Maurice Rocco (born Maurice John Rockhold; June 26, 1915 – March 24, 1976) was an American pianist, singer, actor, and composer known for playing boogie-woogie piano and his disdain for using a piano bench. He was a top nightclub and theater draw in the 1940s, and made several film appearances. He toured the United States, Canada, and Europe before becoming a fixture in Bangkok, Thailand, where he was murdered.

Biography

Maurice Rockhold was born in 1915 in Oxford, Ohio to a music teacher mother. His mother taught him piano starting at a young age,  but did not interfere with his interest in rhythm playing as long as he finished his lessons.

He may have entered Miami University as a music student, though he never earned a degree. He worked for radio station WLW. His work at that station impressed Noble Sissle so much that he hired him to work with the Rogers Sisters at the Kit Kat Club in New York, and the act was renamed The Three Roccos. He was to later legally change his last name from Rockhold to Rocco. In 1938, Rocco left the club to participate in two films, Vogues of 1938 and 52nd Street. He returned to New York to form his own band, which included Alton Moore, Arville Harris, and Bobby Holmes among its members. By the early 1940s he was no longer fronting a band, but was working as a solo act.

Between 1940 and 1941 he cut 14 sides for Decca, most of which were released on their "Sepia" series.  He did not join active military service because his poor eyesight classified him as 4-F,  but during World War II he entertained American troops, both in person and as part of the American Forces Network Jubilee radio program.  Rocco spent most of the 1940s headlining at nightclubs and theaters (where his engagements would extend into months) and participating in vaudeville revues. By 1944 he had a US $500,000 insurance policy on his hands. Alongside Mary Lou Williams, he represented the United States in the second African Dance Festival at Carnegie Hall in April 1945.  He  married a woman named Iantha on July 3 of that year. Later in 1945, he appeared in his most famous role in the film Incendiary Blond. His earnings in 1945 topped U.S. $250,000. Despite all the professional success, this marriage was short lived. Iantha filed for divorce before their first anniversary amid allegations of physical and mental abuse. He signed to RCA Victor Records in 1949.

In the early 1950s he made tours of Europe and Southeast Asia. Alongside Slim Gaillard, he was in 1953 solicited to play a lead role in a film to be entitled "Two Joes from Georgia". Rocco fell into legal difficulties in the 1950s regarding bad checks: he was jailed over Christmas 1957 in Cleveland, and was accused of the same offense in July 1958. He moved to Europe before spending the last 12-15 years of his life performing in Thailand, where he had a residency at the Bamboo Bar in the Oriental Hotel in Bangkok. He was found slashed to death in his apartment. The murder occurred on March 24, 1976. The murder weapon was his own Malaysian knife. He is buried at Woodside Cemetery in Oxford.

Performance style
Rocco was billed as "Maurice Rocco and His Rockin' Rhythm" in nightclubs and his recordings.  He was most famous for standing while playing, without using a piano bench.  The origin of his playing posture has been credited to different sources.  In 1944 Rocco claimed that he started standing in 1941, when a customer was sitting on his piano bench and Rocco, intimidated by the heft of this customer, decided that it would be best to play without the customary seat.  He eschewed a piano bench from this point on because of the positive reaction from the crowd that night.  However, Rocco told the story very differently at various times, and he was known to stand while playing as early as the 1930s, rendering the story about 1941 all but impossible. While playing, Rocco would alternately beat out the rhythm with his feet, or perform dance moves.  Billboard described his playing as "Rocking and Riotous" but panned his singing ability.  His nightclub performances were known to be uncommonly boisterous for the period, even moving the piano from one end of the stage to the other with "violent energy," but Duke Ellington and Mabel Mercer praised his ability to perform in a sophisticated manner.  His showmanship was as recognized as his piano playing, and he was known to favor wearing a pea-green dinner jacket.  His performance style is said to have influenced Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis.  Critic Peter Silvester describes Rocco's boogie-woogie style as "technically slick" but "devoid of genuine boogie-woogie tone coloring."

Legacy and influence
Rocco was a headlining act for much of the 1940s, both in the United States and England. His stand-up piano playing became a byline. Because of his appearances in Hollywood musicals and "soundies" (musical short films) that were exported to Britain during the Second World War, Rocco's playing style was to influence several European post-war boogie-woogie specialists. He was an early influence on Ramsey Lewis and Bobby Short.

Recordings
Rocco made his first recordings, for Decca, recording 12 sides in 1940 and '41.  Some of his most popular recordings first appeared on the Guild label, where he recorded 8 sides, with Cozy Cole on drums and Mack Stewart on bass.  When this label went out of business, its catalog was sold to Musicraft Records in 1946, which re-issued all 8 of them.  He cut 10 new sides for Musicraft in September, 1946, 7 of which were re-issued by Allegro on a vinyl 10 inch LP in 1957. A Musicraft album of 78's numbered 449-452 was issued in 1946.

Discography

*There are two versions of each of these sides. St. Louis Blues, matrix A.G.634-A recorded by Guild and issued as Guild 102. Re-issued as Musicraft 353 B, some with matrix A.G.634-A and some simply with 634-A. Re-recorded by Musicraft, matrix 5391-B, and issued also as Musicraft 353 B. Begin The Beguine, matrix A.G.633-A recorded by Guild and issued as Guild 102. Re-issued as Musicraft 353 A, some with matrix A.G.633-A and some with just 633-A. Re-recorded by Musicraft, matrix 5390-B, and also issued as 353 A. For both songs, the Musicraft paper labels all say 5390 and 5391, only the matrix numbers on the shellac distinguish the takes.

Compositions
 Boogie Woogie
 Rocco's Boogie Woogie
 Tonky Blues
 Tunke Blues

Film
Rocco appeared in numerous Hollywood musicals in the 1940s and 1950s.

1938 – Vogues of 1938 – "Rocco" (pianist)
1938 – 52nd Street – himself
1943 – Rhumboogie (short) – himself
1945 – Incendiary Blonde – himself (waiter/pianist)
1947 – Rocco Blues (short) – himself
1947 – Sunny Side of the Street

Radio
Rocco appeared regularly on network radio programs.  Besides the usual guest spots, he was featured regularly on Duffy's Tavern and The Radio Hall of Fame.

References

1915 births
1976 deaths
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
People murdered in Thailand
American boogie musicians
Decca Records artists
People from Oxford, Ohio
Miami University alumni
Musicraft Records artists
20th-century American pianists
Jazz musicians from Ohio
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians

Maurice Rocco


George Edward Sealy Woodhouse  DL (15 February 1924 – 19 January 1988) had two careers: one as a cricketer for Somerset and Dorset, the second as the chairman from 1962 to his death of the family brewing company Hall and Woodhouse. As a cricketer, he was known as George Woodhouse; as a businessman, he was known as Edward Woodhouse.

Cricket career
Woodhouse was a right-handed middle-order batsman, a very occasional medium-pace bowler and, once in his first-class career, a wicketkeeper. He played a couple of times for Somerset in 1946, and then fairly regularly in both 1947 and 1948, winning his county cap in 1947 after an innings of 109 against Leicestershire which proved to be his only first-class century.

In 1948, Somerset struggled to find a full-time captain, and Woodhouse officially shared the job with Mandy Mitchell-Innes and Jake Seamer, though at least two other players captained the side for occasional matches. In 1949, Woodhouse took over the captaincy full-time and played his only full season of cricket: he made 849 runs, though his highest score was only 59, at an average just below 20 runs an innings. He led the team to equal ninth in the County Championship table, and only three matches all season were drawn. But at the end of the season he stepped down to go into the family business, and he played only a few more times in first-class cricket, finally finishing in 1953.

Instead, he became a fairly regular player in Minor Counties cricket for Dorset, not retiring from second-class cricket until 1964.

Business career
Hall and Woodhouse is a family owned brewery in Blandford Forum, and Edward Woodhouse was the fourth generation of his family to become chairman when he took over in 1962. His own sons Mark and Anthony are now in charge of the company, which has expanded significantly in the past 25 years.

Woodhouse was also a Deputy Lieutenant and High Sheriff of Dorset.

He died suddenly from a heart attack.

References
 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 1947 to 1954 editions, plus Obituary in 1989
 CricketArchive.com
 Hall and Woodhouse website

1924 births
1988 deaths
English cricketers
Somerset cricketers
Somerset cricket captains
Dorset cricketers
Combined Services cricketers
Deputy Lieutenants of Dorset
High Sheriffs of Dorset
People from Blandford Forum
Cricketers from Dorset
Free Foresters cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers

George Woodhouse


Dick Tracy is a 1990 action movie. This movie was based on the 1930s character of the same name. The movie is about mobsters and street gangs. Warren Beatty plays the title character. Madonna plays Breathless Mahoney and Glenne Headly plays Tess Trueheart.

Beatty also directed and produced Dick Tracy.

This movie got mixed reviews from the critics. It was, however, a box office success. It received three Academy Awards.

A video game based on the movie was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in August 1990.

Other websites

1990 action movies
1990 movies

Dick Tracy (movie)


The Dishwasher: Vampire Smile is a 2D side-scrolling beat 'em up video game. It was developed by Ska Studios and released for the Xbox 360 via XBLA on April 6, 2011, and for the Microsoft Windows, Linux and macOS on May 12, 2017 via Steam. It is the sequel to The Dishwasher: Dead Samurai, also by Ska Studios, released in 2009. Players assume the roles of The Dishwasher and his stepsister Yuki, in two separate solo campaigns, as they battle through legions of enemies and try to unravel the secrets of their pasts. The main story revolves around The Dishwasher's quest for universal freedom and Yuki's quest for revenge against the three marks of power that robbed her of her life. The game was showcased at the PAX East 2010 convention.

Gameplay
Gameplay remains largely similar to that of its predecessor. The game is a side-scrolling beat 'em up where the player must violently dispense of enemies with the help of numerous weapons. Recurring elements from the original include Dish Magic and Shop Bots where one can buy upgrades and items with money received through defeating enemies. The biggest addition is a new playable character, Yuki, who controls differently from The Dishwasher in combat. Co-op has also been fully integrated into the story-mode allowing for an exclusive campaign. There are five new weapons in the game, including a large syringe dubbed The Painkiller and an oversized pair of scissors titled The Guillotine. Combat revisions have been made: now the player can stock up to four weapons at once with the help of two sets of load outs that can be interchanged at all times. Guns are now automatically mapped to function on the right trigger, and normal enemies no longer have exclusive executions as they are all down to weaponry. A new gameplay feature is the addition of collectible Beads that can be equipped to give various status effects such as improved strength against specific enemies or attacks draining health. The guitar minigame also makes a return; however, the Psycho Picks that were granted in the original game for finishing them do not.

Plot
The game begins with a playable flashback segment of the first game where the player leads The Dishwasher through the Grace Chapel, building up to the boss fight against Yuki. The Dishwasher emerges victorious from this battle and Yuki dies in his hands.

It is revealed that after the events of the first game, The Dishwasher and Chef destroyed the world after it became uninhabitable. This crime was pinned on Yuki however, who was witnessed escaping the scene, having mysteriously been reanimated. During her time in the Iffenhaus prison ship she experiences recurring nightmares caused by an entity known as The Creeper, and wakes up to the image of her slaughtering a prison guard. With her newfound powers she breaks out of the prison and stows herself away in an escape pod shortly after getting her arm cut off in battle.

She crashes onto the Moon and wakes up, only to find herself with a chainsaw implant where her arm used to be. She then and there decides to pursue a quest for revenge against the three figures of power known as The Banker, General and Judge, all of whom were responsible for her incarceration. During this time The Dishwasher who has relocated himself to the moon finds himself searching for the heart of the new Cyborg movement, following Yuki's blood trail of revenge. The game is broken up into two solo campaigns that largely run in tandem with each other. They break off midway into separate stories once the two protagonists meet each other for the first time, however.

In Yuki's storyline, she finds herself in another hallucination where she finds a knife and uses it to kill who she believes is her manipulator, The Creeper. However she regains conscious and finds out that she inadvertently has stabbed The Dishwasher with it. Yuki becomes distressed but is reassured by him that he's okay with it, as it's only fair she repays him the favor for having killed her once. The Dishwasher rips the knife out of his body and dies. The Creeper then appears before Yuki and is killed by her in a fit of rage and hate. Chef then arrives to the scene, explaining to her that killing The Dishwasher shouldn't be possible as the Chef, Dishwasher and Yuki all share the same inhuman blood that makes them unkillable through normal means. He tells Yuki that the knife she extracted from her nightmares should be taken back and used to murder her inner demon who is driving her to the brink of insanity. Yuki succeeds, and proceeds to kill her final mark, the Judge, who has become a symbiont for The Fallen Engineer. In the end after facing the fact that the world is still in chaos and that her stepbrother is dead, her only care in the world is that she's finally free.

In The Dishwasher's storyline, Chef confronts him, explaining to him that Yuki is being manipulated by The Creeper, who must die if Yuki is to have her freedom. The Dishwasher finds Yuki being manipulated by The Creeper, but quickly kills The Creeper so as to not having to resort to killing Yuki again. Yuki regains conscious and finds The Dishwasher standing over The Creeper's dead body. The two then reconcile, however Yuki remains convinced that her mission for revenge is one that she must carry out alone. The Dishwasher leaves her to her mission, as he continues his search for the source of Cyborgs. He eventually reaches the Judge's tower where Yuki prepares to exact her revenge, however through an accursed mask the Judge manages to act as a symbiont for The Fallen Engineer, the true antagonist of the plot, and he partakes with The Dishwasher and Yuki in a battle. The Engineer manages to enter the depths of The Dishwasher's stagnant nightmare and tries to kill him from the inside. The Dishwasher overpowers him however, and ultimately kills him.

Characters
 The Dishwasher – The unnamed protagonist of the series. Once a regular dishwasher at the Foghorn Café, he was murdered in the first game during the Cyborg movement but then revived by the Chef, along with being granted inhuman powers which he used to exact revenge upon the Synthesis AI, responsible for manufacturing the Cyborgs. Since then he has teamed up with Chef and become a silent vigilante. Unlike the first game where he goes on an unstoppable quest for vengeance, The Dishwasher has since become a lot more collected and acquainted with his abilities, and is only determined to use his powers to purge all evil in the universe. His quest on the Moon revolves searching for an unknown entity who is controlling all evil behind the scenes. He's very proficient at the electric guitar, and is accompanied by a red-eyed crow throughout the game.
 Yuki – The Dishwasher's stepsister who was presumed dead during the first game. After dying in the hands of her stepbrother she is revived by an entity known as The Creeper, granting her powers much like The Dishwasher's, but also letting her become manipulated into trying to kill The Dishwasher, suffering recurrent nightmares and hallucinations involving a hideous demon with an insidious smile. After the first game Yuki had escaped earth during its final hours when The Dishwasher and Chef set it ablaze, destroying all remains of life. She was scapegoated as the Earth's destroyer and sentenced to rot in the Iffenhaus Space Prison. After her powers awaken, she breaks out of the prison and goes on a quest for vengeance, much like her stepbrother before her, pursuing the three figures of power responsible for her incarceration; The Banker, General and Judge. She's very proficient at the violin, and is accompanied by a cat with wings throughout the game, whom she has named Paka.
 Chef – The Dishwasher's mentor and savior. The Chef of the Foghorn Café is an ominous and inhuman being who claims to have alien blood running through his veins, granting him inhuman power. It is with the same blood that he resurrected The Dishwasher. With the help of The Dishwasher he managed to destroy the world after it got plagued by Cyborgs and undead. Their partnership continues in this game where they are out to kill all evil in the universe through any and all means necessary.
 The Banker, General and Judge – The three pillars of power and Yuki's marks of revenge. The Banker, General and Judge are the trifecta of control in the new world. They have since its conception been corrupted with power and run an incredibly fascist and corrupt society on the Moon where Cyborgs regulate everything and undead roam the streets, much like the world before it.
 The Fallen Engineer – The creator of the Synthesis AI and Cyborgs, The Fallen Engineer is The Dishwasher's nemesis and the main antagonist of the game. He is obsessed with creating a world filled with despair and lies, controlling all schemes from behind the scenes. He's resurrected as a symbiont with the help of an accursed mask and fights the protagonists in the center of their own nightmares.

Reception

The Xbox 360 version received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. GameSpots Kevin VanOrd said that the game was "grimly gorgeous and violently entertaining" and went on to say that it "is one of the finest games released so far this year." Destructoid, by contrast, praised the game's goofy violence, character design, bleak aesthetic, and tightly-designed combat while criticizing its convoluted story and inability to engage the player to the end. Game Informer recommended the game, writing, "[The Dishwasher: Vampire Smiles] grim style is accompanied by some of the tightest 2D action around. While the challenge and dark subject matter could be a turn-off for some, most players will find a deep and rewarding action title that is more than worth a download." IGN said, "This is a refined version of the first title, with better dodging, more varied and entertaining enemies, and the same over-the-top violence...The repetitive level design can become mind-numbing in any sort of prolonged session, but the excellent combat is enough to make it worth playing..." VideoGamer.com commended its intense combat but took issue with its fiddly controls and punishing difficulty.

References

External links

2011 video games
Beat 'em ups
Cooperative video games
Hack and slash games
Indie games
Linux games
MacOS games
Microsoft games
Microsoft XNA games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Psychological horror games
Side-scrolling video games
Ska Studios games
Video game sequels
Video games about ninja
Video games about samurai
Video games about vampires
Video games about zombies
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set on the Moon
Windows games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games

The Dishwasher: Vampire Smile


Costas Douzinas (; born 1951) is a professor of law, a founder of the Birkbeck School of Law and the Department of Law of the University of Cyprus, the founding director of the Birkbeck Institute for the Humanities at Birkbeck, University of London, the President of the Nikos Poulantzas Institute and a former politician.

Biography
Douzinas was educated in Athens during the Colonels dictatorship. He left Greece in 1974 and continued his studies in London, where he received a Master's and PhD from the LSE and, in Strasbourg, where he received the degree for teachers of Human Rights. Douzinas joined Birkbeck College in 1992 to set up its School of Law. He was Head of Department from 1996 to 2002. He was the dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities from 2002 to 2008. He was the pro-vice master at Birkbeck for international links from 2008 to 2014. In 2004, Douzinas set up the Birkbeck Institute for the Humanities and became its director in 2008. Douzinas was a member of the group that established the Department of Law at the University of Cyprus and is a member of its international advisory committee.

Douzinas has been a visiting professor at many universities, including the University of Athens, Paris, Thessaloniki and Prague. In 1997 he was awarded a Jean Monnet fellowship by the European University Institute, Florence. In 1998 he was a visiting fellow at Princeton University and at the Cardozo School of Law. Douzinas has been a Fellow at Griffith University, Brisbane and at the Universities of Beijing, Nanjing and Pretoria. He became a Visiting Professor of the Institute for Social Justice, Sydney, in 2014, and of the School of Politics, PUC-Rio de Janeiro in 2011. Douzinas has received many awards for this academic work.

Douzinas is well known for his work in human rights, aesthetics, critical jurisprudence, postmodern legal theory and political philosophy. He was deeply involved in the British Critical Legal Studies Movement from the outset and was part of the team which set up the Birkbeck School of Law. He was involved in setting up Law and Critique: The International Journal of Critical Legal Thought and has been its managing editor since 2000. Douzinas established and is the managing editor of Birkbeck Law Press. He received the lifelong achievement award by the Association of Law, Culture and the Humanities in 2014.

Douzinas contributes articles and columns to newspapers and websites around Europe, including the Guardian and open democracy. He writes the fortnightly column Political and Philosophical Current in Efimerida Syntakton. His many books have been translated in twelve languages.

In 2015, Douzinas was elected member of Hellenic Parliament for SYRIZA, the Coalition of the Radical Left and President of the Permanent Committee of National Defence and Foreign Affairs. In 2018, he was elected President of the Nikos Poulantzas Institute.

Bibliography
The Radical Philosophy of Rights (Routledge, 2019)
From the University Chair to Parliament's Benches: The Life and Times of a Left Government (Nissos, 2019)
Syriza in Power: Reflections of an Accidental Politician (Polity 2017)
The Meaning of Human Rights (CUP, 2014), with Conor Gearty
Cambridge Companion to Human Rights Law (CUP, 2013), with Conor Gearty
Philosophy and Resistance in the Crisis (Polity, 2013), translated in 4 languages
The Idea of Communism (Verso, 2012), with Slavoj Zizek
Critical Legal Thinking: Law and the Political (with Matthew Stone and Illan rua Wall) (Birkbeck Law Press/Routledge, 2012)
Nomos and Aesthetics (Athens: Papazissis, 2009)
Adieu, Derrida (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)
Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism (Routledge Cavendish, 2007) translated in five languages
Critical Jurisprudence (with Adam Gearey) (Hart, 2005)
The End of Human Rights (Hart, 2000) translated in six languages
Law and the Image: The Authority of Art and the Aesthetics of Law (with Lynn Nead) (University of Chicago Press, 1999)
Justice Miscarried: Ethics and Aesthetics in Law (with Ronnie Warrington) (Prentice-Hall, 1995)
Politics, Postmodernity and Critical Legal Studies: The Legality of the Contingent (Routledge, 1994)
Postmodern Jurisprudence (Routledge, 1990), with Ronnie Warrington

References

External links
 Critical Legal Thinking
 Birkbeck Institute of the Humanities, Biography
 Interview with Costas Douzinas at Ràdio Web MACBA (2010)
 The Mediterranean to Come – An essay by Costas Douzinas for MACBA's Quaderns Portátils series (2010)

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Greek academics
Philosophers of law
Political philosophers
20th-century Greek philosophers
21st-century Greek philosophers
Academics of Birkbeck, University of London
Greek MPs 2015–2019
Syriza politicians
People from Piraeus

Costas Douzinas


The Croton Dam Mound Group, also known by the designations 20NE105, 20NE112, and 20NE116,  is an archaeological site that was once a ceremonial site located on 2.3 acres near Croton, Michigan. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

Description
The Croton Dam Mound Group consists of three mounds designated Croton Dam A (20NE105), Croton Dam B (20NE112), and Croton Dam C (20NE116).  The group represents an Early Woodland Period.  The largest mound, Croton Dam A, measures about 35 feet in diameter, and included a cache of animal bones and weapons points.  The two smaller mounds, Croton Dam B and C, contained red ochre and cremated human remains.

References

Further reading

Archaeological sites in Michigan
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
Buildings and structures in Newaygo County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places in Newaygo County, Michigan

Croton Dam Mound Group


Corinium Dobunnorum was the Romano-British settlement at Cirencester in the present-day English county of Gloucestershire. Its 2nd-century walls enclosed the second-largest area of a city in Roman Britain. It was the tribal capital of the Dobunni and is usually thought to have been the capital of the Diocletian-era province of Britannia Prima (Britannia I ).

Etymology
The name is first attested by Ptolemy around 150 CE, though the earliest surviving manuscripts are from the thirteenth century. These give various slightly different spellings, of which the original seems to have been  (). The etymology of this name is, however, unknown.

Roman fort
A Roman fort was established at Corinium in the territory of the friendly tribe of the Dobunni about a year after the Roman conquest of Britain. The main settlement in the area at the time was the hillfort at Bagendon. Three main Roman roads met in Corinium: the Fosse Way, Akeman Street, and Ermin Street.

Tribal capital

By the mid-70s CE, the military had abandoned the fort and the site became the tribal capital (civitas) of the Dobunni. Over the next twenty years, a street grid was laid out and the town was furnished with an array of large public stone buildings, two market places, and numerous shops and private houses. The forum and basilica were bigger than any other in Britain, apart from Londinium's.

The basilica was decorated with beautifully carved Corinthian capitals, Italian marble wall veneers and Purbeck Marble mouldings. Unfortunately, it was built over the ditch of the old fort and the walls cracked and sank, forcing a major rebuilding project in the mid-2nd century.

There appears to have been a cattle market adjoining the forum with a market hall and several butchers' shops. A system of wooden water pipes indicates there was also an aqueduct but no public baths have been identified. The amphitheatre stood to the south-east of the town in the area now called the Querns. It was built on the site of an old quarry aligned with the street grid, an unusual feature.

As yet, no temples have been located, although numerous fine sculptures show much religious activity in the town. The missing Christian bishop represented by a deacon at the Council of Arles in 314 may come from Corinium.

The town was fortified in the late 2nd century. There were five gates and polygonal towers were later added to the walls. About fifty years after their construction, there appears to have been a partial collapse and the complex was largely rebuilt to include small chambers around the circuit. These may have been animal pens, convict cells, or small shrines.

Corinium seems to have been the home to a number of very early private stone houses of wealthy individuals. Some date from the 110s. Such buildings continued to be built and occupied throughout the life of the town, but were particularly luxurious during the 4th century, when mosaic floors and fine sculpture were much in evidence.

It has been suggested that the town was the centre of both a stone-carving industry, under a certain Sulinus son of Brucetus, and a mosaic industry with two schools of art, based on images of the saltire and Orpheus. There were also bakers, glass makers, blacksmiths and goldsmiths within the walls.

Provincial capital
Development continued until the 4th century. It remains unclear just where the Diocletian-era provinces of the Diocese of "the Britains" were located, but Corinium is now usually thought to have been the capital of Britannia Prima.

Decline
Around the time of the Roman withdrawal from Britain in 410, the town walls were repaired and the forum continued to be regularly cleaned. It was finally abandoned around 430. The amphitheatre was the site of a large timber building associated with 5th and 6th-century pottery. It may have been the fortified retreat of King Cyndyddan who fought at the Battle of Dyrham in 577.

Remains
The grass-covered bowl of the amphitheatre, also known as the "Bull Ring", is in the care of English Heritage.
A small section of the old Roman wall can be seen in the Abbey Park.
A large collection of artefacts from Corinium are on display in the Corinium Museum, Cirencester.

In fiction

In Robert E. Howard's story "Men of the Shadows", taking place at the time of Roman rule in Britain, a rich merchant of Corinium offers a thousand pieces of gold to anyone who would deliver to him the beautiful sister of Bran Mak Morn, King of the Picts. However, five hundred Roman soldiers who set out across Hadrian's Wall, seeking to gain the reward, are ambushed by the Picts and killed.

The Corinium Amphitheatre features in "The Antonine Romans and The Tribune's Mission" Novella by Andrew Boyce in 2020.

References

Alan McWhirr: Roman Gloucestershire, Gloucester 1981 , 21-58
Alan McWhirr: Cirencester Excavations III, Houses in Roman Cirencester, Cirencester 1986

External links

40s establishments in the Roman Empire
History of Gloucestershire
Roman towns and cities in England
Roman sites in Gloucestershire
Cirencester

Corinium Dobunnorum


The Nançay Radio Observatory (in French: Station de Radioastronomie de Nançay), opened in 1956, is part of Paris Observatory, and also associated with the University of Orléans. It is located in the department of Cher in the Sologne region of France. The station consists of several instruments. Most iconic of these is the large decimetric radio telescope, which is one of the largest radio telescopes in the world. Long established are also the radio heliograph, a T-shaped array, and the decametric array operating at wavelengths between 3 m and 30 m.

History
Radio astronomy emerged after the Second World War, when experts and surplus equipment became available for civilian use. The École Normale Superieure was given three 7.5 m diameter Würzburg Riese that the British had seized from the Germans during the war. These were initially deployed at a research centre of the French navy at Marcoussis.

It was recognised that radio astronomy required a large, flat and remote site to accommodate antennas spread over distances of 1.5–2 km or of considerable size, and to avoid unwanted radio waves from human technology. A 150 ha plot of woodland near Nançay became available and was purchased in 1953. Initially, various small instruments – single dishes and interferometers – were installed. 6 m wide railway tracks, one running east–west and one north–south were constructed, which would carry the equatorially mounted 40 t Würzburg antennas.

A predecessor to the current heliograph had 16 antennas of 5 m diameter spread equally along a 1500 m long east–west baseline, while eight antennas of 6 m in diameter were aligned north–south. The frequency observed was 169 MHz (1.77 m wavelength).

After the discovery of the 21 cm line in 1951 and the prospect of observing interstellar and extragalactic line emission and absorption, the need for more sensitive radio telescopes arose; their larger size would also deliver higher angular resolution. The plan for this "large radio telescope" was derived from a 1956 design by John D. Kraus. This design made possible a large collecting area and high resolution, with only moderate need for moving parts. Disadvantages were the restriction to the meridian and the asymmetric angular resolution that would be much coarser in altitude than in azimuth. The altitude control initially proved very difficult.

The large radio telescope

The large radio telescope (in French: le Grand Radiotélescope, or affectionately le Grand Miroir) was constructed between 1960 and 1965. Initially, only the central 20% of the primary and secondary mirrors were erected as a proof of concept. The mirrors were extended to their full, current size in 1964 and the telescope was officially opened in 1965 by Charles de Gaulle. Scientific observations began in 1967.

The large radio telescope is a transit telescope of the Kraus-type design. The primary mirror at the north end of the installation is a planar mirror measuring 200 m in width and 40 m in height. This is tiltable to adjust to the altitude of the observed object. It consists of five 20 m wide segments, each of 40 t mass. The radio waves are reflected horizontally into the secondary mirror 460 m to the South. The shape of the secondary is that of a segment of a sphere 300 m wide and 35 m high. The secondary reflects the radio waves back into its focal point 280 m to its North and about 60% the distance back to the primary. A cabin with further mirrors and the receiver is located at the focus. During an observation, the cabin is moved west to east to track the observed object for about an hour around its transit through the meridian.

The primary and secondary mirrors are formed by metal wire mesh with holes of 12.5 mm. The reflecting surfaces are accurate to 4 mm, permitting use at wavelengths upwards of about 8 cm. The telescope is thus designed for decimeter waves, including the 21 cm spectral line of neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) and the 18 cm spectral line of the OH radical.

The radio wave detector is cooled to 20 K to reduce noise from the receiver and thereby to improve sensitivity to the celestial radiation.

The large radio telescope observes at frequencies between 1.1 GHz and 3.5 GHz, continuum emission as well as spectral emission or absorption lines. The autocorrelator spectrometer can observe eight spectra at different frequencies with 1024 channels each and a spectral resolution of 0.3 kHz. The instrument is particularly suited to large statistical surveys and the monitoring of objects of variable brightness.

Observational projects include:
 21 cm HI emission of galaxies to study their rotation, distance, clustering and movement. This includes galaxies obscured in visible light by the Milky Way, blue compact galaxies, galaxies of low surface brightness (in visible light), and active galactic nuclei.
 Pulsars, including pulse timing, distance, and the interstellar medium on the lightpath to Earth. Nançay is part of the European Pulsar Timing Array
 Stellar envelopes, eruptive stars and red giants.
 18 cm OH emission and absorption in comets to determine their loss rate of water and gas.

The radio heliograph

The heliograph is a T-shaped interferometer made up of equatorially mounted antennas of several metres (mostly 5 m) diameter. 19 antennas are located on an east–west baseline 3.2 km long, 25 antennas are on a north–south baseline 2.5 km long. The instrument observes the Sun seven hours a day to produce images of the corona in the frequency range 150 MHz to 450 MHz (wavelengths of 2 m to 0.67 m). The angular resolution is then similar to that of the naked eye in visible light. Up to 200 images per second can be taken. This allows the systematic study of the quiet corona, solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

The Nançay observations complement simultaneous observations by space probes in visible and ultraviolet light and in X rays.

The decametric array

The decametric array was constructed between 1974 and 1977. It consists of 144 spiral antennas, which are made from conducting cables spun in spiral curves around conical support structures. At their base the cones are 5 m in diameter and they are 9 m tall; they are inclined 20° to the South. The cones are spread over an area of about a hectare. Half the cones are coiled in the opposite sense than the other, permitting the distinction between left and right circularly polarised radio waves. In each polarisation the collecting area is about 3500 m2, equivalent to a 67 m diameter dish. The instrument is sensitive to wavelengths between 3 m and 30 m, which are the longest radio waves observable through the ionosphere. The instrument is not an interferometer, but a phased array. A single dish antenna for these long wavelengths would have to be infeasibly large. Further, a phased array can be re-pointed at a different direction of observation instantaneously by changing the electronic signal delays between the individual antennas.

The angular resolution is about 7° by 14°. The decametric array does not create images, but observes a single spectrum from the sky position observed and records its change with time. The two principal objects are the upper corona of the Sun and the magnetosphere of Jupiter, which have both been observed almost daily since 1977. The temporal changes of signals from the Sun and Jupiter are very rapid, so that at Nançay very fast receivers have been developed for these observations.

The Nançay observations of Jupiter complement the results from space missions like Voyager and Galileo.

LOFAR and NenuFAR
LOFAR consists of about 50 antenna arrays, or "stations", throughout Europe. These are connected by high-speed Internet link to a computer in the Netherlands. It is optimised for 110 MHz to 250 MHz (2.7 m to 1.2 m), but still has modest performance at 30 MHz to 80 MHz (10 m to 3.7 m).

NenuFAR (New Extension in Nançay Upgrading LOFAR) is a very low-frequency phased arra optimised for the frequency range from 10 MHz to 85 MHz (30 m to 4 m). These are the longest radio waves not blocked by the ionosphere. Early science operations should begin in 2019. The main scientific objectives are:
 detection and study of (magnetospheres of) exoplanets at radio wavelengths,
 detection of the epoch of formation of the first stars and galaxies some 100 million years after the Big Bang, when the neutral atomic hydrogen was reionised,
 the study of pulsars, including spectroscopy, across the Milky Way, at low frequencies.

When complete, there will be 1938 antennas. Most will be in a core of 400 m diameter, but 114 antennas will be spread to up to 3 km distance.

NenuFAR will be a triple instrument:
 a radio telescope observing multiple positions simultaneously,
 an autonomous radio imager, building radio images of 1° resolution in seconds and of 10' in hours,
 a LOFAR "superstation", i.e. a large extension of the Nançay LOFAR station allowing the combination of NenuFAR and LOFAR to make radio images of sub-arcsecond resolution.

Other instruments and collaborations
In recent years and decades, projects of astronomical observation have become international co-operations, due to the necessary pooling of expertise and funding. In some cases, telescopes also extend across multiple countries. As such, developments at Nançay in the 21st century tend to be the provision of a site for parts of larger instruments, such as LOFAR, and contribution of expertise to international collaborations such as LOFAR and the Square Kilometre Array (SKA).

EMBRACE
Located at Nançay and Westerbork, EMBRACE (Electronic Multibeam Radio Astronomy Concept) is a prototype installation for phase 2 of the SKA. It is a phased array of 4608 antennas that operate between 900 MHy and 1500 MHz. These are sheltered in a 70 m2 radio dome. With multiple beams, several sky locations can be observed at the same time.

ORFEES
ORFEES (Observation Radiospéctrale pour FEDOME et les Etudes des Eruptions Solaires) is a 5 m diameter antenna dedicated to space weather and prediction of solar flares. It observes the solar corona daily between 130 MHz and 1 GHz and can monitor the radio emission of the Sun in near real time.

CODALEMA
CODALEMA (Cosmic ray Detection Array with Logarithmic ElectroMagnetic Antennas) is a set of instruments to try and detect ultra-high energy cosmic rays, which cause cascades of particles in the atmosphere. These air showers generate very brief electromagnetic signals that are measured in a wide frequency band from 20 MHz to 200 MHz. An array of about 50 antennas is spread over a large area of the site.

Monitoring antenna
An antenna, situated above the treetops on a 22 m high mast, has been monitoring the radioelectric quality of the Nançay site for 20 years. It allows to identify interference that affects the observations by the radio heliograph and the decametric array. The bands from 100 MHz to 4000 MHz are observed in their entirety and in multiple directions.

Pôle des Étoiles
The large radio telescope, a number of display panels about the observatory, and one or two of the heliograph antennas can be seen from the car park of the visitor centre Pôle des Étoiles. During opening times, the visitor centre offers a permanent exhibition about astronomy and the work of the observatory. Once daily there is also a planetarium show and a guided tour of the large radio telescope and the radio heliograph.

See also
 List of astronomical observatories
 List of radio telescopes

References

Further reading

External links

 Nançay Radio Observatory (official site, in French)
 Pôle des Étoiles (official site of the visitor centre, in French)

Astronomical observatories in France
Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)
Radio telescopes
Paris Observatory

Nançay Radio Observatory


Cardew House is a country house at Cardew near Thursby in Cumbria. It is a Grade II listed building.

History
The house, originally known as Cardew Hall, was built in the early 16th century for the Denton family and was the birthplace of John Denton, a Cumberland historian, in 1561. It was acquired by Sir John Lowther, a politician, in 1686 and was also the birthplace of Susanna Blamire, a poet, in 1747. By 1790 the house had been acquired by Edward Trimble who farmed Broadmoor and Green Lane as well as Cardew Hall. Kenneth Smith, writing in the 1970s, identified it as a country house of note in his book Cumbrian Villages. The house, which is now owned by Robert Potter, continues to be used as a farmhouse.

References

Country houses in Cumbria
Grade II listed houses
Grade II listed buildings in Cumbria
Dalston, Cumbria

Cardew House


James Lionel Michael (October 1824 – 26 April 1868) was an Anglo-Australian solicitor and poet.

Early life
Michael was born in Red Lion Square, London, the second son of James Walter Michael, a solicitor, and his wife, Rose Lemon née Hart.
Michael told his friend Joseph Sheridan Moore, that the passage on page 12 of John Cumberland, beginning "My earliest memory", gives an exact picture of his childhood. After visiting Europe, Michael was articled to his father and began to mix in artistic and literary society. Sheridan Moore states that Michael became friendly with Millais and Ruskin, and published a pamphlet which made some stir at the time, vindicating the position of the pre-Raphaelite brotherhood. Moore also says that though "always temperate and abstemious in his habits he had a talent for frittering away his money". This could have been one of the reasons for his migration to Australia.

Australia
Michael arrived in New South Wales on 30 July 1853 and practised as a solicitor with some success. He became friendly with Joseph Sheridan Moore who introduced him to Henry Kendall, whom he afterwards took into his office and "treated as an affectionate elder brother would a younger one". In 1857 Michael published Songs without Music, a collection of lyrics, and in 1860 John Cumberland, a long, largely autobiographical poem. In 1861 he moved to Grafton on the Clarence River and for a time practised successfully; but towards the end of his life he appears to have made enemies and was in financial difficulties. In 1864, Michael was legally separated from his wife. On the evening of Sunday 26 April 1868 Michael went for a walk dressed in a great-coat, cap and galoshes; two days later his body was found floating in the Clarence River. The medical evidence stated that there was a deep cut over the right eye "such as might be produced by falling on a broken bottle". The coroner's jury returned an open verdict, and although a set of verses Michael had written a few weeks before suggested to some people that he had contemplated suicide, the possibility of this was indignantly denied by his friend, Sheridan Moore, who declared that the evidence suggested either foul play or accident, rather than suicide. Michael married in 1854 and was survived by a son. He died heavily in debt.

Michael wrote musical verse, some of which has been included in Australian anthologies. His long poem, John Cumberland, contains some good passages, however has many patches of prose. Though a minor Australian poet, Michael's encouragement of the young Kendall gave him a special interest. His friends said he had a charming personality.

References

External links

1824 births
1868 deaths
Australian poets
English male poets
19th-century English poets
19th-century English male writers

James Lionel Michael


Beverle Graves Myers (born March 31, 1951) is an American author of mystery novels and short stories. Her major work is the Tito Amato mystery series set in 18th-century Venice, published by Poisoned Pen Press. She is also the co-author, with Joanne Dobson, of a stand-alone crime novel set in New York City on the eve of World War II. Myers' novels are traditional mysteries which feature a large cast of characters, a deep sense of time and place, and meticulously researched period details.  Myers' short stories are set in a variety of times and places; several stories feature her series characters.

Background
Myers was born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky.  Her father was an attorney, her mother a homemaker.  Myers attended the University of Louisville, earning a BA in History and an MD from the School of Medicine.  She also completed a residency program in psychiatry and practiced at a public mental health clinic in eastern Kentucky for approximately ten years before taking up writing full-time. When not traveling in search of new inspiration, Myers makes her home in Louisville, Kentucky. She has two adult children and four grandchildren.

Career
Myers combined her love of history, opera, Italy, and mystery to write the Tito Amato mystery series. She often states that she fell in love with the mystery genre while reading Agatha Christie as a young girl. She credits Anne Rice's Cry to Heaven and Steven Saylor's Gordianus the Finder series with providing inspiration for her historical series that follows the career of Venetian castrato soprano and amateur sleuth Tito Amato.  Her first novel, Interrupted Aria, was published by Poisoned Pen Press in 2004.  The complete series encompasses six books.  Her first published short story, "A Baroque Phantom," was also set in Venice and has been followed by numerous others.  Four stories which have been published in Alfred Hitchcock Mystery Magazine form a series featuring Nicco Zianni, an 18th-century "Private Eye."

Myers' work has been nominated for the Macavity Award, Kentucky Literary Award, and Derringer Award.  One of her short stories, "Haven City," was named a Notable Story of 2006 by the Million Writers Award.

She is a member of Mystery Writers of America and the Historical Fiction Authors Cooperative.  She has served on the boards of the Midwest Chapter of MWA, HFAC, her local Sisters in Crime chapter, and was Program Chair for the Kentucky Woman's Book Festival 2006.

Novels

Short stories

Articles

References

External links
Beverle Graves Myers Official Website
Poisoned Pen Press
Fantastic Fiction Beverle Graves Myers entry

Historical Fiction eBooks Author Page

1951 births
Living people
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
21st-century American novelists
American mystery writers
American women novelists
University of Louisville alumni
Writers of historical mysteries
Women mystery writers
21st-century American women writers
Women historical novelists
Novelists from Kentucky
Kentucky women writers

Beverle Graves Myers


This is a list of wars involving Republic of Kazakhstan, Kazakh and the predecessor states of Kazakhstan to the present day. It also includes wars fought outside Kazakhstan by the Kazakh military.

Legends of results:

Cumania (1025—1241)
After the fall of the Kimek-Kipchak confederation at the beginning of the 11th century. military-political hegemony on the territory of the former settlement of the Kimek, Kipchak and Cuman tribes passed into the hands of the Kipchak khans. The dynastic nobility of the Kipchaks who came to power began to take active steps in the southern and western directions, which led to direct contacts with the states of Central Asia and Southeast Europe.

Golden Horde (1242—1428)

The Golden Horde (Kipchak Khanate), self-designated as Ulug Ulus, lit. 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire.

Kazakh Khanate and Kazakh Jüzes (1465—1848)
Kazakh Khanate was established by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan in 1465. Both khans came from Turco-Mongol clan of Tore which traces its lineage to Genghis Khan through dynasty of Jochids. The Tore clan continued to rule the khanate until its fall to the Russian Empire.

From 16th to 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate ruled and expanded its territories to eastern Cumania (modern-day West Kazakhstan), to most of Uzbekistan, Karakalpakstan and the Syr Darya river with military confrontation as far as Astrakhan and Khorasan Province, which are now in Russia and Iran, respectively. The Khanate was later weakened by a series of Oirat and Dzungar invasions. These resulted in a decline and further disintegration into three Juzes, which gradually lost their sovereignty and were incorporated to the expanding Russian Empire in the 19th century.

Kazakh Khanate (1465-1824, 1841-1847)

Junior Jüz under Russian Empire (1731–1848)

Senior Jüz under Khiva and Kokand (1783-1850)

Kazakhstan in the Russian Empire (1848—1917)
In 1847, the khan's power in the Kazakh zhuzes was abolished, and the territory as an administrative unit was included in the Russian Empire.

Alash-Orda (1917—1920)
Kazakhs, tired of almost a century of Russian colonization, started to rise up. In the 1870s-80s, schools in Kazakhstan massively started to open, which developed elite, future Kazakh members of the Alash party. In 1916, after conscription of Muslims into the military for service in the Eastern Froby during World War I, Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs rose up against the Russian government, with uprisings until February 1917.

The state was proclaimed during the Second All-Kazakh Congress held at Orenburg from 5–13 December 1917 OS (18-26 NS), with a provisional government being established under the oversight of Alikhan Bukeikhanov. However, the nation's purported territory was still under the de facto control of the region's Russian-appointed governor, Vassily Balabanov, until 1919. In 1920, he fled the Russian Red Army for self-imposed exile in China, where he was recognised by the Chinese as Kazakhstan's legitimate ruler.

Following its proclamation in December 1917, Alash leaders established the Alash Orda, a Kazakh government which was aligned with the White Army and fought against the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War. In 1919, when the White forces were losing, the Alash Autonomous government began negotiations with the Bolsheviks. By 1920, the Bolsheviks had defeated the White Russian forces in the region and occupied Kazakhstan. On 17 August 1920, the Soviet government established the Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, which in 1925 changed its name to Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, and finally to Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936.

Soviet Age (1920—1991)
The Kazakh ASSR was originally created as the Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (not to be confused with Kirghiz ASSR of 1926–1936, on 26 August 1920 and was an autonomous republic within the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.

At  in area, it was the second-largest republic in the USSR, after the Russian SFSR. Its capital was Alma-Ata (today known as Almaty). During its existence as a Soviet Socialist Republic, it was ruled by the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR (QKP).

Kazakh actions against the Soviet regime

Altai Kazakhs

Republic of Kazakhstan (1991—present)
Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union from 1988 to 1991.

See also
 List of massacres in Kazakhstan

References

Kazakhstan
Military history of Kazakhstan
Wars
|}

List of wars involving Kazakhstan


Lina Pires de Campos née Del Vecchio (São Paulo, 18 June 1918 – São Paulo, 14 April 2003) was a Brazilian pianist, music educator and composer of both classical and popular music.

Life
Lina Pires de Campos was born in São Paulo, Brazil, the daughter of Italian luthier Angelo Del Vecchio. She studied piano with Ema Lubrano Franco and Léo Peracchi and music theory and composition with Furio Franceschini, Caldeira Filho and Osvaldo Lacerda. Later she studied composition with Camargo Guarnieri.

Pires de Campos worked as assistant to Magda Tagliaferro and in 1964 founded her own piano school. She won awards as a composer including in 1961 the Roquete Pinto medal and the second place composition prize from Radio Mec. Her works have been performed internationally.

Works
Selected works include:
Improvisação I for flute
Improvisação II for flute
Improvisação III for flute
Ponteio e Toccatina for guitar
Quatro Prelúdios for viola
Confession song (lyrics by Alice Guarnieri)
Embolada
I'm Like the Spring
Fad
Portrait
Tune
You Say He Loves Me

Her works have been recorded and issued on disc, including:
1984 25 Years of Composition, (LP)
1998 Lina Pires de Campos: Audible Universe Audio CD

References

1918 births
2003 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Brazilian music educators
Brazilian women classical composers
Brazilian classical composers
Brazilian women composers
Brazilian women music educators
20th-century women composers
Brazilian pianists
Brazilian women pianists

Lina Pires de Campos


The Bolsheviks (, ; from большинство, , 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin, were a far-left faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Their ideology and practices, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, are known as Bolshevism.

The origin of the split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the two factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split into Bolshevik and Menshevik parties. The Bolsheviks' political philosophy was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. After the February Revolution of 1917 which overthrew the tsar, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for "no support for the Provisional Government" and "all power to the soviets". In the summer of 1917, especially after the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution which overthrew the government. The party initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, the party became linked to his policies of "socialism in one country", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control.

History of the split

Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?

Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called "artisanal work" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely.

The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual "withering away of the state". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as "Economists", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.

Second Party Congress
At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone "who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations." Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.

The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable.

Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What Is To Be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs" while Lenin supporters became known as "hards."

Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia. Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.

Etymology of Bolshevik and Menshevik
The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks, from the Russian bolshinstvo, 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks, from menshinstvo, 'minority'. However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.

From 1907 onward, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for "Bolshevik" and Minimalist for "Menshevik," which proved to be confusing as there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.

The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.

Demographics of the two factions
The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members.

Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)
Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party.

All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized.

The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.

Mensheviks (1906–07)

As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.

However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.

Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)
Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.

With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as "recallists" (Russian: otzovists). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists" and was generally allied with the recallists.

With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.

Final attempt at party unity (1910)
With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try.

One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.  This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting.

Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.

Forming a separate party (1912)

The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters.

Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I.

Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.

One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions.

In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion.

Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name "Bolshevik"
 Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party
 Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party
 India: Bolshevik Party of India
 India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma
 India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)
 Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party
 Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei
 South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa
 Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party
 Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)

Derogatory usage of "Bolshevik"

Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.

During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "commie," "Red," or "pinko" in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.

See also

Bolshevism
 Left Socialist-Revolutionaries
 Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks
 Leninism
 Marxism–Leninism
 Old Bolshevik
 Rabochaya Molva
 Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)
 Trotskyism

Notes

References

Sources

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External links

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 by Bertrand Russell, November 1920.
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Defunct communist parties in Russia
Political parties established in 1903
Political parties of the Russian Revolution
Political party factions in Russia

Bolsheviks


Yasmin Maree Catley is an Australian politician who has served as Minister for Police and Counter-terrorism in New South Wales since 2023. She was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as the member for Swansea for the Labor Party at the 2015 New South Wales state election.

Formerly a librarian with the Lake Macquarie City Council, she has worked in the offices of Federal Labor MPs Greg Combet and Anthony Albanese. She is married to Robert Coombs who himself served as the member for Swansea from 2007 to 2011.

Catley was appointed to the Shadow Ministry by NSW Labor Leader Luke Foley as the Shadow Minister for Innovation and Better Regulation in March 2015.

From June 2019 to May 2021, Catley was Deputy Leader of the ALP and hence Deputy Leader of the Opposition. Catley resigned as deputy leader on 28 May 2021 along with leader Jodi McKay.

References

External links

Living people
People from the Central Coast (New South Wales)
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of New South Wales
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
Labor Left politicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century Australian politicians
Women members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
21st-century Australian women politicians

Yasmin Catley