Thorold Barron Dickinson  (16 November 1903 – 14 April 1984) was a British film director, screenwriter, film editor, film producer, and Britain's first university professor of film. Dickinson's work received much praise, with fellow director Martin Scorsese describing him as "a uniquely intelligent, passionate artist... They're not in endless supply."

Early life
Of Norwegian descent, his father was the Archdeacon of Bristol from 1921 to 1927, Dickinson was educated at Clifton College and Keble College, Oxford where he read theology, history and French. He was sent down from Oxford in his last year because his interest in theatre and film caused him to neglect his studies; he was inspired by lectures given by Edward Gordon Craig. During his time at Oxford he interrupted his studies to observe the film industry in France where he worked with George Pearson, the father of an Oxford friend. For Pearson he wrote the scenario of The Little People (1926). Following this he observed the American industry's transition to sound in New York in 1929. In the 1920s and 1930s he was active in the London Film Society, being responsible for the technical presentation of films. At the LFS, he helped introduce the work of the Soviet directors Sergei Eisenstein and Dziga Vertov to British audiences, and in 1937 staged a notable programme protesting the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, Record of War.

Career
Dickinson worked as a film editor on such features as Love's Option (1928), Auld Lang Syne (1929), Loyalties (1933) and Sing As We Go! (1934). His first directorial experience was on Java Head (1934), when he took over after J. Walter Ruben became ill and was unable to continue. He became Vice-President of the Association of Cine-Technicians in 1936, observing the Soviet film industry for the craft union the following year, remaining in the post until 1953.

Dickinson's first feature film, starring Lionel Atwill and Lucie Mannheim, was The High Command (1937), for which he formed the short-lived Fanfare Pictures with Gordon Wellesley. He visited Spain during the Civil War and made two documentary shorts, one of which Spanish ABC (1938) "is a sober advocacy of the educational policy of Republican Spain". At short notice, Dickinson took over direction of Gaslight (1940). Based on the Patrick Hamilton play, it was later suppressed for some years when MGM bought the rights for its own version, but led to an invitation to work in Hollywood from David O. Selznick which was rejected by Dickinson.

A film biography of Disraeli, The Prime Minister (1941), starring John Gielgud, was disowned by its director, but The Next of Kin (1942), expanded from what was originally intended as a training film, is described by Philip Horne as "one of the most interesting, and thrillingly ruthless, propaganda films of the War". Men of Two Worlds (1946), from a script by novelist Joyce Cary starring Robert Adams, attempted to "tell an African story from the point of view of an African". It was though a difficult production; the crew lost equipment and film stock.

For The Queen of Spades (1949) Dickinson assumed responsibility at five days notice after he was recommended by actor Anton Walbrook, the star of Gaslight, when the production was close to collapse. Following an aborted attempt to adapt Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge in time for the Festival of Britain, he returned to Secret People (1952), a long cherished project which Ealing Studios took up, but this was unsuccessful at the box-office and became Dickinson's last British-made feature film.

Secret People was notable for providing Audrey Hepburn with her first supporting film role. Performing all her own ballet moves during the dance sequences, Dickinson went on to film the screen test of Audrey which led to international stardom. In the screen test, she describes how she used to dance for audiences to raise funds for the resistance in The Netherlands during the Second World War. The screen test was sent to director William Wyler and led to her casting as Princess Ann in Roman Holiday.

In Israel, Dickinson directed a short film for the Israeli Army, The Red Ground (1953), and an English-language feature, Hill 24 Doesn't Answer (1955), for which he reworked the screenplay in collaboration with his wife Joanna. Dickinson's other work outside the UK included a tenure with the United Nations Department of Public Information as Chief of Film Services from 1956 to 1960. In 1959 he was a member of the jury at the 1st Moscow International Film Festival.

After his work with the United Nations, Dickinson devoted the final part of his life to teaching about film. In 1960 he established the film studies department at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College London, where one of his first students was Raymond Durgnat, the prominent film critic. Others included Marco Bellocchio and Maysoon Pachachi. In 1967 he was head of the jury at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival. In the same year, he was named a professor in the department, becoming the first professor of film studies in the UK. He served in the post until 1971. He was appointed CBE in the 1973 Birthday Honours.

The Thorold Dickinson Archive is held at the University of the Arts London's Archives and Special Collections Centre.

Partial filmography

Love's Option (editor, 1928)
The School for Scandal (1930, editor)
Tilly of Bloomsbury (1931, editor)
 The Sport of Kings (1931)
Shikari (1932)
The First Mrs. Fraser (1932)
Loyalties (1933)
Java Head (editor, part directed, 1934)
Sing As We Go (1934)
Whom the Gods Love (editor, 1936)
Calling the Tune (1936)
The High Command (1937)
The Arsenal Stadium Mystery (1939)
Gaslight (1940)
The Prime Minister (1941)
The Next of Kin (1942)
Men of Two Worlds (1946)
The Queen of Spades (1949)
Secret People (1952, produced and co-wrote)
Hill 24 Doesn't Answer (1955)
Overture (1958, producer)

References

Further reading
Philip Horne and Peter Swaab (ed.) Thorold Dickinson: A World of Film, Manchester University Press, 2008
Jeffrey Richards Thorold Dickinson and the British Cinema, Scarecrow Press, 1997

External links

Screenonline biography of Thorold Dickinson

1903 births
1984 deaths
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
British film directors
British film editors
British film producers
British male screenwriters
English people of Norwegian descent

Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Clifton College
Academics of the Slade School of Fine Art
20th-century British screenwriters

Thorold Dickinson


Chittagong Tea Auction center was established on 16 July 1949. Teas manufactured throughout Bangladesh are sold in bulk to buyers through an open auction which is conducted once a week. During each tea season, 45 auctions are held at this auction center.

Bangladesh's tea industry is regulated under the supervision of the Bangladesh Tea Board. Bangladesh Tea Board's governance also extends over the following associations: Tea Traders Association of Bangladesh (TTAB) and Bangladesh Tea Association (BCS).

Tea Traders Association of Bangladesh (TTAB) is responsible for organizing and controlling the Chittagong Tea Auction to ensure swift and transparent sale of tea. The tea auction takes place every Tuesdays and the sale is conducted by Tea Brokers. Under TTAB there are seven authorized tea brokers which are as follows: National Brokers, Purba Bangla Brokers, Unity Brokers, Produce Brokers, K.S. Brokers, Progressive Brokers and Planters Brokers. Among these seven tea brokers, National Broker and Purba Bangla Brokers are the oldest.

"First of all, the tea produced in the gardens is sent to a total of 14 bonded warehouses which are mostly located in Chittagong. Later, the tea brokers receive samples and taste the tea. Tea tasting is the process in which a trained taster determines the quality of a particular tea. Then, the tea brokers prepare catalogs and fix the tentative price of tea. Later, the catalogs and valuation copies are dispatched to all the buyers ahead of the weekly auctions. Then, the traders take part in the auctions and purchase tea. Finally, the tea reaches the retailers and consumers."

""

After each sale a market report and auction statistics are available everyone.

See also
 Tea processing
 List of stock exchanges in the Commonwealth of Nations
 Purba Bangla Brokers Limited
 Tea Traders Association of Bangladesh

References

{https://www.dhakatribune.com/business/2018/02/18/seven-decades-tea-auction-chittagong}

Retail companies established in 1949
Economy of Chittagong
Tea auctions
Bangladeshi auction houses
Companies based in Chittagong
Tea industry in Bangladesh
Pakistani companies established in 1949

Chittagong Tea Auction


Poole Bridge (also known as Poole Lifting Bridge and Hamworthy Bridge) is a bascule bridge in Poole, Dorset, England. Constructed in 1927, the bridge provides a road link across a busy boating channel. In February 2012 a second bridge was completed intending to operate in conjunction with the existing bridge

Location
Poole Bridge is situated on the western end of Poole Quay and spans across a narrow channel between Poole Harbour and Holes Bay, a tidal inland lake which lies to the north of the harbour. The bridge provides a road link as part of the A350 road between Poole's town centre and the suburb of Hamworthy, avoiding a journey of  around Holes Bay.

History
The existing bridge is the third to be located on the site. William Ponsonby, a Member of Parliament for Poole, was responsible for building the first bridge in 1834. Ponsonby promoted his own Act of Parliament to build the wooden toll bridge at a cost of £9,612. However, the bridge had a steep gradient that caused problems for horses and in 1885 it was replaced by an iron swing bridge with gentler approach gradients.

It was privately owned and collected tolls up until 1926, when it was purchased by the Borough of Poole and replaced with the third and present bridge which opened in on 11 March 1927. The opening ceremony included a blue ribbon cut by the Mayor, as well as a visit from "Father Neptune". It has seven time-tabled lifts a day and another ten unscheduled lifts for commercial boats and it is estimated to lift over 6,000 times a year.

Poole Borough Council marked the bridge as worn out with cracks appearing in the concrete, closing it for repairs costing £4.2 million for nine months from September 2016. Both sides of the bridge will be demolished and rebuilt, it will be expected to last a further 120 years after the repairs. The bridge reopened in January 2018 after many months delays and a sixteen month closure. On 15 December 2022, the bridge closed to vehicles for emergency repairs.

References

External links

 Poole Bridge - YouTube

Bridges in Dorset
Buildings and structures in Poole
Bascule bridges
Former toll bridges in England
Poole Harbour

Poole Bridge


Virtue names, also known as grace names, are used as personal names in a number of cultures. They express virtues that the parents wish their child to embody or be associated with. In the English-speaking world, beginning in the 16th century, the Puritans commonly expressed their values through creative names, many in the form of virtue names such as Grace, Felicity, Faith or Hope. These names have entered the standard British and American usage, without the religious connection.

Some Puritan virtue names were compound imperatives, such as "Search-the-scriptures" or "Praise-God". An example of the use of "Praise-God" as a name is Praise-God Barebone, whose son Nicholas may have been given the name If-Jesus-Christ-had-not-died-for-thee-thou-hadst-been-damned. In Britain, such Puritan virtue names were particularly common in Kent, Sussex and Northamptonshire. They are sometimes referred to as hortatory names. Virtue names were more commonly given to girls than boys, though not exclusively.

Virtue names, such as Iman, can also be found in the Islamic world.

Names meant to convey virtues or desirable traits are also used in Nigeria. For example, the former president Goodluck Jonathan and his wife Patience Jonathan.

In the United States in 2011, Faith and Hope was the fourth most common pairing of names for twins. Sixth was Heaven and Nevaeh ('Heaven' spelled backwards). Faith, Hope and Charity (the three theological virtues) has been used for triplets, including the Cardwell triplets, who were Guinness-recognised as the oldest triplets ever.

Use of the virtue name Chastity was revived after the birth of Cher and Sonny Bono's son Chaz Bono.

There are also names that derive from positive attributes but which have separated from those words over time, including in spelling. For example, Ernest derives from the same root as 'earnest', hence the pun in The Importance of Being Earnest, whose main character assumes that name. Ernest was a popular name around the turn of the 20th century.

Examples
 Charity
 Dilys
 Ernest
 Faith
 Felicity
 Grace
 Honor
 Hope
 Joy
 Mercy
 Patience
 Prudence
 St John
 Verity

References

Given name types

Virtue name


Jill Ann Trenary (born August 1, 1968) is an American former figure skater. She is the 1990 World champion and a three-time U.S. national champion.  She was inducted to the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2002.

Career
Originally from Minnetonka, Minnesota, at the age of 16, she relocated to Colorado Springs, Colorado to train with noted coach Carlo Fassi. Trenary won the U.S. junior title in 1985. During a warm-up in 1985, she collided with another skater, whose blade sliced Trenary's calf muscles and severed an artery in her left leg.

Trenary placed 5th in her first senior national championships in 1986. Later that summer she won the U.S. Olympic Festival. In fall 1986 she placed second to Elizabeth Manley at the St. Ivel International. At the U.S. championships in 1987, she finished second in both the compulsory figures and short program, where she landed a triple flip jump for the first time in her combination. In the long program Trenary landed four clean triple jumps, including the triple flip, and she upset reigning world champion Debi Thomas to take her first senior national title. At the 1987 World Championships, she rallied from 11th in the compulsory figures to place fourth in the short program, again landing the triple flip jump in combination, and fifth in the long program, to place 7th overall. In 1988, Thomas regained the U.S. title, with Trenary finishing second. Trenary placed 4th at the 1988 Winter Olympics. She was 5th at the 1988 World Championships, where she fell on the triple flip in both her short and long programs. Due to her strength in compulsory figures, Trenary again won the U.S. Championships in 1989, although she was defeated by Kristi Yamaguchi in the free skating. Trenary won bronze at the 1989 World Championships.

In 1990, Trenary won both the U.S. and World titles. Her strength in the compulsory figures was the deciding factor at the 1990 World Championships. She was 5th in the short program and second in the free skate to Midori Ito but her top placement in the figures kept her in the lead overall. The International Skating Union eliminated figures after that season. After she won her World title, her coach, Carlo Fassi, returned to live in his home country, Italy, and Trenary began working with Kathy Casey.

Trenary's triple jumps included the toe loop, salchow, and flip, which was quite competitive for a female singles skater in the mid-to-late 1980s. One of her signature moves was a combination of a one-foot Axel into a triple salchow.

In January 1991, Trenary underwent surgery to drain her ankle after she developed a staph infection. As a result, she withdrew from the 1991 U.S. Championships. In March 1991, Trenary moved to Cleveland, Ohio, to work with Carol Heiss Jenkins.

With the elimination of compulsory figures—formerly Trenary's strength—from competition, the technical standard for jumping in women's skating had risen greatly, with the top skaters all attempting five or six different triples. Trenary's injury was slow to heal and she had problems regaining her former standard of jumps, much less learning new ones. She planned to compete at the 1992 U.S. Championships, beginning her comeback in fall 1991 at Skate Canada, where she finished second in the short program to Surya Bonaly, but dropped to fourth overall after the long program, where she was unable to successfully land any triple jumps. She qualified for the 1992 U.S. Nationals by winning the 1991 Midwestern Sectional Championships with an uneven performance: after a strong short program in which she landed a triple flip combination, she was unable to land any triple jumps in the long program. She ended her bid to qualify for the 1992 Winter Olympics in December 1991.

After turning professional, Trenary toured with the Tom Collins Tour of Champions and Stars on Ice for several years. Prior to the 1993 World Championships, the eventual winner and soon-to-be Olympic champion, Oksana Baiul, cited Trenary as her favorite skater for her beauty and style. Although Trenary's early professional competitive career was uneven, in 1996 she skated particularly strong programs, choreographed by her then-husband, Christopher Dean, to George Winston's "Variations on a Theme by Pachelbel", and to Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Are Made for Walkin' as part of the U.S. team in its victory over the world team in Ice Wars.

Trenary retired from skating in 1997 after developing a life-threatening blood clot in her shoulder.

Personal life
Trenary married British ice dancer Christopher Dean on October 15, 1994. They have two sons, Jack Robert and Sam Colin.  Dean's agent confirmed in March 2010 the couple had separated.

Competitive highlights

References

1968 births
Living people
American female single skaters
Olympic figure skaters for the United States
Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics
World Figure Skating Championships medalists
Figure skaters from Colorado Springs, Colorado
Goodwill Games medalists in figure skating
Competitors at the 1990 Goodwill Games
21st-century American women

Jill Trenary


Stanley Ann Dunham (November 29, 1942 – November 7, 1995), the mother of Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States, was an American anthropologist. She was later known as, Ann Dunham, Ann Obama, Ann Soetoro, Ann Sutoro (after her second divorce) and finally as Ann Dunham. Dunham spent her childhood in California, Oklahoma, Texas and Kansas. Dunham spent her teenage years in Mercer Island, Washington. Much of her adult life was spent in Hawaii.

Early life
Dunham was born in Ascension Via Christi Hospital St. Francis in Wichita, Kansas. She is the only child of Madelyn Lee Payne and Stanley Armour Dunham. She was mostly of English ancestry, with some German, Swiss, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh ancestry. Wild Bill Hickok is her sixth cousin, five times removed.

Ancestry.com announced on July 30, 2012, after using a combination of old documents and yDNA analysis, that Dunham's mother may have been descended from African John Punch, who was an indentured servant/slave in seventeenth-century colonial Virginia.

Death
In 1995 in Hawaii, she died of uterine cancer which spread to her ovaries. Following a memorial service at the University of Hawaii, Obama and his sister spread their mother's ashes in the Pacific Ocean at Lanai Lookout on the south side of Oahu. Obama scattered the ashes of his grandmother (Madelyn Dunham) in the same spot on December 23, 2008, weeks after his election to the presidency.

Obama talked about Dunham's death in a 30-second campaign advertisement ("Mother") arguing for health care reform. The ad featured a photograph of Dunham holding a young Obama in her arms as Obama talks about her last days worrying about expensive medical bills. The topic also came up in a 2007 speech in Santa Barbara:

I remember my mother. She was 52 years old when she died of ovarian cancer, and you know what she was thinking about in the last months of her life? She wasn't thinking about getting well. She wasn't thinking about coming to terms with her own mortality. She had been diagnosed just as she was transitioning between jobs. And she wasn't sure whether insurance was going to cover the medical expenses because they might consider this a preexisting condition. I remember just being heartbroken, seeing her struggle through the paperwork and the medical bills and the insurance forms. So, I have seen what it's like when somebody you love is suffering because of a broken health care system. And it's wrong. It's not who we are as a people.

References

American anthropologists
Cancer deaths in Hawaii
Deaths from uterine cancer
Obama family
Scientists from Wichita, Kansas
Scientists from Washington (state)
1942 births
1995 deaths

Ann Dunham


David Aucagne (born 14 February 1973) is a retired French rugby union player. Aucagne, who played at fly-half, has been the coach of the French under-20 team since retiring in 2008. He made his debut for France against Wales on 15 February 1997.

Biography
Aucagne played for Vichy, his hometown team, as a youngster, but he moved to Paris Université Club, where he was coached by Daniel Herrero, in 1991. He spent five years with Paris before being offered the opportunity to play at a higher level with Pau. With Pau he won the Challenge Yves du Manoir in 1997, this was the only major trophy he won during his career. Aucagne later had spells with Toulouse, Grenoble and Montpellier.

Aucagne made his international debut during the 1997 Five Nations Championship, in which France completed the Grand Slam.

References

External links
FFR profile

1973 births
Living people
People from Vichy
Rugby union players from Allier
French rugby union players
France international rugby union players
Rugby union fly-halves
Stade Toulousain players
Montpellier Hérault Rugby players

David Aucagne


Eleanor of Portugal (1328 – 30 October 1348), was a Portuguese infanta by birth and Queen of Aragon from 1347 to 1348 as the second wife of King Peter IV.

The youngest daughter of King Afonso IV of Portugal and Beatrice of Castile, Leonor was the granddaughter of King Denis and Elizabeth of Aragon and of Sancho IV of Castile and Maria de Molina and sister of King Peter I of Portugal.

Biography

Little is known about her childhood. She is first mentioned when she was 18 years old when two kings vied for her hand in order to secure the support of Portugal: Alfonso XI of Castile  who wanted her for his nephew  Ferdinand of Aragon, and Peter IV of Aragon whom she finally married on 14 or 15 November 1347 in Barcelona, in the same year as the death of the king's first wife, Maria of Navarre. Eleanor was the first and only queen of Aragon who was born in Portugal.

She died on 29 October 1348, a year after her wedding, succumbing to the Black Death in Teruel while traveling to Jérica. Even though some authors assert that she had a daughter named Beatrice who died as an infant and was raised by her maternal grandmother, including Jerónimo de Zurita and Rui de Pina, there was no issue from the marriage of the Portuguese infanta and the king of Aragon.  She does not mention this child in her will who was mentioned in the two wills of her grandmother Queen Beatrice in 1357 and 1358 in which queen asked that the remains of the infant Beatrice, probably an illegitimate child of King Peter I of Portugal, originally buried at the Convent of Saint Francis in Santarém, were to be placed at her tomb.
Queen Eleanor of Portugal was first buried in Jérica and in June 1350 her remains were transferred and buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Monastery of Poblet, as she had expressed in her will executed in September 1348.

Ancestors

References

Bibliography

|-

1328 births
1348 deaths
14th-century deaths from plague (disease)
Portuguese infantas
Eleanor
Queens consort of Aragon
Countesses of Barcelona
Majorcan queens consort
14th-century Portuguese people
14th-century Spanish women
Burials at the Poblet Monastery
Daughters of kings

Eleanor of Portugal, Queen of Aragon


The prehistory of Southeastern Europe, defined roughly as the territory of the wider Southeast Europe (including the territories of the modern countries of Albania,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, and European Turkey) covers the period from the Upper Paleolithic, beginning with the presence of Homo sapiens in the area some 44,000 years ago, until the appearance of the first written records in Classical Antiquity, in Greece. First Greek language is Linear A and follows Linear B, which is a syllabic script that was used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of the Greek language. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1400 BC. It is descended from the older Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which also recorded Greek. Linear B, found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Kydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age collapse.

Human prehistory in Southeastern Europe is conventionally divided into smaller periods, such as Upper Paleolithic, Holocene Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic, Neolithic Revolution, expansion of Proto-Indo-Europeans, and Protohistory. The changes between these are gradual. For example, depending on interpretation, protohistory might or might not include Bronze Age Greece (3000–1200 BC), Minoan, Mycenaean, Thracian and Venetic cultures. By one interpretation of the historiography criterion, Southeastern Europe enters protohistory only with Homer (See also Historicity of the Iliad, and Geography of the Odyssey). At any rate, the period ends before Herodotus in the 5th century BC.

Palaeolithic
(2,600,000 – 13,000 BP)

Regional Transition to the Upper Paleolithic
(2,600,000 – 50,000 BP)

The earliest evidence of human occupation discovered in the region, in Kozarnika cave (Bulgaria), date from at least 1.5 million years ago.

There is evidence of human presence in the Southeastern Europe from the Lower Paleolithic onwards, but the number of sites is limited. According to Douglass W. Bailey:

The Palaeolithic period, literally the "Old Stone Age", is an ancient cultural level of human development characterized by the use of unpolished chipped stone tools. The transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is directly related to the development of behavioural modernity by hominids around 40,000 years BP. To denote the great significance and degree of change, this dramatic shift from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is sometimes called the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution.

In the late Pleistocene, various components of the transition–material culture and environmental features (climate, flora, and fauna) indicate continual change, differing from contemporary points in other parts of Europe. The aforementioned aspects leave some doubt that the term Upper Palaeolithic Revolution is appropriate to the Balkans.

In general, continual evolutionary changes are the first crucial characteristic of the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic in the region. The notion of the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution that has been developed for core European regions is not applicable to the region. What is the reason? This particularly significant moment and its origins are defined and enlightened by other characteristics of the transition to upper Old Stone Age. The environment, climate, flora and fauna corroborate the implications.

During the last interglacial period and the most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene (from 131,000 till 12,000 BP), Europe was very different from the regional glaciation. The glaciations did not affect southeastern Europe to the extent that they did in the northern and central regions. The evidence of forest and steppe indicate the influence was not so drastic; some species of flora and fauna survived only in this part of Europe. The region today still abounds in species endemic only to this part of Europe.

The notion of gradual transition (or evolution) best defines southeastern Europe from about 50,000 BP. In this sense, the material culture and natural environment of the region of the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene were distinct from other parts of Europe. Douglass W. Bailey writes in Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity: "Less dramatic changes to climate, flora and fauna resulted in less dramatic adaptive, or reactive, developments in material culture."

Thus, in speaking about southeastern Europe, many classic conceptions and systematizations of human development during the Palaeolithic (and then by implication the Mesolithic) should not be considered correct in all cases. In this regard, the absence of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in the region does not seem to be surprising. Civilisations develop new and distinctive characteristics as they respond to new challenges in their environment.

Upper Palaeolithic
(50,000 – 20,000 BP)

In 2002, some of the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (Peștera cu Oase), near Anina, Romania. Nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina), the remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 37,800 years old.

These are some of Europe's oldest remains of Homo sapiens, so they are likely to represent the first such people to have entered the continent. According to some researchers, the particular interest of the discovery resides in the fact that it presents a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features, indicating considerable Neanderthal/modern human admixture, which in turn suggests that, upon their arrival in Europe, modern humans met and interbred with Neanderthals. Recent reanalysis of some of these fossils has challenged the view that these remains represent evidence of interbreeding. A second expedition by Erik Trinkaus and Ricardo Rodrigo, discovered further fragments (for example, a skull dated ~36,000, nicknamed "Vasile").

Two human fossil remains found in the Muierii (Peştera Muierilor) and the Cioclovina caves in Romania have been radiocarbon dated using the technique of the accelerator mass spectrometry to the age of ~ 30,000 years BP (see Human fossil bones from the Muierii Cave and the Cioclovina Cave, Romania).

The first skull, scapula and tibia remains were found in 1952 in Baia de Fier, in the Muierii Cave, Gorj County in the Oltenia province, by Constantin Nicolaescu-Plopşor.

In 1941 another skull was found at the Cioclovina Cave near Commune Bosorod, Hunedoara County, in Transylvania. The anthropologist, Francisc Rainer, and the geologist, Ion Th. Simionescu, published a study of this skull.

The physical analysis of these fossils was begun in the summer of the year 2000 by Emilian Alexandrescu, archaeologist at the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest, and Agata Olariu, physicist at the Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering-Horia Hulubei, Bucharest, where samples were taken. One sample of bone was taken from the skull from Cioclovina; samples were also taken from the scapula and tibia remains from Muierii Cave. The work continued at the University of Lund, AMS group, by Göran Skog, Kristina Stenström and Ragnar Hellborg. The samples of bones were dated by radiocarbon method applied at the AMS system of the Lund University.

The human fossil remains from Muierii Cave, Baia de Fier, have been dated to 30,150 ± 800 years BP, and the skull from the Cioclovina Cave has been dated to 29,000 ± 700 years BP.

Mesolithic
(13,000 – 5,000 BP)

The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch (10th millennium BC) and ended with the Neolithic introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. According to Douglass W. Bailey:

The Mesolithic is the transitional period between the Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gathering existence and the development of farming and pottery production during the Postglacial Neolithic. The duration of the classical Palaeolithic, which lasted until about 10,000 years ago, is applicable to Southeastern Europe. It ended with the Mesolithic (duration is two to four millennia) or, where an early Neolithisation was peculiar to, with the Epipalaeolithic.

In regions with limited glacial impact (e.g. Southeastern Europe), the term Epipalaeolithic is preferable. Regions that experienced less environmental impact during the last ice age have a much less apparent and straightforward change, and occasionally are marked by an absence of sites from the Mesolithic era.

There is lithic evidence of the Iron Gates mesolithic culture, which is notable for its early urbanization, at Lepenski Vir. Iron Gates mesolithic sites are found in modern Serbia, south-west Romania and Montenegro. At Ostrovul Banului, the Cuina Turcului rock shelter in the Danube gorges and in the nearby caves of Climente, there are finds that people of that time made relatively advanced bone and lithic tools (i.e. end-scrapers, blade lets, and flakes).

The single site with materials related to the Mesolithic era in Bulgaria is Pobíti Kámǎni. There has been no other lithic evidence of this period found in Bulgaria. There is a 4,000-year gap between the latest Upper Palaeolithic material (13,600 BP at Témnata Dupka) and the earliest Neolithic evidence presented at Gǎlǎbnik (the beginning of the 7th millennium BC).

At Odmut in Montenegro there is evidence of human activity in the Mesolithic period. The research on the period has been supplemented with Greek Mesolithic finds, well represented by sites such as Frachthi Cave. Other sites are Theopetra Cave and Sesklo in Thessaly that represent the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic as well as the early Neolithic period. Yet southern and coastal sites in Greece, which contained materials from the Mesolithic, are less known.

Activities began to be concentrated around individual sites where people displayed personal and group identities using various decorations: wearing ornaments and painting their bodies with ochre and hematite. As regards personal identity D. Bailey writes, "Flint-cutting tools as well as time and effort needed to produce such tools testify to the expressions of identity and more flexible combinations of materials, which began to be used in the late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic."

The aforementioned allows us to speculate whether or not there was a period which could be described as Mesolithic in Southeastern Europe, rather than an extended Upper Palaeolithic. On the other hand, lack of research in a number of regions, and the fact that many of the sites were close to seashores (It is evident that the current sea level is 100 m higher, and a number of sites were covered by water.) means that the Mesolithic Southeastern Europe could be referred to as the Epipalaeolithic Southeastern Europe, which might describe better its gradual changes and poorly defined development.

The relative climatic stability in Southeastern Europe, compared to northern and western Europe, enabled continuous settlement in Southeastern Europe. Southeastern Europe therefore may have effectively functioned as an ice-age refuge from which much of Europe, especially eastern Europe, was re-populated.

Neolithic

Southeastern Europe was the site of major Neolithic cultures, including Butmir, Vinča, Varna, Karanovo, Hamangia and Sesklo.

The Vinča culture was an early culture of Southeastern Europe (between the 6th and the 3rd millennium BC), stretching around the course of the Danube in Serbia, Croatia, northern parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Republic of North Macedonia, although traces of it can be found all around the Southeastern Europe, parts of Central Europe and in Asia Minor.

The Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria, is a burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately 4 km from the city centre), internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site. The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, recently founded in Durankulak, near Varna is another important example.

"Kurganization" of the eastern Southeastern Europe (and the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture adjacent to the north) during the Eneolithic is associated with an early expansion of Indo-Europeans.

Neolithic settlements are also spotted in modern day Greece, trading routes that are based in the late Mesolithic period exist all over the Aegean sea. Some major settlements of Neolithic Greece are Sesklo, Dimini, Early Knossos and Nea Nikomedeia close to Krya Vrysi.
 Butmir culture
 Starčevo-Criş culture
 Dudeşti culture
 Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
 Hamangia culture
 Vinča culture
 Varna culture
 Tărtăria tablets
 Kurgan hypothesis

Bronze Age

(3,500 – 1,100 BCE)

The Bronze Age in Southeastern Europe is divided as follows (Boardman p. 166):
Early Bronze Age: 20th to 16th centuries BCE
Middle Bronze Age: 16th to 14th centuries BCE
Late Bronze Age: 14th to 13th centuries BCE

The Bronze Age in the central and eastern part of Southeastern Europe begins late, around 1800 BCE.
The transition to the Iron Age gradually sets in over the 13th century BCE.

The "East Balkan Complex" (Karanovo VII, Ezero culture) covers all of Thrace (modern Bulgaria). The Bronze Age cultures of the central and western Southeastern Europe are less clearly delineated and stretch to Pannonia, the Carpathians and into Hungary.

The Minoan civilization based on the Greek island of Crete becomes Europe's first actual civilization.

The culture of Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BC) offers the first written evidence of the Greek language. Several Mycenaean attributes and achievements were borrowed or held in high regard in later periods. while their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace states. It was followed by the Greek Dark Ages and the introduction of iron.

Iron Age

(1,100 BCE – 150 CE)

After the period that followed the arrival of the Dorians, known as the Greek Dark Ages or Submycenaean Period, the classical Greek culture began to develop in Southeastern Europe, the Aegean islands and the western Asia Minor Greek colonies starting around the 9–8th century (the Geometric Period) and peaking with the 5th century BC Athens democracy. The Greeks were the first to establish a system of trade routes in Southeastern Europe and, in order to facilitate trade with the natives between 700 BC and 300 BC, they founded several colonies on the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) coast, Asia Minor, Dalmatia etc.

Other notable groups of peoples and tribes of Southeast Europe organised themselves in large tribal unions such as the Thracian Odrysian kingdom in the east of Southeastern Europe in the 5th century BC. By the 6th century BC the first written sources dealing with the territory north of the Danube appear in Greek sources. By this time the Getae (and later the Daci) had branched out from the Thracian-speaking populations.

The Illyrian kingdom in the west of Southeastern Europe from the early 4th century was organised by the Illyrian tribes situated in the area corresponding to today's Montenegro and Albania. The name Illyrii was originally used to refer to a people occupying an area centered on Lake Skadar, situated between Albania and Montenegro (see List of ancient tribes in Illyria). The term Illyria was subsequently used by the Greeks and Romans as a generic name to refer to different peoples within a well defined but much greater area.

Other tribal unions existed in Dacia at least as early as the beginning of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. In the beginning of 1st century BC under Burebista's rule, Dacia expanded its territory from Central Europe to the Southern Europe.

Hellenistic culture spread throughout the Macedonian Empire created by Alexander the Great from the later 4th century BC. By the end of the 4th century BC Greek language and culture were dominant not only in Southeastern Europe but also around the whole Eastern Mediterranean.

See also

Aegean civilization
History of Eurasia
History of Europe
Lists of ancient tribes in the Balkans
Old European culture
Paleo-Balkan languages
Paleolithic Europe
Bronze Age in Romania
Prehistoric Croatia
Prehistoric Europe
History of Albania
Prehistory
Proto-Indo-Europeans
Timeline of glaciation
Slavic migrations to the Balkans

References
Inline

General
 John Boardman, The Cambridge Ancient History, Part I: The Prehistory of the Balkans to 1000 BC, Cambridge University Press (1923), .
 Douglass W. Bailey, Balkan prehistory,
 Alexandru Păunescu, Evoluţia istorică pe teritoriul României din paleolitic până la inceputul Neoliticului, SCIVA, 31, 1980, 4, p. 519-545.
 Paul Lachlan MacKendrick, The Dacian Stones Speak, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1974,

External links

 Periodization of Balkan Prehistory ~ 6200 - 1100 BC
 South East Europe pre-history summary to 700BC
 Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity by Douglass W. Bailey
 The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Project
  Ion din Anina, primul om din Europa  on Jurnalul.ro
  Human fossils set European record on BBC.co.uk
  Enciclopedia României

Southeastern Europe
Prehistory of Europe
01

Prehistory of Southeastern Europe


The Basketball Diaries is a 1995 American independent biographical crime drama movie directed by Scott Kalvert. It stars Leonardo DiCaprio, Mark Wahlberg and Lorraine Bracco and is set in New York City. This drama is based around an autobiographical novel by the same name, written by Jim Carroll. The Basketball Diaries is about addiction to drugs.

References

Other websites

1990s biographical movies
1995 crime drama movies
1990s teen drama movies
American biographical movies
American crime drama movies
American sports drama movies
American teen drama movies
1990s English-language movies
Movies about drugs
Movies about heroin addiction
Movies about prostitution
Movies about writers
Movies based on books
Movies set in New York City
American independent movies

The Basketball Diaries


Rescue at Midnight Castle, also known as My Little Pony, Escape from Midnight Castle, or Rescue from Midnight Castle, and released later as Firefly's Adventure, My Little Pony in Dreamland and My Little Pony: Rescue at Midnight Castle is a 1984 animated television special based on the Hasbro toy line, My Little Pony. It was released as a pilot of the proposed television series, and featured the voices of Sandy Duncan and Tony Randall. A second special was produced in 1985, Escape from Catrina.

Plot
The story begins as the peaceful ponies of Dream Valley are attacked by monsters, led by Scorpan, who kidnap four ponies and take them away to Midnight Castle. Enraged, Firefly, a Pegasus pony, takes to the skies to try to find someone who can help them defeat Tirac, a centaur-like demon whose plan is to use these ponies to pull his Chariot of Darkness. On her way, she crashes into 12-year-old Megan's well and asks her for her help. Megan is at first reluctant to go but after being confronted by the monsters, she sets out with the ponies to rescue them.

At Midnight Castle, Tirac has the smallest pony, Ember, taken to the dungeons, and uses the Rainbow of Darkness to turn the other three ponies Scorpan captured into dragons. He tells Scorpan to bring him a fourth pony by midnight, threatening to behead his friend, Spike, the baby dragon.

Megan, Firefly, and the ponies Applejack, Twilight, and Bow Tie go to see the Moochick, who has magic powers and might know how to defeat Tirac. On the way, Applejack falls off a bridge into the river and Megan jumps after her, from which they are rescued by the Sea Ponies, who tell them to call on them if they need help again. Megan and the ponies find the Moochick, who says that to defeat Tirac they must take away his Rainbow of Darkness, which gives him his power. He also gives them the Rainbow of Light, which can help defeat Tirac.

Arriving at Midnight Castle, Megan and the ponies cross the moat of raging water with help from the Sea Ponies. Meanwhile, Scorpan fails to get a fourth pony for Tirac, who threatens Spike again. Scorpan releases Spike and Ember from the dungeons. Applejack is captured by Tirac, who turns her into a dragon. Scorpan enters, attacks Tirac's guards, and runs outside with Megan and the ponies. With four corrupted ponies, Tirac rides his Chariot of Darkness. Tirac defeats Scorpan, nearly killing him, while Megan rides Firefly and knocks the Rainbow of Darkness out of Tirac's hand. The ponies fight Tirac's guards over the Rainbow of Darkness, but in the end, Tirac gets it back. Megan unleashes the Rainbow of Light, which is actually very small and does nothing at first. Tirac uses the Rainbow of Darkness on the Rainbow of Light, which fights back, overpowers the Rainbow of Darkness, and destroys Tirac. Everything Tirac transformed with the Rainbow of Darkness is restored to its original state, including the ponies and Scorpan, whose original form is a human prince. Spike, however, has always been a dragon.

As the credits roll, Firefly carries Megan back home where she hugs her own horse, T.J.

Voice cast
 Sandy Duncan as Firefly, Medley and Applejack
 Tony Randall as The Moochick
 Charlie Adler as Spike
 Tammy Amerson as Megan
 Fran Brill
 Victor Caroli as Tirac
 Laura Dean as Twilight, Bow Tie and Cotton Candy
 Carol Goodheart
 Lani Groves as Wavedancer
 Yolanda Brica Lee Lewis
 Lynne Lipton as Ember
 Ullanda McCullough as Seawinkle
 Gerrianne Raphael as Sealight
 Ron Taylor as Scorpan/The Prince

Musical numbers
 "My Little Pony Opening Chorus"
 "Dancing On Air" - Firefly and Megan (sung by Sandy Duncan and Tammy Amerson)
 "Call Upon the Sea Ponies" - Sea Ponies (sung by Ullanda McCullough, Lani Groves, and Gerriane Raphael)
 "Little Piece of Rainbow" - Moochick (sung by Tony Randall)
 "My Little Pony Closing Chorus"

Impact

My Little Pony 'n Friends airing
The special was edited into a two part episode of My Little Pony 'n Friends television series and re-titled "Escape from Midnight Castle". The opening animated sequence with narrated voice-actor credits, as well as its end credits, were removed and replaced with the standard 1986 TV series opening/closing. Also omitted is the two and a half-minute animated musical number "Little Piece of Rainbow", sung by Tony Randall. The episode aired at the end of the TV show's first season, in November 1986. A similar edit was done to the follow-up 1985 TV special, Escape from Catrina, which aired at the end of the second season as "Escape from Katrina".

Inspiration for Friendship Is Magic
Lauren Faust got much inspiration for My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic from this special, and the 1986 television series. She gave similar personalities to the new generation of ponies from the older series and specials, making them live on for a new generation. Tirac, renamed as Tirek, also appears in the series as a major antagonist, introduced in the two-part season 4 finale "Twilight's Kingdom" with a cameo appearance by Scorpan in the flashback sequence.

References

External links

1984 animated films
1984 films
1984 television specials
My Little Pony serials
American television series premieres
Sunbow Entertainment films
Television specials by Marvel Productions
Pegasus in popular culture
Films scored by Johnny Douglas
American television films
1980s animated television specials
1980s English-language films
1980s American films

Rescue at Midnight Castle


Patrick Kennedy left Ireland in  (February 16, 1823 – November 22, 1858) was an Irish farmer, businessman, and politician who moved to East Boston, Massachusetts from County Wexford, Ireland. He was born in New Ross, Ireland. He was the father of businessman/politician P. J. Kennedy (1858-1929), the grandfather of businessman/politician Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. (1888-1969), and the great-grandfather of President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963).

Early life
Patrick Kennedy was the youngest son of farmer James Kennedy Sr. (1770-1840), and Maria Maiden (1779-1836).

Adulthood
At the age of 26, Kennedy decided to leave Ireland, largely because he knew that a third-born son had virtually no hope of running his family's farm. His good friend at Cherry Bros. Brewery in New Ross, Patrick Barron, who taught Kennedy the skills of coopering, had come to that conclusion months earlier and left for America. In October 1848, Patrick Kennedy decided to follow. Patrick Kennedy arrived in Boston on April 22, 1849, having sailed from Liverpool, England on the Washington Irving, a substantial packet ship from the East Boston yard of Donald McKay. Patrick Barron helped settle him into Boston life and organized his coopering job on Noddle's Island (present-day East Boston). Not long after, Barron's cousin Bridget Murphy (1821-1888), who was the daughter of Phillip Murphy (1771-1850) and Mary Barron (1776-1846), made her way to Boston. She and Kennedy were married in the Holy Redeemer Church on September 26, 1849, by Father John Williams, who later became Boston's Roman Catholic Archbishop.

Children
Patrick and Bridget had five children:
Mary L. Kennedy (1851-1926), who married Lawrence M. Kane (1853-1924).
Joanna L. Kennedy (1852-1926), who married Humphrey Charles Mahoney (1854-1923).
John Kennedy III (1854-1855), died young from cholera.
Margaret M. Kennedy (1855-1929), who married John Caulfield (1856-1928).
P. J. Kennedy (1858-1929), a businessman and politician who married Mary Augusta Hickey (1857-1923).

Death
Patrick Kennedy died on November 22, 1858, from tuberculosis at age 35.

Kennedy family

Patrick Kennedy


A horse, in geology, is any block of rock completely separated from the surrounding rock either by mineral veins or fault planes. In mining, a horse is a block of country rock entirely encased within a mineral lode. In structural geology the term was first used to describe the thrust-bounded imbricates found within a thrust duplex. In later literature it has become a general term for any block entirely bounded by faults, whether the overall deformation type is contractional, extensional or strike-slip in nature.

References

External links

Tectonics
Rock formations
Structural geology

Horse (geology)


Hess's law of constant heat summation, also known simply as Hess' law, is a relationship in physical chemistry named after Germain Hess, a Swiss-born Russian chemist and physician who published it in 1840. The law states that the total enthalpy change during the complete course of a chemical reaction is independent of the sequence of steps taken.

Hess's law is now understood as an expression of the fact that the enthalpy of a chemical process is independent of the path taken from the initial to the final state (i.e. enthalpy is a state function). According to the first law of thermodynamics, the enthalpy change in a system due to a reaction at constant pressure is equal to the heat absorbed (or the negative of the heat released), which can be determined by calorimetry for many reactions. The values are usually stated for reactions with the same initial and final temperatures and pressures (while conditions are allowed to vary during the course of the reactions). Hess's law can be used to determine the overall energy required for a chemical reaction that can be divided into synthetic steps that are individually easier to characterize. This affords the compilation of standard enthalpies of formation, which may be used to predict the enthalpy change in complex synthesis.

Theory
Hess's law states that the change of enthalpy in a chemical reaction is the same regardless of whether the reaction takes place in one step or several steps, provided the initial and final states of the reactants and products are the same. Enthalpy is an extensive property, meaning that its value is proportional to the system size. Because of this, the enthalpy change is proportional to the number of moles participating in a given reaction.

In other words, if a chemical change takes place by several different routes, the overall enthalpy change is the same, regardless of the route by which the chemical change occurs (provided the initial and final condition are the same). If this were not true, then one could violate the first law of thermodynamics.

Hess's law allows the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction to be calculated even when it cannot be measured directly. This is accomplished by performing basic algebraic operations based on the chemical equations of reactions using previously determined values for the enthalpies of formation.

Combination of chemical equations leads to a net or overall equation. If the enthalpy changes are known for all the equations in the sequence, their sum will be the enthalpy change for the net equation. If the net enthalpy change is negative (), the reaction is exothermic and is more likely to be spontaneous; positive ΔH values correspond to endothermic reactions. (Entropy also plays an important role in determining spontaneity, as some reactions with a positive enthalpy change are nevertheless spontaneous due to an entropy increase in the reaction system.)

Use of enthalpies of formation
Hess's law states that enthalpy changes are additive. Thus the value of the standard enthalpy of reaction can be calculated from standard enthalpies of formation of products and reactants as follows:

Here, the first sum is over all products and the second over all reactants,  and  are the stoichiometric coefficients of products and reactants respectively,  and are the standard enthalpies of formation of products and reactants respectively, and the o superscript indicates standard state values. This may be considered as the sum of two (real or fictitious) reactions:
Reactants → Elements (in their standard states)

and Elements → Products

Examples
 Given:
Cgraphite + O2 → CO2(g)     ( ΔH =  −393.5 kJ/mol) (direct step)
Cgraphite + 1/2 O2 → CO(g)  (ΔH = −110.5 kJ/mol)
CO(g) +1/2 O2 → CO2(g)    (ΔH = −283.0 kJ/mol)
Reaction (a) is the sum of reactions (b) and (c), for which the total ΔH = −393.5 kJ/mol, which is equal to ΔH in (a).

Given:
B2O3(s) + 3H2O(g) → 3O2(g) + B2H6(g) (ΔH = 2035 kJ/mol)
H2O(l) → H2O(g)                                     (ΔH = 44 kJ/mol)
H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) → H2O(l)                     (ΔH = −286 kJ/mol)
2B(s) + 3H2(g) → B2H6(g)                       (ΔH = 36 kJ/mol)
Find the ΔHf of:
2B(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → B2O3(s)

After multiplying the equations (and their enthalpy changes) by appropriate factors and reversing the direction when necessary, the result is:
B2H6(g) + 3O2(g) → B2O3(s) + 3H2O(g) (ΔH = 2035 × (−1) = −2035 kJ/mol)
3H2O(g) → 3H2O(l)                                 (ΔH = 44 × (−3) = −132 kJ/mol)
3H2O(l) → 3H2(g) + (3/2) O2(g)              (ΔH = −286 × (−3) = 858 kJ/mol)
2B(s) + 3H2(g) → B2H6(g)                      (ΔH = 36 kJ/mol)

Adding these equations and canceling out the common terms on both sides, we obtain
2B(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → B2O3(s)                  (ΔH = −1273 kJ/mol)

Extension to free energy and entropy
The concepts of Hess's law can be expanded to include changes in entropy and in Gibbs free energy, since these are also state functions. The Bordwell thermodynamic cycle is an example of such an extension that takes advantage of easily measured equilibria and redox potentials to determine experimentally inaccessible Gibbs free energy values. Combining ΔGo values from Bordwell thermodynamic cycles and ΔHo values found with Hess's law can be helpful in determining entropy values that have not been measured directly and therefore need to be calculated through alternative paths.

For the free energy:

For entropy, the situation is a little different. Because entropy can be measured as an absolute value, not relative to those of the elements in their reference states (as with ΔHo and ΔGo), there is no need to use the entropy of formation; one simply uses the absolute entropies for products and reactants:

Applications
Hess's law is useful in the determination of enthalpies of the following:
Heats of formation of unstable intermediates like CO(g) and NO(g).
Heat changes in phase transitions and allotropic transitions.
Lattice energies of ionic substances by constructing Born–Haber cycles if the electron affinity to form the anion is known, or
Electron affinities using a Born–Haber cycle with a theoretical lattice energy.

See also
Thermochemistry
Thermodynamics

References

Further reading

External links
Hess' paper (1840) on which his law is based (at ChemTeam site)
a Hess' Law experiment

Chemical thermodynamics
Physical chemistry
Thermochemistry

Hess's law


Johannes Hendrik Otto van den Bosch, Count van den Bosch (12 April 1906, The Hague – 15 November 1994, Hilversum) was a Dutch noble, lawyer, banker and chess master. He thrice represented The Netherlands in Chess Olympiads, including the 2nd Chess Olympiad at The Hague in 1928, the 3rd Chess Olympiad at Hamburg in 1930, and the 4th Chess Olympiad at Prague in 1931.

Personal life
Count Van den Bosch was the son of Jeanne Françoise Marie Rijnen and Johannes Hendrik Otto van den Bosch (1869-1940), vice-admiral in the Dutch navy from 1925 to 1939. His great-grandfather was Johannes van den Bosch, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from (1830–33), who was created count in 1839. Johannes Hendrik Otto studied law at the University of Utrecht and eventually became a director of De Nederlandsche Bank. He married Benudina Maria Royaards in 1937.

Chess
His best achievements were two winnings in The Hague (1928, 1929), joint second place, behind Mir Sultan Khan, at Cambridge 1932, the second place in Dutch Chess Championship at The Hague/Leiden 1933, and winning at Amsterdam 1936. He also took 3rd at Amsterdam 1938 (NED-ch), 3rd at Delft 1940 (Quadrangular), 4th at Baarn 1941, and 9th at Amsterdam 1954 (NED-ch).

He played in several matches: won against Rudolf Loman (4-2) at The Hague 1927, lost to Willem Fick (1-3) at The Hague 1930, lost to George Salto Fontein (2-3) at The Hague 1930, lost to Salo Flohr (2-6) at The Hague 1932, drew with Rudolf Spielmann (2-2) at Amsterdam 1934, lost to Max Euwe (0-6) at Amsterdam 1934, drew with Salo Landau (5-5) at Amsterdam 1934, and drew with Henny van Oosterom (3-3) at Hilversum 1961/62.

He also participated in friendly matches: The Netherlands – England in 1939, The Netherlands – England in 1947, The Netherlands – England in 1949.

References

External links
 Chessgames.com

1906 births
1994 deaths
Counts of the Netherlands
Dutch chess players
Chess Olympiad competitors
Sportspeople from The Hague
Utrecht University alumni
20th-century chess players

Johannes van den Bosch (chess player)


Site 131, also known as Voskhod ( meaning Sunrise), was a launch complex at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia, used by Kosmos carrier rockets and R-14 missiles. It consisted of a single launch pad, which was used between 1967 and 1969.

The complex was used for early test flights of the Kosmos-3M. An R-14 missile was also launched from the pad in 1969. This launch, which occurred on 18 July, is the only launch that is confirmed to have used the site. Other launches were conducted, but the pads used by individual rockets were not recorded. Early Kosmos-3M launches used both Site 131 and Site 132.

References

Further reading

Plesetsk Cosmodrome

Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 131


Yangquan ( ) is a prefecture-level city in the east of Shanxi province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hebei province to the east.  Situated at the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau and the west side of the Taihang Mountains, known as "Rippling Spring" in ancient times. Yangquan occupies a total area of . According to the 2020 Census, Yangquan had a population of 1,318,505 inhabitants whom 1,037,456 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of 3 urban Districts plus Pingding County now being conurbated. Yangquan is a new industrial city of Shanxi province.  It belongs to the warm temperate semi-humid continental monsoon climate zone. Yangquan City has jurisdiction over two counties and three districts.

Yangquan is the gateway of the Shanxi province, located in the middle of Taiyuan and Shijiazhuang, 100 kilometers apart. Yangquan is also located in the eastern developed areas and the central and western regions of the combination zone, and also located in the reasonable transport sector through Tianjin, Qingdao, Huanghua. There are the ninth pass and Niangzi pass of the Great Wall, the Cangshan tourist Scenic spot, the Guanshan Academy, the former residence of Shi Pingmei, the Liangjiazhai Hot Spring, and the Shinaoshan Forest Park.

In 2017, Yangquan achieved a regional gross domestic product of 67.2 billion yuan, an increase of 6.3 percent at comparable prices. Among them, the added value of the primary industry was 1.04 billion yuan, up 3.0 percent, the added value of the secondary industry was 32.04 billion yuan, an increase of 5.6 percent, and that of the tertiary industry was 34.12 billion yuan, an increase of 7.1 percent. The composition of the three industries was adjusted from 1.7 to 48.0 50.3 in 2016 to 1.5 to 47.7 50.8. The per capita regional GDP was 47790 yuan, or US$7078 at the average exchange rate in 2017.

Administrative divisions

Geography and climate
Yangquan has a rather dry, monsoon-influenced humid continental climate /semi-arid climate (Köppen Dwa/BSk), with cold and very dry winters, and hot, somewhat humid summers. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from  in January to  in July, and the annual mean is . The diurnal temperature variation, not exceeding  in any month, is not large for provincial standards. More than 70% of the annual precipitation, which ranges from  in the entire prefecture-level city (PLC), occurs from June to September; throughout the PLC, sunshine totals 2700–2900 hours annually, and the frost-free period lasts 130–180 days.

Location domain
Yangquan City is located in the east wing of central Shanxi Province, with geographical coordinates of 112 °5 °114 °4 east longitude and 37 °40 °40 °38 °31 °north latitude. It is located in the west of the middle of Taihang Mountain, north of Dingxiang County and Wutai County of Xinzhou, and east of Pingshan County and Jingxing County of Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province.

Southern Jinzhong Xiyang County, Jinzhong Shouyang County, Taiyuan Yangqu County;

It is about 106 kilometers long from north to south and about 42 kilometers from east to west.

the city has a total land area of 4559 square kilometers.

Geomorphology

Yangquan City is located on the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau and belongs to the eastern mountainous area of Shanxi Province.

The landforms in the territory are mainly mountainous areas, while the rest are hills and plains.

The mountains include nine mountains.

On the northern city boundary is the Niudaoling Mountains, which is located at the junction of Zhoushan and Taihang Mountains.

There are two mountains on the northwest boundary, which is the branch of Zhoushan.

The rest of the mountains are arranged in two rows, east and west.

The eastern train consists of four mountains, from north to south are the Baima Mountains, the Qiulin Mountains, the Mianshan Mountains and the Aishan Mountains. They belong to the middle of the Taihang Mountains, with peaks ranging from 700 to 1700 meters above sea level.

Taihang Mountain is the boundary mountain of Hebei and Jin provinces, its eastern slope is steep, the foothills meet with the North China Plain, which is less than 100 meters above sea level; the western slope is gently inclined, and the mountains and hills are undulating.

The western column consists of three mountains, namely, the Northern Mountains, the Southern Mountains and the Qiling Mountains.

They have gone deep into the interior of the Shanxi Plateau, although the altitude is higher, but the ground fluctuation is slower than that in the east.

Among the mountains, there are some intermountain basins, mainly Xiyan basin in the west, Yucheng basin in the middle and Pingding basin in the south.

Hydrology
Yangquan City, with the exception of 22 square meters in the west belongs to the Yellow River Basin, the rest belong to the Haihe River Basin.

There are more than 60 rivers in the territory, of which 34 have a watershed area of more than 10 square kilometers, and seven have a watershed area of more than 300 square kilometers and a river length of more than 30 kilometers, all of which belong to the Haihe River system.

Hutuo River and Mianhe River are the main rivers in the territory.

Hutuo River flows through the northern part of the city, is the Haihe River system of the five major rivers of the north source of the Ziya River, in the territory of the main tributaries are Wuhe, Longhua River, Shitang River and so on.

The Mianhe River is formed by the confluence of the Wenhe River and the Taohe River, distributed in the middle and south of the city; after leaving the country, it converges with the Gantao River (Songxi River) and flows into the Hutuo River.

There are also a number of rivers that leave the country directly.

History

Yangquan City has a long history, according to the 1950s from Pingding northwest jujube smoke, Daliangding and other places unearthed cultural relics, the Middle Paleolithic Age, there will be human survival and reproduction here.

During the Tang, Yu, Xia and Shang dynasties, Yangquan City was handed down to be the place of ancient Jizhou.

During the Spring and Autumn period, there was a hatred of Judah in Yuxian County.

Zhou Zhending king twelve years (457 years ago), Jinqing Zhibo extermination of feud; sixteen years (453 years ago), Han Zhao Wei three Jin, the city belongs to Zhao. Qin belongs to Taiyuan County.

At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, Shangai County was located in the city, and the county governance was in Xincheng Village, Pingding County, which belongs to Taiyuan County.

In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Shangai County belongs to Changshan State of Jizhou.

When the three Kingdoms, the north and south belong to Wei and state Leping County, Xinxing County.

The old system of Cao and Wei was used in the Western Jin Dynasty.

During the Sixteen Kingdoms of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, it belonged to Qian Zhao, Hou Zhao, ran Wei, Qian Yan, Qian Qin, Hou Yan, Northern Wei and other countries. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, the north and south belonged to Shiai County, Leping County, and Dingxiang County, Xinxing County, Wangzhou. After the whole territory belongs to the Eastern Wei Dynasty and the Northern Qi Dynasty. Sui in this Niangzi Wei Ze County, is Jingzhou, after the waste; in this county to buy the original Qiu County (later renamed Yu County), and Shiai County belong to Liaozhou.

In the early Tang Dynasty, the city belonged to the state, and later abandoned by the state. Shiai and Yuxian successively belonged to both prefectures and Taiyuan prefectures. In the first year of Tianbao (742), Shiai changed its name to Guangyang and moved to Guangyang Village.

The five dynasties belong to the late Tang Dynasty, the Post-Jin Dynasty, the Post-Han Dynasty and the Northern Han Dynasty.

In the Northern Song Dynasty, Taiping Xingguo four years (979), changed Guangyang County to Pingding County, the county administration moved back to Pingding Shangcheng, Li Ping Dingjun; Yu County belongs to the state; after that, Pingding County and Yu County both belong to Hedong Road.

Jin Shengping Dingzhou, Yuzhou, is Hedong Road, he Northeast Road.

Yuan belongs to Jining Road.

In the Ming Dynasty, Yuzhou was reduced to a county, and Pingding Prefecture belonged to Taiyuan House in Shanxi Province.

Qing Yongzheng two years (1724), pacified as Zhili Prefecture, the addition of Yu County, Shouyang County, is Shanxi Province.

At the beginning of the Republic of China, it was Pingding County and Yu County, which belonged to Jining Road in Shanxi Province and was directly under the jurisdiction of Shanxi Province. During the War of Resistance against Japan, Ping (Lubei) County, Ping (Ding) East County and Ping (Ding) West County, Yu County divided into Pen (County) Ping (Shan) County, Pen (County) Yang (qu) County, Pen (County) Shou (Yang) County; To the south of Zhengtai Railway, Ping (Ding) East and Ping (Ding) West two counties belong to the Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan Border region, and the northern counties belong to the Shanxi-Cr-Hebei Border region. During the War of Liberation, peace, Yu County gradually restored to the original establishment.

On May 4, 1947, Yangquan City was established as part of the original Pingding County, which was later renamed Yangquan Industrial and Mining area. Yangquan City (industrial and mining area) has been under the jurisdiction of the North China Joint Administrative Commission, the North China people's Government and Shanxi Province.

After the founding of New China, Yangquan City (initially industrial and mining area, resumed in 1952) several times by Jinzhong (Yuci) area (special agency), Pingding County, Yu County is Jinzhong (Yuci) area (special agency). It has set up urban areas, suburbs and mining areas.

In September 1983, the city administered the county system, and Pingding County and Yu County were assigned to Yangquan City. Yangquan City became a city with three districts (city, mine and suburb) under the jurisdiction of two counties (Pingding and Yu County) directly under the jurisdiction of Shanxi Province.

Natural resources

Water
The total amount of water resources in Yangquan City is 1.584 billion cubic meters per year.

Among them, the river runoff is 1.382 billion cubic meters per year (including 490 million cubic meters per year in this river and 892 million cubic meters per year in the outer area).

The amount of groundwater resources is 543 million cubic meters per year (including 435 million cubic meters per year for local groundwater resources and 108 million cubic meters per year for incoming groundwater resources in the outer area),

The repeated amount of river runoff and groundwater is 341 million cubic meters per year.

The per capita share of local water resources in Yangquan City is only 562 cubic meters per year, which is slightly higher than that of Shanxi Province, which is 546 cubic meters per year, less than 1 to 4 of the national per capita water resources of 2400 cubic meters per year.

It is only 1 to 8% of the world's per capita water resources.

Flora
Yangquan City has complex habitats and a wide variety of plants.

According to the Engler-Gilger classification system, there are 93 families and 437 species of common plants in China, including 5 families and 5 species of fungi and 4 families and 6 species of ferns.

There are 4 families and 11 species of gymnosperms, 80 families and 415 species of angiosperms (including 72 families and 360 species of dicotyledons and 8 families and 55 species of monocotyledons).

Among the families, the most species are Compositae, Leguminosae, Rosaceae and Gramineae, followed by Liliaceae, Umbelina, Labiatae, Chenopodiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Solanaceae and so on.

Among the plant variety resources, there are more than 160 species of medicinal plants, as well as a variety of food crops, oil crops and vegetable crops.

Yangquan City has 941000 mu of forest, accounting for 13.74% of the total area of Yangquan City, with another 22.05 million trees on the four sides, with a total wood volume of 550000 cubic meters.

In the forestland, the economic forest is 48000 mu.

There are 1.821 million mu of pastoral slope grassland, of which more than 90% are available, and the total output of grass is more than 100m kg.

Fauna
Due to the lack of forests and serious environmental pollution, there are few wild animals in Yangquan.

For example, "Pingding Zhou Zhi" recorded that in the Qing Dynasty, there were tigers and deer nearby. Nowadays, tigers have disappeared and deer can be found only at the Yao Ling Temple Forest Farm and other places with a small amount of artificial breeding.

In addition to wild animals, Yangquan City contains a large number of domesticated animals, such as pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, donkeys, mules, chickens, and rabbits.

Mineral resources
Yangquan City is rich in mineral resources, and as many as 52 kinds of mineral deposits have been proved, especially anthracite, pyrite and bauxite, which are famous for their large reserves, high grade and easy exploitation.

It is one of the largest anthracite production bases in China, one of the three bauxite production bases and one of the five pyrite production bases in China.

The territory contains a coal area of 1051 square kilometers, coal geological reserves of 10.4 billion tons, pyrite 250 million tons, bauxite 227 million tons.

The annual output of raw coal is 35 million tons, the annual production of pyrite is 2 million tons, and the annual output of bauxite clinker is 1.8 million tons.

There are also ceramic raw materials, kaolin, plastic clay, hard clay reserves of 177.409 million tons; feldspar reserves of 43.17 million tons; quartz reserves of 43.2 million tons; diopside reserves of 500 million tons.

Economy

In 2017, Yangquan achieved a regional gross domestic product of 67.2 billion yuan, an increase of 6.3 percent at comparable prices.

Among them, the added value of the primary industry was 1.04 billion yuan, up 3.0 percent, the added value of the secondary industry was 32.04 billion yuan, an increase of 5.6 percent, and that of the tertiary industry was 34.12 billion yuan, an increase of 7.1 percent.

The composition of the three industries was adjusted from 1.7 to 48.0 50.3 in 2016 to 1.5 to 47.7 50.8.

The per capita regional GDP was 47790 yuan, or US$7078 at the average exchange rate in 2017.

Consumer prices rose 1.4% year-on-year, with food prices falling 0.9%.

Retail prices rose 0.8%.

The ex-factory prices of industrial producers rose 8.1%, of which the prices of means of production and means of living rose by 7.7% and 7.7%, respectively.

The purchase price of industrial producers rose 14.8 percent.

25326 new jobs were created in cities and towns throughout the year.

11626 rural workers were transferred.

At the end of the year, the registered unemployment rate in cities and towns was 3.11%, below the provincial control target of 4.2%.

In 2017, investment in fixed assets in Yangquan City totaled 24.57 billion yuan, an increase of 6.6 percent over the same caliber.

Of this total, investment in the primary industry was 300 million yuan, down 88.8 percent; investment in the secondary industry was 14.97 billion yuan, up 51.3 percent; and investment in the tertiary industry was 9.3 billion yuan, down 11 percent.

According to the type of registration, the holding investment of the state-owned economy was 14.79 billion yuan, an increase of 29.4 percent.

By major sectors, industrial investment was 14.97 billion yuan, up 51.3 percent; infrastructure investment was 3.61 billion yuan, down 24.9 percent; and other investment was 5.99 billion yuan, down 28.2 percent.

In the whole year, 193 projects with investment in fixed assets (excluding real estate) were completed and put into production, with an investment rate of 53.0%, with a new fixed assets of 10.66 billion yuan and a utilization rate of 49.5%.

In 2017, the general public budget revenue of Yangquan City reached 5 billion yuan, an increase of 21.1 percent.

Of this total, tax revenue was 3.79 billion yuan, an increase of 38.5 percent. Domestic value-added tax, business tax, enterprise income tax, personal income tax, resource tax and urban construction tax totaled 3.09 billion yuan.

They increased by 76.9%, decreased by 99.0%, increased by 175.8%, increased by 56.0%, increased by 65.7% and increased by 19.3%.

The general public budget expenditure was 10.58 billion yuan, an increase of 10.5 per cent.

Of these, expenditure on agriculture, forestry and water services decreased by 1.2%, expenditure on education increased by 4.6%, expenditure on social security and employment increased by 18.8%, expenditure on health and family planning increased by 1.3%, and expenditure on energy conservation and environmental protection increased by 21.4%.

Spending on culture, sports and media increased by 1.8%, spending on urban and rural communities increased by 8.9%, and expenditure on public security increased by 1.0%.

In 2017, the per capita disposable income of urban permanent residents in Yangquan City was 29581 yuan, an increase of 6.4 per cent.

The per capita disposable income of rural permanent residents was 12963 yuan, an increase of 6.5 per cent.

The per capita disposable income of low-income households in cities and towns accounted for 20 per cent of the total households surveyed, up 8.2 per cent, while that in rural areas accounted for 20 per cent of the total households surveyed, accounting for 5553 yuan, an increase of 14.8 per cent.

Primary sector
In 2017, the planting area of crops in Yangquan City decreased by 1.5 per cent to 55000 hectares.

Of this total, grain planting area was 53000 hectares, down 2.5 percent, and oil planting area was 123.5 hectares, an increase of 32.4 percent.

Among the grain acreage, the corn acreage was 45000 hectares, down 3.4 per cent.

The total grain output for the whole year was 260000 tons, an increase of 0.4 percent.

Of this total, corn was 239000 tons, an increase of 0.2 per cent.

In 2017, Yangquan's total meat output was 21000 tons, an increase of 5.1 per cent.

Of this total, pork production was 16000 tons, up 4.7 per cent; beef production was 400 tons, up 70.2 per cent; and mutton production was 1000 tons, up 17.4 per cent.

Milk production was 6000 tons, down 18.2 per cent.

Egg production was 33000 tons, down 2.2 per cent.

The output of aquatic products was 701 tons, an increase of 12.8 percent.

In 2017, Yangquan City completed afforestation area of 3.7 thousand hectares, an increase of 21.1 percent, of which the artificial afforestation area was 3.3 thousand hectares, an increase of 18.8 percent.

Barren mountains and wasteland afforested an area of 3.3 thousand hectares.

By the end of 2017, the total power of agricultural machinery in Yangquan City was 331000 kilowatts, down 21.5 percent.

The area of mechanical cultivated land was 42000 hectares, down 0.7 percent, the mechanical sown area was 44000 hectares, and the mechanical harvest area was 17000 hectares, up 1.1 percent and 0.8 percent respectively over the previous year.

The total income of agricultural mechanization in the city reached 210 million yuan, an increase of 5.0 per cent.

Huayang New Material Technology Group (Chinese: 华阳新材料科技集团), until 2021 was known as Yangquan Coal Industry Group Company Limited, is a coal mining and energy company. Founded in 1950, transformed into a joint-stock company in 1999, headquartered in Yangquan.

Secondary sector
In 2017, the number of industrial enterprises above the scale of Yangquan reached 123, with an industrial added value of 21.7 billion yuan, an increase of 5.5 percent.

The raw coal output of industrial enterprises above scale was 51.326 million tons, an increase of 1.1 per cent.

Coal washing was 23.881 million tons, down 29.9 percent, and electricity was 12.55 billion kilowatt hours, up 27.7 percent.

In 2017, industrial enterprises above the scale of Yangquan achieved 73.91 billion yuan in main business income, an increase of 21.3 percent, and 4.01 billion yuan in profits and taxes, an increase of 91 percent. Of these, the total profits were-1.64 billion yuan, 180 million yuan more than the same period last year.

The tax reached 5.65 billion yuan, an increase of 44.1 per cent.

The "two funds" of enterprises occupied 14.47 billion yuan, down 9.7 percent, of which accounts receivable totaled 11.81 billion yuan, down 14.3 percent, and finished goods totaled 2.66 billion yuan, an increase of 18.8 percent.

There were 54 loss-making enterprises, with a loss of 43.9 percent, and a loss of 3.41 billion yuan, an increase of 30.7 percent.

In 2017, the added value of the construction industry in Yangquan reached 5.08 billion yuan, an increase of 6.2 per cent.

The total profits of general contracting and professional contracting enterprises with construction qualifications were 30 million yuan, down 83.9 percent, and the tax paid was 460 million yuan, an increase of 96.7 percent.

Tertiary sector
In 2017, investment in real estate development in Yangquan City totaled 3.03 billion yuan, down 52.7 percent.

According to the purpose of the project,

Society

Science
In 2017, the number of patent applications in Yangquan City was 1107, a decrease of 21.6 percent, of which the number of invention patent applications was 439, an increase of 7.6 percent.

The number of patents granted in the city was 360, a decrease of 5.7 percent, of which the number of patents granted for invention was 18, a decrease of 21.7 percent.

A total of 41 scientific research achievements at or above the municipal level were achieved in the whole year, including 37 at the municipal level and 4 at the provincial level.

In the whole year, a total of 154technical contracts were signed, with a total transaction value of 250 million yuan.

In 2001, 26 scientific and technological achievements were newly registered.

Won 4 provincial science and technology awards.

There are 1 enterprise technology center, 10 provincial enterprise technology center and 30 municipal enterprise technology center.

There are 42 high-tech enterprises in the city.

By the end of 2017, there were 2 ordinary colleges and universities in Yangquan City, with 67000 people trained in practical skills for farmers in the whole year.

Culture
By the end of 2017, there were 6 mass art centers, 6 cultural centers, 6 art performing groups and 6 public libraries in Yangquan City.

At the end of the year, there were 332000 cable TV subscribers.

A total of 6.21 million copies of Yangquan Daily were distributed throughout the year.

Medical and health
By the end of 2017, there were 1548 health institutions (including clinics and village clinics) in Yangquan City, with a total of 6957 beds.

There are 6 Maternal and Child Health Hospitals (stations and stations).

There are a total of 10162 health technical personnel in health institutions in the city.

Sports cause.

In 2017, Yangquan athletes won 36 gold, 33 silver and 53 bronze medals (including non-Olympic events) in major competitions at home and abroad.

The city sold 118 million yuan in sports lottery tickets, nearly double the previous year.

Infrastructure
In 2017, the total energy consumption of Yangquan City was 8.5951 million tons of standard coal, an increase of 2.87 percent over the previous year, and the gross domestic product of 10,000 yuan consumed 1.3130 tons of standard coal, down 3.21 percent.

For the whole year, industrial comprehensive energy consumption was reduced by 5.6588 million tons of standard coal, an increase of 0.7 per cent.

The energy consumption per unit product of the main energy-consuming industrial enterprises is as follows: the comprehensive energy consumption per ton of raw coal production is 6.27 kg standard coal / ton, down 10.6%, and the unit energy consumption of coking process is 147.74 kg standard coal / ton, down 3.6%.

The standard coal consumption of thermal power plant is 300.47 g standard coal / kWh, up 0.4%, and the comprehensive energy consumption per unit alumina is 422.14 kg standard coal / ton, up 3.0%.

In 2017, the total amount of electricity used by the whole society in Yangquan City was 8.29 billion kilowatt hours, an increase of 16.5 per cent.

Among them, electricity consumption in the primary industry was 60 million kilowatt hours, up 8.3 percent, and that in the secondary industry was 6.69 billion kilowatt hours, up 18.1 percent, of which industrial power consumption was 6.64 billion kilowatt hours, an increase of 18.0 percent.

Electricity consumption in the tertiary industry was 930 million kWh, an increase of 14.3 per cent, and that of urban and rural residents was 610 million kWh, an increase of 4.4 per cent.

The proportion of electricity consumption of primary, secondary, tertiary industry and urban and rural residents in the whole society was 0.8%, 79.6%, 11.4% and 8.2%, respectively.

Social security
By the end of 2017, 310900 people in Yangquan City had participated in basic old-age insurance for urban workers, an increase of 22300 over the previous year, and 440900 had participated in old-age insurance for urban and rural residents, an increase of 300 over the previous year.

386000 urban workers participated in basic medical insurance, 815600 urban and rural residents participated in basic medical insurance, 260000 participated in industrial injury insurance, an increase of 2200 over the previous year, and 251200 participated in unemployment insurance, the same as the previous year.

246700 people participated in maternity insurance, an increase of 900 over the previous year.

The minimum wage for three districts and two counties in the city is 1700 yuan in urban areas, mining areas and suburbs, and 1500 yuan in Pingding County and Yu County, an increase of 80 yuan over the previous year.

In 2017, Yangquan City had a total of 34300 urban minimum living security objects, a decrease of 999 over the previous year, and 40800 rural minimum living security objects, an increase of 217 over the previous year, and 6300 people were included in the five guarantees in rural areas.

A total of 245 million yuan of minimum guaranteed funds were disbursed throughout the year, an increase of 24 million yuan over the previous year.

By the end of 2017, there were three rescue stations in Yangquan.

A total of 28 social service institutions provide accommodation, the number of beds in old-age service institutions is 1995, the number of beds in various welfare homes is 350, and the number of adoptions is 102.

There are 576 community service facilities in cities and towns, including 90 comprehensive community service centers.

In the whole year, 199 million yuan of welfare lottery tickets were sold and 100000 yuan of donations were received from the community.

Transportation

In 2017, the added value of transportation, warehousing and postal services in Yangquan reached 5 billion yuan, an increase of 12.1 per cent.   The mileage of highway lines is 5660.4 km at the end of the year, an increase of 2.2 km over the end of last year.   For the whole year, the railway freight volume was 44.971 million tons, an increase of 3.7 percent, and the railway passenger volume was 2.64 million, an increase of 1.3 percent.   The number of civilian vehicles in the city reached 217000 (including three-wheeled vehicles and low-speed trucks), an increase of 9.9 percent, of which 190000 were private cars, an increase of 11.3 percent.   The number of cars was 134000, an increase of 10.9 percent, of which 126000 were private cars, an increase of 11.7 percent.

Aviation
Yangquan City is located between Taiyuan and Shijiazhuang, the urban area is about 140 kilometers away from Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport in the east, and about 100 kilometers away from Taiyuan Wusu International Airport in the west. There are a number of air ticket outlets in the city, quick and convenient to inquire and book flights.   In 2016, the Yangquan City Terminal of Taiyuan Wusu International Airport officially opened, providing ticket purchase and airport shuttle services.   In 2017, the Yangquan Terminal of Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport officially opened, providing ticket purchase and airport pick-up services.

Railway

China's first electrified railway double line, the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan railway, runs through the urban area.

In 2009, Yangquan North railway station was opened on the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan high-speed railway. Most services to the older station were canceled leading to complaints from residents as it took 90 minutes by road to reach Yangquan North railway station from downtown Yangquan, and that journeys were less convenient.

Construction started in 2016 on the Yangquan–Dazhai railway. As well as carrying freight, it will allow faster journeys from downtown Yingquan to Yingquan North railway station as well as south to Dazhai. The first section, from Yangquan North to Yangquan East, opened in 2020.

Highway
The highway traffic has formed the highway network which runs through the east and the west, longitudinally through the north and south, the trunk and branch crisscross, the layout is reasonable, take the city as the center to radiate to two counties and three districts.   East to Hebei, west to Taiyuan, south to Changzhi, north to five, extending in all directions.   The first high-grade highway in Shanxi Province, Taijiu Expressway, passes through the border and runs through the Beijing-Shenzhen Expressway and the Beijing-Tianjin-Tang Expressway, which has greatly improved the investment environment in Yangquan and made it very convenient to go east and west.   In 2013, Yangquan City, county and county access asphalt road, township access road, village access motor vehicles.   Highway traffic is developing in the direction of wide roadbed, large tonnage and high speed.   Yangquan Expressway is more developed.   The Beijing-Shenzhen high-speed and the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan high-speed all connect with its main line too old high-speed.   It is only an hour's drive from Taijiao Expressway across Yangquan to Shijiazhuang Airport or Taiyuan Airport, while it takes only more than three hours to get to Beijing via Taijiu Expressway and Jingshi Expressway.   The 207 National Highway and 307 National Highway also pass through Yangquan, making the traffic of Yangquan Highway easy to reach all directions.   Yangquan City bus terminal every day to Zhengzhou, Taiyuan, Shijiazhuang, Beijing, Jinzhong and other places of the bus.

Specialty
Walnut and their oil, pepper, dried cucumber, coal carving, casserole and vinegar is the specialty goods of Yangquan.

Tourism

Park
Nanshan Park, Taohe Park, Beishan Park, Yangquan Botanical Garden, City Central Park are the main park and tourist attractions.

Historical Site
Yangquan contains the ruins of the ancient city of Zhao Jianzi at the end of the Spring and Autumn period, the site of the garrison of Han Xin in the Han, Huaiyin, and Hou, and the site where the princess of Pingyang led the army to garrison Niangziguan in the Tang Dynasty.

In Dongfu Mountain, in the south of Pingding, Nu WA is said to have built a stove here to make up the sky, making the whole stone of Dongfu Mountain brown and red, floating but not sinking after it has been thrown into the water. Up to now, the cooker still exists, as well as the inscription of Lu Shen in the Ming Dynasty.

The Cang mountain, 60 kilometers north of the city, is said to have been hidden here by Zhao orphans in the Spring and Autumn period. There is a legend of the Canggu cave, and the name of the Cang mountain is interpreted here.

In addition, Yangquan also preserves many ancient cultural sites, such as the Northern Wei Grottoes, the cliff stone carvings of the Southern and Northern dynasties, the main hall of Lin Li Guandi Temple rebuilt in the Song Dynasty, and the ancient architectural groups since the Jin and Yuan dynasty.

Memorial site
The site of the pacified armed uprising led by the Chinese Communist Party in 1931 and the site of Shinao Mountain, the main battlefield of the "hundred League War" in 1940.

(100 Patriotic Education bases).

The Monument to the "hundred League War" (the main monument) is 40 meters high and is shaped like a sharp bayonet.

Peng Zhen inscribed on the front of the inscription: "brilliant achievements, forever in the annals of history";

On both sides are Xu Qian's inscriptions: "the martyrs who took part in the hundred League War are immortal." Bo Yibo wrote: "the hundred League War, the most brilliant page in the War of Resistance against Japan, will certainly go down in the annals of history and shine forever."

Cultural relics and monuments
In addition, there are many ancient temples and temples, stele inscriptions, ancient tombs and other cultural footprints.

Liangjiazhai Hot Spring, Yaolin Temple and Niangziguan Falls with medical value, and the rare wonders of large stalactite cave in the north, such as Lianhua Cave, Wuhuadong and so on.

Yao Lin Temple is located in Pingding County, Yangquan City, 20 kilometers south of the city, is a provincial forest park in Pingding County.

Notable people
Co-founder of Baidu; Robin Li (李彦宏) was born and raised in Yangquan.
Author of The Three-Body Problem; Liu Cixin (刘慈欣) was born and raised in Yangquan.

Twinned cities
 Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England, United Kingdom
 Mount Vernon, New York, United States

References

External links

 Travel China Guide: Yangquan (English Version)

Yangquan


Sirena (Mermaid) is a Venezuelan telenovela shown in 1993, starring with Astrid Gruber, Carlos Montilla, and Alejandro Delgado.Ralbin Duarte This telenovela contains 199 episodes.

Synopsis
Loyalty and the passion, face in a circle of misfortunes without fin a young one to majer in Sirena. In this tragic history, the happiness and the single success can be achieved through the total treason. Desires and the instincts untie when the beautiful and rebellious Sirena Baltazar knows Adonis Diniz; whose wealth, power and enchantment, will mark the destiny of Sirena. Afraid of the dark intentions of Adonis, Sirena's house with Jasуn Mendoza, a famous tenista. Being disabled because of a mysterious accident, during the ceremony of his wedding, Jasуn it blames deeply to Adonis and Sirena. While Sirena faces the decision to be faithful to its marriage or the instincts of its heart, Adonis fights to conquer the love of her. Maintaining one it doubles secret life, Adonis tries to be playboy without scruples, at the same time that is hidden after the masked hero: "the Lynx", dedicating its life to the noblest aims, to clean to the name of its father and his fortune... and to make sure the love Sirena. The price that it will have to pay, could cost the life to him. Sirena develops in the middle of the condition, the emotion and it intrigues it, in an intense drama, where the passions and the secrets are as deep as the sea.

Cast
 Astrid Gruber as Sirena Baltazar
 Carlos Montilla as Adonis Diniz
 Alejandro Delgado as Juan Hundre
 Ralbin Duarte as Evelio
 Miguel Ferrari as Jason
 Yoletti Cabrera as Frenesí
 Alexander Montilla as Eneas
 Maria Eugenia Perera as Tormento
 Ricardo Herranz as Rancho
 Roxana Diaz as Perfidia
 Joana Benedek as Joana "La Divina"
 Carolina Tejera
 Jorge Aravena as Orbick
 Ricardo Alamo
 Saul Marin as Lorenzo "GoGo"
 Betty Ruth as Guillermina
 Jorge Reyes
 Luis Alberto de Mozos as Amado Gross
 Alexander Espinoza
 Xavier Bracho as Mozart
 Yajaira Paredes
 Alexander Silva

References

1993 telenovelas
1993 Venezuelan television series debuts
1993 Venezuelan television series endings
Spanish-language telenovelas
Venevisión telenovelas
Television shows set in Venezuela

Sirena (TV series)


In probability theory and statistics, the empirical probability, relative frequency, or experimental probability of an event is the ratio of the number of outcomes in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials, i.e., by means not of a theoretical sample space but of an actual experiment. More generally, empirical probability estimates probabilities from experience and observation.

Given an event  in a sample space, the relative frequency of  is the ratio   being the number of outcomes in which the event  occurs, and  being the total number of outcomes of the experiment.

In statistical terms, the empirical probability is an estimator or estimate of a probability. In simple cases, where the result of a trial only determines whether or not the specified event has occurred, modelling using a binomial distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate is the maximum likelihood estimate. It is the Bayesian estimate for the same case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution of the probability. If a trial yields more information, the empirical probability can be improved on by adopting further assumptions in the form of a statistical model: if such a model is fitted, it can be used to derive an estimate of the probability of the specified event

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
An advantage of estimating probabilities using empirical probabilities is that this procedure is relatively free of assumptions.

For example, consider estimating the probability among a population of men that they satisfy two conditions:
 that they are over 6 feet in height.
 that they prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam.

A direct estimate could be found by counting the number of men who satisfy both conditions to give the empirical probability of the combined condition. An alternative estimate could be found by multiplying the proportion of men who are over 6 feet in height with the proportion of men who prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam, but this estimate relies on the assumption that the two conditions are statistically independent.

Disadvantages
A disadvantage in using empirical probabilities arises in estimating probabilities which are either very close to zero, or very close to one. In these cases very large sample sizes would be needed in order to estimate such probabilities to a good standard of relative accuracy. Here statistical models can help, depending on the context, and in general one can hope that such models would provide improvements in accuracy compared to empirical probabilities, provided that the assumptions involved actually do hold.

For example, consider estimating the probability that the lowest of the daily-maximum temperatures at a site in February in any one year is less than zero degrees Celsius. A record of such temperatures in past years could be used to estimate this probability. A model-based alternative would be to select a family of probability distributions and fit it to the dataset containing past years′ values. The fitted distribution would provide an alternative estimate of the desired probability. This alternative method can provide an estimate of the probability even if all values in the record are greater than zero.

Mixed nomenclature
The phrase a-posteriori probability is also used as an alternative to "empirical probability" or "relative frequency". The use of the phrase "a-posteriori" is reminiscent of terms in Bayesian statistics, but is not directly related to Bayesian inference, where a-posteriori probability is occasionally used to refer to posterior probability, which is different even though it has a confusingly similar name.

The term a-posteriori probability, in its meaning as equivalent to "empirical probability", may be used in conjunction with a priori probability which represents an estimate of a probability not based on any observations, but based on deductive reasoning.

See also
Empirical distribution function
Empirical measure
Estimating quantiles from a sample
Frequency probability

References

Applied probability
Observational study
Estimation theory

Empirical probability