The Ay family are Kurdish asylum seekers who became the centre of a controversy in 2003 surrounding the policy of locking up children in high security immigration detention centres in the United Kingdom.

Salih and Yurdugal Ay were Kurds seeking asylum who came to the UK to escape persecution in Turkey, it being alleged that Mrs Ay had been locked up and raped by Turkish militia. They brought their four children with them and settled in Gravesend in Kent where the children attended local schools. Salih was deported to Germany and from there further deported back to Turkey where he disappeared.

In 2002, Yurdugal Ay and her children were suddenly removed from their home by immigration officials and taken to Dungavel detention centre in South Lanarkshire, Scotland. They were all put together in one room where they lived for a year inside a razor wire surrounded compound. Yurdugal could not speak English very well so it was up to her eldest daughter, Beriwan Ay aged 13, to negotiate for her mother and her sisters. The family were threatened with deportation but appealed. It was claimed by the authorities that they had brought the long stay at Dungavel upon themselves by this appeal.

Conditions in the privatised detention centre, run by the American private-prison operator GEO Group, were far from satisfactory. There were no proper education facilities for the children.  The children were treated as prisoners with just 2 hours exercise outside allowed each day. There were very limited play facilities. The Children's Commissioner for Scotland described the situation there as 'morally distressing' and threatened to report the UK Government and Scottish Executive to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. The British Home Secretary at the time David Blunkett appeared to disregard various conventions on human rights requirements about not imprisoning children claiming that the other alternative — separating the children from their parents and putting them into care — was also undesirable.

Bishop John Mone met Beriwan Ay on a visit to Dungavel and was appalled by what he discovered. During a later visit he smuggled a video camera into the centre [clergymen not being searched there], interviewed Beriwan to camera and released the video to the media. This was shown on BBC television's Newsnight programme. The case was also taken up by the Herald newspaper.

A media storm ensued. The Scottish Executive had responsibilities for children's welfare in Scotland but was clashing with a non devolved act from  the UK parliament in Westminster. Eventually the Ay family lost their appeal against deportation and were forcibly deported via Stansted Airport to Germany  where they were granted asylum. On 27 October 2006 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a play by Frank Deasy called Broken English portraying the case from Beriwan Ay's point of view.

In January 2012 the Home Office agreed to pay them a 6-figure sum of compensation in an out of court settlement following a civil action against the UK government for the ordeal of their time in detention.

References

Living people
Turkish refugees
Turkish people of Kurdish descent
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ay family


Framework is a term describing established practices in a society, science, software development, or hardware design that can be repeatedly applied to solving problems. The problems are solved uniformly (in the same or very similar way) in a framework.

In computer technology, a framework is an API that defines what kind of programs can be built with it. For example, the .NET Framework allows writing programs in C# but not in C.

Logic

Framework


Sir James Young Simpson, 1st Baronet,  (7 June 1811 – 6 May 1870), was a Scottish obstetrician and a significant figure in the history of medicine. He was the first physician to demonstrate the anaesthetic properties of chloroform on humans and helped to popularise its use in medicine.

Simpson's intellectual interests ranged from archaeology to an almost taboo subject at the time: hermaphroditism. He was an early advocate of the use of midwives in the hospital environment. Many prominent women also consulted him for their gynaecological problems. Simpson wrote Homœopathy, its Tenets and Tendencies refuting the ideas put forward by Hahnemann.

His services as an early founder of gynaecology and proponent of hospital reform were rewarded with a knighthood and by 1847 he had been appointed as physician to the Queen in Scotland.

Simpson was a close friend of Sir David Brewster, and was present at his deathbed. His contribution to the understanding of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform had a major impact on surgery.

Education and early career
James Simpson was born in Bathgate, a younger son of Mary Jervais and David Simpson, a baker. He attended the local school, and in 1825, at the age of 14, entered the University of Edinburgh to study for an arts degree. Two years later he began his medical studies at the University, graduating with an MBChB. He became a licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1830 and received his MD in 1832. While at University he took additional classes including those delivered by the surgeon Robert Liston. As a result of the quality of his MD thesis on inflammation, Professor of Pathology John Thomson took him on as his assistant.

As a student he became a member and then Senior President of the Royal Medical Society, initiating a lifelong interest in the Society's advancement. His first role was as a general practitioner in the Stockbridge district based at 2 Deanhaugh Street, and at the age of 28, he succeeded James Hamilton as Professor of Medicine and Midwifery at the University of Edinburgh.

Simpson's most significant contribution to medicine was the introduction of anaesthesia to childbirth, however he also improved the design of obstetric forceps that to this day are known in obstetric circles as "Simpson's Forceps", as well as designing the Air Tractor in 1838. The Air Tractor was the earliest known vacuum extractor to assist childbirth, however the method did not become popular until the invention of the ventouse over a century later.

With regards to religion Simpson was a devout adherent of the Free Church of Scotland, but he refused to sign the Westminster Confession of Faith, because of what he believed to be its literal interpretation of the book of Genesis.

Simpson's principal residence was Strathavon Lodge, but he also kept a town house at 52 Queen Street, Edinburgh, and a country house near Bathgate. The family seat was Strathavon, Linlithgow.

Obstetric anaesthesia

Sir Humphry Davy used the first anaesthetic in 1799: nitrous oxide (laughing gas). William T. G. Morton's demonstration of ether as an anaesthetic in 1846 was initially dismissed because it irritated the lungs of the patients. Chloroform had been invented in 1831, but its uses had not been greatly investigated. Dr Robert Mortimer Glover had first described the anaesthetic properties of chloroform upon animals in 1842 in a thesis which won the Harveian Society's Gold Medal that year, but had not thought to use it on humans (fearing its safety).

In 1847, Simpson first demonstrated the properties of chloroform upon humans, during an experiment with friends in which he confirmed that it could be used to put one to sleep. Dr Simpson and two of his assistants, Dr George Skene Keith (1819-1910) and James Matthews Duncan (1826-1890), used to sit every evening in Dr Simpson's dining room to try new chemicals to see if they had any anaesthetic effect. Following a visit to Linlithgow, where Simpson was recommended to trial a sample of chloroform from a local pharmacist, David Waldie, Simpson then returned to Edinburgh. On 4 November 1847, Simpson and his friends decided to try chloroform themselves, which Simpson had obtained from local pharmacist William Flockhart of Duncan and Flockhart of North Bridge, Edinburgh. On inhaling the chemical they found that a general mood of cheer and humour had set in, but suddenly all of them collapsed only to regain consciousness the next morning. Simpson knew, as soon as he woke up, that he had found something that could be used as an anaesthetic. They soon had Miss Petrie, Simpson's niece, try it. She fell asleep soon after inhaling it while singing the words, "I am an angel!". There is a prevalent myth that the mother of the first child delivered under chloroform christened her child "Anaesthesia"; the story is retailed in Simpson's biography as written by his daughter Eve. However, the son of the first baby delivered by chloroform explained that Simpson's parturient had been one Jane Carstairs, and her child was baptised Wilhelmina. "Anaesthesia" was a nickname Simpson had given the baby.

It was much by chance that Simpson survived the chloroform dosage he administered to himself. If he had inhaled too much and died, chloroform would have been seen as a dangerous substance, which in fact it is. Conversely, if Simpson had inhaled slightly less it would not have put him to sleep. It was his willingness to explore the possibilities of the substance that set him on the road to a career as a pioneer in the field of medicine. Subsequently organising supplies to Florence Nightingale and Queen Victoria, led to its use in obstetrics and for the military, and according to the British Medical Journal changed the face of medicine for a century.

An account of some of Simpson's early uses of ether in childbirth are related by Manchester-based doctor Edmund Lund who visited him in 1847 and can be found in a manuscript held by special collections at the University of Manchester with the reference MMM/12/2.

Antiquarian research
Simpson joined the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in 1849, and became its vice-president in 1860. He made contributions to both the history of medicine and to archaeology. He published several papers on leprosy and syphilis. In both cases he was concerned with the symptoms of the diseases and the relation between historical reports and contemporary cases, and also with the institutions that were set up to care for and segregate the patients. Another area he worked on was medicine in Roman Britain.

Simpson published an early and important work on prehistoric rock art Archaic Sculpturings of Cups, Circles, &c. Upon Stones and Rocks in Scotland, England, & Other Countries. Simpson listed and categorized examples of sculpturings from many parts of the British Isles, often from personal examination, and also included examples from other countries for comparison. Many illustrations are provided. After Simpson's death, a collection of his antiquarian essays was published in two volumes.

Marriage and Grindlay family
The Simpson and Grindlay families of Edinburgh were closely interrelated, forming a single extended family.

In 1839, Simpson married Janet Grindlay (later Lady Janet Grindlay Simpson), daughter of the Edinburgh and Liverpool shipping grandee Walter Grindlay, a member of the Scottish branch of the landed gentry Grindlay family. Simpson and Walter were cousins, sharing grandparents in Alexander Simpson and his wife Isabella Grindlay, and Walter's daughter Janet or 'Jessie', was Simpson's first cousin once removed. Simpson's son, Walter Grindlay Simpson, 2nd Baronet was Walter Grindlay's nephew and godson.

Simpson relied on Walter Grindlay and his estate for financial support a number of times during his career.

Death and memorials
In 1840 Simpson was elected a member of the Harveian Society of Edinburgh and served as President in 1848. He was elected President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1850 and an international member of the American Philosophical Society in 1863. In 1850 he was also elected a member of the Aesculapian Club. He was created a Baronet of Strathavon in the County of Linlithgow, and of the City of Edinburgh, in 1866. He died at his home in Edinburgh in May 1870 at the age of 58. A burial spot in Westminster Abbey was offered to his family, but they declined and instead buried him closer to home in Warriston Cemetery, Edinburgh. However, a memorial bust of Simpson can be found in a niche at Westminster Abbey in London. On the day of Simpson's funeral, a Scottish holiday was declared, including the banks and stock markets, with over 100,000 citizens lining the funeral cortege on its way to the cemetery, while over 1,700 colleagues and business leaders took part in the procession itself. A year later, chloroform supplier, William Flockhart was buried nearby.

Dr Alexander Russell Simpson, his nephew, inherited his town house at 52 Queen Street and lived there until his death in 1916, when it was then bequeathed to the Church of Scotland. Since then the building has been through many uses including being requisitioned by the army during the Second World War and being used as a centre for training Sunday School teachers in the 1950s. Today, the town house is the premises of a charity called Simpson House, which provides a counselling service for adults and children affected by alcohol and drug use. There is a plaque on the wall outside to mark the house as having been the home of James Young Simpson from 1845 to 1870.

In 1879 the Edinburgh Royal Maternity and Simpson Memorial Hospital and in 1939 the Simpson Memorial Maternity Pavilion were named in his honour, as is the current Simpson Centre for Reproductive Health at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. The Quartermile development, which consists of the Old Royal Infirmary in Edinburgh, named its main residential street Simpson Loan in his honour.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms of the Simpson Baronets, award to James Young Simpson on the 3rd of February 1866, are influenced by his work in medicine and anaesthesia.

Gallery

See also
 Charles Thomas Jackson, claimed to have pioneered the use of diethyl ether
 Crawford Williamson Long, discovered the anaesthetic effect of diethyl ether
 William Thomas Green Morton, pioneered the use of diethyl ether in surgery

 Humphry Davy, first suggested the use of nitrous oxide in 1799
 Horace Wells, in 1844 pioneered the use of nitrous oxide in the US

References

Further reading

Gordon, H. L. (2019). Sir James Young Simpson and Chloroform (1811-1870): Masters of Medicine. Czechia: Good Press.

 Simpson, Eve Blantyre, (1896), Sir James Y. Simpson, Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, ("Famous Scots Series").

External links

 Overview of Sir James Young Simpson
 Papers of Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870)
 Significant Scots entry
 Who Named It? Entry (well laid out)
 Papers of Sir James Young Simpson The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
 Britannica online entry for Sir James
 Entry featuring his gynecological contributions
 West Lothian council memorial to Sir James

British Medical Journal video about the legacy of James Young Simpson (via History Scotland)

1811 births
1870 deaths
Scottish Presbyterians
People from Bathgate
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
19th-century Scottish medical doctors
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
Presidents of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
People associated with Edinburgh
Scottish anaesthetists
Scottish inventors
Burials at Warriston Cemetery
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

James Young Simpson


Edith Marie McGuire (born June 3, 1944), later known as Edith McGuire Duvall, is an American former sprinter.

Born in Atlanta, Georgia, McGuire ran for Tennessee State University. TSU had a very successful women's sprinting team, The Tigerbelles, in the 1960s, including triple Olympic champions Wilma Rudolph, Wyomia Tyus, and McGuire.

Although McGuire's running career was short, she won six AAU titles, in three different events. Her specialty, however, was the 200 m/220 y, in which she won four of her six national titles. In 1964, she was undefeated in her favorite event, and went to Tokyo as the main contender for the 200 m gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics.

McGuire first competed in the 100 m in Japan, and lost out in the final to teammate Tyus. But in the 200 m final, she held off Poland's Irena Kirszenstein to take the gold medal. She added a third medal to her tally as a member of the American 4×100 m relay team, which placed second to Poland.

Edith McGuire ended her athletics career in 1965, and became a teacher. In 1980 she was inducted into the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame. At present, she owns a number of fast food restaurants in Oakland, California together with her husband Charles Duvall.

References

External links

1944 births
Living people
American female sprinters
Tennessee State Lady Tigers track and field athletes
Track and field athletes from Atlanta
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
Athletes (track and field) at the 1963 Pan American Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships winners
Medalists at the 1963 Pan American Games
Olympic female sprinters

Edith McGuire


The Teatro Nuovo (New Theatre) is a theatre located on Via Montecalvario in the Quartieri Spagnoli district of Naples. The original theatre was an opera house designed by Domenico Antonio Vaccaro. Completed in 1724, it was also known as the Teatro Nuovo sopra Toledo and the Teatro Nuovo de Montecalvario. The theatre specialised in the opera buffa genre and saw the world premieres of hundreds of operas in its heyday. These included fifteen of Cimarosa's operas and seven of Donizetti's. The present theatre is the third to have been erected on the site following its destruction by fire in 1861 and again in 1935.

First theatre 1774–1861

The first theatre was originally owned by Giacinto de Laurentis and Angelo Carasale who had it built on a small garden near the church of Santa Maria della Concezione a Montecalvario. It was designed by Domenico Antonio Vaccaro who had also designed the reconstruction of the church. Prior to the construction of the Teatro Nuovo, the Teatro dei Fiorentini was the only theatre in Naples hosting performances of opera buffa written in Neapolitan dialect. It was, however, very small (seating only 250 people), was lit by only two large torches, and had not been originally built as an opera house. The ever-increasing popularity of the opera buffa genre led to local impresarios opening new theatres to accommodate the new audiences. The Teatro della Pace which opened the same year as the Teatro Nuovo was as small as the Fiorentini and had been converted from a private prose theatre in the home of Prince Tiberio Carafa.

The Teatro Nuovo was the first theatre in Naples to be purpose-built for staging opera. It had what would become the classic "horseshoe" shape and was considered to be a marvel of design for the size of the audience it could accommodate on a very small plot of land. With 140 seats in the orchestra stalls and five tiers of thirteen boxes each, it was able to accommodate 1000 spectators. Its capacity, lighting and acoustics led one contemporary commentator to remark that "from the impossible was born the possible". Vaccaro's plans for the Teatro Nuovo would later serve as the basis for the design of the much larger Teatro San Carlo by Giovanni Antonio Medrano.

Carasale and de Laurentis bought the land for their new theatre in March 1724, and seven months later its construction was completed. The Teatro Nuovo was inaugurated on 15 October 1724 with the premiere of Antonio Orefice's comic opera Lo Simmele set to a libretto in Neapolitan dialect by Bernardo Saddumene and dedicated to Michael Friedrich von Althann, the Viceroy of Naples. The theatre was initially run by the impresario Gennaro Donatiello who contracted with Carasale and de Laurentis to pay 650 ducats per year for the right to stage performances there.

Comic operas dominated the theatre's repertoire throughout the 18th century, but it also presented prose comedies during that time, which like the operas were mainly written in Neapolitan dialect. Over the 137 years of its existence, the Teatro Nuovo presented hundreds of world premieres, including fifteen operas by Cimarosa, eleven by Piccinni, and seven by Donizetti. In the 19th century, prose theatre began to dominate, although operas were still performed regularly, many of them composed and performed by students at the San Pietro a Majella conservatory.

The theatre caught fire during the night of 20 February 1861 and was completely destroyed within an hour.

Second theatre 1864–1935

Ulisse Rizzi, an architect and the owner of the first theatre at the time it burnt down, rebuilt it on the same site. The new theatre's interior was decorated by Fausto Niccolini, the son of the architect and scenographer Antonio Niccolini. It had a larger stage than the previous theatre and increased seating capacity, although one contemporary writer, Pietro Martorana (1819–1875), observed that the increased number of seats was somewhat to the detriment of the audience's comfort. Under the new theatre's impresario Giuseppe Maria Luzi, comic plays in Neapolitan dialect predominated. Francesco Florimo lamented that the operatic offerings were a "musical hybrid". Forsaking the traditional Neapolitan opera buffa of its glory days, the theatre presented revivals of Italian operas as well as French and Austrian operettas, cast mostly with inferior singers.

By the late 1800s operatic offerings had become few and far between. Amongst them were Nicola D'Arienzo's comic opera  La fiera (with a libretto by Salvatore Di Giacomo) which premiered in 1887 and Mario Morelli's L'amico Francesco staged on 15 March 1895. Morelli was an amateur musician who had rented the theatre at his own expense to present his opera to an invited audience. L'amico Francesco was never performed again but it starred the young Enrico Caruso in the title role and marked his professional debut as an opera singer.

In 1888 when the actor Gennaro Pantalena and his company took up residence, the Teatro Nuovo took its first steps towards a more modern version of Neapolitan dialect theatre and presented both comedy and realist drama. Under its impresario Pasquale Molinari, the theatre secured the exclusive rights to produce many of Eduardo Scarpetta's comic plays, but it also produced the premieres of several dramas by Salvatore Di Giacomo, notably his 1909 Assunta Spina which has been characterised by Italian theatre scholar Andrea Bisicchia as "a defining moment in the history of Neapolitan theatre" and a manifesto for the teatro d'arte (art theatre) movement.

The Teatro Nuovo closed in 1914 for the duration of World War I. In the interim, Molinari had died, and when the theatre reopened his son-in-law Eugenio Aulicino took over as impresario. In the post-war years he built up a roster of actors that included the young Eduardo De Filippo, his sister Titina and brother Peppino; Totò; and for a short time, Romilda Villani (the mother of Sophia Loren). On the night of 12 February 1935, shortly after the curtain fell on the revue Mille luci, the Teatro Nuovo caught fire and once again burnt to the ground.

Third theatre 1985–present

After World War II, a hotel and cinema were built on the site of the old theatre. Attached to the new building was a warehouse which had been carved out of the remains of the old theatre's auditorium. In the early 1980s, the actors Igina Di Napoli and her husband Angelo Montella conceived the idea of resurrecting the Teatro Nuovo by converting the disused warehouse into a new performing space. It was to become a home for experimental theatre and a training ground for young playwrights, actors and directors. Their first full season began in 1985.

Di Napoli and Montella ran the theatre as a consortium of small companies until 2010. Ownership then passed to Teatro Pubblico Campano, an organization consisting of the regional and local governments of the Campania Region and theatrical and cultural organizations in the region. Alfredo Balsamo has been the General and Artistic Director of the Teatro Nuovo since 2011 when the Teatro Pubblico Campano took over the theatre.

The theatre was refurbished shortly after it passed to the  Teatro Pubblico Campano and now has a seating capacity of 248 and a stage 12 metres wide and 7 metres deep. Its 2016–2017 season was inaugurated with a 12 hour "marathon" devoted to the life and work of the playwright and actor Annibale Ruccello who was closely associated with the theatre in the 1980s. In March 2017 the rebirth of the Teatro Nuovo was the subject of a RAI 5 television documentary in the series Napoli in scena.

Notes

References

Further reading
De Filippis, Felice and Mangini, Mario (1967). Il Teatro Nuovo di Napoli. Berisio.

External links

Slide show: Images of the present Teatro Nuovo and its key figures from the Corriere del Mezzogiorno

Opera houses in Naples
1724 establishments in Italy
Theatres in Naples

Teatro Nuovo (Naples)


Buzwagi Gold Mine is an open pit gold mine in the Shinyanga Region of Tanzania, located 6 kilometres southeast from the town of Kahama. It is operated by Acacia Mining.

It is one of three gold mines Acacia Mining operates in Tanzania, the other two being Bulyanhulu and the North Mara Gold Mine. In the financial year 2014, the company produced a combined amount of 719,000 attributable ounces of gold.

History
Gold mining in Tanzania in modern times dates back to the German colonial period, beginning with gold discoveries near Lake Victoria in 1894. The first gold mine in what was then Tanganyika, the Sekenke Mine, began operation in 1909, and gold mining in Tanzania experienced a boom between 1930 and World War II. By 1967, gold production in the country had dropped to insignificance but was revived in the mid-1970s, when the gold price rose once more. In the late 1990s, foreign mining companies started investing in the exploration and development of gold deposits in Tanzania, leading to the opening of a number of new mines.

Barrick acquired Buzwagi, alongside Tulawaka, as part of its acquisition of Pangea Goldfields Inc. in 2000. The mine, the second largest mining operation and the largest single open pit mine in Tanzania, opened in 2009. The mine was construction for Buzwagi cost approximately $400 million, and employed more than 3,000 staff. It consists of an open pit mine, ore processing facilities, a waste rock storage facility, a tailings storage facility, as well as water management and other ancillary facilities. In 2009, Buzwagi employed close to 1,500 staff. It has, as of 2014, an expected mine life of 5 years remaining.

In 2010, 60 employees were suspended, after Barrick discovered widespread fuel theft by employees at the mine.

References

External links

 Barrick website
 African Barrick Gold website
 Buzwagi mine (TZA-00677) Secretariat of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States website

Barrick Gold
Gold mines in Tanzania
Surface mines in Tanzania
Buildings and structures in the Shinyanga Region
2009 establishments in Tanzania

Buzwagi Gold Mine


Acalitus essigi, the redberry mite, is an eriophyid mite which is a serious pest of commercially produced blackberries in the United States. The redberry mite is microscopic, requiring at least a 20× hand lens to detect. It has two pairs of legs and a thin, translucent appearance.

Overwintering mites colonize tiny spaces beneath the exterior scales of dormant buds of blackberries. As the season progresses, redberry mite migration occurs up the flower stem to colonize leaf axial bracts, the fruit's calyx area as well as the spaces between berry druplets. Redberry mite feeding prevents berries from ripening uniformly, causing from one to many druplets to remain as a bright red cluster on the otherwise black and fully ripe fruit. Affected druplets never do ripen, causing the entire fruit to be inedible and unmarketable. Historically, redberry mite has been most damaging to blackberry varieties such as Chester, which mature later in the summer (August and September). Yield loss to redberry mite damage can range from 10 to 50% of the total blackberry crop.

Infestations of redberry mite are often controlled with lime sulfur or natural acaricidal oils.

External links
Redberry Mite IPM

Agricultural pest mites
Eriophyidae
Arachnids of North America
Animals described in 1928

Acalitus essigi


Ted Wainwright (8 April 1865 – 28 October 1919) was an English first-class cricketer, who played in 352 first-class matches for Yorkshire County Cricket Club between 1888 and 1902. An all-rounder, Wainwright helped to establish the county at the top under Lord Hawke's captaincy, during the early years of County Championship cricket. He also appeared in five Test matches for England, although without any real international success.

Life and career
Edward Wainwright was born in Tinsley, Sheffield, Yorkshire, England.

Wainwright will be remembered for gaining the lowest bowling average in the history of the County Championship – 10.17 for 97 wickets in 1894, a summer of many sticky wickets. On these wickets, he would bowl a perfect length and his spin was such that the ball, "popping" from the crust of the turf, would gain pace so that not even the most technically correct batsman could hope to survive. However, Wainwright never had any sting on hard pitches. He did not take a single wicket in his five Test matches against Australia. Wainwright featured in four of the five Tests on Stoddart's 1897/98 tour of Australia, but found, not long into the visit, that his off spin was declining to turn. By the conclusion of the tour, Wainwright became convinced of his having lost the facility. When he arrived back in Yorkshire, Wainwright went straight to the nets and noted that the ball immediately started to spin in the manner to which he had been accustomed.

A better batsman than bowler, Wainwright suffered from inconsistency, but on his day could play brilliant innings characterised by powerful hitting. Among the best was his 116 which won the match against Kent in 1900. In fielding, Wainwright excelled as a close catcher; along with John Tunnicliffe he gave vital support to Yorkshire's powerful bowling attacks, holding forty two catches in 1895.

Wainwright first played for Yorkshire in 1888, and immediately established his place in the side, chiefly through an innings of 105 against the Australians. He developed slowly over the next couple of years, but his performance on a sticky wicket at Sheffield in 1891 was the performance that established Wainwright as a deadly soft-wicket bowler. Wainwright showed no advancement as a batsman until 1893, when he got close to doing the double and played his first Test at Lord's without success. Wainwright was Yorkshire's leading wicket-taker in 1892, though they fared only modestly, and in 1893, aided by some bad wickets due to a dry spring, he took 90 wickets for 12.55 each, to help Yorkshire win its first Championship. By this time, he and Bobby Peel were the finest slow bowling partnership in county cricket, and they were often unplayable when the wicket helped them.

In 1894, against Sussex, Wainwright took five wickets in seven deliveries and finished with figures of seven for twenty (thirteen for 38 for the match). Against Middlesex, he took ten for 63, and against Surrey twelve for 108. However, his harmlessness on the best pitch of the season at The Oval made sure that he was not chosen for The Ashes tour that winter. 1895 was disappointing as a batsman and bowler, but his fielding made him a vital member of Yorkshire's eleven. In the dry summer of 1896, he recaptured his ability to exploit the few sticky wickets, and got closer to a thousand runs than ever before.

In 1897, though expensive as a bowler, Wainwright hit five centuries and was named for the 1897/1898 Ashes tour in that capacity. However, he again did not perform well in the Tests. 1899 saw Wainwright again of little use as a bowler once the harder pitches came in June, but he played a career-best 228 at the Oval and scored almost as many runs as in 1897. With Rhodes and Haigh now Yorkshire's destroyers on sticky wickets, Wainwright did little bowling in 1900 and 1901 – his last two seasons – but his batting, though inconsistent, remained highly valuable as a last resort.

Shrewsbury and Cardus
Following his retirement, he went to work as a professional at Shrewsbury School, where he was to replace William Attewell as a young Neville Cardus' colleague. As Cardus recalled in his Autobiography (although he had the date wrong: Wainwright became coach at Shrewsbury in 1914, not 1913), "When I went back to Shrewsbury in 1913, I suffered a loss. I entered the house of Mrs. Rodenhurst and at once asked whether Attewell had arrived yet. 'No,' said Mrs. Rodenhurst; 'No, Mr. Attewell wasn't coming again to Shrewsbury; another gentleman had come instead, a Mr. Wainwright from Sheffield; he was to be the cricket instructor now, with, of course, you, Mr. Neville.' She'd heard that the School had told Mr. Attewell that they were engaging somebody else.

...Wainwright, of Yorkshire and All-England, was of the modern school. 'Pla-ay back; get thi legs reight.' He was at the extreme to Attewell; he belonged to a period that marked a transition in the development of the social life of the English professional cricketer; he was a bridge from the simple and dignified forelock-touching William to the Hammonds and the Sutcliffes, who burnish their hair and go to Savile Row for their clothes.

When Mrs. Rodenhurst told me of the advent to Shrewsbury of Wainwright, I asked her if he was in his room, or where. 'No,' she said, 'he went out about an hour ago. I think you'll find him in the King's Arms.' I went to the King's Arms and made my very first appearance in the bar-parlour of a public-house. The room was empty save for one man, dressed in blue serge, with a shrewd lean face. I recognised him. I had seen him playing for Yorkshire at Old Trafford. I introduced myself. 'I'm the assistant pro.,' I explained. 'Art thou?' he replied, 'well, then 'ave a drink wi' me.' I told him I didn't drink — only ginger ale. 'Christ,' he said, 'tha'rt a reight bloody cricketer.' He was a tall man, who walked as though he didn't care a damn for anybody. There was something sinister about him. Every night he got drunk as a matter of course, quietly and masterfully. One day he backed a winner at a glorious price, and towards eleven o'clock that night he and the drill-sergeant of the school arrived arm-in-arm (supporting one another) in the sitting-room of our lodgings. Very gravely Ted introduced me to the drill-sergeant, whom of course I knew very well. The drill-sergeant as gravely introduced Ted to me, then taking my arm, he whispered rather noisily in my ear, 'I'm 'fraid 'e's a l'il drunk, so I've jus' bror him h-home.' Whereupon Ted dissolved into helpless laughter and said, 'My dear sersergeant, don't be 'diculous. . . . Bror me home? Why, you ole fool, it's me that's bror you 'ome.' Then (aside), 'E's jus' a l'il drunk, so I've bror him home.' The sergeant hooted with glee. 'Bless m' soul,' he said, 'Ted; jus' lis'en t'me. If you'd bror me home, this would be my lodgin's, see? I would be 'ome, not you. See? But this is your lodgin's—so I mus' 'ave bror you 'ome. See?'

The syllogism was too much for Ted. He collapsed and fell on his umbrella which, though the night was hot, he had carried with him for hours neatly rolled up, and he broke it into two equal halves. We then, the sergeant and I, put him to bed, the sergeant all the time solicitously muttering, 'I bror 'im home. Jus' a l'il drunk, tha's all, pore f'ler.' Next morning Ted came down to breakfast fresh as a daisy and saw the broken halves of his umbrella which Mrs. Rodenhurst had carefully laid on the sofa. 'What the 'ell,' said Ted blankly. I told him what had occurred the night before. Ted reflected; 'Ah remember as far as commin' out of t' King's Arms wi' t' sergeant and gettin' as far as t' Royal Oak, An' Ah remembers nowt else.'"

Death
Wainwright died in Sheffield in October 1919, at the age of 54.

References

External links

1865 births
1919 deaths
England Test cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
Yorkshire cricketers
Cricketers from Sheffield
English cricketers
Players cricketers
Lord Hawke's XI cricketers
C. I. Thornton's XI cricketers
North v South cricketers
A. E. Stoddart's XI cricketers
English cricketers of 1864 to 1889
English cricketers of 1890 to 1918

Ted Wainwright


Tara Mines is a zinc and lead mine near Navan, County Meath, Ireland. Tara is an underground mine where the orebody lies between 50 and 900 metres below the surface in carbonate-hosted lead-zinc ore deposits.

The deposit was discovered in 1970 by Brian Byrne in conjunction with Derek Michael Romer while working for Pat Hughes' Northgate Exploration. Development started in 1973 and production began in 1977. Tara Mine is operated by Boliden. It is the largest zinc mine in Europe and the eighth largest in the world producing 200,000 tonnes of zinc concentrate and 40,000 tonnes of lead concentrate annually.

The planning conditions for the Tara mines included:
 The mining site was to be screened by trees to reduce visual impact.
 Noise and air pollution were closely monitored.
 Large quantities of mining waste or tailings were carefully managed.
 Water used in the operation was purified before being released into the Blackwater River.

Broken ore is delivered to one of five underground crushers and reduced in size to less than 150mm before being carried by conveyor to a 3,600t capacity storage bin at the base of the production shaft. Skip loading and hoisting are automatic. Ore is supplied, at an hourly rate of 570 tonnes, to the surface coarse ore storage building, with a 30,000t capacity, known as the Tepee. The concentrates are shipped via Dublin Port to Boliden's smelters in Kokkola, Finland and Odda, Norway and to other smelters throughout Europe. Tara Mines is connected by railway to Drogheda via Navan, where daily loads of ore are sent to Dublin Port.

Due to low zinc prices, production was halted between 2001 and 2003. In 2009 production was again threatened as demand for zinc, used to galvanise steel for the car and construction industries, declined sharply due to the slowdown in the global economy.  Zinc and lead prices maintained their strength throughout 2011 due to continued demand from China and India.  Ore production from Tara Mines continued strongly throughout 2011.  A brand new Autogenous Grinding mill, which replaces large sections of the original crushing and grinding plant, became operational in October 2009.

References

External links
 Boliden Tara website

Lead mines in the Republic of Ireland
Navan
Underground mines in the Republic of Ireland
Zinc mines in the Republic of Ireland

Tara Mine


Hillsboro Artists' Regional Theatre (HART), originally the Hillsboro Actors Repertory Theater, is a community theatre group in Hillsboro, Oregon, United States. Founded in 1994, the non-profit group presents around six plays each year. Their 99-seat theater is located in downtown Hillsboro next to the Hillsboro Civic Center along Washington Street.

History
The Hillsboro Actors Repertory Theater was founded in 1994 by John and Kim Sandstrom as an extension of their dinner-theater company SandStorm Productions. The married couple opened the theater in the former J. C. Penney store in downtown Hillsboro using their own money, grants, and donated time a materials. Kim Sandstrom also started the Hillsboro Actors Training studio at the same time. HART's debut production was the comedy Light Up the Sky written by playwright Moss Hart. Directed by Nicholette Reid, the production debuted in September 1994.

By the end of their second season in 1996, the 70-seat theater had produced 11 plays. Productions in the early years included Romeo and Juliet, Barefoot in the Park, and Show Boat among others. In February 1996, the Sandstroms began looking at selling the company to a non-profit group. They sold it that year to the Friends of HART in order to focus on raising their family, though Kim remained involved as artistic director for a year. Kim Sandstrom took a hiatus from performing in 2001 after developing health problems, but returned in 2003 to start in Shirley Valentine, a one-person play by Willy Russell. Actor Bret Harrison got his first acting role at HART in a production of Our Town in these early years of HART. By 2004, Michael Hibbard had become the artistic director at HART and in June the company had to move out of its original home that held 83 seats after rent doubled at the space. The group had also changed its name to Hillsboro Artists' Regional Theatre. Productions were then held and a variety of venues, including the Glenn & Viola Walters Cultural Arts Center.

In February 2005, the theater company began negotiating with the city of Hillsboro to lease a building next to the new Hillsboro Civic Center. HART needed to raise more than $350,000 before late October to remodel the location along southeast Washington Street that previously housed a Pizza Schmizza restaurant and an office of Portland General Electric. Later the city gave an extension on the time HART had to raise the $600,000 needed to remodel the building. In December 2005, the theater received a $60,000 grant from the state of Oregon.

Major contributors to the fundraising campaign included Spirit Mountain Foundation, the Collins Foundation, and the Meyer Memorial Trust who had the largest donation with $100,000. By December 2006, the group had raised enough funds to sign a ten-year lease on the city-owned building at Second and Washington. The new theater opened in April 2007 with Marc Camoletti's Don't Dress for Dinner.  In September 2009, the theater added a $15,000 marquee to the building.

More recent productions have included Quilters in 2010, Woman In Black in 2011, Rumors, and Gracie for President in 2012. The theatre offers new works as well as the familiar, making an ongoing commitment to their patrons, local playwrights, directors and actors to bring a variety of entertainment and performances to the local community.

Productions
Hillsboro Artists' Regional Theatre produces six to ten shows each year. The theater is a community theater, and thus actors are unpaid. Those actors involved in productions often perform other roles with the theater including making costumes, cleaning, and other behind the scenes work. Shows are held on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, with Sunday shows as matinées. The theater is housed in a  building owned by Hillsboro. Seating 99 people, the building includes a concession stand, a lobby, a ticket office, dressing rooms, restrooms, and an  stage.

See also
Bag & Baggage Productions

References

External links
Hillsboro theatre's 'Bleacher Bums' delves into pro baseball history – comedically
Beaverton mom helps bring theater to local families

Community theatre
1994 establishments in Oregon
Regional theatre in the United States
Theatre companies in Oregon
Culture of Hillsboro, Oregon
Tourist attractions in Hillsboro, Oregon

Hillsboro Artists' Regional Theatre


Tatiana Martinez is a Mexican actress, best known for her role as Úrsula in the Nickelodeon sitcom Skimo.

Martinez was born in Mexico City on October 22, 1991

In addition to four seasons of Skimo, Martinez has participated in "Lucho en Familia", "XY", "Capadocia" three TV movies "Profugas del Destino, "Vuélveme a Querer" and "Bellezas Indomables", three movies: "Como no te voy a querer," "Todos los días son tuyos", "La niña en la Piedra" . She has acted in multiple episodes of the series "Lo que Callamos las Mujeres", "Cada quien su santo", "La vida es una canción", and "Lo que la gente cuenta".

She has studied theater since the age of four.

Filmography

External links

Living people
Mexican actresses
Year of birth missing (living people)

Tatiana Martínez


The International Council on Educational Credential Evaluation, commonly known as ICECE, is an international NGO closely affiliated both with UNESCO and the Council of Europe. Its main objectives include research related to international higher education and recognition of qualifications and quality assurance in the field of educational credential evaluation. The Organization is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium.

ICECE recognition is widely accepted as the highest international standard of quality assurance in the field of credential evaluation.

External links
 Official Website of ICECE

International educational organizations


Verna Wright, MD, FRCP, (31 December 1928 – 31 January 1998) was a British evangelist, physician, professor of rheumatology at the University of Leeds and co-founder of United Beach Missions.

Biography
Wright was educated at Bedford School and studied medicine at the University of Liverpool, then spent two years at Stoke Mandeville Hospital. As an actively practising evangelical Christian, Wright helped to found United Beach Missions, an organization whose goal was to preach the Christian gospel message to holidaymakers in Llandudno. The organization, under his leadership, grew to over 3000 people, ministering on the beaches of Britain, France and Belgium. Wright was also named as Chairman for the youth outreach organization Young Life. Throughout his ministry work, Wright focused on the "grass roots" approach, which particularly appealed to his young audience.

After gaining his MD degree from Liverpool, Wright lectured at the University of Leeds for two years before becoming a research fellow at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. In 1964 he returned to Leeds as a Consultant Physician and Senior Lecturer, where he helped establish a specialist rheumatology unit. In 1970 he was appointed Professor of Rheumatology in the Department of Medicine at Leeds, a post he held until his retirement in 1994.

His research was characterized by a multidisciplinary approach, including engineering and pharmacology. He was partly responsible for establishing the field of rehabilitation medicine as a speciality in its own right. Wright accurately predicted genetic links between different forms of arthritis prior to the development of laboratory tests which would later prove him correct.

Wright was a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (FRCP) and served as chairman of the Arthritis and Rheumatism Council, was a co-director of the Bioengineering Group for the study of Human Joints and President of the Creation Science Movement in England.

While at Leeds, Wright wrote or co-authored over 1000 scientific papers and 21 books. When faced with impending death, Wright said, "When you see the tape, you run faster". On his death, a Leeds hospital hung its flag at half-mast, indicating the respect with which he was regarded.

Wright married Esther Margaret Brown in 1952. They had five sons and four daughters.

Bibliography
The Relevance of Christianity in a Scientific Age
Personal Peace in a Nuclear Age
"A Medical View of Miraculous Healing," chapter 11 of Peter Masters, The Healing Epidemic, London: The Wakeman Trust, 1988

References

1928 births
1998 deaths
People educated at Bedford School
Alumni of the University of Liverpool
20th-century English medical doctors
Johns Hopkins Hospital physicians
British rheumatologists
Academics of the University of Leeds
Women rheumatologists
20th-century women physicians

Verna Wright


Lake Thun () is a  Alpine lake in the Bernese Oberland in Switzerland named by the city of Thun. It is on the northern shore.

The 2,500 km² catchment area often causes local flooding after heavy rainfalls. This occurs because the river Aare, which drains Lake Thun, can only hold some of the extra runoff. The lake is fed by water from Lake Brienz to the southeast, which is 6 metres higher than Lake Thun. It is also fed by various streams in the Oberland, including the Kander.

Other websites

 Lake Thun Tourism Portal

Thun
Thun

Lake Thun


Escuela Internacional de Cine y TV (Spanish), abbreviated EICTV -  (The International Film and TV School) - was founded on December 15, 1986, by Colombian journalist and writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Cuban theoreticians and filmmakers Julio García Espinosa and Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, Argentinean poet and filmmaker Fernando Birri, all four former students of the film school at Cinecittà in Rome, and amongst others, Brazilian filmmakers Orlando Senna and Sergio Muniz. It is located in San Antonio de Los Baños, Artemisa Province, Cuba.

The school provides a comprehensive theoretical and practical cinema education, within a completely self-sufficient environment and community for its students, faculty members, workers and staff. Each year around 40 students from Latin America, Africa, Asia and Europe are selected to complete the Curso Regular (Regular Course). During this intensive three-year period, each student specialises in one of the following disciplines: Documentary Direction, Fiction Direction, Sound, TV & New Media, and Screenwriting. Along with the Curso Regular, the EICTV also offers international workshops.

Alumni
 Mariana Rondón
 Jorge Molina
 Benito Zambrano
 Jaime Rosales
 Miguel Coyula
 Amat Escalante
 Adamo Pedro Bronzoni
 Ana Caridad Sánchez

References

External links

Film schools in Cuba

Escuela Internacional de Cine y Televisión


Title IX is the most commonly used name for the federal civil rights law in the United States that was enacted as part (Title IX) of the Education Amendments of 1972. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or any other education program that receives funding from the federal government. This is Public Law No. 92‑318, 86 Stat. 235 (June 23, 1972), codified at 20 U.S.C. §§ 1681–1688.

Senator Birch Bayh wrote the 37 words of Title IX. Bayh first introduced an amendment to the Higher Education Act to ban discrimination on the basis of sex on August 6, 1971 and again on February 28, 1972, when it passed the Senate.  Representative Edith Green, chair of the Subcommittee on Education, had held hearings on discrimination against women, and introduced legislation in the House on May 11, 1972. The full Congress passed Title IX on June 8, 1972. Representative Patsy Mink emerged in the House to lead efforts to protect Title IX against attempts to weaken it, and it was later renamed the Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act following Mink's death in 2002. When Title IX was passed in 1972, only 42 percent of the students enrolled in American colleges were female.

The purpose of Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 was to update Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned several forms of discrimination in employment, but did not address or mention discrimination in education.

Text
The following is the opening of the text of Title IX, which is followed by several exceptions and clarifications:

Historical background

Foundations and hearings

Title IX was enacted as a follow-up to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The 1964 Act was passed to end discrimination in various fields based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of employment and public accommodation. The 1964 Act did not prohibit sex discrimination against people employed at educational institutions. A parallel law, Title VI, had also been enacted in 1964 to prohibit discrimination in federally funded private and public entities. It covered race, color, and national origin but excluded sex. Feminists during the early 1970s lobbied Congress to add sex as a protected class category. Title IX was enacted to fill this gap and prohibit discrimination in all federally funded education programs. Congressman John Tower then proposed an amendment to Title IX that would have exempted athletics departments from Title IX.

The Tower amendment was rejected, but it led to widespread misunderstanding of Title IX as a sports-equity law, rather than an anti-discrimination, civil rights law. While Title IX is best known for its impact on high school and collegiate athletics, the original statute made no explicit mention of sports. The United States Supreme Court also issued decisions in the 1980s and 1990s, making clear that sexual harassment and assault is a form of sex discrimination. In 2011, President Barack Obama issued guidance reminding schools of their obligation to redress sexual assaults as civil rights matters under Title IX. Obama also issued guidance clarifying Title IX protections for LGBT students through Dear Colleague letters.

The precursor to Title IX was an executive order, issued in 1967 by President Lyndon Johnson, forbidding discrimination in federal contracts. Before these orders were issued, the National Organization for Women (NOW) had persuaded him to include the addition of women. Executive Order 11375 required all entities receiving federal contracts to end discrimination on the basis of sex in hiring and employment. In 1969, a notable example of its success was Bernice Sandler who used the executive order to retain her job and tenure at the University of Maryland. She utilized university statistics to show how female employment at the university had plummeted as qualified women were replaced by men. Sandler then brought her complaints to the Department of Labor's Office for Federal Fair Contracts Compliance, where she was encouraged to file a formal complaint; later citing inequalities in pay, rank, and admissions, among others.

Sandler soon began to file complaints against the University of Maryland and other colleges while working with NOW and the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL). Sandler later filed 269 complaints against colleges and universities, which led to the events of 1970. In 1970, Sandler joined U.S. House Representative Edith Green's Subcommittee on Higher Education of the Education and Labor Committee, and observed corresponding congressional hearings relating to women's issues on employment and equal opportunity. In these hearings, Green and Sandler initially proposed the idea of Title IX. An early legislative draft aimed at amending the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was then authored by Representative Green. At the hearing, there were mentions of athletics. The idea behind the draft was a progressive one in instituting an affirmative action for women in all aspects of American education.

Steps from a draft to legislative act to public law

Title IX was formally introduced in Congress by Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana in 1971 who then was its chief Senate sponsor for congressional debate. At the time, Bayh was working on numerous constitutional issues related to women's employment and sex discrimination—including but not limited to the revised draft of the Equal Rights Amendment. The ERA attempted to build "a powerful constitutional base from which to move forward in abolishing discriminatory differential treatment based on sex". As he was having partisan difficulty in later getting the ERA Amendment out of committee, the Higher Education Act of 1965 was on the Senate Floor for re-authorization; and on February 28, 1972, Bayh re-introduced a provision found in the original/revised ERA bill as an amendment which would become Title IX. In his remarks on the Senate Floor, Bayh stated, "we are all familiar with the stereotype [that] women [are] pretty things who go to college to find a husband, [and who] go on to graduate school because they want a more interesting husband, and finally marry, have children, and never work again. The desire of many schools not to waste a 'man's place' on a woman stems from such stereotyped notions. But the facts contradict these myths about the 'weaker sex' and it is time to change our operating assumptions." He continued: "While the impact of this amendment would be far-reaching, it is not a panacea. It is, however, an important first step in the effort to provide for the women of America something that is rightfully theirs—an equal chance to attend the schools of their choice, to develop the skills they want, and to apply those skills with the knowledge that they will have a fair chance to secure the jobs of their choice with equal pay for equal work". Title IX became public law on June 23, 1972. When U.S. President Nixon signed the bill, he spoke mostly about desegregation busing, and did not mention the expansion of educational access for women he had enacted.

Implementation

Each institution or organization that receives federal funding must designate at least one employee as Title IX coordinator. Their duty is to oversee that Title IX is not being violated and to answer all questions pertaining to Title IX. Everyone must have access to the Title IX coordinator's name, address, and telephone number. In order to ensure compliance with Title IX, programs of both male and females must display no discrimination. This applies to athletics participation numbers, scholarships, program budgets, expenditures, and coaching salaries by gender.

Title IX's statutory language is brief. U.S. President Nixon therefore directed the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) to publish regulations clarifying the law's application. In 1974, U.S. Senator John Tower introduced the Tower Amendment which would have exempted revenue-producing sports from Title IX compliance. Later that year, Congress rejected the Tower Amendment and passed an amendment proposed by U.S. Senator Jacob Javits directing HEW to include "reasonable provisions considering the nature of particular sports" adopted in its place. In June 1975, HEW published the final regulations detailing how Title IX would be enforced.  These regulations were codified in the Federal Register in the Code of Federal Regulations Volume 34, Part 106 (). Since 1975, the federal government has issued guidance clarifying how it interprets and enforces those regulations.

Further legislation

The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988 is tied to Title IX which was passed in response to the U.S. Supreme Court's 1984 ruling Grove City College v. Bell. The Court held that Title IX applied only to those programs receiving direct federal aid. This case was initially reached by the Supreme Court when Grove City College disagreed with the Department of Education's assertion that it was required to comply with Title IX. Grove City College was not a federally funded institution; however, they did accept students who were receiving Basic Educational Opportunity Grants through a Department of Education program. The Department of Education's stance was that because some of its students were receiving federal grants, the school was thus receiving federal assistance and Title  IX applied to it. The Court decided that since Grove City College was only receiving federal funding through the grant program that only this program had to comply. This ruling was a major victory for those opposed to Title IX as it then made many athletic programs outside the purview of Title IX, and thus reduced its scope.

Grove City's court victory, however, was short-lived. The Civil Rights Restoration Act passed in 1988, which extended Title IX coverage to all programs of any educational institution that receives any federal assistance, both direct and indirect. In 1994, the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, sponsored by Congresswoman Cardiss Collins required that federally-assisted educational institutions disclose information on roster sizes for men's and women's athletic teams; as well as budgets for recruiting, scholarships, coaches' salaries, and other expenses, annually. In 1992, the Supreme Court decided monetary relief was available under Title IX in the case Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools. In October 2002, less than a month after the death of U.S. Rep. Patsy Mink, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution to rename Title IX the "Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act," which President George W. Bush signed into law. On November 24, 2006, Title IX regulations were amended to provide greater flexibility in the operation of single-sex classes or extracurricular activities at the primary or secondary school level; this was largely to introduce federal abstinence-only programs, which may have been a partial basis for the support of President Bush.

On May 15, 2020, the Department of Education issued a letter stating that the policy of the state of Connecticut which allows transgender girls to compete in high school sports as girls was a violation of the civil rights of female student-athletes and a violation of Title IX. It stated that Connecticut's policy "denied female student-athletes athletic benefits and opportunities, including advancing to the finals in events, higher-level competitions, awards, medals, recognition, and the possibility of greater visibility to colleges and other benefits."

On March 8, 2021, President Joe Biden issued Executive Order 14021 entitled "Guaranteeing an Educational Environment Free From Discrimination on the Basis of Sex, Including Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity," reversing changes made by the Trump administration to limit the scope of Title IX to sex only, excluding gender identity and sexual orientation. The executive order also provided a timeline for the Secretary of Education and Attorney General to "review all existing regulations, orders, guidance documents, policies, and any other similar agency actions (collectively, agency actions) that are or may be inconsistent with the policy set forth" in the order.

On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights issued a Notice of Interpretation explaining that it will "enforce Title IX's prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex to include: (1) discrimination based on sexual orientation; and (2) discrimination based on gender identity." The review set out in E.O. 14021 is still ongoing as of April 2022.

Impact on American schools

The introduction of Title IX was followed by a considerable increase in the number of female students participating in organized sports within American academic institutions followed by growing interest in initiating and developing programs which would pursue feminist principles in relationship to concerns surrounding issues dealing with girls and women's equality and equity in sport.

Institutional requirements
Athletic equality requirements were later set by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights. In order to meet the requirements, schools must pass at least one of three tests measuring gender equality among athletics the school offers. These tests consist of proportional numbers of males and females participating, whether or not the school is making an effort to increase the number of the unrepresented sex, if the school has a certain history of one specific sex dominating the numbers of athletes in a given sport, and whether or not the school is showing an effort to expand the program to the other sex.

Challenges
There have been different interpretations regarding Title IX's application to high school athletics. The American Sports Council sued the Department of Education in 2011 seeking a declaratory judgment that its policy interpreting Title IX's requirement for equity in participation opportunities is limited to colleges and universities. The American Sports Council argued that "The three-part test and its encouragement of quotas, has no relevance to high schools or high-school sports, and no federal regulation or interpretation has ever said that high schools must abide by the three-part test". On the other hand, the Department of Education insists that Title IX is a "valuable tool" for ensuring a level playing field for all students" and "plays a critical role in ensuring a fundamental level of fairness in America's schools and universities".

Coaching and administration
Although Title IX has helped increase the participation rate of female student athletes, several challenges remain for girls and women, including for females who aspire to become involved in professional roles within sport. The growing exposure of female sports has led to an increasingly dominant representation of males in coaching positions and roles involving the governance of female athletics.

In regards to coaching roles, in spite of the fact that the legislation has helped create more and better opportunities for women, the number of women coaches has surprisingly decreased while the number of male coaches have subsequently increased. Men have also gained a larger role in directing female athletics. For example, the male-dominated National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which had been content to let the female-dominated Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) run female championships, decided to offer female championships themselves, leading to the eventual demise of the AIAW. The NCAA later tried to claim that Congress had not intended to include athletics under Title IX's coverage, but the record lacks any sustained discussion of the matter.

Increasing participation

Advocates of Title IX's current interpretation cite increases in female athletic participation, and attribute those increases to Title IX. One study, completed in 2006, pointed to a large increase in the number of women participating in athletics at both the high school and college level. The number of women in high school sports had increased by a factor of nine, while the number of women in college sports had increased by more than 450%. A 2008 study of intercollegiate athletics showed that women's collegiate sports have grown to 9,101 teams, or 8.65 per school. The five most frequently offered college sports for women are in order: (1) Basketball, 98.8% of schools have a team; (2) Volleyball, 95.7%; (3) Soccer, 92.0%; (4) Cross Country; 90.8%, and (5) Softball; 89.2%.  The lowest rank for female sports teams is bowling.  The exact percentage is not known, however there are only around 600 students on women's bowling teams in all three divisions in the NCAA.

Impact on men's programs

There have been concerns and claims that the current interpretation of Title IX by the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) has resulted in the dismantling of men's programs, despite strong participation in those sports. Some believe that the increase in athletic opportunity for girls in high school has come at the expense of boys' athletics. Because teams vary widely in size, it is more common to compare the number of total participation opportunities between the sexes. Additionally, the total number of college participation opportunities has increased for both sexes in the Title IX era, though solely for women when increased enrollment is accounted for, as men's participation has remained static relative to university enrollment, and men's opportunities outnumber women's by a wide margin.

Between 1981 and 1999, university athletic departments cut 171 men's wrestling teams, 84 men's tennis teams, 56 men's gymnastics teams, 27 men's track teams, and 25 men's swimming teams. While some teams—both men's and women's—have been eliminated in the Title IX era, both sexes have seen a net increase in the number of athletic teams over that same period. When total enrollment (which had likewise increased) is controlled for however, only women had an increase in participation.

Though interest in the sport of wrestling has consistently increased at the high school level since 1990, scores of colleges have dropped their wrestling programs during that same period. The OCR's three-prong test for compliance with Title IX often is cited as the reason for these cuts. Wrestling historically was the most frequently dropped sport, but other men's sports later overtook the lead, such that according to the NCAA, the most-dropped men's sports between 1987 and 2002 were as follows:

cross country (183)
indoor track (180)
golf (178)
tennis (171)
rowing (132)
outdoor track (126)
swimming (125)
wrestling (121)

Additionally, eight NCAA sports—all men's sports—were sponsored by fewer Division I schools in 2020 than in 1990, despite the D-I membership having increased by nearly 60 schools during that period.

In 2011, the American Sports Council (formerly called the College Sports Council) stated, "Nationwide, there are currently 1.3 million more boys participating in high school sports than girls. Using a gender quota to enforce Title IX in high school sports would put those young athletes at risk of losing their opportunity to play." High school participation rates from the National Federation of High School associations report that in 2010–11, there were 4,494,406 boys and 3,173,549 girls participating in high school athletics.

In a 2007 study of athletic opportunities at NCAA institutions the Women's Sports Foundation reported that over 150,000 female athletic opportunities would need to be added to reach participation levels proportional to the female undergraduate population. The same study found that men's athletics also receives the lion's share of athletic department budgets for operating expenses, recruiting, scholarships, and coaches salaries.

Sexual harassment and sexual violence
Title IX applies to all educational programs and all aspects of a school's educational system. In the late 1970s, a group of students and one faculty member sued Yale University for its failure to curtail sexual harassment on campus, especially by male faculty. This case, Alexander v. Yale, was the first to use Title IX to argue and establish that the sexual harassment of female students can be considered illegal sex discrimination. The plaintiffs in the case alleged rape, fondling, and offers of higher grades for sex by several Yale faculty. Some of the cases were based on a 1977 report authored by plaintiff Ann Olivarius, now a feminist attorney known for fighting sexual harassment, "A report to the Yale Corporation from the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus." Several of the plaintiffs and lawyers have written accounts of the case.

Advocates such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) likewise maintain that "when students suffer sexual assault and harassment, they are deprived of equal and free access to an education."  Further, according to an April 2011 letter issued by the Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights, "The sexual harassment of students, including sexual violence, interferes with students' right to receive an education free from discrimination and, in the case of sexual violence, is a crime."

The letter, referred to as the "Dear Colleague Letter", states that it is the responsibility of institutions of higher education "to take immediate and effective steps to end sexual harassment and sexual violence." The letter illustrates multiple examples of Title IX requirements as they relate to sexual violence and makes clear that, should an institution fail to fulfill its responsibilities under Title IX, the Department of Education can impose a fine and potentially deny further institutional access to federal funds.  However, critics and later the Department of Education noted that this change was adopted without a rulemaking process to provide public notice and comment.

On March 15, 2011, Yale undergraduate student and alleged sexual violence survivor Alexandra Brodsky filed a Title IX complaint along with fifteen fellow students alleging Yale "has a sexually hostile environment and has failed to adequately respond to sexual harassment concerns."

In October 2012, an Amherst College student, Angie Epifano, wrote an explicit, personal account of her alleged sexual assault and the ensuing "appalling treatment" she received when coming forward to seek support from the college's administration. In the narrative, Epifano alleged that she was raped by a fellow Amherst student and described how her life was affected by the experience; she stated that the perpetrator harassed her at the only dining hall, that her academic performance was negatively affected, and that, when she sought support, the administration coerced her into taking the blame for her experience and ultimately institutionalized her and pressured her to drop out.

The fact that such a prestigious institution could have such a noxious interior fills me with intense remorse mixed with sour distaste. I am sickened by the Administration's attempts to cover up survivors' stories, cook their books to discount rapes, pretend that withdrawals never occur, quell attempts at change, and sweep sexual assaults under a rug. When politicians cover up affairs or scandals the masses often rise in angry protestations and call for a more transparent government. What is the difference between a government and the Amherst College campus? Why can't we know what is happening on campus? Why should we be quiet about sexual assault?"

When the Amherst case reached national attention, Annie E. Clark and Andrea Pino, two women who were allegedly sexually assaulted at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill connected with Epifano, Brodsky, and Yale Law School student Dana Bolger to address the parallel concerns of hostility at their institution, filing Title IX and Clery Act complaints against the university in January 2013, both leading to investigations by the U.S. Department of Education.

Following the national prominence of the UNC Chapel Hill case, organizers Pino and Clark went on to coordinate with students at other schools; in 2013, complaints citing violations of Title IX were filed against Occidental College (on April 18), Swarthmore College and the University of Southern California (on May 22). These complaints, the resulting campaigns against sexual violence on college campuses, and the organizing of Bolger, Brodsky, Clark, Pino and other activists led to the formation of an informal national network of activists. Bolger and Brodsky also started Know Your IX, an organization of student activists focused on legal education and federal and state policy change.

Title IX has been interpreted as allowing private lawsuits against educational institutions as well as formal complaints submitted to the Department of Education. In 2006, a federal court found that there was sufficient evidence that the University of Colorado acted with "deliberate indifference" toward students Lisa Simpson and Anne Gilmore, who were sexually assaulted by student football players. The university settled the case by promising to change its policies and to pay $2.5 million in damages. In 2008, Arizona State University was the subject of a lawsuit that alleged violations of rights guaranteed by Title IX: the university expelled a football player for multiple instances of severe sexual harassment, but readmitted him; he went on to rape a fellow student in her dorm room. Despite its claim that it bore no responsibility, the school settled the lawsuit, agreeing to revise and improve its official response to sexual misconduct and to pay the plaintiff $850,000 in damages and fees.

The Trump administration made changes to guidelines that were implemented during the Obama administration. These changes shifted the standard of evidence used in Title IX investigations from "preponderance of the evidence" to a "clear and convincing" evidence standard, which is typically used for civil cases in which serious allegations are made (as opposed to the standard of beyond reasonable doubt in criminal cases). On September 22, 2017, US Department of Education Secretary Betsy Devos rescinded the Obama-era guidelines which had prodded colleges and universities to more aggressively investigate campus sexual assaults. On May 7, 2020, the U.S. Department of Education released final regulations governing campus sexual assault under Title IX, the first Title IX guidance published by the Office of Civil Rights to go through a formal notice-and-comment process since 1997. Some of the new regulations made in May 2020 involve defining sexual harassment to include "sexual assault, dating violence, domestic violence, and stalking," as discrimination, as well as require schools to offer attainable options for anyone to report a sexual harassment case. Unlike guidance issued by the Obama administration in 2011 and 2014, they will have the force of law behind them. Colleges and universities will be required to comply with the regulations by Aug. 14. On June 22, 2021, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Doe v. DeVos that schools must provide a fair and impartial grievance process to students who allege sexual harassment. This ruling clarifies that schools are legally obligated to respond promptly and effectively to allegations of sexual harassment. On February 10, 2022, the Department of Education issued guidance on how schools should implement the new Title IX regulations. This guidance includes specific information on how schools should prevent and respond to sexual harassment.

On June 23, 2022, the Biden Administration issued a proposed rule to reverse the changes made by the final rule and to expand coverage regarding gender identity and pregnancy.

Transgender students

Between 2010 and 2016, under the Obama administration the U.S. Department of Education-issued guidance—which was not part of the original amendment passed by Congress—explained that transgender students are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. In particular, Title IX of its Education Amendments of 1972 bars schools that receive financial aid assistance from sex-based discrimination in education programs and activities. It instructed public schools to treat transgender students consistent with their gender identity in academic life. A student who identifies as a transgender boy, for instance, is allowed entry to a boys-only class, and a student who identifies as a transgender girl is allowed entry to a girls-only class. This also applies to academic records if that student is over the age of eighteen at a university. The memo states in part that "[a]ll students, including transgender students, or students who do not conform to sex stereotypes, are protected from sex-based discrimination under Title IX. Under Title IX, a recipient generally must treat transgender, or gender non-conforming, consistent with their gender identity in all aspects of the planning, implementation, enrollment, operation, and evaluation of single-sex classes."

However, starting in 2017 with the Trump administration, several of these policies have been rolled back. In February 2017, the Departments of Justice and Education (headed by Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Education Secretary Betsy DeVos, respectively) withdrew the guidance on gender identity. The Education Department announced on February 12, 2018 that Title IX did not allow transgender students to use the bathroom of their gender identities.

Dwayne Bensing, a lawyer for the Office of Civil Rights within the United States Department of Education and who was in its LGBTQ affinity group, had unsuccessfully asked DeVos not to withdraw the Obama administration guidance. Two years later, in the summer of 2019, Bensing discovered that the Education Department was fast-tracking the Alliance Defending Freedom's complaint against transgender student-athletes, even though the Department's attorneys did not understand the legal basis for doing so and the Department had to pressure other employees. Bensing leaked this information to the Washington Blade and was forced to resign in December 2019. Bensing did not qualify as a whistleblower under the Whistleblower Protection Act, since the act only protects federal employees if they disclose suspected crimes and abuses to their supervisor during normal business hours, among other requirements.

In October 2018, The New York Times obtained a memo issued by the Department of Health and Human Services that would propose a strict definition of gender for Title IX, using the person's sex as determined at birth and could not be changed, effectively limiting recognition of transgender students and potentially others. The memo stated that the government needed to define gender "on a biological basis that is clear, grounded in science, objective and administrable". The news brought immediate protests in several locations as well as online social media under the "#WontBeErased" hashtag.

In May 2020, the Trump administration's Department of Education contended that the rights of cisgender women are infringed upon by transgender women. The Education Department started to withhold federal funding to schools which affirm the identities of transgender athletes.

In August 2020, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed a 2018 lower court ruling in Adams v. The School Board of St. Johns County, Florida that discrimination on the basis of gender identity is discrimination "on the basis of sex" and is prohibited under Title IX (federal civil rights law) and the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to the US Constitution.

In December 2020, the "Protect Women in Sports" Act was introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives. It would block schools from receiving federal funding if transgender girls and nonbinary people are allowed to compete on girls' sports teams at those schools. It was sponsored by Representatives Tulsi Gabbard, a Democrat, and Markwayne Mullin, a Republican.

OCR's test for Title IX compliance

Title IX has been a source of controversy in part due to claims that the OCR's current interpretation of Title IX, and specifically its three-prong test of compliance, is no longer faithful to the anti-discrimination language in Title IX's text, and instead discriminates against men and has contributed to the reduction of programs for male athletes.

Critics of the three-prong test contend that it operates as a "quota" in that it places undue emphasis on the first prong (known as the "proportionality" prong), which fails to take into account any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participating in athletics (despite the third prong, which focuses on any differences in the genders' respective levels of interest in participation). Instead, it requires that the genders' athletic participation be substantially proportionate to their enrollment, without regard to interest.  Prong two is viewed as only a temporary fix for universities, as universities may only point to the past expansion of opportunities for female students for a limited time before compliance with another prong is necessary. Critics say that prong three likewise fails to consider male athletic interest despite its gender-neutral language, as it requires that the university fully and effectively accommodate the athletic interests of the "underrepresented sex", even though ED regulations expressly require that the OCR consider whether the institution "effectively accommodate[s] the interests and abilities of members of both sexes". As such, with a focus on increasing female athletic opportunities without any counterbalance to consider male athletic interest, critics maintain that the OCR's three-prong test operates to discriminate against men.

Defenders of the three-prong test counter that the genders' differing athletic interest levels are merely a product of past discrimination, and that Title IX should be interpreted to maximize female participation in athletics regardless of any existing disparity in interest. Thus while defenders argue that the three-prong test embodies the maxim that "opportunity drives interest", critics argue that the three-prong test goes beyond Title IX original purpose of preventing discrimination, and instead amounts to an exercise in which athletic opportunities are taken away from male students and given to female students, despite the comparatively lower interest levels of those female students. Author and self-described women's rights advocate John Irving opined in a New York Times column that on this topic, women's advocates were being "purely vindictive" in insisting that the current OCR interpretation of Title IX be maintained.

On March 17, 2005, OCR announced a clarification of prong three of the three-part test of Title IX compliance. The guidance concerned the use of web-based surveys to determine the level of interest in varsity athletics among the underrepresented sex. Opponents of the clarification – including the NCAA Executive Committee, which issued a resolution soon afterward asking Association members not to use the survey – claimed the survey was flawed in part because of the way it counted non-responses. On April 20, 2010, the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights abandoned the 2005 clarification that allowed institutions to use only Internet or e‑mail surveys to meet the interests and abilities (third prong) option of the three-part test for Title IX compliance.

In February 2010, the United States Commission on Civil Rights weighed in on the OCR's three-prong test, offering several recommendations on Title IX policy to address what it termed "unnecessary reduction of men's athletic opportunities".  The commission advocated use of surveys to measure interest, and specifically recommended that the Department of Education's regulations on interest and abilities be revised "to explicitly take into account the interest of both sexes rather than just the interest of the underrepresented sex", almost always females.

Legacy and recognition
On the twenty-fifth anniversary of Title IX the National Women's Law Center lodged twenty-five complaints with the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights.

After Title IX was implemented, there was controversy about the amount of athletic integration, especially among female education leaders who worried about girls being injured or bullied by rough boys in coeducational activities. While there were always some parents and administrators who did not like the idea of coed gym classes, that has in fact become the norm as a result of Title IX.

There were several events praising the 40th anniversary of Title IX in June 2012. For example, the White House Council on Women and Girls hosted a panel to discuss the life-altering nature of sports. Panelists included Billie Jean King, All‑American NCAA point guard Shoni Schimmel of the University of Louisville, and Aimee Mullins, the first double-amputee sprinter to compete in NCAA track and field for Georgetown University.

President Barack Obama wrote a pro–Title IX op-ed published in Newsweek magazine.

The Women's Sports Foundation honored over 40 female athletes.

On June 21, 2012, espnW projected a digital mosaic featuring the largest-ever collection of women and girls' sports images (all of which were submitted by the athletes themselves) onto the First Amendment tablet of the Newseum in Washington, D.C. The mosaic also included photos of espnW's Top 40 Athletes of the Past 40 Years.

ESPN The Magazine produced its first "Women in Sports" issue in June 2012, and in the same month ESPN Classic first showed the documentary Sporting Chance: The Lasting Legacy of Title IX, narrated by Holly Hunter. It also showed the documentary On the Basis of Sex: The Battle for Title IX in Sports, and other programming related to women's sports.

In 2013 ESPN Films broadcast Nine for IX, a series of documentaries about women in sports. Good Morning America anchor Robin Roberts and Tribeca Productions co founder Jane Rosenthal are executive producers of the series.

The NCAA announced in April 2019 that it would hold its 2023 Division II and Division III women's basketball championship games at American Airlines Center in Dallas, which had previously been announced as the site for that season's Division I women's Final Four. In its announcement, the NCAA explicitly called the joint championship event "a 50th-year celebration of Title IX" (as that particular basketball season will begin in calendar 2022).

Criticism
Concern has been expressed that colleges have been overly aggressive in enforcing Title IX regulations, particularly about sexual matters. The author Laura Kipnis, author of How to Become a Scandal: Adventures in Bad Behavior (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010), and others have argued that Title IX regulations have empowered investigators who routinely endanger academic freedom and fair process, presume the guilt of suspects, assign the man full responsibility for the outcome of any social interaction, and minutely regulate personal relationships.

Writing in The Atlantic, Emily Yoffe has criticized the Title IX process for being unfair to the accused, based on faulty science, and racially biased against students of color.

References

External links
 Education Amendments of 1972 (PDF/details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection

1972 in American law
1972 in American women's sports
92nd United States Congress
Anti-discrimination law in the United States
College sports in the United States
Gender equality
June 1972 events in the United States
Sports law
Transgender law in the United States
United States federal civil rights legislation
United States federal education legislation

Title IX


Hamilton is a musical with music, lyrics, and book by Lin-Manuel Miranda. It is inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow.

The musical is about the story of American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton through music that are mainly made up of hip hop, as well as R&B, pop, soul, and traditional-style show tunes.

The show is known for having non-white actors as the Founding Fathers and other historical figures. Through this use of modern storytelling methods, Hamilton has been called for being the "America then, as told by America now."

A movie, which is a live recording of the musical with the original cast, was released on Disney+ on July 3, 2020.

Story

A nineteen year old orphan named Alexander Hamilton moves from the Caribbean to New York where he meets Aaron Burr who tells him to "talk less, smile more, don't let anyone know what you're against or what you're for" then they go to a bar where they meet Hercules Mulligan, Marquis de Lafayette and John Laurens and join the American Revolution.

Burr asks General George Washington to make him his secretary but instead Washington hires Hamilton. Hamilton marries a woman named Eliza Schuyler while Burr falls in love with the wife of a British soldier.  Charles Lee insults Washington so Laurens decides to duel Lee with Hamilton's help and Washington punishes Hamilton by sending him home where Hamilton finds out his wife is pregnant.

Lafayette convinces Washington to bring back Hamilton to help with the Battle of Yorktown. Hamilton's wife gives birth to a son Philip Hamilton while Burr has a daughter Theodosia. Hamilton and Burr become lawyers.

Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay write the Federalist Papers to convince people to get a new Constitution and President Washington hires Hamilton to be in charge of spending money for the Government.

Thomas Jefferson comes back from France and is angry with Hamilton for spending too much money. Hamilton then has sex with a married woman whose husband then blackmails him for money. Hamilton strikes a deal with Jefferson and James Madison that they get to choose the capital of the country if Hamilton can start his own bank.

Burr wishes he could be in the room where the deals are made so that he could know what happens inside it, so he joins the Democratic-Republican Party and becomes a politician. Jefferson tries to convince Washington to support France against England in their war but Hamilton convinces Washington not to do that so Jefferson quits his job working for Washington and decides to run for President of the United States while Washington decides to retire.

After John Adams becomes president he and Hamilton don't get along well so Hamilton quits and complains about Adams. Jefferson, Madison and Burr think that Hamilton stole money from the government so Hamilton tells them the truth, that he spent his own money paying a man named Reyolds not to tell anyone that he had sex with Reynolds's wife but Hamilton is scared that Burr will use this to blackmail him so Hamilton writes a letter in a newspaper telling everyone everything and his wife is angry with him about it.

When a man gives a speech criticizing Hamilton, Hamilton's son Philip is angry about it, so they have a duel. Philip fires his gun at the sky but the man shoots and kills him. Hamilton becomes upset about it, Eliza being angry at him, and questioning if he knew about the duel.

Then Burr runs for president and there's a tie between him and Jefferson so each one asks Hamilton who he thinks would be a better president of the United States. Hamilton says he hates Jefferson and disagrees with him on everything but that he's still better than Burr since Jefferson actually believes what he says he believes but Burr doesn't believe in anything.

Jefferson becomes president and doesn't want Burr to be his vice president so Burr asks Hamilton for a duel. Instead of killing Burr, Hamilton fires his gun at the sky and Burr shoots Hamilton and kills him. Burr regrets his actions and his loved ones sing a song about how upsetting Hamilton dying is.

References

Drama Desk Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Tony Award winning musicals

Hamilton (musical)


Jean de Coligny-Saligny, (Saligny, December 25, 1617 – April 16, 1686) was a French noble and army commander, best known for his part in the victory in the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664).

He was the son of Gaspard II de Coligny-Saligny and Jacqueline de Montmorin Saint-Hérem,
and thus a member of the well-known House of Coligny.

He first followed Louis, Prince of Condé (1621–1686) in his revolt against the King, but they had a dispute so serious, that Coligny reconciled himself with the court and became Condé's greatest enemy.

As lieutenant-general, he was sent to Hungary at the head of a corps of 6000 men, to help the Emperor stop an invasion by the Turks. Coligny played a crucial role in the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), in which the Turks were decisively defeated.

This battle was exceptional for the fact that French and Austrians, for once, fought on the same side.

Coligny wrote his Mémoires, which were only published in 1844 by Louis Monmerqué, and  which are very negative for the prince of Condé. These memoires are now being reedited by Axor-Danaé.

Coligny married Anne Nicole Cauchon de Maupas and had 3 children.

Sources
 geneanet.org

External links

French untitled nobility
French generals
1617 births
1686 deaths
People of the Austro-Turkish War (1663–64)
Jean

Jean de Coligny-Saligny