The Joralemon Street Tunnel (, ), originally the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, is a pair of tubes carrying the IRT Lexington Avenue Line () of the New York City Subway under the East River between Bowling Green Park in Manhattan and Brooklyn Heights in Brooklyn, New York City. The Joralemon Street Tunnel was an extension of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s first subway line from the Bowling Green station in Manhattan to the IRT Eastern Parkway Line in Brooklyn.

The tubes were constructed using the shield method and are each  long and  wide. The interiors are lined with cast-iron "rings" formed with concrete. The tubes descend  below the mean high water level of the East River, with a maximum gradient of 3.1 percent. During the tunnel's construction, a house at 58 Joralemon Street in Brooklyn was converted into a ventilation building and emergency exit.

The Joralemon Street Tunnel was the first underwater subway tunnel connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn. It was built by the IRT as part of Contract 2, which the IRT signed with the Rapid Transit Commission in 1902. Construction commenced in 1903 and the tubes were completed by 1907, despite various construction accidents and engineering errors that required part of the tunnel to be rebuilt. The first train ran through the Joralemon Street Tunnel in November 1907, and the tunnel opened for passenger service on January 9, 1908. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.

Description
The Joralemon Street Tunnel, consisting of two parallel tubes, crosses the East River, connecting the New York City boroughs of Manhattan in the west and Brooklyn in the east. Completed in 1908 for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), it was the first subway tunnel between the two boroughs, and was built as part of Contract 2 of the first New York City Subway line. The tubes extend between South Ferry in Lower Manhattan and Joralemon Street in Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn, with the route of the tunnel curving at either bank of the river. The primary engineer for the tunnel was William Barclay Parsons, who designed most of the early IRT system, while Clifford Milburn Holland served as the assistant engineer. The New York Tunnel Company was the primary contractor. When completed, it was known as the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, a name subsequently used for a vehicular tunnel slightly to the south.

Each tube is approximately  long, with the sections under the river being  long. The tunnels have an outside diameter of  and an inside diameter of . The centers of the tubes were placed about  apart, except under Joralemon Street, where that distance is . Both tubes have a maximum gradient of 3.1 percent. The lowest points on the tubes are about  below the mean high water level of the East River. About  of the tunnel in Brooklyn is above the water level of the river. While the Manhattan end of the tunnels was constructed through solid rock, the Brooklyn end was constructed through sandy ground.

The steelwork for Contract 2 tunnels, including the Joralemon Street Tubes, was manufactured by the American Bridge Company. The tubes are lined with "rings"  wide, each of which is made of "plates" that form a perfect circle. Each ring has a minimum thickness of  and has flanges that are  deep. The rings within the rocky sections, and within the segments of the tunnel above mean high water, generally weigh less than those placed within sandy ground or underneath the riverbed. After the rings were placed, they were covered with concrete, and bench walls with cable ducts were placed aside each tube. Piping and drainage systems were also installed. Pilings were sunk for additional reinforcement.

When the tubes opened, there were 18 signals, which divided the tubes into fixed blocks; only one train at a time could occupy each block. Trains traveled through the tunnel at up to , requiring blocks of up to . The placement of each signal was determined by the grade of each tube. Trains could run through either tube in both directions if the other tube was closed for maintenance. The signal apparatuses were powered by batteries at either end of the tunnel.

Associated structures
The Manhattan end of the tunnel is the Bowling Green station of the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. North of Bowling Green, the subway runs under Broadway to connect to the original subway line. The Brooklyn end is at Joralemon and Clinton Streets in Brooklyn, where a cut-and-cover tunnel connects to the Borough Hall station of the IRT Eastern Parkway Line.

Two construction shafts were built for the tunnel: one in Manhattan at South Ferry, and the other in Brooklyn at Henry and Joralemon Streets. Each shaft was built with dimensions of about . The South Ferry construction shaft became a ventilation shaft and consists of a  enclosure inside the Battery. However, the Henry Street construction shaft was infilled. A ventilation and emergency exit shaft was built inside a row house at 58 Joralemon Street, near Willow Street. 58 Joralemon Street was an actual house, built in 1847, but was purchased by the IRT in 1907 and gutted.

History

Planning
Planning for the city's first subway line dates to the Rapid Transit Act, authorized by the New York State Legislature in 1894. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, chief engineer of the Rapid Transit Commission (RTC). It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897. The Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company (RTSCC), organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed Contract 1 with the RTC in February 1900, in which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. Belmont incorporated the IRT in April 1902 to operate the subway.

A subway under the southernmost section of Broadway between the Battery and City Hall was not included in Contract 1. Several days after Contract 1 was signed, the Board of Rapid Transit Railroad Commissioners instructed Parsons to evaluate the feasibility of extending the subway south to South Ferry and then to Brooklyn. On January 24, 1901, the Board adopted a route that would extend the subway from City Hall to the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR)'s Flatbush Avenue terminal station (now known as Atlantic Terminal) in Brooklyn, via a tunnel under the East River, then running under Joralemon Street, Fulton Street, and Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn to Atlantic Terminal. It was estimated that this second route would cost $9 million (equivalent to $ million in ), which the RTC could not yet fully fund. However, the RTC expected that there would be competition for the route, which connected two large business districts and the city's two most populous boroughs. The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, which monopolized surface and elevated transit in Brooklyn, would be obliged to bid to maintain its monopoly. The Board also knew that Belmont would submit a low bid to retain control of underground rapid transit for himself and his construction company. Contract 2, giving a lease of 35 years, was executed between the commission and the Rapid Transit Construction Company on September 11, 1902.

Construction
Construction on the Manhattan side began on March 4, 1903, and on the Brooklyn side on July 10, 1903. While the RTC had allocated $2 million to the tubes' construction (equivalent to $ million in ), the project was estimated to cost $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) by November 1903. Construction shafts were dug at South Ferry and Joralemon Street. Six tunneling shields were driven: two proceeding east from Manhattan and two each proceeding west and east from Brooklyn. The tunneling shields were each  in diameter and  long, and were pushed at a rate of  per day. All of the headings were driven within a pressurized environment. After the headings had been driven approximately , two thick brick walls were constructed at each end, creating air locks. An upper lock gave workers access to the heading, while a lower lock allowed spoils to be extracted from the excavation and through the shafts on either side. The work was performed by three groups of men, each working eight-hour shifts.

After the shields were driven, temporary wooden beams were placed to reinforce the excavations until the cast-iron tubes were assembled. The cast iron lining was assembled via a hydraulically powered, traveling device with a "radial arm"; the device was supported on brackets that ran along the completed section of the lining. Once it had been positioned, the radial arm would lift and orient a plate into position. Three workers would bolt the plates to the already assembled lining, while a fourth would operate the device. Afterward, a compressed-air grouting machine would squeeze grout into small holes within the lining, filling the spaces between the rock and the cast-iron rings. The holes in the lining were then plugged. Some of the cast-iron plates were cracked while they were placed, but Parsons maintained that the tubes were safe.

The excavations caused shifting of sandy soil, which damaged some buildings in Brooklyn along the tunnel's route, including the house of the Brooklyn borough president. In June 1904, the RTC said the city was not responsible for repairs to the houses, although contractors were digging another shaft to relieve air pressure in the excavation. The shafts at Garden Place and at Henry Street were sealed, and new shafts at Furman Street on the waterfront were being constructed, by the end of 1904. The property damage led the New York City government to pay out monetary compensation starting in mid-1906. Numerous other accidents occurred during the course of construction. In March 1905, one of the tubes suddenly lost pressure in a "blowout", propelling a worker through the mud and into the air, although he survived. That December, a blast caused the tunnel to cave-in at the Battery, though no one died. A cave-in occurred in one of the tubes in August 1906, and two months later, another blast killed one worker. Another issue was the need to create a new ventilation shaft on the Brooklyn side after the construction shaft was sealed; the IRT unsuccessfully attempted to take property on Hicks and Furman Streets. By 1907, the IRT had bought a house at 58 Joralemon Street to serve as the ventilation plant.

Continuing with the excavations, the contractors found the remains of a ship under Joralemon Street in March 1905. By that August, the excavations had reached the midpoint of the riverbed. During this time, Parsons and his successor George S. Rice discovered that the ceilings of the tubes had flattened downward; trains could still run through the tunnels, but the roofs would be scraped at high speeds. Less urgently, the tunnels in Brooklyn had descended beneath the specified gradient, which if uncorrected would result in an uneven grade. These difficulties had come to the attention of mayor George B. McClellan Jr. by mid-1906. To prevent further delays, contractor New York Tunnel Company chose to proceed, with plans to rebuild the defective tunnel sections later. Parsons blamed the contractor for the defective tube ceilings, stating that the New York Tunnel Company had allowed the quicksand above the tubes to settle, although the contractor denied responsibility.

The two sections of the northern tube were holed-through on December 15, 1906, followed by the southern tube on March 1, 1907. Starting in mid-1907, some  of the north tube and  of the south tube were reconstructed, with the lower half of each cast-iron ring being replaced with an elliptical section. The New York Tunnel Company became insolvent that May, and a receiver was appointed to oversee the completion of the tunnel. By that July, the city's Public Service Commission ordered that additional shifts of workers be hired for the Joralemon project so that test trains could start running through the tunnels within three months. The first test train, carrying officials, reporters, and construction engineers, ran through the Joralemon Street Tunnel to Brooklyn at 12:40 p.m. on November 27, 1907.

Operation

The Joralemon Street Tunnel and the Borough Hall station opened to the public on January 9, 1908, with ceremonies, firecrackers, and a musical performance on the steps of Brooklyn Borough Hall. Initially, the tunnel was served by express trains along both the West Side (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street) and East Side (now the Lenox Avenue Line). The express trains, running to Atlantic Avenue, had their northern terminus at 242nd Street or West Farms (180th Street). Lenox local trains to 145th Street served the tunnel during late nights. In Brooklyn, service proceeded beneath Joralemon, Fulton, and Willoughby Streets, originally terminating at Atlantic Avenue. The opening of the Joralemon Street Tunnel, as well as the completion of the Williamsburg Bridge and Manhattan Bridge to the north, relieved traffic from the Brooklyn Bridge and from East River ferries, which previously had provided the only passenger service between Manhattan and Brooklyn.

The Dual Contracts were formalized in early 1913, specifying new lines or expansions to be built by the IRT and the BRT. As part of the Dual Contracts, the IRT extended the Lexington Avenue Line north of Grand Central–42nd Street, dividing the original IRT line into an "H"-shaped system. The "H" system opened in 1918, and all Joralemon Street Tunnel services were sent via the Lexington Avenue Line. The following year, the Clark Street Tunnel opened north of the Joralemon Street Tunnel, providing service from the newly extended Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to the IRT's Brooklyn line. Another tunnel, the Montague Street Tunnel, was built north of the Joralemon Street Tunnel as part of the Dual Contracts, opening in 1920 as part of the BRT system. Also in 1920, the Eastern Parkway Line was extended east of Atlantic Avenue; the Joralemon Street Tunnel services, which had previously served all stops on the Eastern Parkway Line, became express services.

In the latter half of the 20th century, several derailments occurred in the Joralemon Street Tunnel. A Brooklyn-bound train derailed during the morning rush hour of January 1, 1965, blocking service for half a day, although no one was harmed. During the evening rush hour of March 17, 1984, another train derailed with 1,500 passengers while traveling over a track that was being repaired, but again, no one was killed or seriously injured.

The Joralemon Street Tunnel was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. It was one of seven East River subway tunnels flooded on October 29, 2012, as Hurricane Sandy's storm surge inundated Lower Manhattan. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority prioritized draining and restoring service to the Joralemon Street Tunnel and Rutgers Street Tunnel, which carried some of the system's busiest routes. The storm water was cleared from the tunnel two days afterward, and the tunnel reopened within the week. The tunnels were more extensively repaired during 2016 and 2017 for $75 million.

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links

1908 establishments in New York City
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Crossings of the East River
Interborough Rapid Transit Company
New York City Subway infrastructure
Railroad tunnels in New York City
Railway buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Railway tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places
Tunnels completed in 1908
Tunnels in Manhattan

Joralemon Street Tunnel


Erlang Shen (), also known as Erlang of Guankou () and the Lord of Sichuan (), is a Chinese god with a third truth-seeing eye in the middle of his forehead.

Erlang Shen may be a deified version of several semi-mythical folk heroes who helped regulate China's torrential floods dating variously from the Qin, Sui, and Jin dynasties. A later Buddhist source identifies him as the second son of the Northern Heavenly King Vaishravana.

In the Ming semi-mythical novels Creation of the Gods and Journey to the West, Erlang Shen is the nephew of the Jade Emperor. In the former, he assists the Zhou army in defeating the Shang. In the latter, he is the second son of a mortal and the Jade Emperor's sister Yaoji. In the legend, he is known as the greatest warrior god of heaven.

Origin and representations

Some common representations of Erlang Shen include Yang Jian, Li Erlang, and others. The representation of Erlang Shen as Yang Jian is most common in popular media.

Erlang Shen is mostly portrayed, whether in ancient legends, games, or television, as a noble and powerful warrior god who slays and vanquishes demons and monsters in the mortal realm and who embodies justice and righteousness. He is shown to have vast, superhuman strength, being able to cleave an entire mountain with his axe to save his mother in just one stroke and being capable of 72 Transformations (sometimes said to be 73 Transformations), meaning he can transform into virtually anything he wants.

His main weapon of choice is his "three-pointed, double-edged lance" (), a long three-pointed spear with two cutting edges of a saber. This spear is powerful enough to penetrate and cleave through steel and stone like wool. Erlang wields the Divine Spear with unmatched skill and superior mastery, being an unstoppable force of destruction in battle when wielding said spear, having slain countless evil gods, monstrous demonic beasts, and vast, massive armies of demons and ogres with it. He is almost always accompanied by his faithful "Howling Celestial Dog" (), which has the ability to viciously attack, maul, and subdue demons and evil spirits.

Erlang Shen has also been portrayed as possessing a unique skill known as the "Nine Turns Divine Skill" (). It grants him vast, physical durability of undefined limits and nigh-invulnerability to conventional weapons and various magic spells. In the novel "Creation of the Gods", Erlang was shown to be completely impervious to hits from various powerful mystical objects due to this skill; he has emerged completely unscathed from mystical weapons and artifacts that have proven capable of severely injuring or even killing other immortals.

The third-eye on his forehead does not have a fixed name, though its most popular name currently is "The Eye of Heaven" (). It has the ability to differentiate truth from lies and see through deceptions and disguises. It may also be used as an offensive weapon, being able to fire continuous, highly destructive blasts of light energy and/or divine fire.

Li Erlang

Li Erlang was the second son of Li Bing from the Qin dynasty.

According to the "Story about Li Bing and His Son in Harnessing the Rivers" in the Records of Guansian, Li Erlang assisted his father in the construction of the complex irrigation system that prevented the Min River from flooding and irrigated the Chengdu Plain. In thanks for the prosperity that this brought to them, the local people elevated the father and son to gods and dedicated the Two Kings Temple in their honor.

Legend states that Governor Li Bing sent his son out to discover the source of the flooding. He spent a year exploring the county without success. One day whilst sheltering in a cave, he encountered a tiger which he slew and seven hunters who had witnessed this bravery agreed to join him in his quest.

The group finally came to a cottage on the outskirts of Guan County (modern Dujiangyan City). From within they heard the sound of an old woman crying. The woman was Grandma Wang and she told them that her grandson was to be sacrificed to an evil dragon who was the local river god. Li Erlang reported this to his father who devised a plan to capture the dragon.

The eight friends hid in the River God Temple and jumped out on the dragon when it arrived to claim its offering. The dragon fled to the river pursued by Li Erlang, who eventually captured it. Grandma Wang arrived with an iron chain and the dragon was secured in the pool below the Dragon-Taming Temple, freeing the region from floods.

Another legend tells of Li Erlang suppressing a fire dragon that lived in the mountains north of Dujiangyan by climbing to the top of Mount Yulei, turning into a giant and building a dam with 66 mountains then filling it with water from Dragon Pacifying Pool.

In Bao Lian Deng
Erlang's mother, Princess Yaoji, was the goddess of the realm of desire in heaven. Her job was to limit the gods' mortal urges such as love, affection, greed, and ambition. When she pursued an evil dragon who broke free of its heavenly prison into the mortal realm and was injured by it, she fell in love with Yang Tianyou, a mortal scholar, who saved her life by giving her his own heart to replace the one the dragon damaged. They had three children: Yang Jiao, Yang Jian (Erlang Shen), and Yang Chan (Holy Mother of Hua Shan). When the Jade Emperor discovered her marriage, he sent his armies to kill her family and capture her. Only Erlang and his sister Yang Chan survived.

As Li Bing
As Li Bing, the first hydraulic engineer in the Shu area, was the hero who stopped the flooding of the Min River by constructing the Dujiangyan. This somehow led to Li Bing being turned into a folk hero who defeated a river god in order to save his prefecture from being flooded, where this story had then associated him as a new river god that protected the local people in the area from floods. However, a discrepancy comes up that even though Li Bing/Erlang was known as Guankou Shen, the river that he is associated with is in Qianwei and not Guankou.
Another  discrepancy is that Li Erlang had never appeared in any of the tales related to stopping the Min River. The first appearance of Li Erlang was in Zhishui ji  by Li Ying  of the Liang  Dynasty.

Historically Li Bing was conferred an official title until the Five Dynasties period under the rule of the Shu kingdom. He rose to political power when the great flood that occurred on the twenty-sixth day of the eighth month in 920 AD was reported to the emperor by Daoist Du Guangting .

Yang Jian
Many legends and novels often describe Erlang as Yang Jian, a nephew of the Jade Emperor. According to an ancient text, Erlang Baojuan, Yang Jian's mother, was the Jade Emperor's sister, Princess Yaoji who was imprisoned under Mount Tao because she violated the Heavenly Rules by marrying a human named Yang Tianyou. Many years later, her son Yang Jian cleaved Mount Tao using his axe, hoping to set his mother free. He did successfully rescue his mother after he chased away the sun by carrying a mountain on his back.

In Fengshen Yanyi, it is mentioned that Princess Longji is the Jade Emperor's daughter, making her Yang Jian's aunt. The Golden Fleece Lads are his deciples

Other identifications
Erlang Shen is also identified with Zhao Yu, a hermit who lived on Mount Qingcheng and was appointed by Emperor Yang of Sui as Governor of Jiazhou. Zhao Yu is said to have set forth with 1000 men to defeat a flood dragon that had been tormenting the area. Upon reaching the river, Zhao Yu dived into the water with his double-edged sword and emerged holding the dragon's head. Following his death, according to the Chronicle of Changshu County, the region was once again plagued by flood and he was seen riding a white horse amidst the swirling currents. The locals built a temple enshrining Zhao Yu as the god Erlang and the floods were subdued.

Deng Xia is said to have been a general under Erlang who surpassed his predecessors in valor and defeated a flood dragon, receiving the title "Erlang Shen" and a temple in his honor at Zhongqingli in Hangzhou.

Zoroastrian influence theory

In the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms, it is recorded that the Emperor Wang Zongyan of Former Shu was present in a ceremonial procession wearing golden armor, pearl-decorated hat and holding a bow and an arrow. His appearance was compared to that of the  (, Chinese term for "Zoroastrian") god of Guankou by the crowd. According to the tradition, Erlang Shen was originally a river god in the Guankou district. Professor Li Guotao argued that this "Xian god" has his origins in Zoroastrianism. Furthermore, he also suggested that Emperor Wang Zongyan, as well as the rest of the royal family of the Former and Later Shu were Zoroastrians. He believed that there is great similarity between the appearance of Erlang Shen and that of the Sogdian-Zoroastrian deity Weshparkar, which is able to conclude that Erlang Shen is a localized deity originated in Persia or Zoroastrian Central Asia.

After a detailed comparison of Erlang Shen and the Zoroastrian rain deity Tishtrya in his article for Religious Studies, Professor Hou Hui suggested that Tishtrya is the archetype of the former: "This folk tradition originated in the Sichuan region with a Zoroastrian cultural background, Erlang Shen shares many common features and characteristics with Tishtrya. Therefore, it is speculated that the cult of Erlang Shen should be derived from the worship of the Zoroastrian rain deity."

Representation in Chinese culture as Yang Jian ()

Fengshen Yanyi
In Investiture of the Gods, Yang Jian (Yang Bliss) is a disciple of Yuding Zhenren, and he learned fighting and magical skills including the 72 earthly transformations. He first appeared during the time of the Diablo Brothers' attack on the Western Foothills. After hearing of the situation, Yang personally took the offensive against the brothers. During his duel against all four brothers, Yang deliberately allowed himself to be consumed by Diablo Long Life's flying mink (some sources say an elephant). Following the battle, Yang Jian suddenly reappeared before Jiang Ziya after killing the mink inside its stomach with his many transformations. To trick the Diablo Brothers, Yang Jian later transformed himself into Long Life's flying mink and stole Diablo Red's Havoc-Umbrella. Thus, Yang was renowned as the true reason for Jiang Ziya's victory over the Diablo Brothers at an overall point.

Journey to the West
Erlang makes an appearance near the start of the classic Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en. Erlang, who is titled as being either True Lord or Illustrious Sage, is the nephew of the Jade Emperor. Erlang made his first appearance when he had been ordered by the Jade Emperor (in which Erlang was also with his seven elite sages whom he called his brothers) to subdue Sun Wukong, who was to be punished for his havoc in heaven.

Throughout the course of Erlang's duel between Sun Wukong, Erlang had been the stronger adversary though Sun Wukong always managed to stay ahead and at times get the better of Erlang thanks to his quick wits. After many transformations that were performed in their duel (Sun Wukong fleeing as a fish; Erlang and Sun Wukong becoming larger birds, and so forth), near the conclusion of the battle, he managed to see through Sun Wukong's disguise (as a temple) using his third eye. He eventually defeated Wukong through teamwork with several other gods; Laozi personally had dropped his refined golden ring that had hit Sun Wukong on the head, giving Erlang a chance to bring him down, and Erlang's dog bit him in the leg. After Sun Wukong had been captured (to which Sun Wukong retorts that they are cowards for attacking from behind), he and his heavenly soldiers would burn areas of Mount Huaguo. Erlang is seen again far later in the novel when he assists Sun Wukong and Zhu Bajie through chance by fighting against an ancient Dragon King and his villainous son-in-law, a nine-headed bird demon.

Bao Lian Deng
In the tale Lotus Lantern (Bao Lian Deng), Erlang had a sister known as the Holy Mother of Mount Hua (Hua Shan). She married a mortal man, Liu Yanchang, who was a scholar. Together, they had a son by the name of Chen Xiang. She was admonished by Erlang for this unlawful human-deity union and imprisoned under Mount Hua. When Chen Xiang came of age, he split the mountain with an axe to free his mother, but not before facing people who repeatedly tried to undermine his mission, most notably his own uncle Erlang.

As a filial deity
In Chinese belief, he was a filial son that entered the Chinese underworld to save his deceased mother from torment and will punish unfilial children by striking them with thunder as a punishment, hence the Chinese parent saying "Being smitten by lightning for being unfilial and ungrateful" towards unruly children. A warrior deity, he wields a Sān Jiān Liǎng Rèn Dāo ( - "three-pointed, double-edged blade") and always has his faithful Xiàotiān quǎn ( - "Howling Celestial Dog") by his side. This dog also helps him subdue evil spirits.

In popular culture
Erlang is also introduced as a resplendent, powerful god in Kevin Hearne's Scourged, book 9 of the The Iron Druid Chronicles.

See also
Dog in Chinese mythology
Jiro (given name)
Rama

References

Chinese gods
Culture in Sichuan
Religion in Sichuan
Investiture of the Gods characters
Journey to the West characters

Erlang Shen


David Lubin (10 June 1849 – 1 January 1919) was a merchant and agriculturalist. He was pivotal in founding the International Institute of Agriculture in 1908, in Rome.

Biography
He was born in Kłodawa, Poland. His family moved to England in 1853. On his father's death, David's mother married again and they emigrated to America. He received a scant education and at an early age was placed in a jewelry factory in Attleboro, Massachusetts. Finding slight opportunity of advancement there he drifted to California. He reached Sacramento, and after working at odd jobs he amassed sufficient funds to start a dry goods store of his own. He dealt largely in overalls and thus came in contact with the farmers of California, and as he met them in person he learned something of their problems.
  He started a prosperous mail order business with his half-brother Harris Weinstock and his sister Jeanette Levy. Lubin's One Price Store later became known as the Weinstock-Lubin Company.

While in Sacramento, he bought a fruit ranch near Sacramento and land for raising wheat.  His knowledge of agriculture assisted him when he helped found the California Fruit Growers' Union. He then helped settle Eastern European Jewish refugees who worked on various farms in the area and, in 1891, he became the director of the International Society for the Colonization of Russian Jews. He then began to campaign for subsidies and protection for farmers, initially in California but eventually on an international scale.

In his new vocation of farmer, there came to him the idea of an international agricultural congress, whereby one side of the globe might learn what the other side was producing and how and at what cost. He began collecting statistics on the subject, studied plant life and domestic animals and made investigations into their diseases and sought remedies. His son, Simon, helped him develop a proposal for an international chamber of agriculture. In 1896, David Lubin moved to Europe to implement the proposal.

In Italy, in 1904, King Victor Emmanuel III saw the need for such an institution and gave it his ardent support, giving a building for the congress and an annual income of $60,000. In May 1905, the International Institute of Agriculture (the IIA) opened in Rome. The Institute's goals were to help farmers share knowledge, produce systematically, establish a cooperative system of rural credit, and have control over the marketing of their products. At the first gathering 40 nations were represented.  In 1906, Lubin was appointed the permanent U.S. delegate to the IIA. In 1913 on the occasion of the meeting of the congress in Rome Mr. Lubin received a silver cup as a token of appreciation of his efforts in originating the organization.  By 1919, 53 nations were represented at the IIA gatherings.

The IIA ceased operations in 1945.  Several of its assets were transferred to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The mandate of international cooperation in the field of agriculture is continued by the FAO, which named its library in honor of David Lubin. The David Lubin Memorial Library (DLML) maintains the personal archives of David Lubin and the collection of the IIA library. It accepts visitors who would like to research these materials in person.

The U.S. Federal Farm Act (1916), whose founding ideas and policies can be seen to be influenced by Lubin and the International Institute of Agriculture, introduced rural credit and contributed to the relief of American farmers during the Great Depression. Similarly, Lubin's successful fight for the lowering of oppressive freight rates also helped lead to the development of the parcel post system.  He also took a keen interest in farmers' co-operative societies and granges and was interested in oceanic shipping. He introduced a national marketing proposal on the lines of the German Landwirtschaftsrat.

In addition, Lubin wrote essays and treatises. His novel, Let There be Light, proposed a universal world religion. He died in the 1918 flu pandemic, aged 69 on January 1, 1919.

Legacy
The centenary of IIA was celebrated by ISTAT (Italian Statistics Office) and FAO and its Statistics Division on 28 May 2008 in Rome.

The Western Jewish History Center, of the Judah L. Magnes Museum, in Berkeley, California has a large collection of papers, correspondence, publications, and photographs of David Lubin.

David Lubin Elementary School is located in the East Sacramento neighborhood of Sacramento, CA, a few blocks from the site of David Lubin's former home.

Notes

References
 Agresti, Olivia Rossetti (1922). David Lubin: A Study in Practical Idealism. Boston: Little, Brown & Company [University of California Press, 1941].
 Marcosson, Isaac F. (1906). "Mr. David Lubin and his Work," The World's Work 12, May/October, pp. 8021–8023.

External links

 Slide show on the life of David Lubin
 Feeding the World, a biography of David Lubin, Kirkus Book Review
 Feeding the World, A biography of David Lubin by Azriel Eisenberg, Amazon Books

1849 births
1919 deaths
Deaths from Spanish flu
People from Koło County
Emigrants from Congress Poland to the United States
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Farmers from California
Businesspeople from California
Agriculturalists
Activists from California

David Lubin


Charles Edward Kelly (15 June 1902 – 20 January 1981) was an Irish cartoonist, and one of the founders and editors of the satirical magazine Dublin Opinion. His prolific contributions to the magazine were drawn in a variety of styles, from cartoony to illustrative.

Kelly was educated at Synge Street CBS, and joined the Irish civil service as a messenger boy at the age of 15. At the age of 19 he, fellow cartoonist Arthur Booth, a 28-year-old clerk, and writer Tom Collins, founded Dublin Opinion in 1922, on the eve of the Irish Civil War, with Booth becoming its first editor. Kelly had no formal art training, and developed his style by studying the work of the leading cartoonists of the time. After Booth's death in 1926, Kelly co-edited the magazine with Collins, while continuing to work in the civil service, eventually becoming Director of Broadcasting and Director of National Savings.

Kelly's cartoons were also published in The Capuchin Annual from 1942 to 1955. He began painting watercolours in the 1930s, and became a member of the Dublin Sketching Club and the Water Colour Society of Ireland: he exhibited over 60 pieces at the latter from 1941 to 1980, and had a solo exhibition of his watercolours in Dublin in 1972.

After Collins' death Kelly struggled on with Dublin Opinion for a few years, before it was voluntarily wound up in 1968. He received an honorary doctorate from the National University of Ireland in 1979, and was president and chairman of PEN.

His eldest son, Frank, was an actor best known for playing Father Jack in the Channel 4 sitcom Father Ted. His daughter, Pauline Bracken, is a journalist who wrote a memoir, Light of Other Days: A Dublin Childhood, published in 1992.

References

Thomas J. Collins & Charles E. Kelly (eds.), Fifteen Years of Dublin Opinion, Dublin Opinion Ltd, 1937
Louis McRedmond (ed.), Modern Irish Lives: Dictionary of 20th Century Biography, Gill & McMillan, 1998, p. 154
Theo Snoddy, Dictionary of Irish Artists: 20th Century, Merlin Publishing, 2002
Frank Kelly, The Story of Dublin Opinion
Interview with Frank Kelly, Sunday Mirror, 14 March 1999
Pauline Bracken, Light of Other Days at Amazon.co.uk

1902 births
1981 deaths
Irish editorial cartoonists
Irish civil servants
Civil servants in Ireland (1801–1922)
Artists from Dublin (city)
Irish magazine editors
People educated at Synge Street CBS

Charles E. Kelly (cartoonist)


Charles Partlow "Chic" Sale (August 25, 1885 – November 7, 1936) was an American actor and vaudevillian.

Early years
Sale was born in Huron, South Dakota, and raised in Urbana, Illinois. He was a son of Frank and Lillie Belle (née Partlow) Sale, and the brother of actress and writer Virginia Sale-Wren.

Career
In 1920, after a tour wherein he played "rural parts", he was engaged by Christie Studios on Gower Street in Los Angeles. According to Grace Kingsley in the Jan. 28 edition of the Los Angeles Times, page II11, It now comes to light that Chic Sale, appearing at the Orpheum this week, will as soon as his present tour is finished, about the middle of next month, return to town in the Capacity of a Christie star. Mr. Sale's first photoplay will be a five-reeler, adapted from Irvin S. Cobb's "The Smart Aleck," after which he will be starred in other well-known stories suitable to his talents. The item goes on to mention that Charles Christie, business head of the Christie studio, entered into a contract with Exceptional Pictures to produce the Sale film, to be distributed through Robertson-Cole, and notes Sale's occasional appearances in the Ziegfeld Follies and the Shubert Winter Garden shows. The movie was eventually named His Nibs, and co-starred Colleen Moore. Chic played many of the parts himself, the film being a spoof of the sort of "hick", backwater characterizations that were his specialty.

In 1929, inspired by a carpenter named 'Lem Putt' from his hometown of Urbana, Sale wrote The Specialist, a play about an outhouse builder. Because copyright infringement was widespread in Vaudeville, Sale enlisted the aid of newspaper political cartoonist, Roy James, to adapt The Specialist into a book. Mr. James' illustrations brought Chic's humor to life and the book enjoyed great success. Sale spent the next several months responding to fan mail.

Sale had a career in Hollywood, appearing in various comic roles until his death from pneumonia in 1936. In contrast to his comic roles, one of his loftier appearances came as President Abraham Lincoln in 1935. The Perfect Tribute was a short film dramatizing Lincoln's disappointment at the meager reaction to his Gettysburg Address. He encounters a dying and blind soldier who, not knowing he is addressing the President himself, tells Lincoln how inspiring the speech was.

Although an obscure figure today, Sale was a well-known popular culture figure during the 1930s, and was often the subject of jokes by comedians like Groucho Marx, usually in reference to The Specialist. Chic is also mentioned as an aside late in the Marx Brothers film, Animal Crackers, in a conversation between Ravelli (Chico Marx) and Captain Spaulding. For many years—even after his death—"Chic Sale" was used as a euphemism for an outhouse. He is known to have found this unflattering, calling it "a terrible thing to have happen".

Filmography

References

External links

 Page at the Outhouse Museum Wall of Fame
 Chic Sale and The Specialist
 Charles sale at Find A Grave

American male film actors
American male silent film actors
American male stage actors
People from Huron, South Dakota
People from Urbana, Illinois
Vaudeville performers
1885 births
1936 deaths
Male actors from South Dakota
Male actors from Illinois
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Deaths from pneumonia in California

Charles "Chic" Sale


was a samurai of the Abe clan during the Heian period of Japan. He was the son of Abe no Yoritoki, the head of the Abe clan of Emishi who were allowed to rule the six Emishi districts in the  from Morioka to Hiraizumi in what is now Iwate Prefecture. Abe no Yoritoki was the Chinjufu-shōgun (general in charge of overseeing the Ainu and the defense of the north). In the Zenkunen War, he fought, together with his brother Sadato, alongside his father against the Minamoto.

Abe no Munetō was based at the Isawa Stockade. He occupied the fort called the Tonomi Palisade (鳥海冊, tonomi-saku) that was established on the north side of the Isawa at an uncertain date. In 1061, during the Zenkunen War, Abe no Munetō defeated the Minamoto forces in the Battle of Tonomi Palisade.

Siblings
Abe no Sadato (1019–1062) who occupied the Kuriyagawa Stockade;
Abe no Masato who occupied the Kurosawa Stockade;
Abe no Norito who stayed at the Koromo Stockade with his father;
 a sister who married Taira no Nagahira;
 a sister who married Fujiwara no Tsunekiyo. Through her his father Yoritoki became the grandfather of Fujiwara no Kiyohira, the founder of the Northern Fujiwara dynasty.

External links
 Abe no Munetō biographical data

People from Iwate Prefecture
1108 deaths
Samurai
People of Heian-period Japan
1032 births

Abe no Munetō


O'Flaherty V.C., A Recruiting Pamphlet (1915) is a comic one-act play written during World War I by George Bernard Shaw. The plot is about an Irish soldier in the British army returning home after winning the Victoria Cross. The play was written at a time when the British government was promoting recruitment in Ireland, while many Irish republicans expressed opposition to fighting in the war.

Characters
 Dennis O'Flaherty, Irish soldier
 Teresa Driscoll, his girlfriend
 Mrs O'Flaherty, his mother
 General Sir Pearce Madigan, his commanding officer

Preface
In the preface Shaw argues that most soldiers do not enlist for patriotic reasons, but through a desire for adventure, or to get away from a restricted life. This is especially true of the Irish, since an Irishman's hopes and opportunities depend on "getting out of Ireland". He adds that recruitment was nevertheless at a low ebb in 1915, as it had been "badly bungled... The Irish were for the most part Roman Catholics and loyal Irishmen, which means that from the English point of view they were heretics and rebels." Shaw said that he gave his character a self-serving girlfriend and a harridan of a mother ("a Volumnia of the potato-patch") in order to emphasise the kind of poverty and poor quality of life from which poor youths fled to join up.

Plot
Dennis O'Flaherty, winner of the Victoria Cross for his outstanding bravery, has returned home to his local village to take part in a recruitment campaign. In conversation with General Pearce Madigan, the local squire, O'Flaherty admits that he had not told his Fenian mother that he would be fighting for the British side in the war, not against it. Madigan says he must explain to her why the war is being fought, and that even Republicans should help in the struggle against German oppression. O'Flaherty says he's no idea why the war is being fought, he just joined up to get away from home, but one thing he's become convinced of is that patriotism is part of the problem: "You'll never have a quiet world till you knock the patriotism out of the human race".

His mother appears, incensed to discover he's being fighting for the British. But she's even more horrified when Dennis' girlfriend, Teresa, arrives, expecting that the V.C. comes with a large payout in cash. She's dismayed to learn that the government may only give him a pension if he is wounded first. Still, she thinks it will be worth it, even if he does have to be badly wounded. Dennis says he's sick of life in provincial Ireland. Since he's experienced France, he never wants to come back. He hopes he can get a French wife. Teresa is outraged. When Mrs O'Flaherty discovers that her son gave Teresa a valuable gold watch, she launches into a tirade and the two women berate each other mercilessly. O'Flaherty says he can't wait to get back to the peace and quiet of the trenches. General Madigan sympathises, commenting, "Do you think that we should have got an army without conscription if domestic life had been as happy as people say it is?"

Context and productions

O'Flaherty's exploits in the war and role in recruiting drives are based on those of Irish Catholic Victoria Cross winner Michael John O'Leary. In February 1915 O'Leary had captured two German barricades, killing the gun crew of the first and capturing the second after running out of ammunition. O'Leary had been given a grand reception attended by thousands of Londoners in Hyde Park on 10 July 1915. Recruitment was a highly divisive subject in Ireland at the time. O'Leary was also greeted by cheering crowds in his home town of Macroom, but he was jeered by Ulster Volunteers at a recruitment drive in Ballaghaderrin during the autumn of 1915. This treatment caused such a scandal that it was raised in the Houses of Parliament in December. Like O'Flaherty's mother, O'Leary's father was a fervent Irish nationalist.

The play was intended for the Abbey Theatre in Dublin, which was suffering financially in the war, but the play's anti-war message led to a wartime ban on performance by the military authorities in Ireland. Shaw later wrote to Yeats that he was not sure that the play would work there anyway, and that St John Ervine, who was to have played the lead role, was not suited to the part. The first production was an amateur performance put on by officers of the Royal Flying Corps in Belgium. The first professional production was by the Incorporated Stage Society at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, 20 December 1920. It was paired with H. O. Meredith's Forerunners. On 20 November (what year? can't be 1920) Shaw himself gave a radio broadcast version of the play.

Critical views
Beatrice Webb wrote in her diary that "O'Flaherty V.C. is a brilliant but serious piece of work—a jewel of a one-act play."  Stephen Murray in English War Plays of the First World War, says that "Shaw tackles the issues of the war in a juxtaposition of serious and inconsequential subject-matter and tones which in many ways do take away from the important points he wishes to disclose. These fragment the unity of theme and mood." Shaw's friend Archibald Henderson says that "The Irish peasants are portrayed as hopelessly insular and sadly benighted. Their prejudice against the British is bitter and incorrigible." Bernard Dukore notes that the play "vividly contrasts as background the poverty of the lower-class Irish with the prosperity of the landed Anglo-Irish ascendancy. Because O'Flaherty's mother nursed the son of Sir Pearce, she had to bring up her own daughter on the bottle. When Sir Pearce mentions a citizen's obligation to king and country, O'Flaherty comments, 'Well, sir, to you that have an estate in it, it would feel like your country. But the devil a perch of it ever I owned.'"

References

External links

Text at Project Gutenberg
'The Censorship of "O'Flaherty V.C."', SHAW: the Journal of Bernard Shaw Studies

1915 plays
Plays by George Bernard Shaw
Plays about World War I
Plays set in Ireland
Censorship in the arts
Anti-war plays
Theatre controversies

O'Flaherty V.C.


A fun run is a friendly race that involves either road running or cross country running with participants taking part for their own enjoyment rather than competition. A fun run will usually be held to raise funds for a charity, with sponsors providing the revenue to cover organisational costs. Fun runs can include novelty categories, such as wearing costumes, and age categories for child, teen, adult and senior. Fun runs can also be included as a side event to a marathon or other more serious races. Motorcycle, snowmobile, and other motorized vehicle events are also sometimes categorized as "fun runs".

One of the biggest annual fun runs in Europe is "la Cursa El Corte Inglés" in Barcelona with about 55,000 participants.

References

Leisure activities
Running events

Fun run


A digital pen is an input device which captures the handwriting or brush strokes of a user and converts handwritten analog information created using "pen and paper" into digital data, enabling the data to be utilized in various applications. This type of pen is usually used in conjunction with a digital notebook, although the data can also be used for different applications or simply as a graphic.

Smart pen is a more specific term; it has the same basic characteristics, but also has other features like voice recording or a text scanner. A smart pen is generally larger and has more features than an active pen. Digital pens typically contain internal electronics and have features such as touch sensitivity, input buttons, memory for storing handwriting data and transmission capabilities.

Characteristics

The input device captures the handwriting data, that, once digitized, can be uploaded to a computer and displayed on its monitor.

Some pens are equipped with a digital recording device that allows users to use them as intelligent dictation machines. They can be used, for example for students to record the voice of the teacher while taking

Technology groups

Accelerometer
Accelerometer-based digital pens contain components that detect movement of the pen and contact with the writing surface.

Active
Active pens, such as N-trig's DuoSense Pen, include electronic components whose signals are picked up by a mobile device's built-in digitizer and transmitted to its controller, providing data on pen location, pressure, button presses and other functionality.

Positional
Position-based digital pens use a facility to detect the location of the tip during writing. Some models can be found on graphics tablets made popular by Wacom, and on tablet computers using Wacom's Penabled technology.

Camera
Camera-based pens use special digital paper to detect where the stylus contacts the writing surface, such as those using NeoLAB or/and Anoto technology.

Trackball pen
Trackball pens use a sensor that is located on the pen to detect the motion of the trackball.

See also
Active pen
Apple Pencil
Digital paper
Bluetooth
Light pen
List of pen types, brands and companies
Live Ink Character Recognition Solution
Pen computing
Surface Pen
Stylus (computing)
USB
Voice recorder

References

Computer peripherals
Computing input devices
Writing implements
Pens

Digital pen


"Budugu" is a fictional character created by Mullapudi Venkata Ramana of Andhra Pradesh in India. "Budugu" was the childhood nickname of Ramana. His sister was called "Budigi".

Budugu is a precocious and bratty child, characterized by his inimitably childish Telugu. Mullapudi describes the world as seen through his eyes with humor. Budugu has an opinion about everything. He talks about culture, raising children, politicians and the 13th table. His lifetime ambition is to become a tange-wala(टंगे वाला ) (horse cart driver) or a train driver.

Budugu's immediate family include his parents Radha and Gopalam, his grandmother Bamma, and his unmarried uncle Baabai. His neighbors include Laavupaati Pakkinti Pinnigaru and her husband and Budugu's child love C Gaana Pasoonamba.

Budugu – Chichula Pidugu is the name of the serial (published by Andhra Pathrika) in which Mullapudi introduces Budugu. The work is autobiographical in nature, where the author describes his childhood thoughts and happenings. The rest is all in the spirit of imagination. This collection later appeared in two volumes.

The drawings of Budugu are by Bapu, a maker of Telugu films. Bapu focuses on capturing the characters' expressions.

Budugu is a pet name for the child and was later used for a whole generation of children in Andhra Pradesh.

Characters

Family members
 Father (Gopalam)
 Mother (Radha)
 Grandmother (Baamma): She calls him "Haari Piduga". She backs and protects Budugu.
 Uncle (Baabai)

Other characters
 Rendu Jadalla Seeta (Seeta with two plaits)
 Pakkinti Lavupati Pinnigaru (Neighboring fat lady who often comes to Budugu's house)
 Tutor (Budugu doesn't like him and other tutors in general)
 Sii Gaana Pesunaamba (Budugu has a crush on her, who is a year younger and always teases him)

References

External links
 Budugu

Fictional Indian people in literature
Male characters in literature
Child characters in literature
Characters in British novels

Budugu


Westward Whoa is a 1936 animated short film in the Looney Tunes series. It marks the final appearances of spotted St. Bernard puppies Ham and Ex, Beans and Little Kitty. It is also the last cartoon where Porky Pig is the co-star to Beans. The film is a Western adaptation of the ancient fable "The Boy Who Cried Wolf."

The film is in the public domain after Warner Bros. failed to renew the copyright in 1964.

Plot
Beans and his companions are travelling and exploring in a wagon train. At the front, Beans plays an accordion, and Little Kitty strums a banjo. The two also sing while the rest harmonize. Soon the travellers set up camp in the woods and enjoy their night.

Ham and Ex sneak out to explore a bit, but then they notice some feathers around a boulder and raise an alarm of Native Americans. When Beans shoots at the feathers it is revealed to be a turkey. Ham and Ex of course knew that and Beans warns them not to create any more false alarms.

Just to spice up their little adventure and to entertain themselves, Ham and Ex perform the Indian charge call. This raises another alarm, so Ham and Ex hide in the woods and stumble into an actual Native. The Native gives chase, but the pups escape and head back to camp to warn everyone. No one believes and this is another of their pranks. Ham and Ex then hide themselves in a chest. Shortly the whole Native tribe arrives, alerting the camp. The explorers manage to counter the invasion, while Ham and Ex get nabbed by one of the Natives. Beans rescues them by tossing a foothold trap at their captive. As the pups watch Beans he plays a little prank on them with a holler call, scaring them into chest.

References

External links

1936 short films
1936 animated films
1930s American animated films
1930s Western (genre) comedy films
American black-and-white films
Western (genre) animated films
Films scored by Norman Spencer (composer)
Animated films about Native Americans
Films directed by Jack King
Looney Tunes shorts
American Western (genre) comedy films
Beans the Cat films
Porky Pig films
Animated films about dogs
1936 comedy films
1930s English-language films

Westward Whoa


Ant-Man is a superhero. He was first made by Hank Pym, a genius who had many scientific advances. He was the person who brought Ant-Man to Marvel, but the creator was still Stan Lee and his companions. Later on the suit was stolen by Scott Lang, who soon became the new Ant-Man in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).

Ability
His power comes from his suit and tools of high tech tool. Hank Pym study's about subatomic particles which he call the Pym Particles. These particles are inside unknown gas which where his power comes from, when he is going to turn into different size. The unknown gas that Pym study from the micro particles makes his body shrink when he inhales or drinks a potion of the Pym Particles.

Even though he is a small size, he still has human strength. As an ant, he has the ability to carry a heavy weight. Like an ant he can carry up to 50,000 pound.

Weakness
Ant-Man's different size can cause stress to his body and his mind.

Weapon
The Stinger a small and very powerful stun beam. It shoots a beam creating explosion.

Villains (comic & movie)
Like all superheroes, Ant-Man also has a huge amount of villains to fight.

The earliest criminals Ant-Man had in Marvel Comics are: Egghead, Scarlet Beetle, The Hijacker, The Voice, The Porcupine, The Living Eraser, The Human Top, The Black Knight, El Toro, Nikita Khrushchev.

Partner
The Avengers, The Wasp

Reference

Avengers (comics) characters

Ant-Man


The Spirit of '45 is a 2013 documentary film by British director Ken Loach, focused on and celebrating the radical changes in post-war Britain under the Labour government of Clement Attlee, which came to power in 1945. Relying primarily on archive footage and interviews, and without a narrative voiceover, the film recounts the endemic poverty in prewar Britain, the sense of optimism that followed victory in World War II and the subsequent expansion of the welfare state, founding of the National Health Service and nationalisation of significant parts of the UK's economy. The film documents the extent to which these achievements, as Loach sees them, have since been subject to attack in the decades that followed, particularly under the Conservative governments of Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. Loach said that the model for the film was "oral history, with pictures".

Reception
Time Out described it as consisting of a "compelling mix of interviews, both old and new", while noting that the theme of the film was as much about "the spirit of modern Britain" and implicit criticism of modern-day politicians, both Labour and Conservative. Reviewing the film for The Observer, Philip French described it as "skilfully compiled" but sentimental and simplistic rather than "the provocative polemic one might have expected". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian acknowledged that the film could be seen as "patrician-nostalgist" but said he was "swept along by the calm simplicity of its presentation". The review in The Daily Telegraph described it as a "stirring" film that was probably Loach's best since 2002.

References

External links

2013 films
2013 documentary films
British documentary films
Documentary films about British politics
Documentaries about historical events
Films scored by George Fenton
Films directed by Ken Loach
2010s English-language films
2010s British films

The Spirit of '45


Kmscon is a virtual console that runs in userspace which David Hermann created to replace the Linux console, a terminal built into the Linux kernel. Kmscon uses the KMS driver for its output, it is multiseat-capable, and supports internationalized keyboard input and UTF-8 terminal output. The input support is implemented using X keyboard extension (XKB). Development of Kmscon stopped in March 2015. There was a successor project called systemd-consoled, but this project was also later dropped in July 2015.

Features
Kmscon supports printing the full set of Unicode glyphs and is not limited by console encoding as the Linux console. While the only hard dependency is udev, kmscon can optionally be compiled to use Mesa for hardware acceleration of the console, and the pango library for improved font rendering.

The adoption of XKB for input allows kmscon to accept the full range of available keyboard layouts for the X.Org Server and Wayland compositors for input and makes it possible to use the same layout both in graphical environment and in terminal.

Multiseat support

The VT system in the Linux kernel dates to 1993 and does not implement out-of-the-box multiseat support. It supports up to 63 VTs, but only one VT can be active at any given time. This necessitates additional steps to configure multiseat support. kmscon/systemd-consoled will enable multiseat out-of-the-box.

If one seat's display server is running on VT 7 and another seat's display server is running on VT 8, then only one of these two seats can be used at a time. To use the other seat, a VT switch must be initiated.

To make all seats usable at the same time, there are a few options:
 Associate all display servers with the same VT: any user can switch VTs and in that case all users switch to the new VT. This makes VT switching (and thus fast user switching) impractical. X.Org Server command-line option -sharevts
 Don't associate any display server with a VT: fast user switching is impossible in this case. Text-based console logins are only possible if an input and display device are reserved for this purpose.
 Associate only one of the display servers with a VT: the other display servers can't do VT switching, but the display server associated with a VT can. VT switching on that one seat won't affect the other seats. This is the approach favored and assumed by systemd. command-line option vt7 for user 1 and -novtswitch for all other users.

Development
In 2011, Jesse Barnes wrote in his blog about the possible userspace DRM-based implementation of the virtual terminal, that would dissolve the need for the Linux framebuffer and virtual terminal (VT) subsystems in the Linux kernel. Motivated by this blog post, David Herrmann implemented the basic functionality of virtual terminal.

In October 2013, terminal emulator state machine () library, a state machine for DEC VT100–VT520 compatible terminal emulators, was split out of kmscon and made available separately. It was amended with wlterm, an example Wayland terminal emulator.

See also

 List of terminal emulators

References

Free system software
Freedesktop.org
Linux kernel-related software
Software using the ISC license
Technical communication tools
Terminal emulators
Wayland (display server protocol)

Kmscon


Cyclooctene is the cycloalkene with a formula .  Its molecule has a ring of 8 carbon atoms, connected by seven single bonds and one double bond.

Cyclooctene is notable because it is the smallest cycloalkene that can exist stably as either the cis or trans stereoisomer, with cis-cyclooctene being the most common.  Theoretical analysis implies a total of 16 conformational and configurational isomers, all chiral, forming 8 enantiomeric pairs.  The cis isomer can adopt various conformations, the most stable one being shaped like a ribbon. The most stable conformation of trans-cyclooctene is shaped like the 8-carbon equivalent of the chair conformation of cyclohexane.

Longer cycloalkene rings such as the ten-carbon cyclodecene also occur as cis and trans isomers.

References

External links

Cycloalkenes
Eight-membered rings

Cyclooctene


Hailemariam Desalegn Boshe (; born 19 July 1965) is an Ethiopian politician who served as prime minister of Ethiopia from 2012 to 2018. He also previously served as deputy prime minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs under Prime Minister Meles Zenawi from 2010 to 2012. After Meles' death in August 2012, Hailemariam succeeded him as prime minister, initially in an acting capacity. He was then elected as the chair of the EPRDF, the ruling party, on 15 September 2012. Hailemariam also served as the chairperson of the African Union from 2013 to 2014.

He submitted his resignation as prime minister and chair of the EPRDF on 15 February 2018 in response to the fallout from mass protests and unrest in 2016. His resignation was accepted on 11 March 2018, but he stayed in office as head of the caretaker government until 2 April 2018. Hailemariam is the first ruler in modern Ethiopian history to step down; previous leaders have died in office or been overthrown. He said he wanted to clear the way for reforms.

Background

Early life
Hailemariam was born in 1965 in the Boloso Sore District Hombba of the Wolayita Zone in southern Ethiopia. Hailemariam is from Wolayta ethnic group of Ethiopia, the first largest in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR). His family belongs to the Apostolic Church of Ethiopia, a Oneness Pentecostal denomination that is not part of mainstream Trinitarian Ethiopian Protestant Christianity (Pentay). Married to Roman Tesfaye, he is well known to be both a religious and family man.

Education
In 1988, Hailemariam received a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from Addis Ababa University. He subsequently worked as a graduate assistant in the Arba Minch Water Technology Institute (now Arba Minch University). After two years of working in this capacity, he won a scholarship to Tampere University of Technology in Finland, where he earned a master's degree in sanitation engineering. Upon his return to Ethiopia, he served in different academic and administrative capacities, including the dean of the Water Technology Institute, for 13 years. In between, he also earned an MA in Organizational Leadership at Azusa Pacific University, California, US.

Political career

Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, he became seriously involved in politics as a member of the EPRDF (Ethiopia's ruling party) and became the deputy president of the SNNPR. He replaced Abate Kisho who was removed from power on corruption charges, but it is believed that Abate was demoted for supporting the anti-Meles Zenawi faction when the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (the core of the EPRDF) split in 2000. Another widely accepted belief about Abate was that he was less educated and exercised poor leadership while he was in power.

President of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region
Hailemariam was President of the SNNPR from November 2001 to March 2006 and was promoted to Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs in October 2010. He has been Deputy Chairman of EPRDF, Chairman of SEPDM, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He has served as Vice President of the SNNPR (2000–2002); President of the SNNPR (2002–2005); Member of the House of People's Representatives (2005–present); Social Affairs Special Advisor to the PM, then Public Mobilization & Participation Special Advisor to the Prime Minister (2005–2008); Government Chief Whip, with a Ministerial portfolio (2008–2010). Party Posts: Member of the Executive Committee of the EPRDF and the SEPDM (2000–present); Chairman of the SEPDM (2002–present); Deputy Chairman of the EPRDF (since Sept 2010).

After his tenure as President of the SNNPR, Hailemariam worked in the Prime Minister's Office as the advisor on Social Affairs and Civic Organizations and Partnerships for two years. He led the team that drafted the Charities and Societies Proclamation law (CSO law) that limits the interference of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in local political activities. The law was adopted by the Ethiopian Parliament in 2009. He is also credited with pushing EPRDF to re-organize its structure after the contentious 2005 elections via the '1-to-5' model (one member recruits five new people - አንድ ለአምስት አደረጃጀት) that boosted the number of party members from 400,000 to five million by the 2010 elections. In 2010, Hailemariam was sworn into dual ministerial positions as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Prime Minister of Ethiopia

Appointment

Following the death of Ethiopia's longtime Prime Minister Meles Zenawi on 20 August 2012, Deputy Prime Minister Hailemariam was appointed as the acting Premier. Hailemariam became the permanent Prime Minister on 21 September 2012.

European Parliament President Martin Schulz, after meeting with Hailemariam, said that his desire "to strengthen democracy in the country, allowing for greater pluralism and a freer civil society, to uphold the freedoms enshrined in the Ethiopian Constitution" was clear.

Ethiopia-Somalia cooperative agreements
In February 2014, Hailemariam met in Addis Ababa with a visiting delegation from Somalia led by Somali Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed to discuss strengthening bilateral relations between the two countries. Hailemariam pledged his administration's continued support for the peace and stabilization efforts in Somalia, as well as its preparedness to assist in initiatives aiming to build up the Somali security forces through experience-sharing and training. He also suggested that Ethiopia and Somalia should increase bilateral trade and investment. Additionally, Hailemariam described the growing ties between both nations as a break from the counter-productive policies of past administrations, marking instead of the opening of a new chapter where mutual stability is beneficial. For his part, Ahmed commended Ethiopia's role in the ongoing peace and stabilization process in Somalia as well as its support against the Al-Shabaab militant group. He likewise welcomed the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM. The meeting concluded with a tripartite Memorandum of Understanding agreeing to promote partnership and cooperation, including a cooperative agreement to develop the police force, a second cooperative agreement covering the information field, and a third cooperative agreement on the aviation sector.

Economic policy

Hailemariam Desalegn sustained economic progress in Ethiopia after the sudden death of his predecessor in 2012. He played role to complete the implementation of the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I) and to start with GTP II. Between 2012 and 2018, major projects like Hawassa and Mekelle industrial park, Addis Ababa Light Rail, Gilgel Gibe III Dam, the new Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway, as well as Bahir Dar Stadium and other stadiums in Mekelle and Hawassa are completed. Hailemariam is accredited for the country's continued rapid and double-digit economic growth, and
Hailemariam led Ethiopia to partner Kenya in the ambitious US$24.5bn Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) Corridor – which includes a railway, highways, and an oil pipeline – which will provide his landlocked country and South Sudan with a new export pathway and reduce Kenya's dependence on the heavily congested port of Mombasa. Moreover, Hailemariam has partnered Ethiopia with Djibouti to sign an agreement for a $1.55 billion fuel pipeline with developers Mining, Oil & Gas Services and Blackstone Group LP-backed Black Rhino Group. Both countries which are in the Horn of Africa signed framework agreements in September 2015 for construction of the 550-kilometer (340-mile) line to transport diesel, gasoline and jet fuel from port access in Djibouti to central Ethiopia. The joint project construction is scheduled for completion in two years.

Hailemariam continued with the ambitious projects like the Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which was launched by his predecessor, Meles Zenawi. Financially, Hailemariam's government welcomed its first sovereign credit ratings from global agencies in 2014 – a B1 from Moody's and B ratings from both Fitch and Standard & Poor's, which opened the door to international capital markets and foreign direct investment. However, the foreign investment capital comes from China, which has committed hundreds of millions of dollars in loans and grants to assist the government-owned corporations' ambitious initiatives, as well as other capital intensive projects like roads, bridges and railways.

Resignation

On 14 February 2018, Hailemariam Desalegn announced his resignation as prime minister and chairman of EPRDF in a televised address and submitted letter to the SEPDM and EPRDF, who finally accept the letter. His resignation made him the first leader to do so in the country's recent history. He stated that the resignation is "vital in the bid to carry out reforms that would lead to sustainable peace and democracy", linked to the 2014–2016 unrest in Oromia Region, in which hundreds were killed by government crackdown in Oromia and Amhara Region in between 2015 and 2016.

Hailemariam's announcement came amid a political crisis and lingering unrest in the Horn of Africa country, which had been releasing thousands of political prisoners to ease tensions.

"Unrest and a political crisis have led to the loss of lives and displacement of many," he added, however, that he would stay on as prime minister in a caretaker capacity, until the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) and the country's parliament accepted his resignation and elected Abiy Ahmed as the new Prime Minister on 2 April.

Board membership
Hailemariam is a member of the board of numerous international organizations such as International Crisis Group, Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa, Tana High Level Forum on Security in Africa, Brenthurst Foundation, IBA Ethiopia Center for Innovation, and the Ethiopian Reconciliation Commission.
Prime Minister of Ethiopia (2012–18); Chair, Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (2012–18); Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs (2010–12); Advisor to Prime Minister with the rank of Minister (2007-2010); Chair, African Union (2013–14); University lecturer and Dean, Arba Minch University for 12 years; Vice President and President of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples' Regional State (2001–06).  Currently: Board Chair, Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa; Founder and Board Chair, Hailemariam and Roman Foundation; Board Chair, Tourism Ethiopia; Board of Trustees, International Crisis Group; Advisory Board Member, The Brenthurst Foundation; Member of Parliament for 21 years; Member of different professional Associations.

See also
List of heads of government of Ethiopia
2016 Ethiopian protests

References

External links

"A New Leader in Office", Ethiopia News interview with Hailemariam Desalegn, published 9 November 2010

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Wolayita
1965 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of Ethiopia
Deputy Prime Ministers of Ethiopia
Foreign ministers of Ethiopia
Presidents of Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region
Addis Ababa University alumni
Azusa Pacific University alumni
Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front politicians
Ethiopian Pentecostals
Oneness Pentecostals
People from Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region
Southern Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement politicians
People from Wolayita Zone
21st-century Ethiopian politicians

Hailemariam Desalegn


Theodor Anton Blank (19 September 1905 – 14 May 1972) was a German politician of the CDU. He was one of the founders of the CDU in 1945.

Blank was born in Elz an der Lahn. He was the third of ten children of a carpenter. His family was Roman Catholic. Blank received an apprenticeship as a carpenter. In 1930–33 he worked as a secretary at the Association of Christian transport- and factory employees of the northern and northwestern Ruhr Area. After he was dismissed in 1933 Blank passed his Abitur in 1936 and studied mathematics at the University of Münster and engineering sciences at Leibniz University Hannover. In 1939 he was conscripted to the Wehrmacht and became a first lieutenant at the end of World War II.

From 1949 to 1972 he was a member of the German Bundestag, in which he served from 1965 to 1969 as deputy chief of CDU/CSU-Bundestagsfraktion.

From 1950 to 1955 he served as Special Representative of the Chancellor, leading the "Amt Blank" (Blank Agency), officially responsible for affairs relating to the Allied occupying troops, but in reality mainly charged by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer with covertly preparing the re-establishment of the German armed forces. In 1954, opponents of the rearmament prevented him from speaking to public assemblies by yelling and shouting, and lightly wounded him in one instance. After the rearmament was official, he served as the first postwar Defence Minister of Germany from 1955 to 1956 and as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs from 1957 to 1965.

Blank died in Bonn.

References

1905 births
1972 deaths
Defence ministers of Germany
Labor ministers (Germany)
Social Affairs ministers of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for North Rhine-Westphalia
Members of the Bundestag 1969–1972
Members of the Bundestag 1965–1969
Members of the Bundestag 1961–1965
Members of the Bundestag 1957–1961
Members of the Bundestag 1953–1957
Members of the Bundestag 1949–1953
Politicians from Hesse-Nassau
German military personnel of World War II
University of Münster alumni
University of Hanover alumni
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany

Theodor Blank


The following is a list of marine ecoregions, as defined by the WWF and The Nature Conservancy

The WWF/Nature Conservancy scheme groups the individual ecoregions into 12 marine realms, which represent the broad latitudinal divisions of polar, temperate, and tropical seas, with subdivisions based on ocean basins. The marine realms are subdivided into 62 marine provinces, which include one or more of the 232 marine ecoregions.

The WWF/Nature Conservancy scheme currently encompasses only coastal and continental shelf areas.

Arctic realm
(no provinces identified)
North Greenland
North and East Iceland
East Greenland Shelf
West Greenland Shelf
Northern Grand Banks-Southern Labrador
Northern Labrador
Baffin Bay-Davis Strait
Hudson Complex
Lancaster Sound
High Arctic Archipelago
Beaufort-Admunsen-Viscount Melville-Queen Maud
Beaufort Sea-continental coast and shelf
Chukchi Sea
Eastern Bering Sea
East Siberian Sea
Laptev Sea
Kara Sea
North and East Barents Sea
White Sea

Temperate Northern Atlantic

Northern European Seas
South and West Iceland
Faroe Plateau
Southern Norway
Northern Norway and Finnmark
Baltic Sea
North Sea
Celtic Seas

Lusitanian
South European Atlantic Shelf
Saharan Upwelling
Azores Canaries Madeira

Mediterranean Sea
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Levantine Sea
Tunisian Plateau/Gulf of Sidra
Ionian Sea
Western Mediterranean
Alboran Sea

Black Sea
Black Sea

Cold Temperate Northwest Atlantic
Gulf of St. Lawrence-Eastern Scotian Shelf
Southern Grand Banks-South Newfoundland
Scotian Shelf
Gulf of Maine-Bay of Fundy
Virginian

Warm Temperate Northwest Atlantic
 Carolinian
 Northern Gulf of Mexico

Temperate Northern Pacific

Cold Temperate Northwest Pacific
Sea of Okhotsk
Kamchatka Shelf and Coast
Oyashio Current
Northern Honshu
Sea of Japan
Yellow Sea

Warm Temperate Northwest Pacific
Central Kuroshio Current
East China Sea

Cold Temperate Northeast Pacific
Aleutian Islands
Gulf of Alaska
North American Pacific Fjordland
Puget Trough/Georgia Basin
Oregon, Washington, Vancouver Coast and Shelf
Northern California

Warm Temperate Northeast Pacific
 Southern California Bight
 Cortezian
 Magdalena Transition

Tropical Atlantic

Tropical Northwestern Atlantic
 Bermuda
 Bahamian
 Eastern Caribbean
 Greater Antilles
 Southern Caribbean
 Southwestern Caribbean
 Western Caribbean
 Southern Gulf of Mexico
 Floridian

North Brazil Shelf
 Guianian
 Amazonia

Tropical Southwestern Atlantic
 Sao Pedro and Sao Paulo Islands
 Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas
 Northeastern Brazil
 Eastern Brazil
 Trindade and Martin Vaz Islands

St. Helena and Ascension Islands
 St. Helena and Ascension Islands

West African Transition
 Cape Verde
 Sahelian Upwelling

Gulf of Guinea
 Gulf of Guinea West
 Gulf of Guinea Upwelling
 Gulf of Guinea Central
 Gulf of Guinea Islands
 Gulf of Guinea South
 Angolan

Western Indo-Pacific

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
 Northern and Central Red Sea
 Southern Red Sea
 Gulf of Aden

Somali/Arabian
Persian Gulf
Gulf of Oman
Western Arabian Sea
Central Somali Coast

Western Indian Ocean
 Northern Monsoon Current Coast
 East African Coral Coast
 Seychelles
 Cargados Carajos
 Tromelin Island
 Mascarene Islands
 Southeast Madagascar
 Western and Northern Madagascar
 Bight of Sofala/Swamp Coast
 Delagoa

West and South Indian Shelf
 Western India
 South India and Sri Lanka

Central Indian Ocean Islands
 Maldives
 Chagos

Bay of Bengal
 Eastern India
 Northern Bay of Bengal

Andaman Sea
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Andaman Sea Coral Coast
 Western Sumatra

Central Indo-Pacific

South China Sea
 Gulf of Tonkin
 Southern China
 South China Sea Oceanic Islands

Sunda Shelf
 Gulf of Thailand
 Southern Vietnam
 Sunda Shelf/Java Sea
 Malacca Strait

Java Transitional
Southern Java
Cocos-Keeling/Christmas Island

South Kuroshio
 South Kuroshio

Tropical Northwestern Pacific
 Ogasawara Islands
 Mariana Islands
 East Caroline Islands
 West Caroline Islands

Western Coral Triangle
 Palawan/North Borneo
 Eastern Philippines
 Sulawesi Sea/Makassar Strait
 Halmahera
 Papua
 Banda Sea
 Lesser Sunda
 Northeast Sulawesi

Eastern Coral Triangle
 Bismarck Sea
 Solomon Archipelago
 Solomon Sea
 Southeast Papua New Guinea

Sahul Shelf
 Gulf of Papua
 Arafura Sea
 Arnhem Coast to Gulf of Carpentaria
 Bonaparte Coast

Northeast Australian Shelf
 Torres Strait and Northern Great Barrier Reef
 Central and Southern Great Barrier Reef

Northwest Australian Shelf
 Exmouth to Broome
 Ningaloo

Tropical Southwestern Pacific
 Tonga Islands
 Fiji Islands
 Vanuatu
 New Caledonia
 Coral Sea

Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands
 Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands

Eastern Indo-Pacific

Hawaii
 Hawaii

Marshall, Gilbert, and Ellice Islands
 Marshall Islands
 Gilbert and Ellice Islands

Central Polynesia
 Line Islands
 Phoenix Islands/Tokelau/Northern Cook Islands
 Samoa Islands

Southeast Polynesia
 Tuamotus
 Rapa-Pitcairn
 Southern Cook/Austral Islands
 Society Islands

Marquesas
 Marquesas

Easter Island
 Easter Island

Tropical Eastern Pacific

Tropical East Pacific
 Revillagigedos
 Clipperton
 Mexican Tropical Pacific
 Chiapas-Nicaragua
 Nicoya
 Cocos Islands
 Panama Bight
 Guayaquil

Galapagos
 Northern Galapagos Islands
 Eastern Galapagos Islands
 Western Galapagos Islands

Temperate South America

Warm Temperate Southeastern Pacific
 Central Peru
 Humboldtian
 Central Chile
 Araucanian

Juan Fernandez and Desventuradas
 Juan Fernandez and Desventuradas

Warm Temperate Southwestern Atlantic
 Southeastern Brazil
 Rio Grande
 Rio de la Plata
 Uruguay-Buenos Aires Shelf

Magellanic
 North Patagonian Gulfs
 Patagonian Shelf
 Falkland Islands
 Channels and Fjords of Southern Chile
 Chiloense

Tristan-Gough
 Tristan-Gough

Temperate Southern Africa

Benguela
 Namib
 Namaqua

Agulhas
 Agulhas Bank
 Natal

Amsterdam-St Paul
 Amsterdam-Saint-Paul

Temperate Australasia

Northern New Zealand
 Kermadec Islands (195)
 Northeastern New Zealand (196)
 Three Kings-North Cape (197)

Southern New Zealand
 Chatham Island (198)
 Central New Zealand (199)
 South New Zealand (200)
 Snares Island (201)

East Central Australian Shelf
Tweed-Moreton (202)
Manning-Hawkesbury (203)

Southeast Australian Shelf
 Cape Howe (204)
 Bassian (205)
 Western Bassian (206)

Southwest Australian Shelf
 South Australian Gulfs (207)
 Great Australian Bight (208)
 Leeuwin (209)

Western Central Australian Shelf
 Shark Bay (210)
 Houtman (211)

Southern Ocean

Subantarctic Islands
 Macquarie Island
 Heard Island and McDonald Islands
 Kerguelen Islands
 Crozet Islands
 Prince Edward Islands
 Bouvet Island
 Peter the First Island

Scotia Sea
 South Sandwich Islands
 South Georgia
 South Orkney Islands
 South Shetland Islands
 Antarctic Peninsula

Continental High Antarctic
 East Antarctic Wilkes Land
 East Antarctic Enderby Land
 East Antarctic Dronning Maud Land
 Weddell Sea
 Amundsen/Bellingshausen Sea
 Ross Sea

Subantarctic New Zealand
 Bounty and Antipodes Islands
 Campbell Island
 Auckland Island

See also

 List of terrestrial ecoregions (WWF)

Notes

References
 Spalding, Mark D., Helen E. Fox, Gerald R. Allen, Nick Davidson et al. "Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas". Bioscience Vol. 57 No. 7, July/August 2007, pp. 573–583.

External links

 World Wildlife Fund—WWF:  Marine Ecoregions of the World (MEOW)
 Queries listing ecoregions  and provinces  from Wikidata

.List
.marine
marine
Aquatic ecology
Biological oceanography
ecoregions
marine

List of marine ecoregions


The United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law is a free online international law research and training tool. It was created and is maintained by the Codification Division of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs as a part of its mandate under the United Nations Programme of Assistance in the Teaching, Study, Dissemination and Wider Appreciation of International Law.

Background
The United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law was established in 2008 under the United Nations Programme of Assistance in the Teaching, Study, Dissemination and Wider Appreciation of International Law as a tool for promoting knowledge of international law.

Faculty
Over 240 international law experts from different regions, legal systems and sectors of the legal profession have recorded lectures for the Lecture Series, prepared introductory notes for the Historic Archives and contributed their scholarly writings to the Research Library.

Notable faculty members as of 1 July 2016:

 Abi-Saab, Georges
 Abraham, Ronny
 Al-Khasawneh, Awn S.
 Annan, Kofi A.
 Bassiouni, M. Cherif
 Bennouna, Mohamed
 Brilmayer, Lea
 Buergenthal, Thomas
 Cançado Trindade, Antônio Augusto
 Cassese, Antonio
 Caron, David
 Charlesworth, Hilary
 Corell, Hans
 Couvreur, Philippe
 Crane, David M.
 Crawford, James
 Donoghue, Joan E.
 Dugard, John
 Ferencz, Benjamin B.
 Gaillard, Emmanuel
 Gaja, Giorgio
 Goldstone, Richard
 Goodwin-Gill, Guy S.
 Greenwood, Christopher
 Heyns, Christof
 Higgins, Rosalyn
 Hossain, Kamal
 Jallow, Hassan Bubacar
 Kälin, Walter
 Keith, Kenneth
 Kingsbury, Benedict
 Klabbers, Jan
 Koh, Harold Hongju
 Koh, Tommy
 Laborde, Santiago Oñate
 Lacarte Muró, Julio
 Lamy, Pascal
 Lauterpacht, Elihu
 Mautner, Menachem
 Mayr-Harting, Thomas
 McDougal, Myres S.
 McWhinney, Edward
 Meron, Theodor
 Michel, Nicolas
 Momtaz, Djamchid
 Odio Benito, Elizabeth
 Owada, Hisashi
 Palmer, Geoffrey
 Paulsson, Jan
 Pellet, Alain
 Perera, Rohan A.
 Pocar, Fausto
 Rodley, Nigel
 Robinson, Patrick
 Rozakis, Christos
 Sarooshi, Dan
 Schabas, William A.
 Scharf, Michael
 Schwebel, Stephen M.
 Sepúlveda Amor, Bernardo
 Shaw, Malcolm
 Shi, Jiuyong
 Simma, Bruno
 Simpson, Gerry
 Song, Sang Hyun
 Tladi, Dire
 Tomka, Peter
 Tomuschat, Christian
 Tuerk, Helmut
 Urquhart, Brian
 van Boven, Theo
 van den Berg, Albert Jan
 van Zyl, Paul
 Vasciannie, Stephen C.
 Vincent, Robin
 Wedgwood, Ruth
 Wiessner, Siegfried
 Wilmshurst, Elizabeth
 Wolfrum, Rüdiger
 Wood, Michael
 Woolcott, Peter
 Xue, Hanqin
 Yusuf, Abdulqawi A.

Description and contents
The Audiovisual Library is divided into three sections: the Historic Archives, the Lecture Series and the Research Library. While the Library's main language is English, many lectures are in other languages (Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish) and all entries in the Historic Archives are translated into the six official languages of the United Nations.

Historic archives
The Historic Archives provides detailed information on the negotiation process and significance of major international legal instruments. Each entry is accompanied by an introductory note prepared by an internationally recognized legal expert, a summary of the instrument's procedural history that led to its adoption and a list of all relevant preparatory documents. In some cases, audiovisual materials, including film footage, audio recordings and photos, of the negotiations are also available. The Historic Archives covers the following overarching subject areas:

 Criminal Law
 Decolonization
 Diplomatic and Consular Relations
 Disarmament
 Education, Science and Culture
 Environmental law
 Health
 Human Rights
 International Economic Law
 International Humanitarian Law
 International Organizations
 Law of International Relations
 Law of Outer Space
 Law of the Sea
 Law of Treaties
 Peace and Security
 Refugees and Stateless Persons
 Succession of States

Lecture series
The Lecture series contains lectures recorded by members of the international legal community. Individuals who have participated in the Lecture Series include scholars, judges of international and regional judicial bodies, senior officials of international and regional organizations, and other international law practitioners. The themes covered by the Series are:

 Antarctica
 Arctic
 Arms Control and Disarmament
 Boundary Delimitation
 Courts and Tribunals
 Criminal Law and Procedure
 Cultural Heritage
 Development
 Diplomatic and Consular Relations
 Diplomatic Protection
 Disaster Prevention and Relief
 Environmental Law
 Health and Science
 Human Rights
 Human Security
 International Civil Aviation
 International Economic Law
 International Labour Law
 International Law
 International Migration Law
 International Organizations
 International Watercourses
 Law of Armed Conflict
 Law of Outer Space
 Law of the Sea
 Law of Treaties
 Peace and Security
 Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
 Regional Organizations
 Rule of Law, Democracy and Good Governance
 Specialized Agencies and Related Organizations
 States
 United Nations

Research Library
The Research Library consists of an extensive online catalog of international law materials. The Library provides links to online collections of treaties, jurisprudence of courts and tribunals, official publications and documents of the United Nations and related international organizations, scholarly writings and other research materials including international law journals and yearbooks, as well as other training materials.

References

External links
 United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
 United Nations Programme of Assistance in the Teaching, Study, Dissemination and Wider Appreciation of International Law
 Codification Division of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs
 United Nations International Law Fellowship Programme
 United Nations Regional Courses in International Law
 United Nations Legal Publications

United Nations documents
Law libraries
International law
Online archives
Lecture series


The Chunara are an ethnic group found in the state of Gujarat in India. A small number are also found in the port city of Karachi in Pakistan. There are now two communities of Chunara, one Hindu and the other Muslim.

Origin
The word chunara in Gujarati literally means someone who manufactures chuna (lime). According to their traditions, they were originally Rajputs who migrated from Rajasthan to Gujarat and joined the army of the Gaekwars of Baroda. After having a fall out with their employer, the Maratha ruler of Baroda, they took to manufacturing lime. A section of the Chunara then converted to Islam, and there are now distinct communities, one Hindu and the other Muslim.

References

Social groups of Gujarat
Muslim communities of Gujarat
Indian castes
Indian architectural history
Indian words and phrases

Chunara