Germany–Russia relations display cyclical patterns, moving back and forth from cooperation and alliance to strain and to total warfare. Historian John Wheeler-Bennett says that since the 1740s:
Relations between Russia and Germany...have been a series of alienations,  distinguished for their bitterness, and of rapprochements, remarkable for their warmth....A cardinal factor in the relationship has been the existence of an independent Poland...when separated by a buffer state the two great Powers of eastern Europe have  been friendly, whereas a contiguity of frontiers has bred hostility.

Otto von Bismarck established the League of the Three Emperors in 1873 with Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. But after Bismarck's dismissal in 1890, his successors chose to support Austria against Russia over competing influence in the Balkans. Germany fought against Russia in World War I (1914–1918). Relations were warm in the 1920s, very cold in the 1930s, friendly in 1939–41, and then turned into war to the death in 1941–45. In the 1920s both countries co-operated with each other in trade and (secretly) in military affairs.  Hostilities escalated in the 1930s as the Fascists sponsored by Berlin and the Communists sponsored by Moscow fought each other across the world, most famously in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39).  In a stunning turnabout in August 1939, both countries came to an agreement, and divided up the previously independent nations of Eastern Europe. That détente collapsed in 1941 when Germany invaded the USSR. The Soviets survived however and formed an alliance with Britain and the U.S., and pushed the Germans back, capturing Berlin in May 1945.

During the Cold War 1947–1991, Germany was divided, with East Germany under Communist control and under the close watch of Moscow, which stationed a large military force there and repressed an uprising in 1953.  Since the end of the Cold War and German reunification, in 1989–91, Germany and Russia have developed a "Strategic Partnership" in which energy is indisputably one of the most important factors. Germany and Russia depend on each other for energy, namely in Germany's need for energy from Russia and Russia's need for heavy German investment to develop its energy infrastructure.

According to a 2014 BBC World Service poll, only 21% of Germans view Russia's influence positively, which is on a par with the United States of America. Russians, however, have a much more positive view of Germany than Germans do of Russia, with 57% viewing Germany's influence positively and 12% negatively.

Relations turned highly negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine.  Germany was a leader between NATO Quint in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh European Union sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of President Vladimir Putin. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU.

The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine led to a near complete reversal of German-Russian relations with the new German Chancellor, Olaf Scholz, "ordering" the immediate transfer of thousands of missiles to the Ukrainian military to aid in its fight against the invading Russian forces. Germany has also participated in severe economic banking sanctions against Russia since the start of the war. However, Germany is very dependent on Russia for natural gas and has been less willing to sanction this sector, aside from halting the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline and the attack on September 26 temporarily shutting the pipes down. The pipeline made up a significant portion of Germany's petroleum imports from Russia. In response to sanctions imposed by Germany and the West, Russia gradually plunged flows of gas, which came to a complete halt in September 2022.

History

Early history

The earliest contact between Germans and East Slavs is unknown, though evidence of  East Germanic loan-words suggest Slavic interactions with the Goths.  Substantive historically recorded contact goes back to the times of the  Teutonic Knights' campaigns in the  Baltic, where the Knights  took control of the land in the 13th century CE. Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of the Ice in 1242.

Russia before the mid-18th century stood largely aloof from German affairs, while Germany, until the Napoleonic period, remained divided into numerous small states under the nominal leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor.

After Russia's Great Northern War of 1700-1721 against  Sweden, however, Russia's influence spread definitively into the Baltic area.

German migrations eastward
Over the centuries, from the Middle Ages onwards, German settlers steadily moved eastward, often into mostly Slavic areas and areas near to or controlled by Russia. Flegel points out that German farmers, traders and entrepreneurs moved into East and West Prussia, the Baltic region (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia), the Danzig and Vistula River region,  Galicia, Slovenia, the Banat, the Bachka, Bukovina, Transylvania, the Volga River district of Russia,  Posen, the Duchy of Warsaw, Polish and Ukrainian Volhynia, Bessarabia, and the  Mount Ararat region between the 17th and the 20th centuries. Often they came at the invitation of  Russian governments. The Germans typically became the dominant factors in land-owning and in business enterprise. Some groups, such as part of the Mennonites, migrated to North America 1860–1914.  The Germans in the Baltic states returned home voluntarily in 1940. Some 12 to 14 million were brutally expelled from Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries in Eastern Europe in 1944–46, with the death of 500,000 or more.  When the Cold War ended Germany funded the return of hundreds of thousands of people of German descent, whether or not they spoke German.

A number of Baltic Germans served as ranking generals in the Russian Imperial Army and Navy, including Michael Barclay de Tolly, Adam von Krusenstern, Fabian von Bellingshausen, Friedrich von Buxhoeveden, Paul von Rennenkampf, Ivan Ivanovich Michelson and Eduard Totleben.

Many Baltic Germans (such as Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, Baron Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Yevgeny Miller, and Anatoly Lieven) sided with the Whites and related anti-Bolshevik forces (like the Baltische Landeswehr and the Freikorps movement) during the Russian Civil War.

Prussia and Russia
With the creation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 and the proclamation of the Russian Empire in 1721, two powerful new states emerged that began to interact.

They fought on opposite sides during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748), but the war saw both grow in power. Russia defeated Sweden and Prussia defeated Austria. Russia and Prussia again were at odds during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and fought the battles of  Gross-Jägersdorf, Zorndorf, Kay and Kunersdorf.  However, when Russian Tsar Peter III came to power, he made peace with Prussia by signing the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, allowing Prussian King Frederick the Great to concentrate on his other enemies.

Prussia and Russia in agreement with Austria then cooperated to carve up Poland-Lithuania between them in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Poland disappeared from the map.

Both Russia and Prussia had absolute monarchies that reacted sharply when the French Revolution executed the king. They at first were part of the coalition against the new French regime during the French Revolutionary Wars and later the Napoleonic Wars.  During the Napoleonic era (1799 to 1815) Austria, Prussia, and Russia were at one time or another in coalition with Napoleon against his arch-enemy Great Britain. In the end, the two German states of Austria and Prussia united with Russia and Britain in opposing Napoleon. That coalition was primarily a matter of convenience for each nation.  The key matchmaker was the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich,  who forged a united front that proved decisive in overthrowing Napoleon, 1813–1814.

Russia was the most powerful force on the continent after 1815 and played a major role in the Concert of Europe which included France, Russia, Austria and Britain, but not Prussia. In 1815, the Holy Alliance consisting of Prussia, Russia and Austria was completed in Paris. For forty years (1816–56) Russian-German diplomat Karl Nesselrode as foreign minister guided Russian foreign policy. The revolutions of 1848 did not reach Russia, but its political and economic system was inadequate to maintain a modern army.  It did poorly in the Crimean War.  As Fuller notes, "Russia had been beaten on the Crimean peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless steps were taken to surmount its military weakness." The Crimean War marked the end of the Concert of Europe. Prussia was shaken by the Revolutions of 1848 but was able to withstand the revolutionaries' call to war against Russia.  Prussia did go to war with Denmark, however, and was only stopped by British and Russian pressure. Prussia remained neutral in the Crimean War.

Prussia's successes in the Wars of German Unification in the 1860s were facilitated by Russia's lack of involvement.  The creation of the German Empire under Prussian dominance in 1871, however, greatly changed the relations between the two countries.

The German and Russian Empires

Initially, it seemed as if the two great empires would be strong allies.  German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck formed the  League of the Three Emperors in 1872 binding together Russia, Austria, and Germany. The League stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies, and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. In 1877–1878, Russia fought a victorious war with the Ottoman Empire and attempted to impose the Treaty of San Stefano on it. This upset the British in particular, as they were long concerned with preserving the Ottoman Empire and preventing a Russian takeover of the Bosphorus. Germany hosted the Congress of Berlin (1878), whereby a more moderate peace settlement was agreed to. Germany had no direct interest in the Balkans, however, which was largely an Austrian and Russian sphere of influence.

In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin.  The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia.  Russia turned its attention eastward to Asia and remained largely inactive in European politics for the next 25 years.

Germany was somewhat worried about Russia's potential industrialization—it had far more potential soldiers—while Russia feared Germany's already established industrial power.  In 1907 Russia went into a coalition with Britain and France, the Triple Entente.

The ultimate result of this was that Russia and Germany became enemies in World War I. The Eastern Front saw Germany successful, with victories at Tannenberg, First and Second Masurian Lakes and Lake Naroch. The czarist system collapsed in 1917. The Bolsheviks came to power in the October Revolution.  The new regime signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk  which was highly advantageous to Germany, although it was reversed when Germany surrendered to the Allies in November 1918.

Interwar period

After the peace treaties that ended the Great War, the newly created states of the Weimar Republic and the Soviet Union both found themselves outcasts in the international system and gravitated toward each other. The Treaty of Rapallo (1922) formalized their warming relationship. Until 1933 the Soviet Union secretly provided training camps for the German Armed Forces.

The coming to power in 1933  of Adolf Hitler and the creation of the Nazi state with its virulent anti-Semitic and anti-communist rhetoric made for extremely hostile propaganda in both directions. Nazi propaganda, across Europe and Latin America, focused on warnings against Jewish and Bolshevik threats emanating from Moscow. The Comintern, representing Moscow's international Communist network,  moved to a popular front approach after 1934, allowing the Communists worldwide to cooperate with socialists, intellectuals and workers  on the left in opposing Fascism. The worldwide left-wing support for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) proved of enormous aid to the Communist cause. Germany and the Soviets both sent military forces and advisors into Spain, as did Italy.

The Spanish Civil War was in part a proxy war. The Nationalists  led by General Francisco Franco and the Republican government fought it out for the control of the country. Militarily, the Nationalists usually had the upper hand and they won in the end. Germany sent in the Condor Legion comprising elite air and tank units to the  Nationalist forces.  The Soviet Union sent military and political advisors, and sold munitions in support of the "Loyalist," or Republican, side. The Comintern helped Communist parties around the world send volunteers to the International Brigades that fought for the Loyalists.

In August 1939 the two totalitarian states stunned the world by coming to a major agreement, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. They agreed to invade and partition Poland and divided up Eastern Europe. The Soviets provided Germany with oil and reversed the anti-Nazi rhetoric of Communist parties around the world. At the same time, the Soviet and German interests were not reconciled in the Balkano-Danubian region. Thus, during 1940-1941 hot Soviet-German discussions concerning a new division of the South-Eastern Europe were going on. In June 1940, Moscow recognized that Slovakia was in the German sphere of influence. Otherwise, Russian request for the exclusive influence in Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey was rejected by Berlin in November 1940.

German invasion of Soviet Union and World War II

In 1941, it was Russia's turn, yet Joseph Stalin refused to believe the multiple warnings of a German invasion.  Operation Barbarossa began in June 1941, captured  or destroyed multiple Soviet armies, and reached the gates of Moscow by December. Stalin fought back and forged close relations with Britain and the United States, both of which provided large amounts of munitions.

The Eastern Front became the horrendous ideological and race war with more than 27 million killed, including Soviet prisoners of war and Jews. It was perhaps the bloodiest conflict in human history.

After the war: the Soviet Union and the two German states

The defeat of Germany by the Soviets and the Western allies eventually led to the occupation and partition of Germany and the expulsions of most ethnic-Germans from Soviet-conquered areas.

The creation of West Germany and East Germany complicated relations.  West Germany initially tried to claim that it was the only German state and the East was illegitimate and under the Hallstein Doctrine refused to have relation with any socialist state except the Soviet Union itself.  This policy eventually gave way to Ostpolitik, under which West Germany recognized the East.

Gorbachev gave up on trying to support the deeply unpopular East German government. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Germany was allowed to reunite by the World War II Allies. The Communist regime in East Germany collapsed and the country became part of West Germany. One issue was the presence of large numbers of Soviet troops; West Germany paid for their repatriation for housing them in the USSR.

Remarkably, despite the two 20th century wars, there are very few hard feelings against Germany in modern Russia, particularly on the part of Russians born after 1945. Moreover, in many places in Russia German war cemeteries were established in places of fierce World War II battles.

Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian Federation

Relations between the two nations since the fall of Communism in 1991 have been generally good but not always without tension.  German chancellor Gerhard Schröder placed high value on relations with Russia and worked for the completion of the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline between them.  His successor Angela Merkel, an Easterner and former dissident, has been more critical and clashed with Russian president Vladimir Putin over human rights and other issues. However, she, like her predecessor, always put a high value on the Nordstream pipeline, due to its ability to increase Russian influence. Most of the human rights issues could be seen as side-shows for the public - whilst the end-goal was always the completion of, and compensation for, NordStream. The project under both the Bush and Obama administration moved forward at rapid pace, but with only 300 km left, the Trump Administration halted the project by putting pressure on the Danish company overseeing the completion of the pipeline. Germany's relations with Russia were never likely to be as cozy under Angela Merkel as under her predecessor, Gerhard Schröder, who adopted a 3-year-old Russian girl and, on his 60th birthday, invited President Vladimir V. Putin home to celebrate.

Germany created a German-Russian Forum () in 1993. Alexandra Gräfin Lambsdorff was its first president.

21st century

After the failure of the Soviet Union and troubles of the early Russian Federation, a policy of rapprochement named Wandel durch Handel ensued.

In 2007 then-Minister of Foreign Affairs Frank-Walter Steinmeier published a long article explaining his rationale on EU being such a exceptional role model on international cooperation that Putinite Russia will unavoidably get "like us" by merely "intertwining of interests" (Verflechtung), and also that "a pan-European peace order and a lasting solution to important security problems (…) can only be achieved with Russia, not without it or even against it".

Even after the five-day Russo-Georgian War in August 2008, Steinmeier argued for a new Ostpolitik and proposed a comprehensive project of 'Partnership for Modernisation' – a continued attempt of 'westernisation' of Russia and thus an export of norms, institutions and procedures of the western community. Relations were normal in the first part of the new century, with expanding trade relations and an increasing German reliance on pipeline shipments of Russian natural gas, especially in light of the November 2011 completion of the Nord Stream 1 pipeline. Generations of German foreign ministers helped over many years to admit Putin into the WTO, which occurred after a span of two decades in 2011.

Relations turned negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine. Germany was a leader  between NATO Quint in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of President Putin. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU.

Since the crisis began, Chancellor Angela Merkel told President Putin that the referendum on accession of Crimea to Russia is illegal.

2014–2021

The European Union, the United States and their allies began using economic sanctions to force Russia to reverse course regarding Ukraine and stop supporting 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine.  The Los Angeles Times reported that:
Merkel and her fellow Western leaders are angered by Russia's actions in Ukraine, especially its seizure of Crimea, support for pro-Russia separatists in eastern Ukraine and fresh military incursion. Moscow's denial that it has any involvement in Ukraine's blood conflict only irks them more. The German chancellor has signaled a tougher stance toward Russia, spelling out her willingness to sacrifice German economic interests and further boost sanctions to send a strong message that Moscow's actions are unacceptable. [She said,] "Being able to change borders in Europe without consequences, and attacking other countries with troops, is in my view a far greater danger than having to accept certain disadvantages for the economy."

On the left, however, former Social Democrat Chancellor Gerhard Schröder announced his understanding of Russian policies and support for Putin. The New York Times editorialized that Schröder's decision to "embrace him [Putin] in a bear hug sent an unacceptable signal that some prominent Europeans are willing to ignore Mr. Putin's brutish ways."  According to the Russian news agency ITAR/TASS in September 2014, Russia's Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev admitted the sanctions are hurting the Russian economy and slowing its growth. However he expected to support oil industries that are hurt, to seek financing and high technology from Asia, and to import food from new sources. Germany also tried to persuade Russia to return to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which it had abrogated in March 2015. Even as late as 2016, "German leaders rejected the proposal to send weapons to the post-Maidan Ukrainian government, as advocated by Republican congressmen in the US and treated as a possibility by Barack Obama, since pursuit of a military solution to the conflict collided with Germany's post-war pacific security culture."

Germany has traditionally been one of Russia's key economic partners. The annual trade turnover between the two countries had exceeded the $80 billion-level just before the sanctions were imposed. It is estimated that mutual sanctions entailed the decline in the bilateral trade volume of up to 20% that meant billions of losses for the German economy and, obviously, many jobs being cut. By early 2014, when the conflict was about to start, not only did German exports to Russia constitute the third of the whole EU's, but more than 6,200 German firms operated in Russia itself. In 2017, for the first time since the introduction of anti-Russian sanctions in 2014, bilateral trade increased - by 22.8%, amounting to about $50 billion. In the first eight months of 2018, the volume of mutual trade between Russia and Germany increased by almost a quarter compared to the same period last year. At the same time, Russian exports to Germany in 2018 increased by 35% to $22.1 billion, while imports rose by 12% to $16.9 billion.

Russians believe their main enemies in the world are the U.S., Ukraine, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, with 62 percent of Russians polled have a poor opinion of the EU, while Germany is rated poorly, according to a Levada Center poll that measures sentiments towards other countries.  Belarus, Kazakhstan, Cuba, China, India and Armenia are Russia's best friends in the world, according to the poll asking which countries do Russians see favorably. Nonetheless, Russians are most hostile towards the United States, with 82 percent of Russians polled picking America as a top-five enemy. Ukraine came second, with 48 percent of those polled believing the country is a foe. Germany, while not rated favorably, is seen with a friendlier attitude by Russians.

A Levada poll released in August 2018 found that 68% of Russian respondents believe that Russia needs to dramatically improve relations with Western countries, including Germany. A Levada poll released in February 2020 found that 80% of Russian respondents believe that Russia and the West should become friends and partners.

The East StratCom Task Force of the European External Action Service registered an increase in false information propagated in Russia about Germany as a result of the deterioration in German-Russian relations developed since the Poisoning of Alexei Navalny.

In October 2021, German Defense Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer had talked about the possibility of deploying nuclear weapons against Russia. She noted that nuclear weapons are a "means of deterrence."

2022–present

After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine started, Germany, as one of the EU countries, imposed sanctions on Russia, and Russia added all EU countries to the list of "unfriendly nations". Germany joined other countries in spring 2022 in declaring a number of Russian diplomats persona non grata.

In April 2022, the German government said it will send 1 billion euros in military aid to Ukraine. On 17 May 2022, German Finance Minister Christian Lindner said he is "politically open to the idea of seizing" the frozen foreign-exchange reserves of the Central Bank of Russia —which amount to over $300 billion— to cover the costs of rebuilding Ukraine after the war. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Alexander Grushko remarked that it would amount to "complete lawlessness", and that the measure would hurt Germany if adopted.

German Riol Chemie GmbH has allegedly illegally delivered chemicals to Russia, including precursor for Novichok.

In late 2022, Germany announced its first trade deficit since 1991, after it introduced a Russian oil embargo. The country has been buckling under an acute energy shortage, approving cost-intensive subsidies to protect households from soaring energy bills. In fall 2022, Russia had halted gas flows via the Nord Stream 1 pipeline several times, blaming Western sanctions against Russia. Russia's foreign ministry blamed the United States for Germany's energy crisis, by pushing its leaders towards a "suicidal" step of cutting economic and energy cooperation with Moscow, which he claimed had been a reliable energy supplier since Soviet times, despite previous Russian-Ukrainian gas disputes having affected Russia's natural gas supply to Europe in 2006 and 2009.

The discussion on the legitimacy of economic sanctions against Russia had a significant impact on Germany's political landscape. Parties to the right (AfD) and to the left (Die Linke) are split on the issue whether economic sanctions are effective to stop the conflict, and how they impact the German economy. Proponents of the right wanted to support the Nord Stream 2 pipeline, while politicians to the left have voiced similar concerns with regard to Germany's economic viability.

In April 2023, Germany expelled 50 Russian diplomats, the action was reportedly taken "in order to reduce the presence of Russian intelligence in Germany". Russia closed four of the five Russian Consulates in Germany. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded by expelling 34 German diplomats from Moscow, stating that Germany "continues to demonstratively destroy the entire array of Russian-German relations". In May 2023, the German Foreign Ministry stated that hundreds of Germans would be expelled from Moscow at the beginning of June, this due to a decision by Russia to cap the number of German employees in the country. Those expelled include employees from the German School Moscow.

Russians in Germany

Since German reunification, Germany is home to a fast-growing and large community of people of Russian ancestry who have moved to Germany as full citizens. In the 1990s, some 100,000 to 200,000 arrived annually.  Germany also has funded the communities that remain behind in Russia.

Education
Russian international schools in Germany include the Russian Embassy School in Berlin and the Russian Consulate School in Bonn. There is a German school in Russia: German School Moscow.

Cooperation

Russia regards Germany as its foremost European partner; conversely, Russia is an important trading partner for Germany.
Germany and Russia are cooperating in building the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline.
Many former East Germans have a good command of the Russian language and considerable knowledge about Russia. The German language is in a firm second place (behind English) at Russian schools. President Putin speaks German at a near-native level, Chancellor Merkel speaks Russian fluently and both leaders also have a strong command of English. On 11 April 2005, a "Joint Declaration on a Strategic Partnership in Education, Research and Innovation" was signed by Chancellor Schröder and President Putin. This accord aims at stepping up bilateral cooperation in the education sector, particularly in training specialist and executive personnel.
Germany has a heavy industry with the size and capacity to modernize infrastructure in Russia. Russia in turn has vast natural resources which are of significant interest to the German economy.
A major success in environment policy is Russia's ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on 27 October 2004, which will also bring economic benefits.
Germany was a strong supporter for Russia's participation in the Group of 8.
 Germany along with France and Russia opposed Ukrainian and Georgian invitations to NATO during NATO's Bucharest summit in 2008. Consequently, NATO did not invite Ukraine and Georgia to MAP (Membership Action Plan).

Embassies

The Embassy of Germany is located in Moscow, Russia. The Embassy of Russia is located in Berlin, Germany.

See also

Russia in the European energy sector
Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941
Cold War II

References

Bibliography

 Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule (Belknap, 2004)
 Beyrau, Dietrich,  and Mark Keck-Szajbel. "Mortal Embrace: Germans and (Soviet) Russians in the First Half of the 20th Century," Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, Volume 10, Number 3, Summer 2009 pp. 423–439
 Burleigh, Michael. Germany turns eastwards: a study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (1988)
 David-Fox, Michael, Peter Holquist, and Alexander M. Martin, eds. Fascination and Enmity: Russia and Germany as Entangled Histories, 1914-1945 (U. of Pittsburgh Press; 2012) 392 pages; considers the perceptions and misperceptions  on both sides
 Dulian, A. "The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: Historical Background," International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations, 2009, Vol. 55 Issue 6, pp 181–187
 Dyck, Harvey L. Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia, 1926-1933 (1984)
 Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to 'frostpolitik'? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." International Affairs 92.1 (2016): 21-42 online
 Geyer, Michael, and Sheila Fitzpatrick, eds. Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge University Press, 2009).
 Haslam, Jonathan. "Soviet-German Relations and the Origins of the Second World War: The Jury is Still Out," Journal of Modern History, 79 (1997), pp. 785–97 in JSTOR
 Jacobs, Jonathan. "Between Westbindung and Ostpolitik: Reconceptualising German-Russian Relations 2014-2017." (2019). online
 Jelavich, Barbara. St. Petersburg and Moscow: tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814-1974 (1974).
 Kuklick, Bruce American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Cornell U. Press, 1972)
 Laqueur, Walter. Russia and Germany (1965), covers what Russians and Germans thought of each other, 1860–1960.
 Leach, Barry A. German Strategy Against Russia, 1939-41 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)
 Lieven, Dominic. Russia against Napoleon: the battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814 (2009)
 Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. War on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge University Press, 2000)
 Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. The German myth of the East: 1800 to the present (Oxford University Press, 2010)
 Naimark, Norman M. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (1997)
 Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. Pariahs, partners, predators: German-Soviet relations, 1922-1941 (Columbia University Press, 1997).
 Overy, Richard. The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (2005)
 Roberts, Geoffrey. The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War: Russo-German Relations and the Road to War, 1933-41 (1995)
 Salzmann, Stephanie. Great Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union: Rapallo and after, 1922-1934 (2002)
 Schroeder, Paul W. The transformation of European politics, 1763-1848 (1994) detailed diplomatic history covering Prusia and Russia (and the other major powers)

 Stent, Angela. Russia and Germany Reborn (2000) on 1990s
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Master in Europe: 1848-1918 (1954), a broad overview of the diplomacy of all the major powers
 Uldricks, Teddy J. "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II," History and Memory 21#2 (2009), pp. 60–2 online; historiography
 Watt, Donald Cameron. How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War; 1938-1939 (1989), pp. 361–84, 447–61.
 Weinberg, Gerhard L. Germany and the Soviet Union 1939-1941 (1972)
 Williamson, Jr., Samuel R. and Ernest R. May. "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," Journal of Modern History, June 2007, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp 335–387 in JSTOR
 Yoder, Jennifer A. "From Amity to Enmity: German-Russian Relations in the Post Cold War Period." German Politics & Society 33#3 (2015): 49–69.

External links

Petersburger Dialogue (in German and Russian only)
Bergedorfer Round Table

Russia
Bilateral relations of Russia

Germany–Russia relations


Thomas Edgar "Ed" Lyon (9 August 1903 – 20 September 1978) was a prominent Latter-day Saint historian and educator.  He is most noted for his work on 19th century Latter-day Saint history.  He also wrote on Latter-day Saint doctrine.

Lyon was born in Salt Lake City, Utah.  At age nine he began working in his father's print shop and at age 12 he began to spend summers doing ranch work in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.

Lyon graduated from LDS High School in Salt Lake City.  He studied for two years at the University of Utah and then left on a mission for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to the Netherlands.  He was set apart as a missionary by Melvin J. Ballard.

After his mission, Lyon resumed his studies at the University of Utah.  In 1927 he married Laura Hermana Forsberg.  They became the parents of six children, David Waldemar Lyon (born 9 July 1928), John Lyon (20 June 1930 – 15 October 2009), twins born in the Netherlands on 17 February 1934: A. Laurence Lyon (died 8 November 2006) and James Karl Lyon; and twins born 13 May 1939: Thomas Edgar "Ted" Lyon Jr. and Joseph Lynn Lyon.

After receiving his bachelor's degree from the University of Utah, Lyon taught high school for a year in Rigby, Idaho.  He then became a seminary principal in the Church Educational System.  In 1930, Lyon began work on a master's degree at the University of Chicago which he completed in 1932, writing his thesis on Orson Pratt.

Lyon then served for a short time as a professor at Ricks College.  In November 1933 he took over as president of the Netherlands Mission of the LDS Church from Frank I. Kooyman.

After his term as mission president, Lyon became a member of the faculty of the Salt Lake LDS Institute of Religion which largely consisted of students at the University of Utah.  Lyon received his Ph.D. in history from the University of Utah in 1962.

Lyon wrote several articles about early Latter-day Saint history, primarily the Nauvoo period.  His Introduction to the Doctrine and Covenants was used as the Melchizedek priesthood manual in 1960.  From 1968 to 1969, he was President of the Mormon History Association.  He also worked in the 1970s as a research historian for Nauvoo Restoration, Inc. and did extensive research for a book on the history of Nauvoo.  After Lyon's death in 1978, Glen M. Leonard took over the project, and had it published as Nauvoo: A Place of Peace, a People of Promise.

The Mormon History Association has named its award for excellent article on Mormon history after Lyon.

References

External links
 Register of the T. Edgar Lyon collection at BYU

1903 births
1978 deaths
20th-century Mormon missionaries
American historians of religion
American male non-fiction writers
American Latter Day Saint writers
American Mormon missionaries in the Netherlands
Brigham Young University–Idaho faculty
Church Educational System instructors
Historians of the Latter Day Saint movement
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
Writers from Salt Lake City
University of Chicago alumni
University of Utah alumni
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
20th-century American historians

T. Edgar Lyon


The Secrets of Radar Museum is a small museum located at 2155b Crumlin Sideroad near the London International Airport in London, Ontario, Canada.  Opened to the public in 2003, the museum was created to tell the story of the more than 6,000 Canadian World War II veterans who were recruited into a top-secret project during World War II involving radar.  Drawn from every walk of life, and sent around the world, these veterans were held to an Oath of Secrecy that was not fully lifted until 1991.

The museum is an incorporated not-for-profit museum located in London, Ontario.

Mandate
The Museum's mandate is threefold:
 To preserve the history and artifacts of the men and women who have served the RADAR division of the Canadian Military
 To educate the public on the history of RADAR in Canada
 To provide a therapeutic setting for veterans

About the Museum
During World War II, at the request of the British government, over 6,000 Canadians were trained on RADAR and sent to every theatre of war.  Subject to the Official Secrets Act, which expired after 50 years, it was only in 1991 that these men and women were able to share their experiences.  Canadian radar personnel were a crucial part of the war effort and the Secrets of Radar Museum preserves and shares their history.  Many of these early radar veterans went on to have leadership roles in the development of radar during the Cold War and in the Canadian electronics industry.

Collection
The Museum's collection includes several thousand photographs, as well as original radar equipment.  While most World War II-era radar equipment has long since been destroyed, the Museum has examples of GEE, Fishpond, H2X, IFF (Identify Friend or Foe) radars, along with magnetrons, vacuum tubes (known as valves in England) and several hundred personal artifacts of various types.  The Museum is also home to a substantial library and archive available to researchers, and numerous oral history interviews with radar veterans.

Programs
The museum offers curriculum-linked school programs related to history, geography, and science & technology for students in Grades 5 to 12.

Events
The museum is an annual participating site in Doors Open London and in 2012 was listed as one of the city's Top Ten sites.

Plans
Since moving to its new location in the summer of 2017, it has opened its exhibit on Cold War radar history, including DEW Line (Distant Early Warning) and Pinetree Line radar history.  The museum is also planning to develop a travelling exhibition about Cold War radar and the experiences of the people working in the field.  In 2017, the museum received funding from the Virtual Museum of Canada to develop a web-based exhibit about London, Ontario's radar history.  The project is underway with completion set for the first half of 2018.

Affiliations
The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, OMMC, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.

See also
Organization of Military Museums of Canada
Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum
Military history of Canada
Commonwealth Air Training Plan Museum
Cold Lake Air Force Museum
Comox Air Force Museum
National Air Force Museum of Canada

References

External links

 The Secrets of Radar Museum
 Canadian War Museum Radar History Page

Radar
Museums in London, Ontario
Military and war museums in Canada
History museums in Ontario
World War II museums in Canada
Aerospace museums in Ontario

Secrets of Radar Museum


The Scuola Grande di San Marco is a building in Venice, Italy, designed by the well-known Venetian architects Pietro Lombardo, Mauro Codussi, and  Bartolomeo Bon. It was originally the home to one of the Scuole Grandi of Venice, or six major confraternities, but is now the city's hospital. It faces the Campo Santi Giovanni e Paolo, one of the largest squares in the city.

History

The edifice was built by the Confraternity of San Marco in 1260 to act as its seat. In 1485, however, it was destroyed by a large fire, and rebuilt in the following twenty years under a new design by Pietro Lombardo, with a fund established by the members. The façade, a masterwork with delicately decorated niches and pilasters, and with white or polychrome marble statues, was later completed by Mauro Codussi. While decorated with the polished marble elements of Renaissance classicism, the proliferation of arches and niches adds a retrogressive Byzantine flavor, an architectural feature of many conservative Venetian styles. One of the most notable aspects of the façade is the use of trompe-l'œil archways and portals on the ground floor, all executed in different types of marble. Between 2000 and 2005, the façade underwent conservation treatments funded by Save Venice Inc., the Getty Grant Program, and other donors.

Three of the greatest Italian explorers of the fifteenth century who left records of their travels were members of the Scuola: Ambrogio Contarini, Giosafat Barbaro, and Alvise da Mosto.

Jacopo Tintoretto furnished the Scuola with three paintings Miracle of the Slave (also known as The Miracle of St. Mark, 1548), St Mark's Body Brought to Venice, painted between 1562 and 1566, both paintings are currently housed in the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice, and Finding of the body of St Mark also painted between 1562 and 1566, an now held in the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan. Palma Vecchio also contributed to the cycle with Storm at Sea.

In 1819 it became an Austrian military hospital. It is now a civil hospital.

Since 2013 it is part of the Polo Museale della Scuola Grande di San Marco.

References

External links

Scuola Grande di San Marco

Renaissance architecture in Venice
1260 establishments in Europe
13th-century establishments in the Republic of Venice
Marco
Scuole Grandi of Venice

Scuola Grande di San Marco


Gundula Janowitz (born 2 August 1937) is an Austrian lyric soprano singer of operas, oratorios, lieder, and concerts. She is one of the most renowned opera singers of the 20th century and was pre-eminent in the 1960s and 1970s.

Career
Janowitz was born in Berlin, but grew up in Graz, Austria, where she became a naturalised Austrian. She studied at the Graz Conservatory in Austria, and had already begun to sing at the highest level by the end of the 1950s (Haydn's The Creation, with Herbert von Karajan in 1960). In 1959, Karajan engaged her as Barbarina in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro at the Vienna State Opera, of which she became a permanent member in 1962.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Janowitz became one of the most popular singers in her field internationally and she developed a comprehensive discography of works ranging from Bach to Richard Strauss. Those eminent conductors with whom she performed included Karajan, but also Otto Klemperer, Eugen Jochum, Leonard Bernstein, Rafael Kubelík, Karl Böhm, Georg Solti, and Carlos Kleiber.

One of the emphases of Janowitz's work was the development of song recitals, which she gave several times at the Salzburg Festival. Following her vocal career, she was active as a vocal teacher. In 1990, she temporarily took over the position of Opera Director in Graz.

Janowitz appeared on many of the great stages of the world, including the Glyndebourne Festival Opera, the Bayreuth Festival, the Salzburg Easter Festival, the Metropolitan Opera, the Paris Opera, La Scala and the Royal Opera House. In 1980, she sang the part of the Countess in a now legendary new production of The Marriage of Figaro (with Georg Solti as conductor, Giorgio Strehler as director and Ezio Frigerio as set designer). Her recording of Schubert's Lieder for female voice has been twice awarded Germany's Deutscher Schallplattenpreis.

Janowitz's farewell to the operatic stage was on 18 May 1990, at the Vienna State Opera in the title role of Ariadne auf Naxos (with Heinrich Hollreiser as conductor, and  as director and designer). She kept singing Lieder recitals until 1997, when she completely retired from performing. As well as being an honorary member of the Vienna State Opera and of the Academy of Music in Graz, she was appointed an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Music in London in 2000.

Voice and repertory
Janowitz's voice is recognizable by its pure, "creamy" tone, and rapid vibrato.  Like her predecessor Maria Stader, who had a similar timbre to hers, and like her contemporary, Elizabeth Harwood, Janowitz mastered first and foremost the high and middle register and lyrical-emotional expression. Despite her comparatively weak sound projection, she occasionally performed in dramatic roles (Sieglinde, Leonore, Elsa) or comic roles (Marzelline, Rosalinde), but she was most highly regarded as Fiordiligi, Countess Rosina Almaviva, Pamina, Agathe, Arabella, Ariadne, Countess Madeleine, and in sacred music (the Angel Gabriel, The Creation). Of her interpretation of Four Last Songs by Richard Strauss, David Bowie wrote: "Although Eleanor Steber and Lisa Della Casa do fine interpretations of this monumental work, Janowitz's performance [...] has been described, rightly, as transcendental. It aches with love for a life that is quietly fading. I know of no other piece of music, nor any performance, which moves me quite like this." With a few exceptions, she avoided foreign-language roles (although recordings exist of her singing Don Carlos and Verdi's Requiem and all three Mozart/DaPonte operas in Italian). An excerpt of her portrayal of the Figaro Countess in the duettino "Canzonetta sull'aria" with Swiss soprano Edith Mathis features prominently in the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption.

Selected discography
 With Otto Klemperer: The Magic Flute
 With Herbert von Karajan: The Creation, The Seasons, Die Walküre, Götterdämmerung, St Matthew Passion, Mass in B minor, Fidelio (as Marzelline), Ninth Symphony, Missa solemnis, A German Requiem, Four Last Songs
 With Bernard Haitink, Four Last Songs
 With Leonard Bernstein: Fidelio (as Leonore)
 With Eugen Jochum: Carmina Burana
 With Carlos Kleiber: Der Freischütz
 With Karl Böhm: Così fan tutte, The Marriage of Figaro, Die Fledermaus, The Seasons, Capriccio
 With Jeffrey Tate: Don Giovanni (as Donna Elvira)
 With Rafael Kubelík: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Lohengrin
 With Rudolf Kempe: Ariadne auf Naxos
 With Karl Richter: Christmas Oratorio, Messiah, Orfeo ed Euridice
 With Hans Knappertsbusch: Parsifal (1962, as Flower Girl)
 With Helmut Koch: Judas Maccabaeus
 With Ferdinand Leitner: Armida
 With Wilfried Boettcher: Mozart: Concert Arias, Georg Philipp Telemann: Ino (Dramatic Cantata)
 Lieder by Franz Schubert, with Charles Spencer (piano)
 Lieder by Franz Schubert, with Irwin Gage (piano). Includes "Gretchen am Spinnrade", "Die Männer sind méchant", and "Der Hirt auf dem Felsen"
 Das Marienleben, Op.27, by Paul Hindemith, with Irwin Gage (piano).

Filmography
Concerts
 Gundula Janowitz: In Concert (recorded live) (1970, conductor Berislav Klobučar, Video Artists International Inc.)
 Beethoven Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op.125 "Choral" (1968, conductor/director Herbert von Karajan, Unitel Classica)
 Bach Mass in B minor BWV 232 (1969, conductor Karl Richter; director Arne Arbom, Unitel Classica)
 Mozart Requiem K.626 (1971, conductor Karl Böhm; director Hugo Käch, Unitel Classica)
 Brahms Ein Deutsches Requiem, op.45 (1978, conductor/director Herbert von Karajan, Unitel Classica)

Operas
 Così fan tutte (1969, conductor Karl Böhm; director Václav Kašlík, Unitel Classica)
 Die Fledermaus (1972, conductor Karl Böhm; director Otto Schenk, Unitel Classica)
 Arabella (1977, conductor Sir Georg Solti; director Otto Schenk, Unitel Classica)
 Fidelio (1977, conductor Zubin Mehta; director Pierre Jourdan, Gaumont Distribution)
 Ariadne auf Naxos (1978, conductor, Karl Böhm; director John Vernon, Unitel Classica)
 Fidelio (1978, conductor, Leonard Bernstein; director Otto Schenk, Deutsche Grammophon)

Decorations and awards
 Kammersängerin (Austria, 1969; Berlin, 1974)
 1978 Joseph Marx Music Prize of the State of Styria
 2000 Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
 2003 Gold Medal for services to the City of Vienna
 Grand Gold Decoration of Styria
 2019 Hugo-Wolf-Award

References

External links
Website about Janowitz archived on 2014-12-27

Complete discography
Cast list of Janowitz' final opera performance, Ariadne auf Naxos, Vienna State Opera, 18 May 1990
Excerpts from her final recital, given in 1999
 Recording of Le nozze di Figaro at the Kleines Festspielhaus in Salzburg 1971 in the

Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek  Retrieved 7. November 2022

1937 births
Living people
Musicians from Graz
Singers from Berlin
Lieder singers
Naturalised citizens of Austria
Austrian operatic sopranos
Österreichischer Kammersänger
University of Music and Performing Arts Graz alumni
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
20th-century Austrian women opera singers
Deutsche Grammophon artists

Gundula Janowitz


The Wits Theatre Complex is a performing arts complex in Braamfontein, a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa. It is part of the University of the Witwatersrand, although it also caters for professional companies, dance studios and schools. It is run by the University's Performing Arts Administration (PAA).

The Wits Theatre Complex opened in July 1983. Plans for the construction of the theatre complex were first announced ten years before that; in the interim, money for construction had been raised from public and private sources. Before the construction of the theatre complex, the Schools of Dramatic Art and Music had been staging productions in a building on campus called the Nunnery, a former convent. The Nunnery has been retained as a teaching venue.

The Wits Theatre Complex has three venues:
the 367-seat Wits Theatre
the 120-seat Amphitheatre
the 120-seat Downstairs Theatre

In addition, the 1035-seat Great Hall is also used by the PAA, although it is not part of the Wits Theatre Complex.

See also
 List of concert halls
 University of the Witwatersrand

References

External links
 Wits Theatre Complex website

Theatres in Johannesburg
University of the Witwatersrand
Concert halls in South Africa
Theatres completed in 1983
1983 establishments in South Africa

Wits Theatre Complex


Claude Plessier (born 1946, Paris) is a French painter, who has worked in France and Argentina.

A graduate of the Arts Décos, the Beaux-Arts and the Allgemeine Gewerbe Schule in Basel he was awarded a scholarship by the Italian government to study mosaic in Ravenna in 1971. He has lived and worked in Paris since 1978.

Initially, his paintings were in an abstract manner very much under the influence of the COBRA (avant-garde movement) movement; he has even been called a Neo-cobra painter.
His stay in Argentina (1973–1977) saw a radical change in his work. He has since been noted for his liberal and skillful use of vivid and contrasted colours and his enigmatic figures drawn without perspective at various scales and on various planes, sometimes emerging from a layer of paint beneath another one. In his "recouvrements" series, he sometimes even covered older works with thick layers of black paint.

In his recent paintings he has used lighter colours, and the figures are less numerous.

Plessier has also made a series of drawings in homage to Gabriel García Márquez, and a portrait on wood of the author.

Main collective exhibitions

 1969, Centre international d'études pédagogiques, Sèvres
 1978, Dessins et sculptures, Saint Rémi de Chevreuse
 1981, Galerie de l'œil de bœuf, Paris
 1982, Espace Latino-américain, Paris
 1984, 92 du 92, Centre culturel de Boulogne Billancourt
 1985, Salon Mac 2000, Paris

His work has also been shown in Paris at the
Salons de Mai, Jeune peinture in
Montrouge and Figuration critique.

Main personal exhibitions

 1974,1976, Galerie Nice, Buenos Aires
 1978 Galerie du centre, Paris
 1982, Hommage à Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Centre culturel du Mexique, Paris
 1982, Galerie Georges Lavrov, Paris
 1984, La Galerie, Limoges
 1985, A voir et à manger, Les trois limousins, Paris
 1985, Galerie Alberto Elia, Buenos Aires

Bibliography
Macondotierra ou l'anniversaire de la solitude, variations graphiques en forme d'hommage à Gabriel Garcia Marquez, dessins de Claude Plessier, texte d'Alicia Dujovne Ortiz. [Paris], Éditions Polygraphie, « Empreinte » n° 19, 1982, n.p., épuisé.

External links
Claude Plessier's website

1946 births
Living people
Painters from Paris
French contemporary artists
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
French male painters
21st-century French painters

Claude Plessier


The Belmopan Public Library located on Mot Mot Ln, Belmopan, the capital city of Belize, was inaugurated on August 24, 1970. The process of constructing a local library began after Hurricane Hattie, in 1961, devastated the previous capital, Belize City, located on the east coast of Belize. In the wake of this destruction the government of Belize agreed to relocate the capital further inland and it was during this time in 1961 that Belmopan was constructed from nothing but a thinly populated area of preserved bush otherwise known as jungle. During the construction of the new capital the local residents identified a need for a public library and the British Overseas Development Mission approved the funding of the Belmopan Public Library. The Honorable Santiago Perdomo, Ministry of Education, and Leo Bradley, Chief Librarian finally inaugurated the building in 1971 and the same building has been the location of the Belmopan Public Library for the last 41 years.

References
 Belmopancityonline

Buildings and structures in Belmopan
Libraries in Belize
Library buildings completed in 1970
1970s establishments in Belize
Libraries established in 1970

Belmopan Public Library


Naeem Ashraf (نعیم اشرف) is a Pakistani cricket umpire and former cricketer who played two One Day International matches in 1995. Naeem is a left-arm fast-medium bowler and a left-handed batsman.

Naeem now plays for Clitheroe Cricket Club in Lancashire, England. Naeem is a fully qualified cricket coach and coaches on behalf of the Lancashire Cricket Board.
In 2010, Naeem became a qualified ACO Umpire a step which he was very proud of achieving. Naeem enjoys being part of Cricket, whether it is being a Cricketer, Coach or an Umpire.

Family, education, and personal life
Naeem Ashraf was born to Azra Begum and Mohammed Ashraf, a housewife and business owner in Lahore. Naeem who is also known as Nomme by his close friends and family grew up in a middle-class family with six brothers and three sisters, Naeem is the third eldest brother in the family. Naeem was educated at Muslim Model High School in Lahore and M.A.O. College in Lahore.

In England, during a summer cricket match of 2000, Naeem met his partner Jasmine.
On 15 June 2000, Naeem married Jasmine in an Islamic ceremony among family and friends. Three months later, on 12 September they were married again in a civil ceremony. The union produced three sons, Shazaib Naeem (born 14 September 2001), Umair Naeem (born 5 August 2003) and Zahir Naeem (born 14 November 2006). Naeem, still an energetic cricketer now resides in England with his wife and sons.

Cricket career

Growing up Naeem was a shy and quiet boy, but at the age of nine Naeem began to have a passion for cricket. Naeem was only ten when he played his first cricket match, he enjoyed it so much that he was asked to play for his school cricket team. This opportunity gave Naeem an opening to really shine, it wasn't long before Naeem became the team captain. Naeem then went on to play for all age groups surpassing his expectations on every level.
Meanwhile, future opportunities were on their way for Naeem, he finally got his big break which he was always waiting for. The chance came with the opportunity to play for his country, Pakistan. Naeem was so thrilled with this opportunity that there he played with his undivided passion, this then gave Naeem the chance to go on and participate in the Hong Kong sixes in Hong Kong, but more was in store for this energetic cricketer. Following his amazing performances he then got the chance to travel, and it wasn't long before Naeem landed in England.

In 1995, Naeem joined Read Cricket Club in Read as their professional cricketer.
Then in 1997 Naeem joined Cherry Tree Cricket Club in Blackburn as their professional. He then went on to play for CTCC for over seven years, departing in 2003. Naeem even helped CTCC in winning their first double League and Cup win making it in the history book for CTCC in 1997 . During the seven years CTCC played six cup finals, winning three finals and two League Championships .

In 2004, Naeem joined Little Lever Cricket Club in Bolton. Following on, in 2005 and 2006 Naeem joined Clitheroe Cricket Club in Clitheroe. They went on to become Treble Winners in 2006, winning the League Championship, the Twenty20 and the Ramsbottom Cup. They were also the runners up for the League championship in 2005. Naeem also got the opportunity to play alongside his dearest friend Shahid Nawaz.

Naeem then joined Blackburn Northern Cricket Club in Blackburn in 2007. Naeem became the captain of the team and helped BNCC in winning their first League Championships and Ramsbottom Cup ever. At the annual Ribblesdale League's Senior League Trophy and Ramsbottom Cup presentation night Naeem was awarded the Senior League player of the year and best batting award, a night which Naeem always remembers .

Then in 2008, he went on to join Blackrod Cricket Club in Bolton a season which Naeem adored very much. In 2009, for a second time Naeem joined Blackburn Northern Cricket Club again.

Then in 2010 and 2011 Naeem joined Clitheroe Cricket Club. In 2010 Clitheroe CC went on to win the Ribblesdale Cricket League once again . The win was a great achievement for Naeem, who was very proud of the determination of his team. In 2011, Naeem was asked to be the captain of Clitheroe Cricket Club a proposal which Naeem was delighted with, Naeem gratefully accepted , . Naeem knew that the season was going to be a difficult and demanding one but Naeem was always up for the challenge , . Clitheroe CC came in sixth position but Naeem was still pleased and very proud of his team, saying "We never won but there is always next season".

Then came the chance of a lifetime for Naeem, in 2011, he was asked to go and play the USA Open T20 cricket tournament in Miami, Florida . Accompanied with his team the Sixer Sports they headed out for the tournament. It was an amazing opportunity which gave Naeem the chance to meet some old friends and make some new ones along the way. Naeem had such an amazing time and played with all his heart that he was asked to take part again in 2012 in the 2nd Annual International Weekend  at Palm Beach, Miami . Naeem adored the time he was given to play in Miami that he is hoping to play again in the near future.

In 2009 Naeem attended a refresher course, which assisted him to go onto do a Level 1 in Umpiring. The course inspired Naeem to progress and achieve his Level 1A in 2011. In 2013 Naeem completed Level 2 in umpiring, making him more determined to go on and complete his Level 3 in 2014.

In 2010, Naeem was given the opportunity to go and umpire in his home country of Pakistan. Naeem umpired 8 matches, which included LCA – Lahore Cricket Association matches and Inter-League cricket championships. Naeem also umpired in the Lancashire Cricket league from 2010 – 2013, These matches include umpiring for the Bolton Associations, Lancashire League, Lancashire U13/ Youth 16, 2 Day Match for U19, LCB Knock Out Cup as well as Naeem's first ECB Inter-University match. Naeem is going onto umpire in the Lancashire Cricket League in 2014.

References

1972 births
Living people
British people of Punjabi descent
English cricketers
English cricket umpires
Pakistani cricketers
Pakistan One Day International cricketers
Lahore City cricketers
Lahore Whites cricketers
National Bank of Pakistan cricketers
British Asian cricketers
British sportspeople of Pakistani descent
Pakistani emigrants to the United Kingdom
Cricketers from Lahore

Naeem Ashraf


A brig is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: two masts which are both square-rigged. Brigs originated in the second half of the 18th century and were a common type of smaller merchant vessel or warship from then until the latter part of the 19th century. In commercial use, they were gradually replaced by fore-and-aft rigged vessels such as schooners, as owners sought to reduce crew costs by having rigs that could be handled by fewer men. In Royal Navy use, brigs were retained for training use when the battle fleets consisted almost entirely of iron-hulled steamships.

Brigs were prominent in the coasting coal trade of British waters. 4,395 voyages to London with coal were recorded in 1795. With an average of eight or nine trips per year for one vessel, that is a fleet of over 500 colliers trading to London alone. Other ports and coastal communities were also served by colliers trading to Britain's coal ports. In the first half of the 19th century, the vast majority were rigged as brigs, and that rig was retained for longer in the northeast of England.

Rigging

In sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts (fore and main). The main mast of a brig is the aft one. To improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small (gaff rigged) fore-and-aft sail.

Brig sails are named after the masts to which they are attached: the mainsail; above that the main topsail; above that the main topgallant sail; and occasionally a very small sail, called the royal, is above that. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail (it is somewhat similar to the main sail of a schooner). On the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the respective yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars, which can be extended, thus lengthening the yard, thus receiving an additional sailing wing on each side. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair and light wind only. The wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i.e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc.

The brig's foremast is smaller than the main mast. The fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, and flying jib. All the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the standing rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast and other objects rigid.

Hull material
A brig is "generally built on a larger scale than a schooner, and may approach the magnitude of a full-sized, three-masted ship." Brigs vary in length between  with tonnages up to 480. A notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudie's 'Little Brigs' (TS Bob Allen and TS Caroline Allen), which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls and masts of steel or iron. A brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years (many lasted longer).

Development of the brig
The word "brig" has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine (which is the name for a two-masted vessel with foremast fully square rigged and her mainmast rigged with both a fore-and-aft mainsail, square topsails and possibly topgallant sails). The brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power. The square-rigged brig's advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was "that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or 'hands' to work them." The variant was so popular that the term "brig" came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined "brig" as having two square rigged masts.

Historic usage

Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns. Due to their speed and maneuverability they were popular among pirates (though they were rare among American and Caribbean pirates). While their use stretches back before the 17th century, one of the most famous periods for the brig was during the 19th century when they were involved in famous naval battles such as the Battle of Lake Erie. In the early 19th century the brig was a standard cargo ship. It was seen as "fast and well sailing", but required a large crew to handle its rigging.

Brigs were seen as more manoeuvrable than schooners. James Cook requested  the conversion of the schooner HMS Grenfell to a brig, with the justification of the better control that he would have with a brig versus a schooner. The ability to stop the ship quickly (by backing sails) was particularly important for a vessel doing survey work. The windward ability of brigs (which depends as much on hull shape as the rig) could be comparable to or better than contemporary schooners. The author and naval officer Frederick Marryat characterised brigs as having superior windward performance to the schooners of that time. Marryat is considered, by maritime historians, to be an authoritative source on such matters.

A brig's square-rig also had the advantage over a fore-and-aft–rigged vessel when travelling offshore, in the trade winds, where vessels sailed down wind for extended distances and where "the danger of a sudden jibe was the large schooner-captain's nightmare". This trait later led to the evolution of the barquentine. The need for large crews in relation to their relatively small size led to the decline of the production of brigs. They were replaced in commercial traffic by gaffsail schooners (which needed fewer personnel) and steam boats.

Historic examples

 HMS Pilot, a Cruizer-class brig-sloop launched in 1807. While commanded by John Toup Nicholas off southern Italy in 1810–1812, Pilot participated in the capture or destruction of over 130 enemy vessels. In 1815 she fought the last naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars, fighting to a draw the French frigate Légère.
 USS Argus used during the First Barbary War and the War of 1812.
 Archer, a vessel of the Second Texas Navy.
 USS Oneida used during the War of 1812. James Fenimore Cooper was a midshipman aboard the Oneida while under construction.
 The cargo-hauling brig Farmer owned by George Washington.
 The cargo-hauling brig Fleetwing.
 The Bonanza of Liverpool, built as a barquentine in 1830 and converted to a brig in 1841. The first ship to bring a cargo of Peruvian guano to the UK, in 1841, setting off decades of a lucrative export trade.
 Leonora of Captain Bully Hayes.
 Mercury (Russian: Меркурий) An 1819 Russian navy 18 gun brig painted twice by Ivan Aivazovsky. On May 14, 1829, Mercury engaged in an uneven battle against 2 Turkish ships of the line, Selimiye (110 guns) and Real-Bei (74 guns) and emerged victorious from that battle, damaging both Turkish sufficiently to be not able to chase Mercury and disengaging the battle.
 USS Niagara captained by commander Oliver Hazard Perry in the Battle of Lake Erie, a pivotal victory for the United States in the War of 1812.
 USS Oregon, used in the U.S. Exploring Expedition.
 The cargo brig Pilgrim, whose 1834 trading voyage from Boston, Massachusetts to California is described in the book Two Years Before the Mast.
 Potomac, a vessel of the Second Texas Navy
 Rebecca, captained by Robert Jenkins, whose boarding triggered the War of Jenkins' Ear.
 USS Reprisal, fought in the American Revolution.
 USS Somers, sunk in the Mexican–American War.
  was built as a brig in 1820 for the Royal Navy. She was deployed as a survey vessel to survey the coasts of South America, Australia, and Africa. A mizzen mast was added prior to the 5-year voyage with Charles Darwin to increase manoeuvrability in the shallow coastal waters that she would explore.
 Jean Lafitte's pirate brig, the Pride from 1815 to 1816.
 HMS Badger, the future Admiral Horatio Nelson's first command as a young lieutenant.
 Wharton, one of the vessels of the Second Texas Navy, which participated in the Naval Battle of Campeche, which is the only historical example of a steam navy having been defeated by a sail navy.
Joel Root as supercargo sailed out of New Haven harbor in 1802 on the brig Huron to begin his journey around the world on a sealing expedition.
 Rover was a privateer brig out of Liverpool, Nova Scotia known for several bold battles in the Napoleonic Wars.
 HMS Temeraire, "The Great Brig", an ironclad launched in 1876, the largest ship to sail with a brig rig.
 NMS Mircea was a brig of the Romanian Navy, built in London in 1882 and sunk by aircraft in April 1944.
 The Telos, built in Bangor, Maine in 1883, was reportedly the last brig to join the American merchant marine, and was "considered to be the finest vessel of her class ever constructed in Maine". She was wrecked on Aves Island, off Bonaire in the Caribbean, in 1900.
 Industry, a whaler found to have been sunk in the Gulf of Mexico.

The famous mystery ship Mary Celeste, while sometimes called a brig, was clearly a brigantine.

In fiction
Arkham in H. P. Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness.
Aquila in the game Assassin's Creed III.
Beneficence in Gary R. Bush's "Sail Into Treachery"
Blue Bird in Evert Taube's song "Balladen om briggen Blue Bird av Hull".
Charlotta in Vilhelm Moberg's The Emigrants
Constanzia from Jules Verne's A Drama in Mexico.
Covenant in Robert Louis Stevenson's Kidnapped (novel).
Duncan from Jules Verne's In Search of the Castaways.
Enterprise in the film Star Trek Generations (portrayed by the brig Lady Washington).
Forward from Jules Verne's The Adventures of Captain Hatteras.
Grampus in Edgar Allan Poe's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket.
Hellebore in the Nathaniel Drinkwater series by Richard Woodman.
HMS Sophie  in Master and Commander by Patrick O'Brian.
HMS Wolverine in L.A. Meyer's Under the Jolly Roger.
Interceptor in the film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (portrayed by the brig Lady Washington).
Isle of Skye in Iain Lawrence's The Wreckers (High Seas Trilogy).
Jackdaw in the game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag.
Jolly Roger, a pirate ship of Captain Hook from James M. Barrie's Peter Pan.
Lightning in Joseph Conrad's The Rescue and the brig "Bonito" in Conrad's "Freya of the Seven Isles".
Molly Swash, in James Fenimore Cooper's book Jack Tier.
Morrigan in the game Assassin's Creed Rogue, which was a brig-sloop.
Porta Coeli, Flame and Amélie appear in the Horatio Hornblower series of books by C. S. Forester (later adapted to films and television).
RattlesnakeThe 18-guner commanded by Commander Terence O'Brien in Frederick Marryat's Peter Simple.
Sea Hawk in The Pirate of the Mediterranean by William Henry Giles Kingston.
Seahawk in Avi's novel The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle.
Speedy a pirate ship from Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island.
Triton in Ramage and the Freebooters and Governor Ramage R.N. by Dudley Pope.
Poison Orchid in Scott Lynch's Red Seas Under Red Skies.
Lady Caroline in Eddie Price's Rebels Abroad."

Modern brigs

Lady Washington
Tre Kronor
Niagara
Morgenster
Lady Nelson
TS Royalist
Pilgrim
Stavros S Niarchos and Prince William
Roald Amundsen
La Grace
The 'Little Brigs' TS Bob Allen and TS Caroline Allen
Mercedes
Fryderyk Chopin

See also
Brig sloop
Brigantine
Cruizer-class brig-sloop
Gun-brig
Snow (ship)

References

External links

"Sailing Ship Rigs" Infosheet Guide to Classic Sailing Rigs Maritime Museum of the Atlantic Comparison of rigging on different sailing vessels
The brig Niagara at the Erie Maritime Museum
The American Sail Training Association
Grays Harbor Historical Seaport Authority
Maritime Heritage Network, an online directory of maritime history resources in the Pacific Northwest.

Sailing rigs and rigging

Merchant sailing ship types
Tall ships

Brig


Calcutta News is a 2008 Indian Malayalam-language romantic thriller film written and directed by Blessy. The film stars Dileep, Indrajith Sukumaran, Meera Jasmine and Vimala Raman. The music is by Debojyoti Mishra. The film deals with the issue of trafficking in women and how an Orphan girl from Kerala gets caught in it. It showcased Blessy's yet another different genre film and successfully provided Dileep with different character unlike his usual comic characters.

Plot
Ajith Thomas (Dileep) is an acclaimed investigative television anchor and producer with a leading channel 'Calcutta News', and is the son of a former footballer who grew up in Kolkata. His team at the channel includes news assistant Smita (Vimala Raman), and anchors Aruna (Manasa) and Sheela (Brinda). Ajith is a lovable guy who lives in a flat with his mom and two sisters and is an active member of the Malayalee Samajam led by a comical president (Innocent) and his wife Leela (Bindu Panicker) One day, Ajith bumps into a newly married Malayalee couple while on work in a tram, but the guy is hostile when he tries to introduce himself as a Malayalee. However, while editing the news, he is shocked to find that an unidentified body found near Kalighat resembles the rude guy he met in the tram.

Ajit's investigative nature comes into the fore as he goes about finding the mystery behind the brutal murder of the guy. The guy was Hari (Indrajith Sukumaran), who had married an orphan Krishnapriya (Meera Jasmine) from Pattambi and brought her to Kolkata, before his brutal murder. Krishna is unaware of her husband's job or what he does for a living and is shattered to know about his death. However, just before Hari is killed, Krishna had come to known that Hari had only married her with the intention of delivering her, a young virgin, to his boss.

Krishna is both relieved that she is safe from sex racket she almost fell into, as well as desperate and sad because Hari had been the only person she knew or could go to. She couldn't return home and had nowhere to go. She attempts suicide but fails. Hope floats into her life after Ajith sort of becomes her protector and also gets attracted to her for her innocence and their mutual love for music.

Krishna moves in with Aruna and Sheela but cannot forget her past. When she comes across a psychic at Ajith's office she decides to approach him to know the exact cause of Hari's death. The psychic communicates with Hari's spirit and Krishnapriya come to know of who killed Hari. Ajith becomes concerned about Krishna's obsession with the details of Hari's murder and the strange behaviour she exhibits sometimes. He takes the help of a psychologist to help her forget the painful memories, and she begins to live a normal life teaching music to children. The henchmen of the racket are meanwhile on the hunt for her, as they had already paid Hari for a new girl. The one-armed guy (Kathal Krishnamoorthy) who operates from Sonagachi, the largest red-light area in eastern India, looking for Krishna also wants to settle a score with her, as in the fight with Hari to get her, he lost his left hand after hits it with a iron rod. On a tip off they trace her to the music school and kidnap her. Ajith tries to get the help of the police but they refuse to register a complaint without any proof. He is forced to go Krishna all alone. When he enters the red-light area, Ajith is shocked at the abuse and neglect the women are facing. He begins to record what he sees on his cell phone. The goons there find him inside and beat him up severely. He fights off them and escapes. He is now trapped deep in the red light area with goons out to kill him. In the mele, his cell phone falls out of his hand and is found by a little girl. The child is fascinated by the video recording going on and follows Ajith everywhere recording whatever happens to him. Eventually when she returns the phone to Ajith, the entire fight has been recorded on it. Ajith transmits it to Smitha and she airs it live along with his plea to rescue the women and himself. Police battalions arrive and free everyone including Ajith and Krishna.

Cast
 Dileep as Ajith Thomas
 Indrajith Sukumaran as Hari
 Meera Jasmine as Krishna Priya
 Vimala Raman as Smitha
 Manasa as Aruna
 Binda as Sheela
 Innocent as Samajam President
 Bindu Panicker as Leela
 Chitra Shenoy as Ajith's mother
 Suja Menon as Ajith's sister
 Unni Maya as Ajith's sister

Reception
The film is considered as one of the action films by Blessy. The film gained positive reviews from the viewers and the critics praising the performances, the plot and the narration and also the serious subject they have discussed in the film which is currently ongoing in the country. Although the film was a commercial failure at the box office.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack features 6 songs composed by Debojyoti Mishra with lyrics penned by Vayalar Sarathchandra Varma and Kamalesh Mukherjee.

"Kannadi Koottile" (Chithra, Vinitha and Vijaya)
"Arikiloru Chilla Mele" (Chithra, Asmitha Sengupta)
"Paangmula" (Bengali) (Sreekanth Acharya)
"Engu Ninnu" (Chithra, Madhu Balakrishnan)
"Kani Kanduvo" (Chithra)
"Nanmayaakunna" (Chithra)

References

External links

 Calcutta News at Oneindia
 Calcutta News Review at Indiaglitz

Films set in Kolkata
2000s Malayalam-language films
Films about prostitution in India
Films shot in Kolkata
Films scored by Debojyoti Mishra
Films directed by Blessy

Calcutta News (film)


The Cottonwood Paper Mill (also known as Granite Paper Mill) is an abandoned stone structure located at the mouth of Big Cottonwood Canyon in Cottonwood Heights, Utah.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.

It was built in 1883 by the Deseret News under the direction of Henry Grow. Workers used paper making equipment brought in from the old Sugar House Paper Mill to grind logs from nearby canyons into pulp. Rags gathered from old clothes were also used to produce the pulp, which was then placed into molds and dried. During its operation, the mill could yield up to 5 tons of paper per day.

The mill provided jobs and paper for nearly ten years; the railroad increased the demand for cheaper paper manufactured outside the area. In 1892, the Cottonwood Paper Mill was sold to Granite Paper Mills Company. On April 1, 1893, a fire broke out among its indoor stored stockpile of paper. Many hearing the alarm thought it an April Fools' Day prank. All that remained following the fire was a stone skeleton.

The structure was partially rebuilt in 1927 for use as an open-air dance hall, known as the Old Mill Club, and remained so until the 1940s. In the late 1960s, rock bands played there on Friday and Saturday nights. It was also used in the 1970s and 1980s as a haunted house and a craft boutique. It was declared a historic site by the Daughters of the Utah Pioneers in 1966, and was condemned by the city of Cottonwood Heights in 2005.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Salt Lake County, Utah

References

 The Deseret News Company's Paper Mill, Deseret News, October 15, 1884
 Burned to the Ground, Davis County Clipper, April 6, 1893
 The Paper Mill, Deseret News, April 8, 1893
 Paper=Making in Utah, Salt Lake Tribune, August 14, 1898 (Includes sketches of the mill during operation, and in ruins.)
 Making Paper Early Industry, "Raise in Price of Commodity Revives Interest in a Proposition Now Dead", Deseret Evening News, February 1, 1908
 Old Mill Will Become Resort, The Ogden Standard Examiner, May 12, 1927
 The Daughters of Utah Pioneers Meet at Historic Old Paper Mill, by Sarah Brockbank, Murray Eagle, June 30, 1932
 Cottonwood Stake Gold-Green Ball at Old Mill Club, The Murray Eagle, January 10, 1935
 The Old Mill Club, "The Finest in Entertainment Dancing," The Murray Eagle, June 27, 1935
 Firemen Busy this Week, Murray Eagle, July 11, 1935 – Mention of a fire at the Old Mill Club
 Old Mill Has Weathered Many Hardships Since 1881, Jack Goodman, Salt Lake Tribune, February 23, 1992 (requires logon)
 The Back Pages – Snapshots of Utah History..., Karen Dunlap, Salt Lake Tribune, September 9, 2001
 Old Mill Lives On, by Judy Fahys, Salt Lake Tribune, June 29, 2006 (requires logon)
 Cottonwood Heights History from the city's official website, recounts the history of the mill.
 Deseret News Timeline, mentions the construction and destruction of the mill
 Rag Mission article by Daughters of the Utah Pioneers, regarding paper production in Utah.
 Old Clothes turned into paper, article by the Deseret News, discussing the use of the mill
 Utah History to Go article
 Thieves make away with $20,000 of copper wiring from Old Mill, Alex Cabrero, KSL.com, November 17, 2011
 Historic American Buildings Survey, C.W. Barrow, Jr., September 1967. Includes a written description of the mill, its construction, ownership and use, and photographs from that period.
 Photograph, circa 1869 by C.R. Savage, from L. Tom Perry Special History Library

Industrial buildings completed in 1883
Buildings and structures in Cottonwood Heights, Utah
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
Industrial buildings and structures in Utah
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
Pulp and paper mills in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Salt Lake County, Utah
Deseret News
1883 establishments in Utah Territory

Cottonwood Paper Mill


Pascal Mailloux (born 5 May 1957) is a Francophone Canadian pianist.

Biography

Pascal started his professional piano career in 1980, with his first band Leyden zar,
where he was a composer, keyboardist, and singer.
Pascal has been playing piano since he was a 5-year-old, and studied piano for 10 years with the Vincent d"indy school, later at the age of 17 [1975 to 1977] Pascal studied at the Sherbrooke music college, Quebec, Canada

Pascal and Marjo
Pascal worked together with Marjo on many albums, out of which Marjo sold over 1 million albums throughout his career. In 1985–90 Another album "she who goes" by Marjo and Composition of the song The one that goes "At the end of heaven", in 2003:Composition and Recording the album turquoise Marjo

Discography

1980–85:  Leyden Zar with André Perry
1989–90:  Album Marjo As long as there are children(250,000 copies sold)
Recording of album Nanette Workman with "Luc Plamondon"
Composition of the theme song "As long as there are children"

Television, cinema, advertising and shows

    2009: Spectacle Bénéfice & Les yeux du cœur, with Laurence Jalbert, Florence k, Jonathan Painchaud, Bob Walsh & Manon d'Inverness"
    2008: Composition of Song for Marie-Chantal Toupin "It's not easy"
    2008: Spectacle Bénéfice,& Benefit Concert "The eyes of the heart" with Marjo, Nanette Workman, Boom Desjardins &  Mélanie renaud'
    2007: Music series "Mon œil Pour zone3"
    2006: Advertisements in Hyundai
    2005: Recording & Registration With Various Artists & shows throughout Quebec
 2004–06: Quebec Tour with Marjo & Tribute Show at Francofolies Montreal
    2002: Documentary, Italy-Canada
    2001: Music composer of Américan  One Way Out with James Belushi
    1999: Series "The big fears of 2000" with Simon Durivage, Motion International Production, dissemination vat
 1998-00: Séries Documentary  Ecce homo des productions Coscient
    1995: Advertising International Player's racing cars with Jacques Villeneuve advertising
    2001: Sans retour
    2005: Turquoise
  Bachelor Theme – Production Zone 3 Tqs
  Free Tour to Pixcom
  Prod Pixcom Theme music for Radio Canada "37.5"
  Love Hurts theme song & Music Theme "Bread of Love"for TV-Quebec
  Channel-life theme: Eros & Company & Hello Doctor "Canal life theme"
  Radio-Canada theme: Olive and Papaya & Attention is Hot
  Theme of the "Love"
  Theme of the Costs to the 400 TV-Quebec
  Series Love Hurts, production zone 3, T
  "The last game of life" for VAT with Claude Charron
  "Origins" documentary series Historia
  "News of God" for Tele-Quebec
  "Rona my house" vat produced by Zone 3
  kids series "Geo-chip" with Marie-Michèle Desrosiers

Tours

 Canadian tour with the group "Leyden zar"
 François guy tour Musical
 Tour with Shawn Phillips
 Theater tour of 1979 with a Granby
 Geneviève Tour
 "Go Gentle" tour with Gerry Boulet
 Tour France with different artists

Awards
 Winner of the "Spirit" on CHOM-FM

References

External links
Official website
Murray head album
Jutra Awards
Marjo and His Men Vol 1
No Captain
Quebec eastern townships in the seventies

Musicians from Quebec
People from Granby, Quebec
Living people
1957 births
21st-century Canadian pianists
French Quebecers

Pascal Mailloux


In Mesopotamian religion, Tiamat (  or  , ) is a primordial goddess of the sea, mating with Abzû, the god of the groundwater, to produce younger gods. She is the symbol of the chaos of primordial creation. She is referred to as a woman and described as "the glistening one". It is suggested that there are two parts to the Tiamat mythos. In the first, she is a creator goddess, through a sacred marriage between different waters, peacefully creating the cosmos through successive generations. In the second Chaoskampf Tiamat is considered the monstrous embodiment of primordial chaos.  Some sources identify her with images of a sea serpent or dragon.

In the Enûma Elish, the Babylonian epic of creation, Tiamat bears the first generation of deities; her husband, Abzu, correctly assuming that they are planning to kill him and usurp his throne, later makes war upon them and is killed. Enraged, she also wars upon her husband's murderers, bringing forth multitudes of monsters as offspring. She is then slain by Enki's son, the storm-god Marduk, but not before she brings forth the monsters of the Mesopotamian pantheon, including the first dragons, whose bodies she fills with "poison instead of blood". Marduk then integrates elements of her body into the heavens and the earth.

Etymology
Thorkild Jacobsen and Walter Burkert both argue for a connection with the Akkadian word for sea, tâmtu (), following an early form, ti'amtum. Burkert continues by making a linguistic connection to Tethys. The later form , which appears in the Hellenistic Babylonian writer Berossus' first volume of universal history, is clearly related to Greek , an Eastern variant of . It is thought that the proper name ti'amat, which is the vocative or construct form, was dropped in secondary translations of the original texts because some Akkadian copyists of Enûma Elish substituted the ordinary word tāmtu ('sea') for Tiamat, the two names having become essentially the same due to association. Tiamat also has been claimed to be cognate with the Northwest Semitic word tehom (תְּהוֹם; 'the deeps, abyss'), in the Book of Genesis 1:2.

The Babylonian epic Enûma Elish is named for its incipit: "When above" the heavens did not yet exist nor the earth below, Abzu the subterranean ocean was there, "the first, the begetter", and Tiamat, the overground sea, "she who bore them all"; they were "mixing their waters".  It is thought that female deities are older than male ones in Mesopotamia and Tiamat may have begun as part of the cult of Nammu, a female principle of a watery creative force, with equally strong connections to the underworld, which predates the appearance of Ea-Enki.

Harriet Crawford finds this "mixing of the waters" to be a natural feature of the middle Persian Gulf, where fresh waters from the Arabian aquifer mix and mingle with the salt waters of the sea. This characteristic is especially true of the region of Bahrain, whose name in Arabic means "two seas", and which is thought to be the site of Dilmun, the original site of the Sumerian creation beliefs. The difference in density of salt and fresh water drives a perceptible separation.

Appearance
In the Enûma Elish her physical description includes a tail, a thigh, "lower parts" (which shake together), a belly, an udder, ribs, a neck, a head, a skull, eyes, nostrils, a mouth, and lips. She has insides (possibly "entrails"), a heart, arteries, and blood.

Tiamat is usually described as a sea serpent or dragon, although Assyriologist Alexander Heidel disagreed with this identification and argued that "dragon form can not be imputed to Tiamat with certainty". Other scholars have disregarded Heidel's argument: Joseph Fontenrose in particular found it unconvincing and concluded that "there is reason to believe that Tiamat was sometimes, not necessarily always, conceived as a dragoness". The Enûma Elish states that Tiamat gave birth to dragons, serpents, scorpion men, merfolk and other monsters, but does not identify her form.

Mythology
Abzu (or Apsû) fathered with Tiamat the elder deities Lahmu and Lahamu (masc. the 'hairy'), a title given to the gatekeepers at Enki's Abzu/E'engurra-temple in Eridu. Lahmu and Lahamu, in turn, were the parents of the 'ends' of the heavens (Anshar, from an-šar, 'heaven-totality/end') and the earth (Kishar); Anshar and Kishar were considered to meet at the horizon, becoming, thereby, the parents of Anu (Heaven) and Ki (Earth).

Tiamat was the "shining" personification of the sea who roared and smote in the chaos of original creation. She and Abzu filled the cosmic abyss with the primeval waters. She is "Ummu-Hubur who formed all things".

In the myth recorded on cuneiform tablets, the deity Enki (later Ea) believed correctly that Abzu was planning to murder the younger deities, upset with the noisy tumult they created, and so captured him and held him prisoner beneath his temple, the E-Abzu ('temple of Abzu'). This angered Kingu, their son, who reported the event to Tiamat, whereupon she fashioned eleven monsters to battle the deities in order to avenge Abzu's death. These were her own offspring: Bašmu ('Venomous Snake'), Ušumgallu ('Great Dragon'), Mušmaḫḫū ('Exalted Serpent'), Mušḫuššu ('Furious Snake'), Laḫmu (the 'Hairy One'), Ugallu (the 'Big Weather-Beast'), Uridimmu ('Mad Lion'), Girtablullû ('Scorpion-Man'), Umū dabrūtu ('Violent Storms'), Kulullû ('Fish-Man'), and Kusarikku ('Bull-Man').

Tiamat possessed the Tablet of Destinies and in the primordial battle she gave them to Kingu, the deity she had chosen as her lover and the leader of her host, and who was also one of her children. The terrified deities were rescued by Anu, who secured their promise to revere him as "king of the gods". He fought Tiamat with the arrows of the winds, a net, a club, and an invincible spear. Anu was later replaced by Enlil and, in the late version that has survived after the First Dynasty of Babylon, by Marduk, the son of Ea.

And the lord stood upon Tiamat's hinder parts,
And with his merciless club he smashed her skull.
He cut through the channels of her blood,
And he made the North wind bear it away into secret places.

Slicing Tiamat in half, he made from her ribs the vault of heaven and earth. Her weeping eyes became the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, her tail became the Milky Way. With the approval of the elder deities, he took the Tablet of Destinies from Kingu, installing himself as the head of the Babylonian pantheon. Kingu was captured and later was slain: his red blood mixed with the red clay of the Earth would make the body of humankind, created to act as the servant of the younger Igigi deities.

The principal theme of the epic is the rightful elevation of Marduk to command over all the deities. "It has long been realized that the Marduk epic, for all its local coloring and probable elaboration by the Babylonian theologians, reflects in substance older Sumerian material," American Assyriologist E. A. Speiser remarked in 1942 adding "The exact Sumerian prototype, however, has not turned up so far." This surmise that the Babylonian version of the story is based upon a modified version of an older epic, in which Enlil, not Marduk, was the god who slew Tiamat, is more recently dismissed as "distinctly improbable".

Interpretations
The Tiamat myth is one of the earliest recorded versions of the Chaoskampf, the battle between a culture hero and a chthonic or aquatic monster, serpent or dragon. Chaoskampf motifs in other mythologies linked directly or indirectly to the Tiamat myth include the Hittite Illuyanka myth, and in Greek tradition Apollo's killing of the Python as a necessary action to take over the Delphic Oracle.

In the second Chaoskampf Tiamat is considered the monstrous embodiment of primordial chaos.

Robert Graves considered Tiamat's death by Marduk as evidence for his hypothesis of an ancient shift in power from a matriarchal society to a patriarchy. The theory suggests Tiamat and other ancient monster figures were depictions of former supreme deities of peaceful, woman-centered religions that turned into monsters when violent. Their defeat at the hands of a male hero corresponded to the overthrow of these matristic religions and societies by male-dominated ones. This theory is rejected by academic authors such as Lotte Motz, Cynthia Eller, and others.

In popular culture

The depiction of Tiamat as a multi-headed dragon was popularized in the 1970s as a fixture of Dungeons & Dragons, a role-playing game inspired by earlier sources associating Tiamat with later mythological characters such as Lotan (Leviathan).

 The five headed draconic goddess in the Dungeons & Dragons game is named Tiamat, and stars as one of the primary antagonists in the Dungeons & Dragons TV series.
 Tiamat appears as a six-headed dragon in the first Final Fantasy as a member of the Four Fiends, as well as a recurring enemy in later Final Fantasy games.
 In Bruce Coville's Jeremy Thatcher, Dragon Hatcher (from the Magic Shop series), a boy is given a dragon egg from Elias's magic shop and names the dragon Tiamat, with whom he develops a mental connection.
 The mobile game Fate/Grand Order depicts Tiamat as a powerful goddess and an Evil of Humanity. She firstly appears as a woman with gigantic horns, then as a massive humanoid with demonic horns and a tail, and finally as a draconic being of similar size. The anime Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia shows her in the same manner as the game.
 In Japanese anime, manga and light novel series Shakugan no Shana Tiamat is a female Crimson Lord from a parallel universe called Crimson Realm (紅世, Guze), bound by contract to one of the characters.
 In music, Tiamat is a Swedish Gothic metal band that formed in Stockholm in 1987.
 The Swedish black metal band Dissection repeatedly reference Tiamat in their 2006 album Reinkaos
 In the 2010 video game Darksiders, one of the Chosen that must be slain by Horseman War is Tiamat, the gigantic queen of vampire bats.
 The eighth book of The Expanse series by James S. A. Corey is titled Tiamat's Wrath, and was published in 2019.
 Tiamat, in the image of a giant mermaid, appears as a boss in the platform video game Spelunky 2.
 Tiamat is the final boss in the 2013 action role-playing game Young Justice: Legacy.
 Tiamat is one of the playable gods in the MOBA game SMITE, the first Babylonian god released in 2021.
 Tiamat is the inspiration for Tiamut, a Celestial in the Marvel Universe.
 In Stargate SG-1, Tiamat was a Goa'uld System Lord in the First Goa'uld Dynasty that predates the time of the series. In the season five episode "The Tomb" and season six episode "Full Circle" an artifact known as the Eye of Tiamat serves as a plot device.
 Tiamat appears as one of the oldest and most powerful of the water-elemental Marid in The Daevabad Trilogy by S. A. Chakraborty.
 Tiamat appears as a giant underwater serpent titan in the graphic novel Godzilla: Dominion.
 The novel Fury of the Dragon Goddess under the Rick Riordan Presents imprint involves a plot to resurrect Tiamat.

See also
 Sea of Sufa primordial sea in the World of Darkness in Mandaean cosmology

References

Bibliography

External links

 Enuma Elish
 Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation story

Tiamat
Chaos goddesses
Creator deities
Creator goddesses
Dragon deities
Characters in the Enūma Eliš
Mesopotamian goddesses
Sea and river goddesses
Killed deities
Sea serpents

Tiamat


Julian Gallagher (born 17 July 1968 in Bromley, London) is a British songwriter and record producer, known for working with Kylie Minogue on her 2001 album, Fever. He also co-wrote songs with Gabrielle on her 2007 album, Always, as well as co-writing many songs for boy band Five, including the chart-topping singles "Keep On Movin'" and "Let's Dance".

Other songs co-written by Gallagher include "Lullaby" for Mel B, and the British chart-topper "What Took You So Long?" for Emma Bunton.

Although mainly a rhythm and lead guitarist, Julian is also proficient on keyboards, bass guitar and drums.  In addition to his own songwriting career, he has worked on many projects with his elder brother, producer and engineer Dillon Gallagher.

Julian's father is Scottish singer-songwriter Benny Gallagher, of the duo Gallagher and Lyle.

External links
Julian Gallagher's music

Paul Nash, "The Irish Connection", Sound on Sound, December 2001

1968 births
British male songwriters
British record producers
Living people
English people of Scottish descent
English people of Irish descent
English multi-instrumentalists
English twins
People from Bromley
Musicians from Kent

Julian Gallagher