his first Ireland try against Wales on 12 March 1960 in a 10–9 defeat at Lansdowne. Murphy also played in all four games in the 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1969 Five Nations Championships and scored further tries against England in 1964, and against Scotland in 1965 and 1967.

Murphy captained Ireland for the first time on 21 January 1967 in a 15–8 win at Lansdowne against Australia and was subsequently captain during the 1967 Five Nations Championship. He scored his final Ireland try against England in a 17–15 win at Lansdowne on 8 February 1969. He then made his final appearance for Ireland on 8 March 1969 against Wales. His Ireland career ended in controversial circumstances when he was involved in a punch up with Welsh lock Brian Price

British Lions
Murphy also toured twice with the British Lions and was a member of their squad for both the 1959 and 1966 tours of Australia and New Zealand. He made his Lions debut on 30 May 1959 against New South Wales and marked the occasion with a try. He played in 18 games during the 1959 tour and a scored further four tries, one each against Canterbury and Bay of Plenty/Thames Valley and two against North Auckland. He made his Test debut for the Lions against Australia on 13 June 1959. During the same tour he also played in three further Tests against New Zealand. Murphy also played 17 games and scored 3 tries on the 1966 tour. Two of his tries came in the opening game against Western Australia on 7 May.  He played in four Test games, two against Australia and two against New Zealand. He scored his third try of the tour in the second test against Australia on 4 June 1966.

Coach and administrator
After retiring as a player Murphy coached Cork Constitution, Munster and then Ireland between 1977 and 1980. He also coached the British Lions on their 1980 South Africa tour. He has also served as president of Cork Constitution, the Munster Branch and the IRFU. He is currently one of Ireland's representatives on the International Rugby Board and is on the organising committee of the Heineken Cup.

References

1937 births
Living people
Rugby union players from County Cork
Irish rugby union players
Ireland international rugby union players
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from Ireland
Cork Constitution players
Garryowen Football Club players
Barbarian F.C. players
Munster Rugby players
Irish rugby union coaches
Munster Rugby non-playing staff
Rugby union flankers
British & Irish Lions coaches
Ireland national rugby union team coaches
People educated at Christian Brothers College, Cork

Noel Murphy (rugby union, born 1937)


The distinction between subject and object is a basic idea of philosophy.
A subject is a being that exercises agency, undergoes conscious experiences, and is situated in relation to other things that exist outside itself; thus, a subject is any individual, person, or observer
An object is any of the things observed or experienced by a subject, which may even include other beings (thus, from their own points of view: other subjects)
A simple common differentiation for subject and object is: an observer versus a thing that is observed. In certain cases involving personhood, subjects and objects can be considered interchangeable where each label is applied only from one or the other point of view. Subjects and objects are related to the philosophical distinction between subjectivity and objectivity: the existence of knowledge, ideas, or information either dependent upon a subject (subjectivity) or independent from any subject (objectivity).

Etymology
In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus (p.p. of obicere) with the meaning "to throw, or put before or against", from ob-, "against", and the root jacere, "to throw". Some other related English words include objectify (to reify), objective (a future reference), and objection (an expression of protest). Subject uses the same root, but with the prefix sub-, meaning "under".

Terms and usage
Broadly construed, the word object names a maximally general category, whose members are eligible for being referred to, quantified over and thought of. Terms similar to the broad notion of object include thing, being, entity, item, existent, term, unit, and individual.

In ordinary language, one is inclined to call only a material object "object". In certain contexts, it may be socially inappropriate to apply the word object to animate beings, especially to human beings, while the words entity and being are more acceptable.

Some authors use object in contrast to property; that is to say, an object is an entity that is not a property. Objects differ from properties in that objects cannot be referred to by predicates. Some philosophers include abstracts objects as counting as objects, while others do not. Terms similar to such usage of object include substance, individual, and particular.

There are two definitions of object. The first definition holds that an object is an entity that fails to experience and that is not conscious. The second definition holds that an object is an entity experienced. The second definition differs from the first one in that the second definition allows for a subject to be an object at the same time.

One approach to defining an object is in terms of its properties and relations. Descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the only way to describe an apple is by describing its properties and how it is related to other things, such as its shape, size, composition, color, temperature, etc., while its relations may include "on the table", "in the room" and "being bigger than other apples". Metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects existing independently of their properties and, if so, in what way. The notion of an object must address two problems: the change problems and the problems of substances. Two leading theories about objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances (objects) are distinct from their properties, and bundle theory, wherein objects are no more than bundles of their properties.

René Descartes
The formal separation between subject and object in the Western world corresponds to the dualistic framework, in the early modern philosophy of René Descartes, between thought and extension (in common language, mind and matter). Descartes believed that thought (subjectivity) was the essence of the mind, and that extension (the occupation of space) was the essence of matter. For modern philosophers like Descartes, consciousness is a state of cognition experienced by the subject—whose existence can never be doubted as its ability to doubt (and think) proves that it exists. On the other hand, he argues that the object(s) which a subject perceives may not have real or full existence or value, independent of that observing subject.

German idealism
Subject as a key-term in thinking about human consciousness began its career with the German idealists, in response to David Hume's radical skepticism. The idealists' starting point is Hume's conclusion that there is nothing to the self over and above a big, fleeting bundle of perceptions. The next step was to ask how this undifferentiated bundle comes to be experienced as a unity – as a single subject. Hume had offered the following proposal:

"...the imagination must by long custom acquire the same method of thinking, and run along the parts of space and time in conceiving its objects.

Kant, Hegel and their successors sought to flesh out the process by which the subject is constituted out of the flow of sense impressions. Hegel, for example, stated in his Preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit that a subject is constituted by "the process of reflectively mediating itself with itself."

Hegel begins his definition of the subject at a standpoint derived from Aristotelian physics: "the unmoved which is also self-moving" (Preface, para. 22). That is, what is not moved by an outside force, but which propels itself, has a prima facie case for subjectivity. Hegel's next step, however, is to identify this power to move, this unrest that is the subject, as pure negativity. Subjective self-motion, for Hegel, comes not from any pure or simple kernel of authentic individuality, but rather, it is

"...the bifurcation of the simple; it is the doubling which sets up opposition, and then again the negation of this indifferent diversity and of its anti-thesis" (Preface, para. 18).

The Hegelian subject's modus operandi is therefore cutting, splitting and introducing distinctions by injecting negation into the flow of sense-perceptions. Subjectivity is thus a kind of structural effect – what happens when Nature is diffused, refracted around a field of negativity and the "unity of the subject" for Hegel, is in fact a second-order effect, a "negation of negation". The subject experiences itself as a unity only by purposively negating the very diversity it itself had produced. The Hegelian subject may therefore be characterized either as "self-restoring sameness" or else as "reflection in otherness within itself" (Preface, para. 18).

American pragmatism
Charles S. Peirce of the late-modern American philosophical school of pragmatism, defines the broad notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity: the pyramids, gods, Socrates, the nearest star system, the number seven, a disbelief in predestination, or the fear of cats.

Late modern and contemporary philosophy
In Continental philosophy, the subject is a central term in debates over the nature of the self. In Analytic philosophy of the Anglo-American tradition, the subject is also central in debates over the nature of subjective experience.

Continental philosophy

The thinking of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud provided a point of departure for questioning the notion of a unitary, autonomous Subject, which for many thinkers in the Continental tradition is seen as the foundation of the liberal theory of the social contract. These thinkers opened up the way for the deconstruction of the subject as a core-concept of metaphysics.

Freud's explorations of the unconscious mind added up to a wholesale indictment of Enlightenment notions of subjectivity.

Among the most radical re-thinkers of human self-consciousness was Martin Heidegger, whose concept of Dasein or "Being-there" displaces traditional notions of the personal subject altogether. With Heidegger, phenomenology tries to go beyond the classical dichotomy between subject and object, because they are linked by an inseparable and original relationship, in the sense that there can be no world without a subject, nor the subject without world.

Jacques Lacan, inspired by Heidegger and Ferdinand de Saussure, built on Freud's psychoanalytic model of the subject, in which the split subject is constituted by a double bind: alienated from jouissance when they leave the Real, enters into the Imaginary (during the mirror stage), and separates from the Other when they come into the realm of language, difference, and demand in the Symbolic or the Name of the Father.

Thinkers such as structural Marxist Louis Althusser and poststructuralist Michel Foucault theorize the subject as a social construction, the so-called "poststructuralist subject". According to Althusser, the "subject" is an ideological construction (more exactly, constructed by the "Ideological State Apparatuses"). One's subjectivity exists, "always-already" and is discovered through the process of interpellation. Ideology inaugurates one into being a subject, and every ideology is intended to maintain and glorify its idealized subject, as well as the metaphysical category of the subject itself (see antihumanism).

According to Foucault, it is the "effect" of power and "disciplines" (see Discipline and Punish: construction of the subject (subjectivation or subjectification, ) as student, soldier, "criminal", etc.)). Foucault believed it was possible to transform oneself; he used the word ethopoiein from the word ethos to describe the process. Subjectification was a central concept in Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari's work as well.

Analytic philosophy
Bertrand Russell updated the classical terminology with a term, the fact; "Everything that there is in the world I call a fact." Facts, or objects, are opposed to beliefs, which are "subjective" and may be errors on the part of the subject, the knower who is their source and who is certain of himself and little else. All doubt implies the possibility of error and therefore admits the distinction between subjectivity and objectivity. The knower is limited in ability to tell fact from belief, false from true objects and engages in reality testing, an activity that will result in more or less certainty regarding the reality of the object. According to Russell, "we need a description of the fact which would make a given belief true" where "Truth is a property of beliefs." Knowledge is "true beliefs".

In contemporary Analytic philosophy, the issue of subject—and more specifically the "point of view" of the subject, or "subjectivity"—has received attention as one of the major intractable problems in philosophy of mind (a related issue being the mind–body problem). In the essay "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?", Thomas Nagel famously argued that explaining subjective experience—the "what it is like" to be something—is currently beyond the reach of scientific inquiry, because scientific understanding by definition requires an objective perspective, which, according to Nagel, is diametrically opposed to the subjective first-person point of view. Furthermore, one cannot have a definition of objectivity without being connected to subjectivity in the first place since they are mutual and interlocked.

In Nagel's book The View from Nowhere, he asks: "What kind of fact is it that I am Thomas Nagel?". Subjects have a perspective but each subject has a unique perspective and this seems to be a fact in Nagel's view from nowhere (i.e. the birds-eye view of the objective description in the universe). The Indian view of "Brahman" suggests that the ultimate and fundamental subject is existence itself, through which each of us as it were "looks out" as an aspect of a frozen and timeless everything, experienced subjectively due to our separated sensory and memory apparatuses. These additional features of subjective experience are often referred to as qualia (see Frank Cameron Jackson and Mary's room).

Other contemporary understandings
An attribute of an object is called a property if it can be experienced (e.g. its color, size, weight, smell, taste, and location). Objects manifest themselves through their properties. These manifestations seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that underlying thing is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands for the change.

According to substance theory, because substances are only experienced through their properties a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance that cannot be seen or scientifically verified. According to David Hume's bundle theory, the answer is none; thus an object is merely its properties.

Mahayana Buddhism
In the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna seizes upon the dichotomy between objects as collections of properties or as separate from those properties to demonstrate that both assertions fall apart under analysis. By uncovering this paradox he then provides a solution (pratītyasamutpāda – "dependent origination") that lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis. Although Pratītyasamutpāda is normally limited to caused objects, Nagarjuna extends his argument to objects in general by differentiating two distinct ideas – dependent designation and dependent origination. He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of the context. The validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them.

Physics
Limiting discussions of objecthood to the realm of physical objects may simplify them. However, defining physical objects in terms of fundamental particles (e.g. quarks) leaves open the question of what is the nature of a fundamental particle and thus asks what categories of being can be used to explain physical objects.

Semantics
Symbols represent objects; how they do so, the map–territory relation, is the basic problem of semantics.

See also

 Abstract object theory
 Abstraction
 Binding problem
 Category theory
 Cognitive linguistics
 Concept
 Continuous predicate
 Donald Davidson's swamp man thought experiment (in "Knowing One Own's Mind", 1987 paper)
 Ethics and meta-ethics
 Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)
 Hypostatic abstraction
 List of ethics topics
 Michel Foucault's critique of the subject and the oxymoron "historical subject"
 Moral relativism
 Neo-Kantianism
 Nonexistent object
 Noumenon and phenomenon
 Object-oriented ontology
 Observer (physics)
 Open individualism
 Paramatma
 Personhood theory
 Ship of Theseus
 Sign relation
 Soul
 Subject (grammar)
 Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)
 Transcendental subject
 Vertiginous question

References

Bibloiography

 Alain de Libera, "When Did the Modern Subject Emerge?", American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 82, No. 2, 2008, pp. 181–220.
 Robert B. Pippin, The Persistence of Subjectivity. On the Kantian Aftermath, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
 Udo Thiel, The Early Modern Subject. Self-Consciousness and Personal Identity from Descartes to Hume, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

External links

Concepts in metaphysics
Consciousness
Subjective experience

Concepts in epistemology
Ontology
Physical objects

Subject and object (philosophy)


Michael Christoph Hanow (also Hanov, Hanovius) (12 December 1695, in Zamborst near Neustettin, Pomerania – 22 September 1773, in Danzig) was a German meteorologist, historian, professor of mathematics and since 1717 rector of the Academic Gymnasium Danzig.

Hanow was educated in Danzig and Leipzig and was a private teacher in Dresden, Leipzig and Danzig. In the year 1727 he became a member of the Academic Gymnasium Danzig. He wrote numerous articles and books. Since 1739 he published the Danziger Nachrichten a weekly journal with weather forecasting. The term biology was introduced by him. In the years 1745 until 1767 he wrote Jus Culmense, the complete Kulm law (Kulmer Recht) and a collection of not yet published Prussian documents.

Together with Georg Daniel Seyler, Gottfried Lengnich and David Braun he belonged to the most important local historians in the 18th century.

Literature
 Michael Christoph Hanow: Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia. 1766.
 Carl von Prantl, Works of Hanov, Michael Christoph. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). volume 10, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1879, page 524 f.

External links
 Works of Hanow in the Catalog of the Deutschen Nationalbibliothek

18th-century German historians
18th-century German mathematicians
1695 births
1773 deaths
German male non-fiction writers
People from the Province of Pomerania
People from Złotów County
18th-century German male writers

Michael Christoph Hanow


Hippolytus Lutostansky (1835–1915), also transliterated as Lutostanski, Liutostanskii, J. J. Ljutostanski, Ippolit Iosifovich Lutostanskiĭ; Polish: Hipolit Lutostański, was a former Catholic priest of Polish extraction in the Russian Empire, a convert to the Russian Orthodox Church and an antisemite.

Biography

He studied and was ordained a Catholic priest in Russia. He was defrocked for alleged offenses, including theft and embezzlement, which were later not proven. Thereafter he converted to Russian Orthodoxy and joined a religious academy as a student.

He was famous for writing The Talmud and the Jews  (Талмуд и евреи), for which the tzar and his officials awarded him.

Political claims

Blood libel

His books and his public statements claimed blood libel.

Jewish plot
He maintained that Jews wanted to divide Russia among themselves, once they left the Pale of Settlement, furthering the claims laid in the antisemitic works of Osman Bey (pen name of Frederick van Millingen) The Conquest of the World by the Jews, and contributing to the creation of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. In 1904 he directly quoted Pavel Krushevan's version; without revision, but with useful chronological evidence in an updated edition of his The Talmud and the Jews book. (See main article Cesare G. De Michelis about the versions.)

Zionism
He declared himself to be a Zionist and proposed that "Russia should make any sacrifice to help the Jews settle in Palestine and form an autonomous state of their own".

Racial discrimination
To thus pressure Jews to emigrate and to protect state security against Jewish political activists, he proposed racial quotas, segregation, discrimination, disenfranchisement, presaging Nazi policies, and apartheid and anti-immigration legislation:
* All privileges granted to Jews because of their education or because of their occupations should be withdrawn.
* No Jews should be permitted to live in seaports.
* Jewish children should not be permitted to attend schools attended by Christian children.* Jews should also be prohibited from establishing schools of their own.
* Jews should be forbidden to teach in Government or private schools.
* Jews should not be permitted to hold any Government or civil office.
* Jews should not be permitted to get any concessions and should not be connected with any Government contracts.
* Jews should not be employed on any steamship or railway in Russia.
* Jews should not be permitted to vote, and under no circumstances should they be permitted to serve in the Duma or the Council of the Empire.
* Nor should they be allowed to participate in the elections.
* Jews should not be permitted to have drugstores of their own, to be druggists,  or to work as clerks in such stores.
* Jews in any way connected with revolutionists should be dealt with harshly,  and their property should be confiscated.
* Jews should not be permitted to act as editors or publishers of periodical publications.
* Jews should not be permitted to have bookstores and printing shops.
* All foreign Jews, citizens of other countries, should be forbidden to enter Russia.

British Israelism
He also promoted British Israelism:
"The English people are the lost tribes of Israel. The lion of Judah became the emblem of England and the harp of David is to this day the emblem of Ireland.
But not only are the English Kings direct descendants of the Jewish Kings, they even sit on the throne of David, on which all Jewish Kings used to be crowned. The throne is made of the rock on which Jacob slept when he dreamed of the ladder and when God promised him a kingdom. That rock was brought by the prophet Jeremiah to Ireland, whence It was removed first to Scotland and then to London.
North America is settled by the tribe of Manasseh.
The English people in many ways resemble the Jews. Their type is the same, their manner of speech the same, and; above all, the fundamental trait of both nations is trading. Then, the great respect of the English people tor the Bible betrays their kinship to the ancient Israelites."

See also
 Pyotr Rachkovsky - Role in the creation of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion
 Cesare G. De Michelis
 Jewish land purchase in Palestine

References

Bibliography
 О еврейском мессии (1875)
 Объяснение римско-католической мессы или литургии и разбор догматической ее стороны (1875)
 О необходимости воплощения Сына Божия для спасения рода человеческого (1875)
 Учение о Святом Духе в последней беседе Иисуса Христа с учениками (1875)
 Об употреблении евреями талмудистами-сектаторами христианской крови (1876) "About using Christian Blood by the Jews"
 Талмуд и Евреи (1879—80; 1902–1909), "Talmud and the Jews", 7 tomes
 Современный взгляд на еврейский вопрос (Употребляют ли евреи христианскую кровь?) (1882) "Contemporary Question: Do Jews use Christian Blood?"
 Жиды и ритуальные убийства христианских младенцев (1911) "On Jewish Ritual Murders of Christian Youth"
 Антихрист жидовский миссия он же Чернобог (1912) "Anti-Christ Jewish Messiah - He is the Dark God"

1835 births
1915 deaths
Antisemitism in Russia
Blood libel
British Israelism
Polish Roman Catholic priests
Russian Zionists
Christian Zionists

Hippolytus Lutostansky


Rush Replay X 3 is a DVD box set of three separate filmed concert presentations by the Canadian band Rush, released on June 13, 2006. The three shows presented are Exit... Stage Left, Grace Under Pressure Tour, and A Show of Hands, which were originally released individually in 1982, 1985, and 1989 respectively on VHS and Laserdisc. For Replay X 3, each filmed concert has been remixed in 5.1 surround sound by Rush guitarist and co-producer Alex Lifeson. The box set also includes a previously unreleased CD audio version of the Grace Under Pressure Tour video, and a set of reprinted tour books for each concert .

Track listing

Disc one: Exit... Stage Left
 Intro ("The Camera Eye") - 2:15
 "Limelight" - 4:38
 "Tom Sawyer" - 5:00
 "The Trees" - 4:47
 "Xanadu" - 12:32
 "Red Barchetta" - 6:37
 "Freewill" - 5:50
 "Closer to the Heart" - 3:30
 "YYZ" - 1:25
 "By-Tor and the Snow Dog" - 4:13
 "In the End" - 1:42
 "In the Mood" - 1:35
 "2112: Finale" - 2:42

Disc two: Grace Under Pressure Tour
 Intro
 "The Spirit of Radio"
 "The Enemy Within"
 "The Weapon"
 "Witch Hunt"
 "New World Man"
 "Distant Early Warning"
 "Red Sector A"
 "Closer to the Heart"
 "YYZ"
 "2112: Temples Of Syrinx"
 "Tom Sawyer"
 "Vital Signs"
 "Finding My Way"
 "In the Mood"

Rush Replay X 3 also includes an audio CD of the above show.

Box sets purchased from Best Buy contain the following exclusive audio CD tracks: "Limelight" and "Closer to the Heart" from Exit...Stage Left and "The Spirit of Radio" and "Tom Sawyer" from the A Show of Hands video soundtracks. However, the track listing on the Best Buy version of X 3 does not list any of the additional four tracks.

Disc three: A Show of Hands
 Intro
 "The Big Money"
 "Marathon"
 "Turn the Page"
 "Prime Mover"
 "Manhattan Project"
 "Closer to the Heart"
 "Red Sector A"
 "Force Ten"
 "Mission"
 "Territories"
 "YYZ" †
 "The Rhythm Method" (drum solo)
 "The Spirit of Radio"
 "Tom Sawyer"
 "2112 Overture"
 "The Temples of Syrinx"
 "La Villa Strangiato"
 "In the Mood"

† The DVD does not list "YYZ" in the track listing and groups it together with the song "Territories".

Note: The DVD version of A Show of Hands contains the full program of the VHS version; "Lock and Key" appeared on the laserdisc version after "Force Ten" on A Show of Hands, but does not appear on the DVD or VHS.

Certifications

External links

Rush (band) video albums
2006 compilation albums
2006 live albums
2006 video albums
Rush (band) live albums
Rush (band) compilation albums
Anthem Records live albums
Anthem Records compilation albums
Anthem Records video albums
Mercury Records compilation albums
Mercury Records live albums
Mercury Records video albums

Rush Replay X 3


William Strunk Jr. (July 1, 1869 – September 26, 1946) was an American professor of English at Cornell University and author of The Elements of Style (1918). After revision and enlargement by his former student E. B. White, it became a highly influential guide to English usage during the late 20th century, commonly called Strunk & White.

Life and career
Strunk was born and reared in Cincinnati, Ohio, the eldest of the four surviving children of William and Ella Garretson Strunk. He earned a bachelor's degree at the University of Cincinnati in 1890 and a PhD at Cornell University in 1896. He spent the academic year 1898–99 at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, where he studied morphology and philology.

Strunk first taught mathematics at Rose Polytechnical Institute in Terre Haute, Indiana in 1890–91. He then taught English at Cornell for 46 years, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, disdaining specialization and becoming an expert in both classical and non-English literature. In 1922 he published English Metres, a study of poetic metrical form, and he compiled critical editions of Cynewulf's Juliana, several works of Dryden, James Fenimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans, and several Shakespearean plays. Strunk was also active in a gathering known as the Manuscript Club, an "informal Saturday-night gathering of students and professors interested in writing," where he met "a sensitive and deeply thoughtful young man named Elwyn Brooks White."

In 1935–36, Strunk enjoyed serving as the literary consultant for the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film Romeo and Juliet (1936). In the studio he was known as "the professor," in part because, with his three-piece suit and wire-rim spectacles, he "looked as though he'd been delivered to the set from MGM's casting department."

In 1918, Strunk privately published The Elements of Style for the use of his Cornell students, who gave it its nickname, "the little book." Strunk intended the guide "to lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention ... on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated." In 1935, Strunk and Edward A. Tenney revised and published the guide as The Elements and Practice of Composition (1935).

In his New Yorker column of July 27, 1957, E. B. White praised the "little book" as a "forty-three-page summation of the case for cleanliness, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English." Macmillan and Company then commissioned White to revise the 1935 edition for republication under Strunk's original title. His expansion and modernization sold more than two million copies. Since 1959, total sales of three editions in four decades has exceeded ten million copies.

In 1900, Strunk married Olivia Emilie Locke, with whom he had three children, including the noted musicologist Oliver Strunk. William Strunk retired from Cornell in 1937. In 1945 he suffered a mental breakdown, diagnosed as "senile psychosis," and died less than a year later at the Hudson River Psychiatric Institute in Poughkeepsie, New York. Strunk's Cornell obituary noted that his friends and former students remembered "his kindness, his helpfulness as a teacher and colleague, [and] his boyish lack of envy and guile."

References

Further reading
 Mark Garvey, Stylized : A Slightly Obsessive History of Strunk & White's The Elements of Style  (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009).

External links

 Elements of Style, full text of Strunk's original at Bartleby.com

1869 births
1946 deaths
University of Cincinnati alumni
Cornell University alumni
Cornell University faculty
Educators from Cincinnati
Writers of style guides
American expatriates in France
American people of German descent
Woodward High School (Cincinnati, Ohio) alumni

William Strunk Jr.


Claudius Postumus Dardanus was a praetorian prefect of Gaul from the early fifth century AD, who was against Jovinus, considered as a usurper of imperial authority. Dardanus made him suffer the last penalty after he had been defeated in Valencia by King of the Goths Ataulf.

In all likelihood, Dardanus came from a modest background and due to his studies and abilities reached the status of a patrician (an honorary position in the Lower Empire related to the acquisition of effective status as a senator), and access to the post of prefect of the Gauls twice, probably the first time in 401-404 or 406-407 and 412–413 in a second time after the transfer in 407 of the seat of praetorian prefecture of Gaul from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) to Arelate (Arles).

Dardanus was converted to Christianity and then retired to the Alps, where he began a correspondence with Jerome and Augustine of Hippo. An admirer of St. Augustine, with whom he had established a correspondence, he founded an institution called Theopolis (Greek: "City of God").  This institution was established in his domain, for which he expanded on both sides of the road leading from Sisteron to the present village of Saint-Geniez to which it gives the walls and doors. No archaeological remains of this city exist, only a Latin inscription carved in the rock face along the road.

References
 Andreas Agnellus, Liber pontificalis ecclesiae Ravennatis (« Annales de Ravenne »). Translated in English in Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis, The Book of Pontiffs of the Church of Ravenna. Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 2004.
 Sidonius Apollinaris, Lettres, V, 9.1. Lettre à Aquilinus. Édition des Belles-Lettres (Collection des Universités de France), Tome II, vol. 199.
 The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire by John Robert Martindale, through Google Books

External links

Praetorian prefects of Gaul
Converts to Christianity from pagan religions
5th-century Christians
5th-century Gallo-Roman people

Claudius Postumus Dardanus


The Catlins Ranges are a series of rugged, roughly parallel hill ranges in the southeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island.

The Catlins Ranges take their name from the name given to this part of the country - the Catlins. The ranges lie mostly in Otago, although their western extremes lie in Southland Region. The original land purchaser was whaling captain Edward Cattlin (sometimes spelt Catlin). He purchased an extensive block of land along Catlins River on 15 February 1840 from Kāi Tahu chief Hone Tuhawaiki (also known as "Bloody Jack") for muskets and £30 (roughly NZ$3000 in 2005 dollars). However, New Zealand's land commissioners declined to endorse the purchase.

There are four distinct ranges: the small Rata and Beresford Ranges in the northeast, the Maclennan Range in the southwest, and the Forest Range, which can be considered as an extension of the Maclennan Range. Each of these ranges is oriented along a northwest-southeast axis. The ranges are separated by the valleys of the Catlins and Tahakopa Rivers. Inland, close to the watersheds of these rivers, the boundaries between the ranges become indistinct, part of the reason why they are often grouped together under the one name.

The Maclennan Range is the largest of the ranges in terms of length, being some 25 km (15 mi) in length, but most of the highest hills are found inland in the area where the ranges are not easily differentiated. The highest point in the Catlins Ranges is the 720 m (2361 ft) summit of Mt. Pye, which is located 25 km (40 mi) north-northeast of Waikawa. Other prominent peaks include Mt Rosebery (719 m; 2359 ft), Ajax Hill (698 m; 2290 ft), Catlins Cone (698 m; 2290 ft), and Mt Tautuku (691 m; 2266 ft).

References

Mountain ranges of Otago
Mountain ranges of Southland, New Zealand
The Catlins
Clutha District

Catlins Ranges


Arthur William Wellard (8 April 1902 – 31 December 1980) was a cricketer who played for Somerset and England. A late starter in county cricket, having been told by his native county, Kent, that he would be better off taking up a career as a policeman, Wellard played on into his late 40s. He was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1936.

Wellard was a fast-bowling all-rounder who exemplified much of the happy-go-lucky cricket played by Somerset in the 1930s. Despite a first-class batting average of only 19.72, he was famous for the number of sixes he hit, with over 500 in his career, accounting for a quarter of his runs. He was for many years the holder of the record number of sixes in a single season, with 72 in 1935. But Wellard as a fast bowler was good enough to be picked twice for England, against New Zealand in 1937 and against the Australians in 1938, and his 1,614 career wickets put him 63rd on the all-time bowling lists. Wellard was chosen in the England team to play three Tests in India in 1939–40, but the tour was cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II.

Career
Wellard's first-class debut came at the age of 25 for Somerset against the touring New Zealanders. A further tourists match against the West Indians followed the following season, but he was unable to appear in the County Championship until he was qualified in 1929. He took 125 wickets in his maiden season in the tournament, finishing behind only Jack White in the club's tally for the year. He took ten wickets in a match for the first time during his fourth County Championship match for Somerset against the visiting Kent side, with figures of 6/108 & 4/28. He took five-wicket hauls in four out of five innings at the beginning of June 1929, with five in the only innings against Derbyshire, six in the first innings against Leicestershire, and another six in the first innings followed by five in the second innings when Gloucestershire visited Taunton.

On 24 August 1938, at Wells, Wellard thumped five sixes off an over from Kent's England allrounder Frank Woolley. This equalled a world record that lasted until Garry Sobers hit six sixes off Malcolm Nash in 1968. Wellard was well named: before Ian Botham struck 80 sixes in 1985, our Arthur was the only man to hit 50 in a season, which he did four times, including the round number of 66 sixes in 1935.

Wellard played county cricket with Boss Meyer, the founder of Millfield School. Meyer was a well known eccentric and allegedly in 1947, Wellard who was even older than Meyer, was bowling rather well, when Northamptonshire batsman Dennis Brookes played a false stroke through the slips which Meyer, too crippled by lumbago to bend down, failed to catch. Meyer reached into his back pocket and said, "Sorry Arthur, here's a quid."

References

External links

 A tribute to Wellard

1902 births
1980 deaths
English cricketers
England Test cricketers
London Counties cricketers
Somerset cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
Players cricketers
English cricketers of 1919 to 1945
H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI cricketers
North v South cricketers
L. H. Tennyson's XI cricket team
People from the Borough of Dartford
Cricketers from Kent

Arthur Wellard