Mary Katherine "Mary Kay" Fualaau ( Schmitz, formerly Letourneau; January 30, 1962July 6, 2020), was an American sex offender and teacher who pleaded guilty in 1997 to two counts of felony second-degree rape of a child. The child, Vili Fualaau, was 12 years old when sexual relations first occurred. He had been her sixth-grade student at an elementary school in Burien, Washington. While awaiting sentencing, she gave birth to Fualaau's daughter. With the state seeking a seven-and-a-half-year prison sentence, she reached a plea agreement calling for six months in jail, with three months suspended, and no contact with Fualaau for life, among other terms. The case received national attention.

Shortly after Letourneau had completed three months in jail, the police caught her in a car with Fualaau. A judge revoked her plea agreement and reinstated the prison sentence for the maximum allowed by law of seven and a half years. Eight months after returning to prison, she gave birth to Fualaau's second child, another daughter. She was imprisoned from 1998 to 2004. Letourneau and Fualaau were married in May 2005, and the marriage lasted 14 years until their separation in 2019.

Early life
Mary Katherine Schmitz was born in 1962 in Tustin, California, to Mary E. ( Suehr), a former chemist, and John G. Schmitz (1930–2001), a community college instructor and politician. She was known as Mary Kay to her family. Letourneau was the fourth of seven children, raised in a "strict Catholic household." When she was two years old, her father began a political career, and successfully ran as a Republican for a seat in the state legislature. He held positions as a California state senator and U.S. Congressman, winning a special election for an unexpired term in 1970, and the general election later that year. After a primary defeat in 1972, he changed parties and ran for president as an American Party candidate in the 1972 U.S. presidential election. In 1973, Letourneau's three-year-old brother drowned in the family pool at their home in the Spyglass Hill section of Corona del Mar, California, while she was playing with another brother in the shallow end.

Letourneau attended Cornelia Connelly High School, an all-girls' Catholic school in Anaheim, California, where she was a member of the cheerleading squad for Servite High School. She later attended Arizona State University.

In 1978, her father was re-elected as a Republican to the California State Senate. He intended to run for the U.S. Senate in 1982, but his political career was permanently damaged that year when it was revealed that he had fathered two children out of wedlock during an extramarital affair with a female former student at Santa Ana College, where he had taught political science. Her father's affair caused Letourneau's parents to separate, but they later reconciled.

Letourneau's brother, John P. Schmitz, was the deputy counsel to President George H. W. Bush. Her other brother, Joseph E. Schmitz, was Inspector General of the U.S. Department of Defense under President George W. Bush, as well as a senior executive with Academi, and was a foreign policy adviser to President Donald Trump.

First marriage
While attending Arizona State University, Mary Schmitz met and married fellow student Steve Letourneau, and she conceived the first of four children with him. She later said that she was not in love with Steve, but married him after being urged to do so by her parents. The couple moved to Anchorage, Alaska, where Steve found work as a baggage handler for Alaska Airlines. After a year in Alaska, her husband was transferred to Seattle, Washington, and Mary gave birth to their second child. She graduated from Seattle University in 1989 with a teaching degree. She began teaching second grade at Shorewood Elementary School in the Seattle suburb of Burien.

The Letourneaus' marriage suffered; they had financial problems, and both parties engaged in extramarital affairs. Her attorney and former neighbor, David Gehrke, said that she was "emotionally and physically abused by her husband" during their marriage, and twice "went to the hospital for treatment, and police were called", although no charges were ever filed. While she was imprisoned in May 1999, they divorced, and he gained custody of their four children. In 2010, the Letourneaus became grandparents when their oldest son had a daughter.

Crime, arrest and sentencing
Vili Fualaau (; born June 26, 1983) was Letourneau's student in both his second-grade and sixth-grade classes at Shorewood Elementary. Fualaau is of Samoan descent. When Letourneau was 34, in the summer of 1996, her relationship with the 12-year-old Fualaau turned from platonic to sexual. On June 18, 1996, police came upon her in a car with Fualaau in a marina parking lot. She was seen jumping into the front seat while Fualaau pretended to sleep in the back. She and Fualaau provided false names when asked for identification, and Fualaau lied about his age, saying that he was 18. Fualaau said that no touching had taken place. Letourneau said she and her husband had gotten into an argument, and that Fualaau, who she said was a family friend who had been staying with them that night, witnessed the argument and ran away upset. She said she left to find him. Letourneau and Fualaau were taken to the police station, where Fualaau's mother was called. The mother was asked what should be done.  She said to return Fualaau to Letourneau. She later said that if the police had alerted her to the fact that Letourneau had lied about Fualaau's age and what had occurred in the car, she would not have allowed her son to go back to Letourneau. Letourneau was arrested on March 4, 1997, after a relative of her husband contacted the police.

Letourneau pleaded guilty to two counts of second-degree child rape. Her first child with Fualaau, a daughter, was born on May 29, 1997, while she was awaiting sentencing. The state sought to sentence her to six and a half years in prison. Through a plea agreement, her sentence was reduced to six months (three of which were suspended) in the county jail and three years of sex offender treatment. She was not required initially to register as a sex offender. As part of her plea agreement, Letourneau could not contact Fualaau or her five children or have contact with any other minors. She became the subject of an international tabloid scandal and experienced symptoms of degraded mental health according to acquaintances.

On February 3, 1998, two weeks after completing her jail sentence, Letourneau was found by police in a car with Fualaau near her home. Letourneau initially said she was alone in the car. She and Fualaau provided false names when asked for identification. Although it was reported that sexual intercourse had occurred in the car, Fualaau told a detective that he and Letourneau had kissed frequently and that he had touched Letourneau on the thigh, but that no sexual intercourse had occurred. There was evidence the two had met several times since Letourneau's release from jail on January 2. When she was arrested, police found $6,200 in cash, baby clothes, and her passport inside the car. Receipts for $850 in purchases made since January 20 for men's, young men's,  and infant clothing were also found. Letourneau said that the money was for dermatology treatments and for her divorce lawyer and that some of the men's clothing were gifts for relatives and for herself since she enjoyed wearing oversized men's clothing.

In February 1998, the judge revoked Letourneau's prior plea agreement and reinstated the prison sentence of seven and a half years for violating the no-contact order. In interviews and in a book on her involvement with Fualaau, Letourneau said she had sex with Fualaau in January. Police said they had seen no evidence that sex had occurred in the car in February. Letourneau served her sentence in the Washington Corrections Center for Women.

While serving her second stint in jail, Letourneau gave birth to her second daughter by Fualaau on October 16, 1998. That year, Letourneau and Fualaau co-authored a book, which was published in France, called Only One Crime, Love (). In 1999, a second book appeared, published in the United States, but written with only minimal cooperation from her and none from Fualaau: If Loving You Is Wrong. During her imprisonment, Letourneau was allowed visits from her children but was denied permission to attend her father's funeral. While in prison, Letourneau tutored fellow inmates, created audio books for blind readers, participated in the prison choir and "rarely missed Mass." Because of her notoriety, Letourneau was unpopular with other inmates; she "sassed guards and balked at work" and, reportedly as punishment for this, spent "18 of her first 24 months" in solitary confinement. In one instance, Letourneau served six months in solitary when letters she tried to send to Fualaau were intercepted.

Fualaau dropped out of high school and his mother was granted custody of his two children. He struggled with suicidal depression and alcoholism, attempting suicide in March 1999. In 2002, Fualaau's family sued the Highline School District and the city of Des Moines, Washington, for emotional suffering, lost wages, and the costs of rearing his two children, claiming the school and the Des Moines Police Department had failed to protect him from Letourneau. Following a ten-week trial, no damages were awarded. Attorney Anne Bremner represented the Des Moines Police Department. Her counterpart Michael Patterson represented the Highline School District.

Release from prison and marriage to Fualaau
Letourneau was released from prison to a community placement program on August 4, 2004, and registered the following day with the King County Sheriff's Office as a lifetime level 2 (medium risk) sex offender.

Following Letourneau's release, Fualaau, then age 21, persuaded the court to reverse the no-contact order against her. Letourneau and Fualaau married on May 20, 2005, in the city of Woodinville, Washington, in a ceremony at the Columbia Winery. Exclusive access to the wedding was given to the television show Entertainment Tonight, and photographs were released through other media outlets. Letourneau said she planned to have another child and return to the teaching profession; she indicated that by law she was permitted to teach at private schools and community colleges.

Attorney Anne Bremner, who met and befriended Letourneau in 2002 during Fualaau's civil suit, said that Letourneau considered her relationship with Fualaau to be "eternal and endless". According to Bremner, "Nothing could have kept the two of them apart." In a 2006 interview with NBC News, Letourneau "concede[d] she knew it would be wrong to let the relationship go any further, but she says as soon as the school year ended, she and Vili did cross that line." She said that "it did not cross her mind" at the time that having sex with Fualaau would be a crime. In a later interview, she stated, "If someone had told me, if anyone had told me, there is a specific law that says this is a crime, I did not know. I've said this over and over again. Had I'd known, if anyone knows my personality. Just the idea, this would count as a crime." The television series Barbara Walters Presents American Scandals covered the case in December 2015. Host Barbara Walters interviewed the couple about their relationship and their two daughters.

On May 9, 2017, after almost 12 years of marriage, Fualaau filed for separation from Letourneau, but he later withdrew the filing.

As of April 2018, Fualaau was working at a home improvement store and as a professional DJ and Letourneau was working as a legal assistant. An article in People quoted an insider source who said, "They know what everyone thinks about their relationship ... And they don't care. They really never have. The wrong stuff that happened was so long ago. They are two grown adults who are living their lives now."

The couple finalized a legal separation in August 2019. Earlier in the marriage, Vili Fualaau said he was not a victim, and was unashamed of the relationship.  According to People in May 2020, an unnamed source "close to Fualaau" said that, "He sees things clearly now, and realizes that this wasn't a healthy relationship from the start."

Death
Letourneau died July 6, 2020, at her home in Des Moines, Washington, from colorectal cancer. She was 58. Fualaau and her family were at her side despite their separation. In her will and testament, Letourneau left much of her estate to Fualaau.

In popular culture
The 2023 dark comedy-drama May December is loosely inspired by the story of Mary Kay Letourneau.

See also
 Hebephilia
 List of teachers who married their students
 Sexual harassment in education
 Female-male statutory rape
 Jennifer Fichter
 Debra Lafave
 Pamela Joan Rogers

References

Further reading

  (Request reprint).

External links

 Double Standard: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse
 Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of Existing Literature
 Mary Kay Letourneau: The Romance That Was A Crime

1962 births
2020 deaths
20th-century American criminals
American female criminals
American people convicted of child sexual abuse
American people of German descent
American people convicted of rape
Arizona State University alumni
Catholics from Washington (state)
Criminals from California
Deaths from cancer in Washington (state)
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Educators from Seattle
People convicted of statutory rape offenses
People from Burien, Washington
People from Tustin, California
Prisoners and detainees of Washington (state)
Schoolteachers from Washington (state)
Seattle University alumni
20th-century American women educators
21st-century American women
21st-century American criminals
20th-century American educators
Female rapists

Mary Kay Letourneau


Freeze Frame is the third album by Godley & Creme. The album was recorded at Nigel Gray's Surrey Sound Studios, Leatherhead, Surrey. The cover art, designed by Hipgnosis, identifies the duo as 'Godley Creme'.

Content

This album made use of a couple of technical innovations which gave it a unique sound. "I Pity Inanimate Objects" contained a distinctive vocal treatment in which the notes are seemingly obtained by altering the pitch of pre-recorded voices. In an interview for The Idler magazine in 2007, Kevin Godley explained how that song was realized:
Recently, I played I Pity Inanimate Objects from Freeze Frame and I remembered how and why we actually did that. The idea was driven by a new piece of equipment called a harmoniser. It's used in studios all the time these days as a corrective device to get performances in tune, but this early version came with a keyboard. You could put a sound through a harmoniser and if you wanted an instrument or voice to hit a certain note that it hadn't, you could play that note on the keyboard. So we got to thinking, 'Let's forget about singing for the moment. What happens if I vocalize these words in a monotone - do an entire song on one note - and get Lol to play my vocal on the harmoniser keyboard?' That was the experiment. It worked pretty well. Predated Cher's digital gurglings by a few years. I don't know where the lyric came from. Maybe because the harmoniser was inanimate.

In the same interview, Godley was asked whether he and Creme used the Brian Eno/Peter Schmidt 'Oblique Strategies' chance cards:
No, we used dope. (Laughter.) Dope Strategies. There's only one card and you use it as a roach. The way we recorded the Brazilia track on Freeze Frame harked back to first year art college techniques. There was this great teacher who, in order to free up your mind, would say, 'OK, I want you to blindfold yourself, and you to tie your right arm behind your back, you stand on one leg... Now paint!' In other words, he would create obstacles for you to overcome as you did what you usually did. Painting whilst blindfolded frees you because you don't know what you are doing. What we did with Brazilia was, after we made a simple rhythm track, each of us - including Phil Manzanera - would come in independently and record something we wanted to hear. I would go in one evening to tape my vocal bits and pieces, then Lol, and then Phil, with none of us hearing what the others had done. Then we played it all back to see what happened: 'AAAARGHH! WHAAAAT?' [...] The take that's on the album is it. Obviously with things that almost worked we had to slide 'em left or right a bit or clean out of sight. It's an interesting process, the element of chance.

Some tracks also used the Gizmo, a mechanical device invented by Godley, Creme, and John McConnell (professor of physics at the University of Manchester) to give a guitar a bowed effect like a violin. The device used keys which, when pressed, allowed rotating wheels to touch the guitar strings.

Track listing

All tracks composed by Kevin Godley and Lol Creme

 "An Englishman in New York" – 5:37
 "Random Brainwave" – 2:38
 "I Pity Inanimate Objects" – 5:24
 "Freeze Frame" – 4:47
 "Clues" – 5:24
 "Brazilia (Wish You Were Here)" – 6:11
 "Mugshots" – 3:55
"Get Well Soon" – 4:38
Note: The 1979 Polydor release of the album on vinyl, pressing no. 2442 166, contains the song "Silent Running" (4:01), appearing between tracks 3 and 4. This is listed neither on the record label, nor on the inner sleeve, nor on the cover.

Charts

Personnel
Credits sourced from the original album liner notes.

 Kevin Godley – lead (all but 7) and backing vocals (1, 2, 4, 7, 8), drums (2, 4-7), xylophone (1), drum machine (1), handclaps (1, 6), claves (5), percussion (2, 3, 6, 8)
 Lol Creme – lead (3, 6, 7), co-lead (1) and backing vocals (1, 2, 4, 5, 8), electric (all but 8) and acoustic guitars (2, 3, 6), bass guitar (all tracks), xylophone (5, 6), vibraphone (5), glockenspiel (5), Gizmo (2, 6, 8), piano (1, 2, 4, 6, 7), percussion (6, 8), snare drum (7), harmonica (6, 8), Moog synthesizer (3, 8), Fender Rhodes electric piano (4, 8), handclaps (1, 6)
 Phil Manzanera – electric (2, 5, 6) and acoustic guitars (2)
 Paul McCartney – backing vocals (8)
 Rico Rodriguez – trumpet and tuba (1)

References

Godley & Creme albums
1979 albums
New wave albums by English artists
Albums with cover art by Hipgnosis
Polydor Records albums

Freeze Frame (Godley & Creme album)


I Corps (; Chữ Hán: 軍團I) was a corps of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), the army of the nation state of South Vietnam that existed from 1955 to 1975. It was one of four corps of the ARVN. This was the northernmost region of South Vietnam, bordering North Vietnam at the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). These five provinces are Quảng Trị Province, (Khe Sanh, Đông Hà, Quảng Trị City), Thừa Thiên-Huế Province, (Phu Bai, Huế City), Quảng Nam Province, (Đà Nẵng, Hội An), Quảng Tín Province, (Tam Kỳ, Chu Lai) and Quảng Ngãi Province, (Quảng Ngãi).

I Corps became operational in November 1957.

Among its formations and units were the ARVN 1st Division. The I CTZ, later Military Region 1, was partnered with the U.S. III Marine Expeditionary Force and the XXIV Corps.

Lam Son 719
General Hoàng Xuân Lãm was given responsibility for the I Corps Tactical Zone in 1967. He coordinated the South Vietnamese Operation Lam Sơn 719 offensive which aimed at striking the North Vietnamese logistical corridor known as the Ho Chi Minh trail in southeastern Laos during 1971. Due to his political connections with President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, he was still serving as I Corps commander when the North Vietnamese launched the Easter Offensive in 1972. Lãm was recalled to Saigon on 2 May 1972 by Thiệu, who relieved him of his command, due to complaints regarding Lãm's fitness and competency as a general. He was succeeded as commander by Ngô Quang Trưởng former commander of the 1st Division and IV Corps.

The 20th Tank Regiment, the first tank regiment in the ARVN, was formed at Quảng Trị in 1971 equipped with the M48 Patton.

1975 Spring Offensive
Military Region 1's forces disintegrated during the 1975 Spring Offensive (the Hue–Da Nang Campaign). The situation for the South Vietnamese in Military Region 1 had regained some stability after the defeat of a three-division PAVN push during late 1974. By early the following year, Military Region 1 fielded three infantry divisions (the 1st, 2nd and 3rd), the elite Airborne and Marine Divisions, four Ranger Groups and the 1st Armored Brigade (established in 1969 to parent all the armored cavalry regiments in the MR). Until mid-March, the North Vietnamese had limited their offensive operations to attempts to cut Highway 1, the main north/south line of communication, between Huế and Da Nang and between Da Nang and Chu Lai. To confront the South Vietnamese, PAVN Brigadier General Lê Trọng Tấn had amassed a force of the crack 2nd, 304th, 324B, 325C and 711th Divisions and nine independent infantry regiments, three sapper regiments, three armored regiments, twelve anti-aircraft and eight artillery regiments.

At a meeting in Saigon on 13 March President Thiệu was briefed on the military situation by Trưởng and another corps commander. Thiệu then laid out his plan for national consolidation. As Trưởng understood it, he was free to redeploy his forces to hold the Da Nang area. Trưởng was shocked to discover, however, that the Airborne Division was to be removed to III Corps (unknown to Trưởng at the time, the Marine Division was also already earmarked for redeployment with both units then forming a new national reserve).

General Trưởng was recalled to Saigon on 19 March to brief Thiệu on his withdrawal plan. The general had developed two contingency plans: The first was predicated on government control of Highway 1, which would be utilized for two simultaneous withdrawals from Huế and Chu Lai to Da Nang; The second course presupposed PAVN interdiction of the highway and called for a withdrawal into three enclaves: Huế, Da Nang, and Chu Lai. This was to be only an interim measure, however, since the forces that withdrew to Huế and Chu Lai would then be sea-lifted to Da Nang by the navy. The president then stunned the general by announcing that he had misinterpreted his previous orders: The old imperial capital of Huế was not to be abandoned. Making matters worse, Trưởng discovered that his force was to be reduced by the removal of the Airborne Division.

Divisions

Notes

References
Dougan, Clark, David Fulghum, et al. The Fall of the South. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985.

Corps level formations of South Vietnam
Military units and formations established in the 1960s
Military units and formations disestablished in 1975

I Corps (South Vietnam)


Judge's Shield is a gamemaster's screen created by Judges Guild in 1977 for the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, the first such screen to be published.

Contents
Judge's Shield is a gamemaster's screen that was designed for use with TSR's new  role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons. It was designed to be placed between the gamemaster and the players in order to preserve the secrecy of the gamemaster's information as well as hiding any dice rolls made by the gamemaster. Judge's Shield was the first gamemaster's screen to be sold commercially.

Publication history
Judge's Shield was published by Judges Guild in 1977 as three cardstock sheets. The three pieces of 8.5" x 11" cardstock were designed to be taped together to form a three-panel screen, the two outer pieces in a vertical (portrait) orientation, and the middle piece in a horizontal (landscape) orientation. This design allowed the gamemaster to peer over the lower middle section more easily. The Judge's Shield had tables on both sides of the screen, with information relevant to the players on their side, and information for the gamemaster on the other side. Information included "Attack matrices with minus armor classes, saving throws, weapons' strikes & damages, weapon priority, phantasmal forces, encounters, experience points & levels, monster compendium of statistics." The Judge's Shield proved to be a popular item, and less than a year after it was introduced, it had become the second best-selling product for Judges Guild.

Judges Guild began its publication of original materials with a subscription format, and the Judges Shield (1977) was the first original item that they produced outside of their subscription system — following their reprints of the City State and Ready Ref.

In 1979, Judges Guild also produced a gamemaster screen for Game Designers' Workshop's science fiction role-playing game Traveller, and followed this with a version for RuneQuest in 1980.

Reception
 Don Turnbull reviewed The Judge's Shield for White Dwarf #3. Turnbull commented: "These panels contain virtually all the information needed for DM and players during a game, and moreover are much more durable than the Ready Ref Sheets. Unless you have made up your own, an essential for any serious DM."

Reviews
The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games

References

Gamemaster's screens
Judges Guild fantasy role-playing game supplements
Role-playing game supplements introduced in 1977

Judge's Shield


Itadaki Street: Gorgeous King is a Miscellaneous game, developed by Tomcat System and published by Enix Corporation, which was released in Japan in 1998.

Gameplay
The games are similar to Monopoly: players roll one die to advance around a board, purchase unowned property they land on and earn money when opponents land on the player's property, and draw cards when they land on certain spaces. The games' also differ from Monopoly in that players can buy and sell stocks of a block, affecting the value of block's stock by buying or selling that block's stock or by developing a player owned property of that block which increases the value per share of stock for that block.

It is not necessary to own the entire block to develop a property, though controlling more than one property of a block allows the player to develop their properties to larger buildings and collect more from opponents. Players must collect a set of four suits to level up and collect additional gold when the pass the starting position/bank. In most versions, up to four players can compete to win each board. To win a player must make it back to the bank with the board's required amount, which includes the total value of the player's stocks, property value, and gold on hand.

Development
After Enix bought the license of the Itadaki SS games for NES & SNES this one was the first (and the only) release of the saga for PlayStation.

Itadaki Street is a computer board game series originally created by Dragon Quest designer Yuji Horii. The first game was released in Japan on Nintendo's Famicom in 1991. Since then, sequels have been released for the Super Famicom and Sony's PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, and the Nintendo DS. They are all exclusive to Japan.

Description
Itadaki Street: Gorgeous King was released on the PlayStation in 1998. It was published by Enix. As of December 2004, the game has sold over 281,000 copies.

 Manufacturer's description:

Itadaki Street board game that we have been very popular home is a gorgeous! Leave traditional fun of a variety of upgrade points! Recorded a total of 22 maps, new modes "Parcheesi Town" also doubles the fun element! Maneuvering, cornering the market, make money! Dice 1 Ri Gare in one program!

 Features:

 Third person perspective.
 2D graphics
 Cartoon graphics
 Fantasy theme.

PlayStation games
PlayStation-only games
1998 video games
Party video games
Board games
Japan exclusive video games

Itadaki Street: Gorgeous King


Morris Asimow (November 27, 1906 – January 10, 1982) was an American educator.

Professor of Engineering Systems at the University of California in Los Angeles

Career and published work
He developed and taught the discipline of engineering design and published one of the early texts on the subject:

Introduction to Design (Prentice-Hall, 1962)

In this book, he was the initial author to discuss morphology in engineering design.
His methodology was connected directly to his creation of engineering philosophy.
His morphology then, was simple, he stated "design morphology proceeds from the abstract to the concrete". He then gave an early (1950s) rendition of complexity and socioeconomic systems which would make such a process very difficult, and defined the "operational discipline" of engineering as that of design.

Other books

 Torsional vibration in automobiles (1931)
 An investigation of the plastic flow processes involved in drawing (1934)
 Theory and principles of engineering design: Course 106B: (1961)
 Brazil Project: technical assistance for stimulating (1962)
 Brazil Project: technical assistance for stimulation  Volumen 2  (1962)
 Brazil project : feasibility studies & preliminary designs: a (1963)
 Modern systems and its application to large scale systems (1966)
 Tale of two planets  (1981)

See also
 Engineering design process

References

1906 births
1982 deaths
UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science faculty
American engineering writers

Morris Asimow


Laos has no established Jewish presence, but as this communist country gradually opens up to foreign tourism, Chabad has secured permission to establish a permanent presence in Luang Prabang in 2006, where the young Rabbi Avraham Leitner provides meals and shelter to Jewish travelers. In all, there are only four permanent Jewish residents in the country, who serve the Israeli backpackers, tourists, and diplomats visiting Laos.

History
Laos is notable for a lack of antisemitism. According to a 2014 report from the Anti-Defamation League, Laos is among the least antisemitic countries in the world.

References

Jews
Jews
Laos
Laos

History of the Jews in Laos


The Battle of Cambrai (Battle of Cambrai, 1917, First Battle of Cambrai and Schlacht von Cambrai) was a British attack in the First World War, followed by the biggest German counter-attack against the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) since 1914. The town of Cambrai, in the département of Nord, in France, was an important supply centre for the German  (known to the British as the Hindenburg Line) and capture of the town and the nearby Bourlon Ridge would threaten the rear of the German line to the north. Major General Henry Tudor, Commander, Royal Artillery (CRA), of the 9th (Scottish) Division, advocated the use of new artillery-infantry tactics on his sector of the front. During preparations, J. F. C. Fuller, a staff officer with the Tank Corps, looked for places to use tanks for raids. General Julian Byng, commander of the Third Army, decided to combine both plans. The French and British armies had used tanks en masse earlier in 1917, although to considerably less effect.

After a big British success on the first day, mechanical unreliability, German artillery and infantry defences exposed the frailties of the Mark IV tank. On the second day, only about half of the tanks were operational and British progress was limited. In the History of the Great War, the British official historian Wilfrid Miles and modern scholars do not place exclusive credit for the first day on tanks but discuss the concurrent evolution of artillery, infantry and tank methods. Numerous developments since 1915 matured at Cambrai, such as predicted artillery fire, sound ranging, infantry infiltration tactics, infantry-tank co-ordination and close air support. The techniques of industrial warfare continued to develop and played a vital part during the Hundred Days Offensive in 1918, along with replacement of the Mark IV tank with improved types. The rapid reinforcement and defence of Bourlon Ridge by the Germans, as well as their counter-attack, were also notable achievements, which gave the Germans hope that an offensive strategy could end the war before American mobilisation became overwhelming.

Prelude

British plan

Proposals for an operation in the Cambrai area using a large number of tanks originated from Brigadier Hugh Elles of the Tank Corps, and the reliance on the secret transfer of artillery reinforcements to be "silently registered" to gain surprise came from Henry Hugh Tudor, commander of the 9th (Scottish) infantry division artillery. In August 1917, Tudor conceived the idea of a surprise attack in the IV Corps sector, he suggested a primarily artillery-infantry attack, which would be supported by a small number of tanks, to secure a breakthrough of the German Hindenburg Line. The German defences were formidable; Cambrai, was a quiet front and the Germans had built an elaborate defence in depth.

Tudor's plan sought to test new methods in combined arms, with emphasis on joint artillery and infantry tactics to see how effective they were against German fortifications. Tudor advocated using the new sound ranging and silent registration of guns to achieve instant suppression fire and surprise. He also wanted to use tanks to clear paths through the deep barbed wire obstacles in front of German positions, while supporting the tank force with the No. 106 Fuze, designed to detonate high explosive (HE) ammunition without cratering the ground, to supplement the armour.

Air support

Two weeks before the start of the battle, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) began to train its pilots in ground-attack tactics. Before the ground offensive, the RFC was assigned sets of targets to attack, including trenches, supply points and enemy airfields.

Battle

Third Army

The battle began at dawn, approximately 06:30 on 20 November, with a predicted bombardment by  on German defences, followed by smoke and a creeping barrage at  ahead to cover the first advances. Despite efforts to preserve secrecy, the Germans had received sufficient intelligence to be on moderate alert: an attack on Havrincourt was anticipated, as was the use of tanks. The attacking force was six infantry divisions of the III Corps (Lieutenant-General Pulteney) on the right and IV Corps (Lieutenant-General Charles Woollcombe) on the left, supported by nine battalions of the Tank Corps with about  In reserve was one infantry division in IV Corps and the three divisions of the Cavalry Corps (Lieutenant-General Charles Kavanagh). Initially, there was considerable success in most areas and it seemed as if a great victory was within reach; the Hindenburg Line had been penetrated with advances of up to . On the right, the 12th (Eastern) Division advanced as far as Lateau Wood before being ordered to dig in. The 20th (Light) Division forced a way through La Vacquerie and then advanced to capture a bridge across the Canal de Saint-Quentin at Masnières. The bridge collapsed under the weight of a tank halting the hopes for an advance across the canal. In the centre the 6th Division captured Ribécourt and Marcoing but when the cavalry passed through late, they were repulsed from Noyelles.

On the IV Corps front, the 51st (Highland) Division (Major-General George Harper) was held at Flesquières, its first objective, which left the attacking divisions on each flank exposed to enfilade fire. Harper had used a local variation of the tank drill instead of the standard one laid down by the Tank Corps. Flesquières was one of the most fortified points in the German line and was flanked by other strong points. Its defenders under Major Krebs acquitted themselves well against the tanks, almost forty being knocked out by the artillery in the vicinity. The Lone gunner of Flesquières (a common explanation of the "mythical" German officer) ignored the fact that the British tanks were opposed by a specialist anti-tank unit benefiting from the experience against French tanks in the Nivelle Offensive. The Germans abandoned Flesquières during the night.

To the west of Flesquières, the 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division swept all the way through Havrincourt and Graincourt to within reach of the woods on Bourlon Ridge and on the British left, the 36th Division reached the Bapaume–Cambrai road. Of the tanks, 180 were out of action after the first day, although only  been destroyed. Of the other casualties, 71 had suffered mechanical failure and 43 had ditched. The British lost  and took  a casualty rate half that of the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) and a greater advance in six hours than in three months at Flanders but the British had failed to reach Bourlon Ridge. The German command was quick to send reinforcements and was relieved that the British did not manage fully to exploit their early gains. When the battle was renewed on 21 November, the pace of the British advance was greatly slowed. Flesquières, that had been abandoned and Cantaing were captured in the very early morning but in general the British took to consolidating their gains rather than expanding. The attacks by III Corps were terminated and attention was turned to IV Corps.

The effort was aimed at Bourlon Ridge. Fighting was fierce around Bourlon and at Anneux (just before the woods) was costly. German counter-attacks squeezed the British out of Moeuvres on 21 November and Fontaine on 22 November; when Anneux was taken, the 62nd Division found themselves unable to enter Bourlon Wood. The British were left exposed in a salient. Haig still wanted Bourlon Ridge and the exhausted 62nd Division was replaced by the 40th Division (Major-General John Ponsonby) on 23 November. Supported by almost  and , the 40th Division attacked into the woods of Bourlon Ridge on the morning of 23 November and made little progress. The Germans had put two divisions of  on the ridge with another two in reserve and  was reinforced.

The 40th Division attack reached the crest of the ridge but were held there and suffered more than  in three days. More British troops were pushed in to move beyond the woods but the British reserves were rapidly depleted and more German reinforcements were arriving. The final British effort was on 27 November by the 62nd Division aided by  Early success was soon reversed by a German counter-attack. The British now held a salient roughly  with its front along the crest of the ridge. On 28 November, the offensive was stopped and the British troops were ordered to lay wire and dig in. The Germans were quick to concentrate their artillery on the new British positions. On 28 November, more than  were fired into the wood.

German 2nd Army

As the British took the ridge, German reinforcements began to arrive. By 23 November, the German command felt that a British breakthrough had been prevented and began to consider a counter-stroke and twenty divisions were assembled in the Cambrai area. The Germans planned to retake the Bourlon salient and also to attack around Havrincourt, with diversionary attacks to hold IV Corps; it was hoped to at least reach the old positions on the Hindenburg Line. The Germans intended to employ the new tactics of a short, intense period of shelling followed by a rapid assault using Hutier infiltration tactics, leading elements attacking in groups rather than waves and bypassing strong opposition. Three divisions of  ( Otto von Moser) were to conduct the initial assault at Bourlon. On the eastern flank of the British salient,  was to attack from Bantouzelle to Rumilly to capture Marcoing.  advanced from Banteux. The two  had seven infantry divisions.

British VII Corps (Lieutenant-General Thomas Snow), to the south of the threatened area, warned III Corps of German preparations. The German attack began at  on 30 November; almost immediately, the majority of III Corps divisions were heavily engaged. The German infantry advance in the south was unexpectedly swift. The commanders of the 12th (Eastern) Division and 29th Division were almost captured, with Brigadier-General Berkeley Vincent having to fight his way out of his headquarters and grab men from retreating units to try to halt the Germans. In the south, the German advance spread across  and came within a few miles of the village of Metz and its link to Bourlon.

At Bourlon, the Germans suffered many casualties. British units displayed reckless determination; one group of eight British machine-guns fired over  against the German advance. The concentration of British effort to hold the ridge was effective but allowed the German advance elsewhere greater opportunity. Only counter-attacks by the Guards Division, the arrival of British tanks and the fall of night allowed the line to be held. By the following day, the impetus of the German advance was lost but pressure on 3 December led to the German capture of La Vacquerie and a British withdrawal on the east bank of the St Quentin canal. The Germans had reached a line curving from Quentin Ridge to near Marcoing. The German capture of Bonavis ridge made the British hold on Bourlon precarious. On 3 December, Haig ordered a partial retreat from the north salient and by 7 December, the British gains were abandoned except for a portion of the Hindenburg line around Havrincourt, Ribécourt and Flesquières. The Germans had exchanged this territorial loss for a slightly smaller sector to the south of Welsh Ridge.

Aftermath

Analysis

The first day of success was greeted in Britain by the ringing of church bells. The massed use of tanks, despite being a further increase on previous deployments, was not entirely new but the success of the attack and the resulting Allied press enthusiasm, including in the United States, were unprecedented. The particular effectiveness of the tanks at Cambrai was the initial passage through barbed wire defences, which had been previously "supposed by the Germans to be impregnable".

The initial British success showed that even the strongest trench defences could be overcome by a surprise attack, using a combination of new methods and equipment, reflecting a general increase in the British capacity to combine infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft in attacks. The German revival after the shock of the British attack improved German morale but the potential for similar attacks meant that the Germans had to divert resources to anti-tank defences and weapons, an extra demand that the Germans could ill afford to meet,

The German counter-attack showed the effectiveness of artillery, trench mortars and evolving stormtrooper tactics, adopted from a pattern introduced by General Hutier against the Russians. From the German perspective, questions arose regarding battlefield supply beyond railheads and the suitability of the MG 08 machine gun for rapid movement. By the end of the battle, the British retained some of the ground captured in the north and the Germans a smaller amount taken in the south. The British conducted several investigations, including a Court of Enquiry.

Casualties

According to the Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire during the Great War, British forces in the period of the Battle of Cambrai suffered 75,681 casualties, 10,042 killed or died of wounds, 48,702 wounded and 16,987 missing or prisoners of war. Nearly 180 tanks were destroyed. According to the German Army Medical report in the World War 1914–1918 German forces suffered 54,720 casualties at Cambrai, 8,817 killed and died of wounds, 22,931 wounded and 22,972 missing and prisoners of war. The British recorded casualties on the basis of a daily head count and the Germans counted the number of patients in hospital every ten days, which omitted lightly wounded, expected to return to service in a few days, not evacuated from the corps area.

Memorials and cemeteries

The Battle of Cambrai is commemorated annually by the Royal Tank Regiment on Cambrai day, a major event in the regiment's calendar. The contributions of the Newfoundland Regiment at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai are remembered in the village of Masnières at the Masnières Newfoundland Memorial. Cambrai Day is also celebrated by 2nd Lancers (GH) of the Indian Army on 1 December every year as Lance Dafadar Gobind Singh of that unit was awarded the Victoria Cross during this battle. The name Cambrai was chosen in 1917 as the new name for the South Australian town of Rhine Villa, one of many Australian place names changed from German names during the First World War. During the Remilitarization of the Rhineland in the late 1930s, Germany named a newly built Kaserne in Darmstadt after the battle, which was later merged with the nearby Freiherr von Fritsch Kaserne to become Cambrai-Fritsch Kaserne.  The United States Army occupied Cambrai-Fritsch Kaserne from the end of World War II until 2008, when the land was returned to the German government.

British burial sites

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission has four Memorials with the names or remains of 9,100 Commonwealth servicemen dead during the Battle of Cambrai:
 Cambrai Memorial to the Missing – the monument lists 7,048 missing soldiers of the United Kingdom and South Africa who died and have no known graves.
 Flesquieres Hill British Cemetery – 900 servicemen were buried, one third unidentified.
 Orival Wood Cemetery – 200 servicemen buried.
 Hermies Hill British Cemetery – 1,000 servicemen buried.

German burial sites
The German War Cemetery on the Route de Solesmes was established before the offensive in May 1917, currently it accommodates the remains of 10,685 German and 501 British soldiers.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 U.S. Army Center of Military History: World War I Campaigns
 The Cambrai Operations: 20 November to 7 December 1917 from the British Army in the Great War
 the battlefield today
 Map 1914–1918.net
 Photos of the battlefield taken 89 years to the month of the 1917 battle
 Lists of individual tanks and their actions at Cambrai

Conflicts in 1917
Battle of Cambrai
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battle of Cambrai (1917)
Battles of World War I involving Newfoundland
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving the United States
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
Battle of Cambrai (1917)
November 1917 events
December 1917 events
Tank battles involving France
Tank battles involving Germany
Tank battles involving the United Kingdom
Tank battles involving the United States
Tank battles of World War I

Battle of Cambrai (1917)


Bounded growth occurs when the growth rate of a mathematical function is constantly increasing at a decreasing rate. Asymptotically, bounded growth approaches a fixed value. This contrasts with exponential growth, which is constantly increasing at an accelerating rate, and therefore approaches infinity in the limit.

An example of bounded growth is the logistic function.

References

Sources
 Kuhn, Moscibroda, and Wattenhofer, "On the Locality of Bounded Growth", ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), July 17–20, 2005.

Mathematical modeling

Bounded growth


Frederick John William Lambart, 8th Earl of the County of Cavan was born on 30 December 1815 at his parents' home of Ower Cottage, Fawley, Hampshire, England. He was the son of George Frederick Augustus Lambart, Viscount Kilcoursie and Sarah Coppin.

His father, while with the Coldstream Guards, was severely wounded during the Peninsular War in the battle of Talavera and remained lame for the rest of his life until his death in 1828 at the age of 39. Frederick was left an orphan. He was sent to Eton from 1829 until 1833, where he was known, without his title, simply as Lambart. The Rev. Dr. Hawtrey was the then-headmaster and gave encouraging influence, which helped him succeed in his education.

Career
At age 17, he was placed in the 7th Dragoon Guards, joining the regiment in Cork under Colonel Clarke. In 1835, his quarters were changed from Carlow to Dublin. In the autumn of 1836, he was posted to Walsall, Staffordshire.

Marriage
He married Caroline Augusta Littleton, daughter of Edward John Littleton, 1st Baron Hatherton, and Hyacinthe Mary Wellesley, on 24 July 1838 at St George's Church, Hanover Square, London. It was about this time, after the death of his grandfather, that he succeeded to the title and impaired estates. They remained married for 49 years and 5 months, and had five children:

 Lady Mary Hyacinthe Lambart (died 22 August 1933)
 Lady Sarah Sophia Lambart (died 8 July 1914)
 Sir Frederick Edward Gould Lambart, 9th Earl of the County of Cavan (21 October 1839 – 14 July 1900)
 Hon. Octavus Henry Lambart (10 January 1855 – 24 January 1919), married in 1878 Hannah Sarah Howard, daughter of Hiram Edward Howard, of Buffalo, New York
 Major Hon. Arthur Lambart (11 August 1858 – 3 April 1937)

Religious faith
After 1839 they went to Frankfurt am Main, then Bad Ems, followed by two years in Munich. It was here that his deeper biblical studies began. Upon securing a Bible in Dublin in 1835, religion began to play a part in his life. After 1844 he was, until his death, a member of the Open Plymouth Brethren. In 1846 Cavan went to Torquay and played a part in the formation of the Evangelical Alliance with Sir Culling Eardley. Among his special interests was biblical prophecy. He often preached on Christ's expected second advent.

In 1866, Lord Cavan invited Granville Waldegrave, 3rd Baron Radstock to come to Weston-super-Mare for evangelistic meetings. Dr Friedrich Wilhelm Baedeker, cousin of Karl Baedeker, the famous travel guides editor, attended one of these meetings and experienced a religious conversion.

Death
He died on 16 December 1887, aged 71, at The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, England. His last words were, 'We need no more doctors; the Lord standeth at the door!' He was buried on 22 December 1887, when 500 attended the funeral. Thomas Newberry preached at the grave-side. His will, dated 19 February 1887, was probated at over £10,000.

References

External links

 Alt URL
  Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes, Charles Mosley, editor.
 Archive of E. N. Cross, Woolwich, London SE18.

19th-century evangelicals
British Plymouth Brethren
Premillennialism
7th Dragoon Guards officers
English evangelists
1815 births
1887 deaths
Earls of Cavan

Frederick Lambart, 8th Earl of Cavan


In formal semantics, existential closure is an operation which introduces existential quantification. It was first posited by Irene Heim in her 1982 dissertation, as part of her analysis of indefinites. In her formulation, existential closure is a form of unselective binding which binds any number of variables of any semantic type. In alternative semantics and related frameworks, the term is often applied to a closely related operation which existentially quantifies over a set of propositional alternatives.

See also
 Alternative semantics
 Irene Heim
 Free variable
 Scope (formal semantics)

References

Semantics

Existential closure


The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism is a non-fiction book written by the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. The book employs socialist and Marxist thought. It was written in 1928 after his sister-in-law, Mary Stewart Cholmondeley, asked him to write a pamphlet explaining socialism. The book was later re-released as the first Pelican Book in 1937. The dust jacket artwork for the British and American first editions was by the British artist and sculptor Eric Kennington.

Shaw examines various socialist ideas, including the issue of private property under socialism, population control, the difficulty of creating non-market-based means to ascribe value to human activities and the problem of wealth distribution. He explores Marxist concepts such as surplus value along with the ideas of non-Marxist socialist thinkers such as Henry George.

The book inspired a respectful and detailed reply from Lilian Le Mesurier in The Socialist Woman's Guide to Intelligence: a reply to Mr. Shaw first published in 1929. Le Mesurier objected to Shaw's self-satisfied and condescending tone.

In the late 1930s, Allen Lane, the founder of Penguin Books, wished to create a new line, to be called "Pelican" books, which would be dedicated to publishing clear expositions of current social debates. He desired that Shaw's Intelligent Woman's Guide should become the first in that series. Shaw wrote to Lane that since almost 10 years had elapsed the book's title needed to be changed to The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism, Capitalism, Sovietism, and Fascism, and under that title the book became the first Pelican in two paperbound volumes in 1937.

References

External links
 Volume I of The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism, Capitalism, Sovietism and Fascism in PDF format
 Volume II of The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism, Capitalism, Sovietism and Fascism in PDF format
Excerpts from the text
Google Books free preview version of the first 174 of 497 pages of the book

1928 non-fiction books
British non-fiction books
Books by George Bernard Shaw
1928 in economics
Works about capitalism
Works about socialism


Walther Flemming (21 April 1843 – 4 August 1905) was a German biologist and a founder of cytogenetics.

Making use of dyes he was able to find a structure which he named chromatin. He identified that chromatin was correlated to threadlike structures in the cell nucleus– the chromosomes (meaning coloured body). Edouard Van Beneden (1846–1910) had also observed them, independently.

Flemming investigated the process of cell division and the distribution of chromosomes to the daughter nuclei, a process he called mitosis from the Greek word for thread. However, he did not see the splitting into identical halves, the daughter chromatids. He studied mitosis, both in life and in stained preparations, using as the source of biological material the fins and gills of salamanders. These results were published first in 1878  and in 1882 in the seminal book Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelltheilung (1882; Cell substance, nucleus and cell division). On the basis of his discoveries, Flemming surmised for the first time that all cell nuclei came from another predecessor nucleus (he coined the phrase omnis nucleus e nucleo, after Virchow's omnis cellula e cellula).

Flemming was unaware of Gregor Mendel's (1822–1884) work on heredity, so he did not make the connection between his observations and genetic inheritance. Two decades would pass before the significance of Flemming's work was truly realized with the rediscovery of Mendel's rules. His discovery of mitosis and chromosomes is considered one of the 100 most important scientific discoveries of all times, and one of the 10 most important discoveries in cell biology.

References

1843 births
1905 deaths
Cell biologists
German geneticists

Walther Flemming


Nicholas Kaldor, Baron Kaldor (12 May 1908 – 30 September 1986), born Káldor Miklós, was a Cambridge economist in the post-war period. He developed the "compensation" criteria called Kaldor–Hicks efficiency for welfare comparisons (1939), derived the cobweb model, and argued for certain regularities observable in economic growth, which are called Kaldor's growth laws. Kaldor worked alongside Gunnar Myrdal to develop the key concept Circular Cumulative Causation, a multicausal approach where the core variables and their linkages are delineated. Both Myrdal and Kaldor examine circular relationships, where the interdependencies between factors are relatively strong, and where variables interlink in the determination of major processes.
Gunnar Myrdal got the concept from Knut Wicksell and developed it alongside Nicholas Kaldor when they worked together at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Myrdal concentrated on the social provisioning aspect of development, while Kaldor concentrated on demand-supply relationships to the manufacturing sector. Kaldor also coined the term "convenience yield" related to commodity markets and the so-called theory of storage, which was initially developed by Holbrook Working.

Biography
Káldor Miklós was born in Budapest, son of Gyula Káldor, lawyer and legal adviser to the German legation in Budapest, and Jamba, an accomplished linguist and "a well-educated, cultured woman". He was educated in Budapest, as well as in Berlin, and at the London School of Economics, where he graduated with a first-class BSc (Econ.) degree in 1930. He subsequently became an assistant lecturer and, by 1938, lecturer and reader in economics at the LSE. Between 1943 and 1945, Kaldor worked for the National Institute of Economic and Social Research and in 1947 he resigned from the LSE to become Director of Research and Planning at the Economic Commission for Europe. He was elected to a Fellowship at King's College, Cambridge and offered a lectureship in the Economics Faculty of the University in 1949. He became a Reader in Economics in 1952, and Professor in 1966.

From 1964, Kaldor was an advisor to the Labour government of the UK and also advised several other countries, producing some of the earliest memoranda regarding the creation of value added tax. Inter alia, Kaldor was considered, with his fellow-Hungarian Thomas Balogh, one of the intellectual authors of the 1964–70 Harold Wilson's government's short-lived Selective Employment Tax (SET) designed to tax employment in service sectors while subsidising employment in manufacturing.  In 1966, he became professor of economics at the University of Cambridge.  On 9 July 1974, Kaldor was made a life peer as Baron Kaldor, of Newnham in the City of Cambridge.

In 1969-1970, Kaldor was involved in a fierce debate with the so-called U.S. monetarist economist Milton Friedman. While Friedman defended the exogenous money supply theory, according to which money is created by powerful central banks, Kaldor and Post-Keynesian economists claimed that money is created by second-tier banks through the distribution of credits to households and companies. In the Post-Keynesian framework, central banks only refinance second-tier banks on demand, but they are unable to properly create money. Despite insightful contributions, Kaldor could not win the debate. In 1982, he published a book entilted The Scourge of Monetarism, deeply criticizing monetarist-inspired policies.

Kaldor was invited by then Prime Minister of India—Jawaharlal Nehru—to design an expenditure tax system for India in the 1950s. He also went to India's Centre for Development Studies (CDS) in 1985 to inaugurate and deliver the first Joan Robinson Memorial Lecture. Owing to these links, the Kaldor family donated his entire personal collection to the CDS Library. There are 362 books in the collection and they cover a wide range of titles on economic theory, classical political economy, business cycles and history of economic thought.

Business cycle theory

After the publication of John Maynard Keynes' General Theory, many attempts were made to build a business cycle model. The models that were built by American Neo-Keynesians such as Paul Samuelson proved unstable. They could not describe why an economy should cycle through recession and growth in a stable fashion. The British Neo-Keynesian John Hicks tried to improve the theory by imposing rigid ceilings and floors on the model. But most people thought that this was a poor way of explaining the cycle as it relied on artificial, exogenous constraints. Kaldor, however, had actually invented a fully coherent and highly realistic account of the business cycle in 1940. He used non-linear dynamics to construct this theory. Kaldor's theory was similar to Samuelson's and Hicks' as it used a multiplier-accelerator model to understand the cycle. It differed from these theories, however, as Kaldor introduced the capital stock as an important determinant of the trade cycle. This was in keeping with Keynes' sketch of the business cycle in his General Theory.

Following Keynes, Kaldor argued that investment depended positively on income and negatively on the accumulated capital stock. The idea that investment depends positively on the growth of income is simply the idea of the accelerator model that holds that in periods of high income growth and hence demand growth, investment should rise in the anticipation of high income and demand growth in the future. The intuition lying behind the negative relationship to the accumulation of the capital stock is due to the fact that if firms have a very large amount of productive capacity accumulated already they will not be as inclined to invest in more. Kaldor was in effect integrating Roy Harrod's ideas about unbalanced growth into his theory.

In the standard accelerator model that stood behind Samuelson's and Hicks' business cycle theories investment was determined as such:

This states that investment is determined by exogenous investment and lagged income multiplied by the accelerator coefficient. Kaldor's model modified this to include a negative coefficient for the capital stock:

Kaldor then assumed that the investment and savings functions are non-linear. He argued that at the peaks and troughs of the cycle the marginal propensity to save shifts in opposite ways. The intuition behind this is that during recessions people will cut their savings to maintain their standard of living while at high levels of income people will save a larger proportion of their income. He also argued that at the peaks and troughs of the cycle the marginal propensity to invest shifts. The intuition behind this is that at the trough of the cycle there will be a large amount of excess capacity and so businessmen will not want to invest more, while at the peak of the cycle rising costs will discourage investment. This creates non-linear dynamics in the economy that then drive the business cycle.

When Kaldor combines these components we get a clear six-stage model of the business cycle. In the first stage the economy is in equilibrium position. Investment is taking place and the capital stock is growing. In the second stage the growth in the capital stock leads to a downward shift in the investment curve as businessmen decide their factories become overfull. In the third stage (which overlaps with the second stage) the high growth in income causes higher saving which pushes the savings curve upwards. At this point the two curves become tangential and the equilibrium becomes unstable which generates a recession. In the fourth stage the same dynamics kick in but this time moving in the opposite direction. By the sixth stage the equilibrium is again unstable and a boom is produced.

Kaldor also noted the importance of income distribution in his theory of the business cycle. He assumed that savings out of profits were higher than savings out of wages; that is, he argued that poorer people (workers) tend to save less than richer people (capitalists). Or:

Kaldor believed that the business cycle had an inherent mechanism built into it that redistributed income across the cycle and that these mitigated "explosive" results. As we have seen, in a cyclical upswing where planned investment begins to outstrip planned savings prices will tend to rise. Kaldor assumed that those who set prices have more power than those who set wages and so prices will tend to rise faster than wages. This means that profits must also rise faster than wages. Kaldor argued that due to the different savings propensities of capitalists and workers this will lead to higher savings. This will then dampen the cycle somewhat. In a recession or depression Kaldor argued that prices should fall faster than wages for the same reasons that Keynes laid out in his General Theory. This meant that income would be redistributed to workers as real wages rose. This would lead savings to fall in a recession or depression and so would dampen the cycle.

Kaldor's model assumes wage and price flexibility. If wage and price flexibility are not forthcoming the economy may have a tendency to either perpetual and rising inflation or persistent stagnation. Kaldor also makes strong assumptions about how wages and prices respond in both inflations and depressions. If these assumptions do not hold Kaldor's model would lead us to conclude that the cycle might give way to either perpetual and rising inflation or stagnation.

Kaldor's non-linear business cycle theory overcomes the difficulty that many economists had with Roy Harrod's growth theory. Many of the American Neo-Keynesian economists thought that Harrod's work implied that capitalism would tend toward extremes of zero and infinite growth and that there were no dynamics that might keep it in check. Robert Solow, who eventually created the Solow Growth Model in response to these perceived problems, summarised this view as such:

In fact, Kaldor's 1940 paper had already shown this to be completely untrue. Solow was working with an erroneous and underdeveloped theory of the business cycle that he had taken over from Samuelson. By the time Solow was working on his growth theory, the Cambridge UK economists had already satisfactorily laid out a self-limiting theory of the business cycle that they thought was a reasonable description of the real world. This is one of the reasons that the Cambridge economists were so hostile in their reaction to Solow's growth model and went on to attack it in the Cambridge Capital Controversy of the 1960s. The ignorance on the part of the American economists' knowledge of Kaldor's model also explains why the Cambridge Post-Keynesian economists found the ISLM model favoured by the American Neo-Keynesians to be crude and lacking.

Personal life
Kaldor was married to Clarissa Goldsmith, a prominent figure in Cambridge city life and a history graduate from Somerville College, Oxford. They had four daughters: Penny Milsom, a former London Borough of Islington Labour councillor, Katharine Hoskyns, who has stood as a Labour candidate for Westminster City Council, Frances Stewart, Professor of Economic Development at the University of Oxford, and Mary Kaldor, Professor of Human Security at the London School of Economics.

He died in Papworth Everard, Cambridgeshire.

Works
 The Case Against Technical Progress, 1932, Economica
 The Determinateness of Static Equilibrium, 1934, RES
 The Equilibrium of the Firm, 1934, EJ
 Market Imperfection and Excess Capacity, 1935, Economica
 Pigou on Money Wages in Relation to Unemployment, 1937, EJ
 1939, Welfare propositions of economics and interpersonal comparisons of utility. Economic Journal 49:549–52.
 Speculation and Economic Stability, 1939, RES
 Capital Intensity and the Trade Cycle, 1939, Economica
 A Model of the Trade Cycle, 1940, EJ
 Professor Hayek and the Concertina Effect, 1942, Economica
 The Relation of Economic Growth and Cyclical Fluctuations, 1954 EJ
 An Expenditure Tax, 1955.
 Alternative Theories of Distribution, 1956, RES
 A Model of Economic Growth, 1957, EJ
 Monetary Policy, Economic Stability, and Growth, 1958.
 Economic Growth and the Problem of Inflation, 1959, Economica.
 A Rejoinder to Mr. Atsumi and Professor Tobin, 1960, RES
 Keynes's Theory of the Own-Rates of Interest, 1960, in Kaldor, 1960.
 Essays on Value and Distribution, 1960.
 Essays on Economic Stability and Growth, 1960.
 Capital Accumulation and Economic Growth, 1961, in Lutz, editor, Theory of Capital
 A New Model of Economic Growth, with James A. Mirrlees, 1962, RES
 The Case for a Commodity Reserve Currency, with A.G. Hart and J. Tinbergen, 1964, UNCTAD
 Essays on Economic Policy, 1964, two volumes.
 Causes of the Slow Rate of Economic Growth in the UK, 1966.
 The Case for Regional Policies, 1970, Scottish JE.
 The New Monetarism, 1970, Lloyds Bank Review
 Conflicts in National Economic Objectives, 1971, EJ
 The Irrelevance of Equilibrium Economics, 1972, EJ
 What is Wrong with Economic Theory, 1975, QJE
 Inflation and Recession in the World Economy, 1976, EJ
 Equilibrium Theory and Growth Theory, 1977, in Boskin, editor, Economics and Human Welfare.
 Capitalism and Industrial Development, 1977, Cambridge JE
 Further Essays on Economic Theory, 1978.
 The Role of Increasing Returns, Technical Progress and Cumulative Causation..., 1981, Economie Appliquee
 Fallacies on Monetarism, 1981, Kredit und Kapital.
 The Scourge of Monetarism, 1982.
 The economic consequences of Mrs. Thatcher, 1983.
 The Role of Commodity Prices in Economic Recovery, 1983, Lloyds Bank Review
 Keynesian Economics After Fifty Years, 1983, in Trevithick and Worswick, editors, Keynes and the Modern World
 Economics Without Equilibrium, 1985.
 Causes of Growth and Stagnation in the World Economy, 1996 (posthumous, based on 1984 Mattioli Lectures)

See also
 Kaldor's facts
 Kaldor's growth laws
 Technical progress function

References

Further reading

 Memorandum on the value added tax, Labour NEC archives, 1963

External links

 The Scourge of Monetarism (1982)
 Biography
 Kaldor Business Cycle Model by Elmer G. Wiens

1908 births
1986 deaths
Writers from Budapest
Hungarian Jews
Post-Keynesian economists
Life peers
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Academics of the London School of Economics
20th-century British economists
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Hungarian emigrants to England
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Members of the Fabian Society

Nicholas Kaldor


Sally Grace (born 10 September 1951) is an English actress who has worked extensively on radio and television and in animation.

Life and career
Grace was born in Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England, and trained at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama.

She was a member of the team on Week Ending, the BBC Radio 4 topical satirical sketch show, where she was the voice of Margaret Thatcher from 1983 onwards, remaining until the series ended in 1998.

Her work with Ken Bruce on Radio 2's What If Show led The Independent on Sunday to describe her as "the best impressionist in the business".

She voiced the part of Elena in BBC Radio 4's adaptions of Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency and The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul. Her animation roles include the voices of pompous Owl, loud Weasel, and demure but strong-willed Charmer in the popular TV series The Animals of Farthing Wood. She lent her voice to the series Noah's Island, Mr. Bean: The Animated Series, Dennis the Menace, Pongwiffy, Rudi and Trudi, Space Island One, Never the Twain, Solo, The Big One, Aaagh! It's the Mr. Hell Show!, Badly Dubbed Porn, Bedtime, Doubletake and Spaced and the animated short Bob's Birthday.

Other TV credits include Why Didn't They Ask Evans?, Sorry! ("Does Your Mother Know You're Out?"), Raffles ("The First Step"), The Ruth Rendell Mysteries ("From Doon With Death"), and Oh, Doctor Beeching! ("Past Love"); she also featured in some episodes of Coronation Street. Later acting roles were as the Queen in Alistair McGowan's sketches about the royal family, and as Betty Marsden in a touring stage adaptation of Round the Horne. Her film credits include Ghost Story (1974) and Boston Kickout (1995).

References

External links

1951 births
Living people
Actors from Harrogate
Actresses from Yorkshire
Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama
English film actresses
English satirists
English television actresses
English voice actresses
Women satirists
20th-century English actresses
21st-century English actresses

Sally Grace


Legend City was an amusement park that existed on the border of Phoenix and Tempe, Arizona, from its opening on June 29, 1963, to its closing and demolition in 1983.

History

Originally conceived as an Old West theme park in the mold of Disneyland by Phoenix artist and advertising agency owner Louis E. Crandall, Legend City endured a series of closings, bankruptcies and ownership changes throughout the 1960s and 1970s, and was never a significant financial success. Nevertheless, Legend City is still remembered fondly and held in high regard by locals who knew and frequented the park in its heyday.

Legend City opened to much public fanfare on June 29, 1963, but rapidly fell into financial difficulty and fell into bankruptcy after only six months. Crandall departed as president, and the first of several ownership changes then ensued. The property was purchased by Sam Shoen of U-Haul and opened as a theme park. U-Haul's private advertising agency, A&M Associates, handled the 'rebirth' to a theme park for children. This was probably the park's most successful period. Mr Shoen lost interest in the park and it was eventually sold to the Mitsubishi Corporation out of Japan as a show park where the company's amusement rides could be featured to prospective buyers. The park was deserted by the Japanese owners and left to ruin. The Capell family, who had been in the carnival business for many years, then bought the property but were unable to restore Legend City to its former glory. The land was eventually purchased in 1982 by the Salt River Project, which closed the park permanently after the 1983 season. Legend City was then dismantled and razed to the ground to make way for new corporate offices for SRP.

Legend City featured a number of popular and memorable attractions such as the Lost Dutchman Mine ride, Cochise's Stronghold river ride, Sky Ride, Penny Arcade, Miniature Golf, Log Jammer, and Iron Horse on the  narrow gauge Legend City Railroad. Local kids' TV show hosts Wallace and Ladmo appeared at Legend City virtually every weekend for the entire run of the park. Vonda Kay Van Dyke, later Miss America 1965, performed a popular ventriloquism act in the early days at the park's Golden Palace Saloon. It was also home to the 1000 ft long 'Pipeline', an early form of skateboarding skatepark with a gently inclined and twisting track, added in 1965.

Perhaps the ultimate legacy of Legend City is that Metro Phoenix, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States, still remains devoid of a major amusement park, with the current largest amusement park in the metro being Castles N' Coasters.

See also

 Lost Dutchman's Gold Mine legend, inspiration for the Lost Dutchman Mine ride
 Cochise § Capture, escape and retirement, inspiration for the Cochise's Stronghold ride

References

External links

 MySpace.com: Legend City

Amusement parks in Arizona
Defunct amusement parks in the United States
Demolished buildings and structures in Arizona
History of Phoenix, Arizona
1963 establishments in Arizona
1983 disestablishments in Arizona
Amusement parks opened in 1963
Amusement parks closed in 1983

Legend City


Pata Negra is a Spanish flamenco-blues band, established by brothers Raimundo Amador (singer and guitarist, b. 1959 in Seville) and Rafael Amador (guitarist and cantaor, b. 1960 in Seville) after the breakup of their previous band Veneno. Their style of derivative rhythms based on flamenco nuevo and blues, which they titled "blueslería", made an impact on other modern flamenco music bands. The Amador brothers as Pata Negra, recorded five records between 1978 and 1989.

Discography
Albums
"Pata Negra" 1981
"Rock Gitano I" 1982
"Guitarras callejeras" 1985
"Blues de la Frontera" 1986
"Inspiración y locura" 1990
"El directo" (Live) 1994
"Como una vara verde" 1994

Other compilations
"Rock Gitano" (Nuevas mezclas)
"Best of Pata Negra", 1998
"Pata Negra" 2002

Flamenco groups
Spanish musical groups
New flamenco

Pata Negra


The Blow Out is a 1936 Warner Bros. Looney Tunes animated short film directed by Tex Avery. The short was released on April 4, 1936, and is the first Porky Pig solo cartoon.

Plot
As the cartoon opens, a hooded figure appears at the doorway of a building and leaves behind an alarm clock that suddenly starts smoking. At the next second, the clock explodes, blowing the building to smithereens. Afterwards, newspaper headlines explain that the figure, known as the Mad Bomber, has been terrorizing the entire city by placing time bombs at different buildings to blow them up. As a result, the police are making every effort to search the city and offer a cash reward of $2,000 to anybody who can capture the fiend.

In the Mad Bomber's hideout, the Mad Bomber is seen making his next time bomb. He does this by taking apart an alarm clock, stuffing it full of various explosives (dynamite, a black bomb, skyrockets, and firecrackers), and puts the alarm clock back together, to make a bomb that is capable of, as he puts it, "blowing up an entire city." After completing his bomb, the Mad Bomber looks at a map of the city, where x's mark the buildings he's already blown up, and draws an x to mark his next target, the Blotz Building. Then he dons a black hat and cloak and makes his way out of the hideout.

Elsewhere in the city, Porky Pig is staring into the window of an ice cream parlor where they sell ice cream sodas for 10 cents. After watching a customer buy and drink an ice cream soda, Porky checks his money and decides the five pennies he has are enough for the soda. Porky comes up to the manager and asks for an ice cream soda, but the manager points out that Porky has only half the amount of money for the soda. Porky starts to leave, feeling disappointed, but suddenly gets the idea that half a soda would be worth half the price. He zips back and requests half of a soda, but the manager still tells Porky that he needs five more pennies for the soda.

Porky leaves the parlor disappointed and sits down at the curb, wondering how to get five more pennies. As Porky does this, a rich gentleman walks by and drops his cane. Porky notices this and hands back the cane, to which the gentleman thanks Porky by giving him a penny. Overjoyed at being rewarded with a penny, Porky dances a jig and tosses the penny into his pocket, as this has solved his problem. With that, Porky retrieves a glove for a fancy dressed lady (just before the lady picks it up herself) and a handkerchief for Mrs. Cudd (after seeing it all the way from a corner down the street), each time being rewarded with a penny and dancing a jig before putting them into his pocket.

During the quest, Porky spies a nickel on the pavement and decides it could save him the trouble of earning two more pennies, but before he can pick it up, a scotty dog zips down all the way from a corner and steals the nickel. Whether the scotty dog dropped the nickel on the ground or the nickel was a rare one is never revealed, the scotty dog doesn't thank Porky for finding it nor reward him with a penny. Undaunted, Porky continues on his quest to retrieve lost items.

At this point, on the same street, the Mad Bomber stops outside the Blotz Building. He takes the time bomb out from under his cloak, activates the timer, and leaves the bomb at the base of the building. Porky happens to see the Mad Bomber leave the scene and, thinking the time bomb is just a regular alarm clock and the Mad Bomber lost it, picks up the bomb. He finds the Mad Bomber in an alley, waiting for the explosion, and hands the bomb back to him, in the hopes of being rewarded with a penny, but the Mad Bomber freaks out and runs away, leaving Porky to chase after him.

The Mad Bomber then runs through several buildings (with Porky following him) and tries hiding in a garage, but one of the double doors is missing and after the Mad bomber shuts it, Porky appears through the opening and tries to hand back the bomb. The Mad Bomber then zips up the fire escape of an apartment building and makes it to the top, but Porky takes the steps up to meet him with the bomb. The Mad Bomber zips back down and finds Porky at the bottom of the building. He tries ducking into an open manhole to hide under the street, but no matter where he turns, Porky is there, still trying to hand back the bomb. The Mad Bomber finally gets out from under the street and tries blocking the manhole with a safety sign (vowing to have Porky blown to bits), but Porky comes out from another manhole and grabs hold of the Mad Bomber's cloak.

At that moment, two policemen spot the Mad Bomber and they pursue him, thinking that Porky holding onto the Mad Bomber's cloak is a sign that Porky's trying to tackle him. The Mad Bomber reaches his hideout, and just as the police, followed by the press arrive at the scene, he locks five doors to the entrance and barricades the last door with various furniture, vowing that they'll never find him.  Once more, however, Porky appears and tries to hand back the time bomb. The Mad Bomber decides he's had it and flees the hideout, only to run into the waiting police paddy wagon. Porky then comes out, shoves the bomb (now beginning to smoke) into the paddy wagon, and holds out his hand, expecting the Mad Bomber to pay him a penny for his troubles, but as the paddy wagon drives away to the City Jail, the bomb blows up on its creator, sending fireworks and skyrockets shooting out of the paddy wagon.

Since Porky has helped catch the Mad Bomber, the Chief of Police rewards him with the $2000 cash reward. Porky once more dances a victory jig, but as he tosses the money bag into the air (thinking he's been rewarded with a penny), it hits him on the head and bursts open. One of the reporters asks Porky what he intends to do with his reward, to which Porky starts to reply "I'm g-g-gonna b-b-b-buy me a..."  The final scene then shows Porky back in the Ice Cream Parlor gulping down one ice cream soda after another, revealing that he used the $2000 reward to buy a feast of 20,000 ice cream sodas.

Outside references
Thomas Pynchon refers to the cartoon involving "Porky Pig and the anarchist" several times in his novels The Crying of Lot 49  and Gravity's Rainbow.

References

External links

1936 animated films
1936 films
1930s American animated films
1936 comedy films
American black-and-white films
Films scored by Bernard B. Brown
Films scored by Norman Spencer (composer)
Films about terrorism in the United States
Films directed by Tex Avery
Porky Pig films
Looney Tunes shorts
Warner Bros. Cartoons animated short films
1930s English-language films

The Blow Out


The Point Montara Light is a lighthouse in Montara, California, United States, on the southern approach to the San Francisco Bay, California approximately 25 miles south of San Francisco.

History
Point Montara Lighthouse was established in February 1875. It originally had a kerosene lantern, but was upgraded in 1912 to a fourth order Fresnel lens. The current tower was first erected in 1881 in Wellfleet, Massachusetts as the Mayo Beach Lighthouse. In 1925, the cast iron tower from the discontinued Mayo Beach Light was disassembled and moved to Yerba Buena.  It was moved and rebuilt as the Point Montara Light station in 1928, where it stands today. The lens was transferred to the San Mateo Historical Society when the lighthouse was automated in 1970, and is currently on display at the library at the College of Notre Dame in Belmont, California.

The lighthouse is not open to the public, and is the site of a youth hostel sponsored by Hostelling International USA (part of Hostelling International). It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.

The following was written prior to 1970: "Three men, including a First Class Boatswains Mate, as Officer-in-Charge, operate Point Montara Light, which provides a light and fog signal. This is a family station with quarters in a duplex constructed in 1961, which contains a 3 bedroom unit. A house built in 1863 provides quarters with a 2 bedroom and a separate relief keepers quarters. The station has no small boats assigned, but does have a pickup truck. Personnel and dependents at Point Montara utilize Government medical facilities, commissary and post exchange in the San Francisco area. The nearest school is within walking distance (1/4 mile) from the station."

In 2001 the lighthouse, specifically the hostel, was used in the film Bandits (2001 film) starring Bruce Willis, Cate Blanchett and Billy Bob Thornton. The location was converted into a small roadside inn. .

Marine Protected Areas
Montara State Marine Reserve & Pillar Point State Marine Conservation Area extend offshore from Montara.  Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.

See also

 List of lighthouses in the United States

Note
A. The current tower was first built in Massachusetts in 1881, it was moved in 1928 where it currently stands as the most recent Point Montara Light.

References

External links

 LighthouseFriends.com – Point Montara, CA

Point Montara Lighthouse Hostel
A quiet weekend getaway at Montara
 Newspaper Article on source of 1928 tower

Lighthouses in the San Francisco Bay Area
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in California
History of San Mateo County, California
Transportation buildings and structures in San Mateo County, California
History of the San Francisco Bay Area
National Register of Historic Places in San Mateo County, California
State parks of California
Protected areas of San Mateo County, California
Lighthouses completed in 1881
Lighthouses completed in 1928
1875 establishments in California

Point Montara Light


St. Giles's Church is a small 16th century Church of England church in Tattenhoe, a district in south-west Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England. It is of modest size but is a Grade 2* listed building.

Early history
The first St. Giles's Church was built on this site around 1200 AD. The yew trees in the churchyard have been dated from this time and were probably planted at the time the first church was established. This makes them some 800 years old. The building you see today dates from circa 1538. It is the second church building on the site and was constructed using the stones from nearby Snelshall Priory, after the first St. Giles's fell wholly into decay.

Beyond the churchyard in the meadow is the site of the lost village of Tattenhoe. The village disappeared without any records; the reason for its disappearance is not known.

After the Norman Conquest in 1066, land at Tattenhoe had been given by William the Conqueror to three of his Lords, Earl Hugh of Chester, Richard Ingania and Urse de Bersers. By 1167 ownership of both Tattenhoe and Snelshall had passed to Sybil d'Aungerville. She granted these lands at Snelshall to the Benedictine monks of Lavendon, to start a religious community - Snelshall Priory. Sybil d'Aungerville's grandson Ralph Martel gave some more of his land at Tattenhoe in 1216 to the lands already given to Snelshall Priory. Over 100 donations were given to the Priory during the following 100 years, some of these large, including the donations of the fishponds around St. Giles's.

Some of the stones were transported and used to rebuild St Giles's Church. Parts of today's St. Giles's are still recognisable as part of an earlier building - including the archway of the main door and the base of the font.

Recent times
For hundreds of years, until the late 1980s, the parish of Tattenhoe comprised only three buildings: the farmhouses of Tattenhoe Bare, Tattenhoe Hall and Howe Park Farms. St. Giles's stood alone in the fields, surrounded by dense woods, fields, livestock and crops. For 460 years St Giles's was kept open for worship by the families living at the three farms and by worshippers from neighbouring villages including Whaddon, Newton Longville, Shenley and Loughton. They walked across the fields on summer Sunday evenings to make sure the church stayed in use for worship and for future generations. The stained glass window in the church dates to 1919.

The only way for worshippers to reach St. Giles's was via footpaths through fields. In the days before Milton Keynes this was a popular outing for local people, to come to services here. The highest-attended service each year was Harvest Festival, which is still celebrated today. There was no road to the church until the late 1950s, when a local farmer built a long, narrow single track from the Whaddon Road to his farm, and allowed worshippers to use this private track as an access to the church. This remained the way to the church until the end of the 1990s, when Portishead Drive and today's car park were built. The route of this old track is now a redway that runs from Hengistbury Lane north through Westcroft.

In 1996 work started on the first foundations of the houses of new Tattenhoe around the church. In late 1999 the Churchwardens invited Immanuel, a new congregation within the Watling Valley Ecumenical Partnership, to hold weekly services at St. Giles's.

The church has recently been extensively redecorated, with the walls repainted and the pews and other woodwork grained in traditional style. In summer 2007, the installation of electricity was completed.

External links
Official website

Church of England church buildings in Buckinghamshire
Grade II* listed churches in Buckinghamshire
Churches in Milton Keynes

St Giles's Church, Tattenhoe


Floris III (1141 – August 1, 1190) was the count of Holland from 1157 to 1190. He was a son of Dirk VI and Sophia of Rheineck, heiress of Bentheim.

Career
Floris III was a loyal vassal to Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. He accompanied the emperor on two expeditions to Italy in 1158 and 1176–1178. Frederick thanked him by making Floris part of the imperial nobility. The emperor gave Floris the toll right of Geervliet, the most important toll station in Holland at that time. This was actually the legalisation of an existing situation, because the counts of Holland had charged tolls illegally since the start of the 11th century.

Many farmers came to Holland to turn the swamps into agricultural lands. Dikes and dams were built and the border between Holland and the bishopric of Utrecht had to be determined. There was a dispute between Floris and the bishop of Utrecht about a new dam in the Rhine at Zwammerdam in 1165, which had to be settled by emperor Frederick. The brother of Floris, Baldwin, became bishop of Utrecht in 1178.

War broke out between Flanders and Holland. Count Philip I of Flanders wanted to have Zeeland back. Floris was captured in Bruges and had to accept Flemish overlordship in Zeeland as ransom in 1167. During his reign Floris III had troubles with West Friesland and a war with Philip concerning their respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten. In 1170 a great flood caused immense devastation in the north and helped to form the Zuider Zee.

In 1189 Floris accompanied Frederick Barbarossa upon the Third Crusade, of which he was a distinguished leader. He died in 1190 at Antioch of pestilence and was buried there. He was succeeded by his son Dirk VII.

Family and children
In 1162, Floris married Ada, sister of King William the Lion of Scotland. The county of Holland adopted from him the rampant lion in the coat of arms and the name of William. Their children were:
 Ada (died after 1205), married 1176 Margrave Otto I of Brandenburg and later his son Otto II of Brandenburg
 Margaret (died after 1203), married 1182 Count Dietrich IV of Cleves
 Dirk VII of Holland
 William I of Holland
 Floris (died 1210), bishop of Glasgow
 Baldwin (died 1204)
 Robert
 Beatrix
 Elisabeth
 Hedwig
 Agnes (died 1228), abbess at Rijnsburg Abbey

1141 births
1190 deaths
Counts of Holland
House of Dunkeld
Christians of the Third Crusade
12th-century people from the Holy Roman Empire
12th-century counts in Europe

Floris III, Count of Holland


Sir George Ripley (–1490) was an English Augustinian canon, author, and alchemist.

Biography

George Ripley was one of England's most famous alchemists. His alchemical writings attracted attention not only when they were published in the fifteenth century, but also later in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. His writings were studied by noted figures such as the alchemist John Dee, Robert Boyle (who is considered to be the first modern chemist), and even Isaac Newton.

A great deal of myth has grown up around Ripley, such as that he studied in Italy for twenty years and became a favorite of Pope Innocent VIII. He did however spend a number of years on the continent, and after his return to England he wrote his work The Compound of Alchemy; or, the Twelve Gates leading to the Discovery of the Philosopher's Stone (Liber Duodecim Portarum) in 1471.  The Cantilena Riplaei is one of the first poetic compositions on the subject of alchemy. Most of Ripley's work is based on the work of pseudo-Ramon Lull, although The Compound of Alchemy is based largely on the work of a little-known alchemist of the fifteenth century, named Guido de Montanor.

Another story about him is reported by Thomas Fuller in his Worthies of England,, which describes a reputable English gentleman who reported having seen a record in the island of Malta which stated that Ripley gave the enormous sum of one hundred thousand pounds sterling annually to the Knights of that island and of Rhodes to support their war against the Turks.

Ripley is known as the "Canon of Bridlington". He spent his later years as an anchorite near Boston (Yorkshire).

The Wheel

Some scholars claim that the writings of The Compound of Alchemy were meant to be read in light of an alchemical drawing done by Ripley called the Wheel. This drawing is in essence an analogy of the planets of the Solar System, of which at the time, Earth was considered to be the centre. Ripley encoded his alchemical recipes into this drawing, depicting them as the planets which revolved around the Earth, or, more specifically, the elements of his work. In alchemy, there is often an analogical connection made between heaven and Earth, and this connection is symbolized by the use of the seven planetary symbols: Sol (Sun), Luna (Moon), Mercurius (Mercury), Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. These planets correspond respectively to gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.

The Vision of Sir George Ripley
A commentary upon Ripley's works was written in a series of treatises by the English alchemist Eirenaeus Philalethes. Ripley's Vision, written in the Twelve Gates, became the subject of an exposition by Eirenaeus published in 1677 in London. The English form of the Vision gives a fair sample of the allusive style.

When busie at my Book I was upon a certain Night,
This Vision here exprest appear'd unto my dimmed sight:
A Toad full Ruddy I saw, did drink the juice of Grapes so fast,
Till over-charged with the broth, his Bowels all to-brast:
And after that, from poyson'd Bulk he cast his Venom fell,
For Grief and Pain whereof his Members all began to swell;
With drops of Poysoned sweat approaching thus his secret Den,
His Cave with blasts of fumous Air he all bewhited then:
And from the which in space a Golden Humour did ensue,
Whose falling drops from high did stain the soil with ruddy hue.... (etc.)

The "Ripley Scroll"

There are approximately 23 copies of the Ripley Scroll in existence. The scrolls range in size, colour, and detail but are all variations on a lost 15th century original. Although they are named after George Ripley, there is no evidence that Ripley designed the scrolls himself. They are called Ripley scrolls because some of them include poetry associated with the alchemist. The scrolls' images are symbolic references to the philosopher's stone.
London, British Library, Add MS 5025 (Alchemical scrolls), Four scrolls are drawn in Lubeck 1588.
London, Science Museum, A21950, 18th century.
London, Wellcome Institute, 692 & 693, two scrolls 16th century.
Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, MS 276, 16th century.
ref. also a version of Ripley Scrowle by James Standysh, 16th century, British Library, Add MS 32621.
Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Bodl Rolls 1 | Alchemical Roll
Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Ash. Rolls 40 | Alchemical Roll
Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Ash. Rolls 52 | Alchemical Roll
Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Ash. Rolls 53 | Alchemical Roll

Canonical works
George Ripley, Cantilena Riplaei
George Ripley, Opera omnia chemica. Kassel, 1649.
George Ripley, Liber duodecim portarum, also contained in J.J. Mangetus, Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa (Geneva 1702), Vol. II, pp 275–285.
Aeyrenaeus Philalethus, Ripley Reviv'd; or, An Exposition upon Sir George Ripley's Hermetico-Poetical Works (London 1678).

References

Further reading
de Rola, Stanislas Klossowski. The Secret Art of Alchemy. Thames & Hudson: London, 1973.
Jung, Carl Gustav. Psychologie u. Alchemie. Rascher Verlag: Zurich, 1944).
Mackay, Charles. Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. Office of the National Illustrated Library: London, 1852.
 The works of Sir George Ripley
Full version of Yale Ripley Scroll at Wikimedia

English alchemists
15th-century English people
Augustinian canons
Year of birth uncertain
1490 deaths
15th-century alchemists

George Ripley (alchemist)


The London Ambulance Service NHS Trust is an NHS trust. It runs ambulances within the London region of England where there are about 8.6 million people living or working.  About 5,300  people work for it.

The first ambulance service in London was started by the Metropolitan Asylums Board  in 1879. It was for infectious patients, but it started carrying accident victims and emergency medical cases.  The London County Council started  an emergency ambulance service in February 1915 under the control of the chief of the London Fire Brigade. It was the first public body to employ women drivers, because so many men had volunteered for military service. By July 1916, the London County Council Ambulance Corps staff were all women.  In 1930 it had 150 motor ambulances.

During World War II, the London Auxiliary Ambulance Service was run by over 10,000 auxiliaries, mainly women.  There were 139 Auxiliary Stations around the city.

In 2008 it had 450 emergency ambulances with 100 fast response units - cars, motorcycles, or bicycles.

References

NHS ambulance services trusts
Organisations based in London

London Ambulance Service


A free city (; ) was a self-governed city during the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial eras. The status was given by the king or emperor, who nevertheless supervised the city's affairs through his epistates or curator (Greek: epimeletes) respectively. Several autonomous cities had also the right to issue civic coinage bearing the name of the city.

Examples of free cities include Amphipolis, which after 357 BC remained permanently a free and autonomous city inside the Macedonian kingdom; and probably also Cassandreia and Philippi.

Under Seleucid rule, numerous cities enjoyed autonomy and issued coins; some of them, like Seleucia and Tarsus continued to be free cities, even after the Roman conquest by Pompey. Nicopolis was also constituted a free city by Augustus, its founder. Thessalonica after the battle of Philippi, was made a free city in 42 BC, when it had sided with the victors. Athens, a free city with its own laws, appealed to Hadrian to devise new laws which he modelled on those given by Draco and Solon.

Autonomi or rather Autonomoi was the name given by the Greeks to those states which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws, and elect their own magistrates. This permission was regarded as a great privilege, and mark of honour; and it is accordingly found recorded on coins and medals (e.g. Metropolis of the Antiochians autonomous).

References

Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire By Mary T Boatwright

See also
Panhellenion
Free imperial city of the German Holy Roman Empire

Greece under Roman rule
Classical antiquity
Types of cities
City-states

Free city (classical antiquity)