The post of Archbishop of Wales was created in 1920 when the Church in Wales was separated from the Church of England and disestablished. The four historic Welsh dioceses had previously formed part of the Province of Canterbury, and so came under its Archbishop. The new Church became the Welsh province of the Anglican Communion.

Unlike the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, who are appointed by the King upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Archbishop of Wales is one of the six diocesan bishops of Wales, elected to hold this office in addition to their own diocese.

With the establishment of the new province, there was debate as to whether a specific see should be made the primatial see, or if another solution should be adopted. Precedents were sought in the early history of Christianity in Wales, with St David's having a debatable pre-eminence among the sees. A Roman Catholic Archbishopric of Cardiff had been created in 1916. Instead, it was decided that one of the diocesan bishops should hold the title Archbishop of Wales in addition to their own see. The circulating character of the post was justified by Welsh geography and by the ecclesiastical precedent of the province of Numidia (of which St Augustine of Hippo had been a bishop).
The archbishop is chosen in Llandrindod Wells, being a central point in the country. The first archbishop was chosen in the Old Parish Church in Llandrindod, but in more recent years, Holy Trinity Church has been used.

Successive archbishops have not only represented different geographical areas but also different tendencies within Anglicanism. In the mid-twentieth century linguistic issues were prominent in the successive incumbencies of Edwin Morris (who spoke no Welsh) and of Glyn Simon (who sympathised with advocates of the use of the Welsh language). Morris in some ways represented the broad churchmanship characteristic of the first occupant of the newly created post, A. G. Edwards, whereas Simon in many respects inherited the Anglo-Catholic outlook of the second archbishop, Charles Green (but without his authoritarianism). Towards the end of his period in office Gwilym Williams was one of three leading Welsh figures in a deputation to guarantee the status of the language which had been challenged by Margaret Thatcher. He was also decisive in the decision to ordain women priests. The former archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, subsequently Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge, was Archbishop of Wales and Bishop of Monmouth.

Williams was succeeded by Barry Morgan, who signed 'Barry Cambrensis'. Morgan oversaw the first consecration of a female bishop in the province, and was noted for his radicalism in other fields including same sex marriage and his willingness to pronounce on political issues, including devolution, immigration, and organ donation. At the time of his retirement in 2017, he was the senior archbishop in the Anglican Communion by length of service.

The next archbishop was John Davies, who had been the senior bishop in the Church in Wales, and was elected on 6 September 2017 after acting as archbishop following Morgan's retirement. He was the first Bishop of Swansea and Brecon to hold the post of archbishop. He retired both as Bishop of Swansea and Brecon and as archbishop on 2 May 2021.

On 6 December 2021, Andy John, Bishop of Bangor, was elected to serve as Archbishop of Wales by an Electoral College of the Church in Wales meeting at Holy Trinity Church, Llandrindod Wells; his election was confirmed (and therefore he legally took up the archiepiscopal See) immediately.

Edwards, the first archbishop, Bishop of St Asaph, was supported in the diocese of St Asaph by the sole Bishop of Maenan; Glyn Simon and Barry Morgan were supported by Assistant Bishops of Llandaff. Andy John, Archbishop from 2021, appointed Mary Stallard to be Assistant Bishop of Bangor.

List of Archbishops of Wales

References

Church in Wales

Wales

Archbishop of Wales


Henry Holyoake (1657–1731) was a headmaster of Rugby School for more than forty years in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Life
Holyoake was probably born in Warwickshire in 1657, the son of Thomas Holyoake and Anne his wife, and the grandson of Francis Holyoake. He was elected to a choristership at Magdalen College, Oxford, which he resigned in 1676, having matriculated from that college on 12 March 1674. He became clerk and sub-librarian in 1676, appointments which he held until 1681. On 22 October 1678 he graduated B.A., proceeded M.A. on 4 July 1681, and was chaplain of his college from 1681 until 1690.

In 1687 he was elected headmaster of Rugby School. Despite the smallness of his salary and other disadvantages, he raised the school from insignificance, and was the first to engage an assistant master. He seems, however, to have unfortunately misunderstood the character of one of his best-known pupils, Edward Cave, whom he treated with undeserved severity, and eventually drove from the school. Cave, however, inserted a sympathetic obituary in the Gentleman's Magazine.

Holyoake was instituted to the rectory of Bourton-upon-Dunsmore on 30 June 1698, to that of Bilton on 31 August 1705, and to that of Harborough Magna, all in Warwickshire, on 9 November 1712. In 1700 he gave £20 for Magdalen College Library. He died unmarried at Rugby on 10 March 1730 – 1731, and was buried in St. Mary's Church, Warwick, where may be seen a quaint Latin inscription written by himself, which he directed to be engraved to his own memory as well as to that of his father and grandfather.

Holyoake's establishment at Rugby was under the domestic management of his cousin Judith Holyoake, to whom he left a legacy on the express ground of her having been 'very serviceable and seemingly kind' to the boys. He bequeathed £30 to the daughter of Widow Harris, 'his tripe-woman;' the interest of £200 to the poor of Rugby after the death of his cousin, Elizabeth Holyoake; and all his books (since sold), together with the portraits of his father and grandfather (since lost), to Rugby School.

References

Attribution
 The entry cites:
Frederick Leigh Colvile, Worthies of Warwickshire, pp. 428–30.

1657 births
1731 deaths
Head Masters of Rugby School
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
18th-century English Anglican priests

Henry Holyoake


Alkali metals are the chemical elements in group 1 of the periodic table. They are silver-coloured when pure, soft and have only one valence electron. They like to make reactions in which they give up this single electron and then have a charge of +1. They react strongly with water and because of this, they have to be stored in oil. Alkali metals are the first group in the periodic table. They are never found in nature uncombined because they are unstable and they react fast to other elements. They bond well with all elements except the noble gases. When they are in air, they quickly turn black.

The alkali metals are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (sometimes written cesium, although caesium is preferred) (Cs), and francium (Fr). Lithium is the least reactive. Although it was thought before that francium would be the most reactive, though it is very rare, it was more recently predicted that caesium is in fact more reactive than francium due to relativity.

Lithium Is a very light metal. It is soft, silver and you can cut it with a knife.

Sodium is the most important alkali metal. One of the most important salts of sodium is sodium chloride (NaCl) (common 'table salt'). It also forms a hydroxide, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called 'caustic soda'. It is a very strong base.

Potassium is commonly found in bananas.

Rubidium is a metal that can make things like fireworks red.

Caesium is a very heavy, poisonous metal and is the most reactive metal.

Francium is a very dangerous, radioactive metal. Not much is known about it.

Alkali metal


The Staffordshire Rugby Union is the governing body for the sport of rugby union in the county of Staffordshire in England. The union is the constituent body of the Rugby Football Union (RFU) for Staffordshire, and administers and organises rugby union clubs and competitions in the county. It also administers the Staffordshire county rugby representative teams.

History

Although there had been a number of long established clubs such as Burton (founded in 1870), Lichfield (1874) and Wolverhampton (1875), it took until 1923 for the Staffordshire Rugby Union to be formed, when it was part of the North Midlands Rugby Football Union. As the county started to find its identity in the 1920s more sides would start to form, with clubs such as Walsall (1921) and Stafford (1925) coming into existence during this period.

Despite its formation in 1923, Staffordshire would not be recognised as a constituent body by the RFU until the 1960s. In 1961 a representative side defeated the reigning county champions Cheshire in a friendly match. This result showed the RFU that Staffordshire were ready to be included in the County Championships and the following year they would take part for the first time, being finally awarded constituent body status in 1962. On 14 March 1970, Staffordshire won the County Championship when they upset favourites Gloucestershire 11–9 in the final played at Peel Croft in Burton upon Trent.

Since the glory days of 1970 Staffordshire have failed to win another county championship, and the reformation of the county game at the start of the 21st century saw them drop down to the third tier. In 2016 Staffordshire won both of their pool games in the Shield competition, reaching Twickenham for the very first time. Unfortunately they were unable to add to their silverware as they were beaten 11–30 by Hampshire in the final. Despite losing the final, Staffordshire were promoted to tier 2 of the championships along with winners Hampshire, for the 2017 competition.

Staffordshire senior men's county side

The Staffordshire seniors men's team currently play in Division 2 of the County Championship.

Honours:
County Championship winners: 1970

Affiliated clubs
There are currently 31 clubs affiliated with the Staffordshire RU, most of which have teams at both senior and junior level and are based in Staffordshire and bordering parts of the West Midlands. Due to county boundary changes enforced by the Local Government Act 1972, several clubs (but not all) who are based in what is now known as West Midlands are also members of the North Midlands RFU as well as the Staffordshire RU.

Barton-under-Needwood
Bloxwich
Burntwood
Burton
Cannock
Eccleshall
Essington
Featherstone
Gnosall
Handsworth
Hanford
Leek
Lichfield
Linley & Kidsgrove
Longton
Market Drayton
Newcastle-under-Lyme
Rugeley
St Leonards
Stafford
Stoke-on-Trent
Stone
Tamworth
Trentham
Uttoxeter
Walsall
Wednesbury
Wheaton Aston & Penkridge
Whittington
Willenhal
Wolverhampton

County club competitions

The Staffordshire RU currently runs the following competitions for club sides based in Staffordshire:

Cups
Staffordshire Senior Cup – introduced in 1976, open to local clubs playing at tiers 5–7 of the English rugby union league system
Staffordshire Intermediate Cup – introduced in 2001, open to clubs at tiers 7–8
Staffordshire Owen Cup – introduced in 1980, open to clubs at tiers 8–10

Discontinued competitions
Staffordshire/Warwickshire 1 – tier 7-10 league for Staffordshire and Warwickshire clubs that ran between 1987 and 2000
Staffordshire/Warwickshire 2 – tier 10-11 league for Staffordshire and Warwickshire clubs that ran between 1992 and 1996
Staffordshire/Warwickshire 3 – tier 11-12 league for Staffordshire and Warwickshire clubs that ran between 1992 and 1996
Staffordshire/Warwickshire 4 – tier 12-13 league for Staffordshire and Warwickshire clubs that ran between 1992 and 1996
Staffordshire 1 – tier 8-10 league that ran intermittently between 1987 and 2005
Staffordshire 2 – tier 10-11 league that ran intermittently between 1987 and 2004
Midlands 5 West (North) – tier 10 league for Staffordshire and North Midlands clubs that ran between 2005 and 2019

Notes

See also
Midland Division
English rugby union system

References

External links
Staffordshire RU website

Rugby union governing bodies in England
1923 establishments in England
Rugby union in Staffordshire
Sport in Staffordshire

Staffordshire Rugby Union


Venkatarama Krishnaswamy Iyer CSI (15 June 1863 – 28 December 1911) was an Indian lawyer and High Court judge of Madras. He was involved in the prosecution of a partner of the British banking Company Arbuthnot & Co after the bank crashed on 22 October 1906. Following the crash, Iyer gathered together eight Indians who started a bank funded by Chettiar Capital which later became the Indian Bank. He is the first Indian to have a beach-fronted statue when a statue of his was put up outside the Senate House. Madras University in 1912.

Early life and education

Krishnaswany Iyer was born on 15 June 1863 in Thiruvidaimarudur, Thanjavur district, the second of four sons of Venkatarama Iyer who was a District Munsiff and his wife Sundari. Sundari died when Krishnaswamy was young and his father Venkatarama Iyer married again.

Krishnaswamy Iyer was educated at Thiruvidaimarudur and S. P. G. High School, Thanjavur where he was a classmate of P. S. Sivaswami Iyer. Krishnaswamy graduated from Government College, Kumbakonam and Presidency College, Madras, and obtained a law degree from Madras Law College.

Early career

Krishnaswamy Iyer began practicing as a lawyer in 1885. He did not do well, initially, but in 1888, when S. Ramaswamy Aiyengar, a prominent lawyer, on his appointment as District Munsiff, handed over his brief to Krishnaswamy, Krishnaswamy got the break he desired much. Krishnaswamy's rise was then, meteoric. He was elected Secretary of the Vakil's Association and in 1891, founded the Madras Law Journal with another lawyer, P. R. Sundaram Aiyar.

The Arbuthnot Bank crash
Krishnaswami became known when he was the contending advocate in the Arbuthnot bank case. In 1906, this popular bank crashed and depositors lost huge sums. Krishnaswami played a role in ensuring that the principal partner was imprisoned. The event led to his assisting in setting up the Indian Bank.

Other activities
Krishnaswami founded Venkataramana Dispensary and Ayurvedic College on Kutchery Road in 1905 to promote indigenous forms of medicinal treatment. A year later, he started the Madras Sanskrit College. He suggested that students be given free boarding and lodging and even paid a stipend to sustain their families and that teachers be given free accommodation.

Freedom movement
His involvement in public affairs drew him to the Congress party. He was instrumental in bringing together the moderate and extremist factions of the Congress Party at the 1908 session in Madras. This act of Krishnaswami was greatly appreciated by Gokhale.

Krishnaswami became a judge of the Madras High Court in 1909 at a time when he was admired in political circles. Some saw him as an impatient man keen to clear all arrears. He was judge for a mere 15 months and then became a member of the Executive Council of the Governor of Madras, a top-ranking post, offered to him by the British.

He was responsible for introducing a number of educational reforms in the University of Madras. He also took the responsibility of funding Swami Vivekananda's trip to Chicago in 1893. During the minority of the Shankaracharya of Kanchi, he intervened personally to see to it that control of the Math did not fall into wrong hands.

Honours

In 1909, Krishnaswamy Iyer was elected to the Madras Legislative Council representing the Madras University. He was appointed a judge of the Madras High Court by the then Governor of Madras, Arthur Lawley, in 1909. The very same year, Krishnaswamy was awarded the Kaiser-I-Hind gold medal for his philanthropic activities. In 1911, he was appointed member of the Executive Council of the Governor of Madras.

V. Krishnaswamy Iyer Street, a prominent street in Mylapore, Chennai is named after Krishnaswamy.

Death
Krishnaswamy Iyer died in Madras, on 28 December 1911 at the age of 48.

Family

Krishnaswamy Iyer was married to Balambal. The couple had two sons, K. Balasubramania Aiyar and K. Chandrasekaran and four daughters, K. Balasindari Ammal, K. Savithri Ammal, K. Subbulakshmi Ammal and K. Saraswati Ammal. Two of his daughters even though they have very little schooling, Savithri Ammal and Saraswati Ammal themselves later blossomed into writers in Tamil and English.

Balasubramania Iyer was a director of the Indian Bank. He and Chandrasekhar Iyer were both successively secretaries of the Madras Sanskrit College and made it grow into a great organization. Balasubramania iyer was an MLC in Tamil Nadu and was also a member of the syndicate of Madras University. Chandrasekhara Iyer was a co-founder and vice president of the Music Academy.

References

19th-century Indian lawyers
1863 births
1911 deaths
Recipients of the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal
Companions of the Order of the Star of India
Presidency College, Chennai alumni
People from Thanjavur district
20th-century Indian lawyers
People from the Madras Presidency
Lawyers in British India

V. Krishnaswamy Iyer


Kang Sung-yeon (born July 21, 1976) is a South Korean actress. Kang made her acting debut in 1996 through MBC's Open Recruitment. Although her main profession was acting, she also contributed songs to several soundtracks and released two albums in 2001–2002 under the stage name Bobo. Then in 2005, Kang rose to fame when she played Prince Yeonsan's concubine Jang Nok-su in King and the Clown, a period film that drew 12.3 admissions, making it (at the time) the highest-grossing domestic film in Korean cinema history. Kang continued to star in television dramas such as Let's Get Married (2005), New Wise Mother, Good Wife (2007), Single Dad in Love (2008), Tazza (2008), and Wife Returns (2009). From 2012 to 2014, she hosted her own poetry reading program on EBS Radio.

Personal life
Kang married jazz pianist Kim Ka-on on January 6, 2012. Kang announced her pregnancy in July 2014.

Filmography

Television series

Film

Variety/radio show

Discography

Awards and nominations

References

External links
 Kang Sung-yeon Fan Cafe at Daum

1977 births
Living people
South Korean television actresses
South Korean film actresses
Hannam University alumni
Seoul Institute of the Arts alumni
Actresses from Seoul
L&Holdings artists

Kang Sung-yeon


José Sánchez Mota (born 30 June 1965), better known as José Mota, is a Spanish comedian, television director, satirist, singer and actor, notable for his television comedy shows. He was member, with Juan Muñoz, of the comedy duo Cruz y Raya between 1989 and 2007, and later he started a solo career.

Cruz y Raya

In 1985, while he was serving in the military, Mota met Juan Muñoz, whom he began his career as a comedian. The two started performing shows at small theaters in Madrid, such as Cien personajes en busca de humor (One Hundred Characters in the Quest of Humor), but it was Javier Sardá who gave them the opportunity of making their own radio show, La Bisagra. In 1989 they moved to television with the program Pero ¿esto qué es?, in the Spanish public channel (La 1). The sketches were about a radio station, "Cruz y Raya, the station that should, but never shuts up". Later they were aired on Telecinco with the show Tutti Frutti, and then came back to TVE in order to replace the famous Spanish comedians Martes y Trece at several New Year's Eve special shows.

Other works while at Cruz y Raya

Mota has also gave his voice to several characters in the Spanish dubbing of animation films such as Monsters, Inc. and the Shrek films. In 2006 he adapted, along with Santiago Segura, the Spanish version of The Producers. The comedian made cameo appearances in TV shows such as 7 vidas and Manolo y Benito Corporeision.

Separation

After more than ten years fully dedicated to Cruz y Raya, José and Juan decided to work in other projects on their own. In November 2007 the definitive separation of the famous couple was confirmed.

The José Mota Hour and other sketch programs
In 2009 before his separation with workmate Juan Antonio Muñoz, Jose Mota decided to make a new television show, La hora de José Mota. The television show was aired on the Spanish State television (TVE) on Fridays. He started to do another type of humor mixed by the latest he did. For example, he criticized bad Spanish and European politics, society and he did more imitations. Many sketches and their characters have become very famous in Spain. He has made impersonations of many public figures such as Bear Grylls, Woody Allen and Larry King as well as Spanish and international politicians like José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero (ZP) Mariano Rajoy and Merkel and Sarkozy. He also created new characters such as La Vieja'l Visillo (The Old Woman in the Window) or El Tío la Vara (The Man of the Rod). He has created several catchphrases such as behind the musgo (behind the moss), that is used in his Bear Grylls sketches.

In 2013 he created the sketch show La noche de José Mota, very similar to the former, in the television channel Telecinco. The success of the new show was lower than expected, and it only lasted for one season (however, Mota said later that it had been planned that way from the beginning). He returned in 2015 to La 1 with a weekly show named José Mota presenta, which premiered on 20 February.

From March to June 2017 he starred in the sketch comedy show El acabose.

He has starred in La 1 New Year's Eve specials from 2007 to 2011 and 2014 to 2020, with great success.

Personal life
He has three children with the actress and model Patricia Rivas.

Career

TV programs

 1994: Vaya tele
 1995: Estamos de vuelta
 1998: Este no es el programa de los viernes
 1999: Estamos en directo
 2000-2004: Cruz y Raya.com
 2004-2007: Juan y José.show
 2009-2012: La Hora de José Mota
 2013–2014: La noche de José Mota
 2015–present: José Mota presenta
 2016:  El hombre de tu vida
 2017:  El acabose
 2019: Hoy no, mañana (director)
 2020–2021: Mask Singer: Adivina quién canta (panelist)
 2021: ¿Y si sí...? (director)

Filmography

 1990: Ni se te ocurra... (Luis María Delgado) as Jose.
 2000: Ekipo Ja (Juan Muñoz) as Tomás Rabero.
 2001: Torrente 2: Misión en Marbella (Santiago Segura) as a lifeguard.
 2005: Torrente 3: El protector (Santiago Segura) as Josito.
 2011: As Luck Would Have It (Álex de la Iglesia) as Roberto Gómez.
 2017: Abracadabra (Pablo Berger) as Pepe.
 2021: García y García (Ana Murugarren) as Javier García.

Dubbing
 1998: Mulan, as Mushu
 1999: Goomer, as Oz and Receptionist
 2000: 102 Dalmatians, as Waddlesworth
 2001: Shrek, as Donkey
 2001: Monsters, Inc., as Mike Wazowski
 2003: Brother Bear, as Rutt the Moose
 2003: Rugrats Go Wild, as Spike
 2004: Shrek 2, as Donkey
 2007: Shrek the Third, as Donkey
 2008: Hellboy II: The Golden Army, as Abe Sapien
 2010: Shrek Forever After, as Donkey
 2011: Zookeeper as Donald
 2013: Monsters University, as Mike Wazowski
 2016: The Angry Birds Movie, as Chuck
 2019: The Angry Birds Movie 2, as Chuck

Theater

 1987: 60 personajes en busca de humor (in Madrid)
 2006: The Producers (Spanish version).

External links

References

Living people
1965 births
Spanish comedians
Spanish impressionists (entertainers)
Male actors from Castilla–La Mancha
People from the Province of Ciudad Real
Spanish male stage actors
Spanish male voice actors
Spanish male film actors
Spanish male television actors
21st-century Spanish male actors

José Mota (comedian)


Sally Hemings (1773 – 1835) was an enslaved woman from Virginia.  She is famous for her relationship with Thomas Jefferson.  People say she was his mistress or his concubine or the girl he was raping, but we do not know for sure.  We do know that they had six children together over many years. Most of what we know about Sally Hemings comes from things her son, Madison, said about her many years later.

Early life and family

According to Madison Hemings, Sally Hemings' grandmother was a fully African woman and might have been born in Africa.  She was enslaved to the Eppes family in Virginia. Historians do not know for sure what her name was.  Papers with the names of enslaved women in the Eppes family include "Dinah," "Judy," "Abbie," "Sarah," "Parthenia," and others.  Historian Annette Gordon-Reed said that there were many girls named "Thenia" in the Hemings family, and they might have been named after Parthenia.  But she also says that "Sally" is a nickname for "Sarah," and there were many girls named "Sarah" and "Sally" in the Hemings family too.

Sally Hemings' mother was called Elizabeth "Betty" Hemings.  Madison Hemings told the story: Elizabeth Hemings' mother was an African woman and her father was an English sea captain named Hemings.  The sea captain tried to buy Elizabeth Hemings from her owner, but the owner said no.  He said he wanted to see what a half-white, half-African child would look like.  Then Captain Hemings tried to take the child away from the owner without paying, but someone told the owner about his plan. Captain Hemings left Virginia and did not come back.

Captain Hemings tried to take his daughter from one of the men in the Eppes family, but historians do not know which one, because they do not know when Elizabeth Hemings was born.  One paper says "about 1735."

Elizabeth Hemings lived at the Eppes family's house, which was called Bermuda Hundred, until 1746.  That year, Martha Eppes married John Wayles.  Elizabeth and other enslaved people went with Martha to Wayle's house as part of her marriage settlement.  A marriage settlement was any property that a married woman could control and her husband could not.  Technically, the Eppes family owned Elizabeth Hemings.

Elizabeth Hemings had many children.  The father of most of those children, including Sally, was John Wayles.  John Wayles also had children with his wife, Martha Eppes.  This made Sally Hemings the half-sister of Martha Wayles Skelton, who married Thomas Jefferson.

When Martha Wayles Skelton married Jefferson, Hemings and many people in her family went with Martha Skelton to Jefferson's house at Monticello.  Sally Hemings was about ten years old when Martha Wayles Skelton-Jefferson died.  Historians think Sally Hemings and her mother Elizabeth may have helped take care of Martha Wayles Skelton-Jefferson when she was sick.  Martha Wayles Skelton-Jefferson left Sally a present in her will: a small silver bell.

Youth and trip to France

When Thomas Jefferson went to France to be ambassador, he only took his oldest daughter with him.  He also took Sally Hemings's older brother, James Hemings.  Jefferson left his younger two daughters behind with his wife's relatives in Virginia.  Then the youngest of the three girls died.  Jefferson then wrote to his wife's relatives and asked them to send the middle girl, Maria, nicknamed "Polly," to him in France.  It took two years for them to agree.

Jefferson told the relatives to choose one of the enslaved women to go with his daughter to France.  He said the woman should be older, already inoculated for smallpox, and of a steady personality.  He asked for an enslaved woman named Isabel, then twenty-nine years old.  But Isabel had just had a baby, so she could not come.  Jefferson's wife's relatives sent Sally Hemings instead.  Sally Hemings was not any of the three things Jefferson had asked for.  She was only fourteen, not inoculated for smallpox, and had a lively personality.

Abigail Adams met Hemings when the ship stopped in London.  Abigail Adams wrote to Jefferson and said he should send Hemings back to Virginia on a ship, but he did not.  She said Hemings would probably be as much work to take care of as Polly was.  She wrote that Hemings was running around, laughing, and playing with Polly.  At the time, Adams thought Hemings was sixteen years old, but she was really fourteen years old.  We do not know for sure why Abigail Adams wanted Jefferson to send Hemings back to Virginia.

In France, Hemings worked as a servant for Jefferson and as a lady's maid to Jefferson's oldest daughter, Martha.  Jefferson paid her.  Jefferson's writings show him buying clothes that Hemings could wear to outings with Martha.  We do not know when Jefferson began having sex with Hemings.  She was pregnant when Jefferson wanted to go back to Virginia.

Historian Annette Gordon-Reed wonders why Hemings agreed to go back to Virginia with Jefferson.  About 1000 black people lived in Paris at the time, and more of them were men than women.  Gordon-Reed notes that if Sally Hemings had stayed in Paris, she probably could have gotten married or started her own business if she'd wanted to. Gordon-Reed says that Jefferson had planned to come back to France after staying in Virginia only a short time.  But the French Revolution's Reign of Terror happened, and he changed his plans.

The laws of France in the 1770s and 1780s did not allow people to keep slaves in France (they could keep slaves in France's colonies).  People who brought slaves to France had to either send them away or free them within a certain time.  Enslaved people who knew about the law sometimes went to the admiralty court and asked the French government to say they were free.  Sally Hemings and her brother could have done this.  Gordon-Reed notes that this would have made Jefferson and the United States look bad to the French.  She also notes that if Jefferson had freed James and Sally Hemings, it would have made Jefferson and the United States look good to the French.

However, neither of these two things happened.  According to Hemings and Jefferson's son Madison, Sally Hemings negotiated with Jefferson.  Jefferson, James Hemings, and Sally Hemings made a deal in private: Jefferson promised to free all of Sally Hemings's children, whether he was their father or not.  Jefferson promised to free James Hemings after he had taught more people at Monticello how to cook in the French way.

Children

Four of Hemings' children lived to be adults.

 an unnamed baby
 Harriet (1795-1797)
 Beverly Hemings (1798- after 1822): He was allowed to leave Monticello.  He pretended to be a white man and was never found out in his lifetime.
 a daughter (1799-1800)
 Harriet Hemings (1801- after 1822): She was allowed to leave Monticello.  She pretended to be a white woman and was never found out in her lifetime.
 Madison Hemings (1805-1877): He became a carpenter.  In Jefferson's will, he asked the government of Virginia to free Madison Heminings, and it did.  Madison later moved to Ohio and became a farmer.  Madison did not pretend to be white.
 Eston Hemings Jefferson (1808-1856): In Jefferson's will, he asked the government of Virginia to free Eston, and it did.  But Eston looked so much like Jefferson that he decided to pretend to be a white man.  He called himself Jefferson's nephew.

Later life

Visitors to Monticello remembered Sally Hemings taking care of Jefferson's clothes and sewing.  In Jefferson's writings, he called her "Maria's maid."

Legally, Sally Hemings was never freed.  But historians believe that Jefferson's daughter Martha "gave Sally her time." This was a thing that slave owners would do in the early 1800s: They would let an older slave live as if they were free.

The 1830 Virginia census lists Sally, Madison, and Eston as free white people.  The 1831 census lists Sally Hemings as a "free mulatto," meaning a free person who is half white and half black.  In that census, Hemings said she had been living in Charlottesville, Virginia since 1826.

Scandal

People who did not like Jefferson wrote about him and Hemings.  They said the fact that Jefferson had children with a black woman was a reason not to vote for him.

In 1802, Jefferson was President of the United States. That year, writer James Callendar wrote about Jefferson and Hemings in his newspaper.  He called Sally Hemings a "concubine" and said that she and Jefferson had children.

Cover up

Virginia became more racist as the American Civil War got closer.  Jefferson's grandchildren did not want people to know their grandfather had sex with a black woman.  They told people that perhaps Jefferson's nephew had been the father of Hemings's children. A man named Edmund Bacon wrote about working as an overseer at Monticello and said Jefferson was not the father of Harriet Hemings.  But Bacon was not at Monticello until after Harriet was five years old.

During the 20th century, not all historians believed that Jefferson was the father of Hemings's children.  Even Eston Hemings Jefferson's descendants changed their story: They said one of Jefferson's other relatives must have been Eston's father.

DNA test

In 1998, DNA testing showed that someone from Jefferson's male line must have been the father of Hemings's son Eston.  Scientists tested the Y chromosome of Jefferson's uncle and the Y chromosome of Jefferson's nephews' grandfather on their own father's side.  They compared these chromosomes to the Y chromosomes of Eston's male descendants.  They found that Eston's family had Y chromosomes like Jefferson's and not like his nephews'. Before the tests, about a third of historians believed Thomas Jefferson had been the father of Hemings' children, about a third did not, and about a third were undecided.  After the test, about two thirds believed Thomas Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children.

Because Jefferson's nephews were not of his same male line, none of them could have been Eston's father. Historian Gordon-Reed matched this against letters and other records showing when Jefferson and Hemings were in the same place, and said that Jefferson could have been the father of all Hemings' children.  For example, he was always at Monticello the right number of months before one of Hemings's children was born.

In 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation said it was likely that Jefferson was the father of all Hemings's children.

In 2001, the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society said Jefferson's younger brother must have been the father of Hemings's children.

Appearance

We do not know what Sally Hemings looked like.  Newspapers making fun of Jefferson drew pictures of her as very dark-skinned, but most of those artists had never seen her.  People who saw Hemings and wrote about her said she was light-skinned with long, straight hair.

One visitor to Monticello said she was very beautiful.  She was 37 when he saw her and had already had many children.

In popular culture

In 1995, the movie Jefferson in Paris showed Hemings as an older teenager who willingly seeks a relationship with Jefferson.  In this movie, she returns with Jefferson to Virginia because she wants to go home.

References

1773 births
1835 deaths
People from Virginia
Slaves

Sally Hemings


The Bryan Times is a daily newspaper based in Bryan, Ohio. It came into being on February 2, 1949, as a result of a merger of The Bryan Democrat and The Bryan Press. On September 12, 1949, it became a daily newspaper delivered six days per week, Monday through Saturday.

History
The Bryan Press, a weekly newspaper, had its roots in the Republican Standard of 1854 and the twice-weekly Bryan Democrat which began in 1863. The Bryan Democrat, founded by Robert N. Patterson, held its name through 1949 while the forerunners of The Bryan Press went through a series of name changes until 1869. At the time of the merger The Bryan Press was owned by Paul Van Gundy and Howard Carvin.

In 1923 Cass Cullis came to Bryan when he purchased the Democrat. Cullis had previously owned newspapers in Fayette, Ohio; Swanton, Ohio; and Buchanan, Michigan. Following World War II, Cullis' son, Ford Cullis, joined his father in operating the newspaper. According to Ford, it was evident that Bryan needed a daily newspaper, but World War II slowed the change.

New equipment, parts, and repairs were difficult to get, newsprint was scarce, and skilled help was difficult to find. By early 1948, the Democrat was able to find used equipment in satisfactory condition. The shop had three linotypes and automatic typesetting equipment was available.  The real need for the newspaper in 1948 was a press to replace the slow-moving Babcock;  this press had a separate folder, requiring hours of extra work. The choice was a Goss Comet purchased from the Celina Daily Standard, owned by the Parker Snyder family. It printed and folded 3,000 copies per hour. It was this press that made a daily newspaper possible. The Bryan Times became the 100th daily newspaper in Ohio.

In 1949 the Times was located at 108 E. Butler Street in Bryan. That building was small and soon became inconvenient since the shop equipment was on the upper floor and the press was in the basement.  In 1958 Ford Cullis bought the property at 121–127 South Walnut Street, where the current offices are located. Plans were made for the new building. The pressroom, with a new press and  a rotary press purchased from The Defiance Crescent News, was built in 1961. The entire operation was moved to its new location in October 1962. Since the press room was built the building has undergone several expansions, including a new press room and a mailroom.

By 1963 the Times had doubled its circulation to 6,000 and had begun to move its circulation base out into the entire area of Williams County.

In 1968 the Times purchased a 1968 Goss Community offset press, which was used until the printing of the paper was outsourced to Fort Wayne Newspapers in March 2015.

Cass Cullis was the co-publisher of The Bryan Times from 1949 until his death in 1980; Ford Cullis was co-publisher until his death in 2008. Christopher Cullis joined the Times in June 1981 as the assistant publisher and became co-publisher in 1992. Following his father's death in 2008, Christopher Cullis became the sole publisher. In 2010 Kimberly Cullis Imm joined her father as assistant publisher, bringing the Times into its fourth generation of Cullis management.

The weekly Leader Enterprise of Montpelier, Ohio, ended publication with its final issue on the last Wednesday in February, Feb. 27, 2019.

The Bryan Times was owned by the Bryan Publishing Company, which also published the daily Napoleon Northwest Signal, the weekly Montpelier Leader Enterprise, the free distribution, twice-monthly Countyline, and monthly real estate magazine Realty Northwest.

In November, 2022, the assets of Bryan Publishing Company was acquired by AIM Media Midwest, LLC.

References

Newspapers published in Ohio
Companies based in Bryan, Ohio
1949 establishments in Ohio

The Bryan Times


Vytshegdosuchus is an extinct genus of paracrocodylomorph archosaur known from the Early Triassic (latest Olenekian stage) Yarenskian Gorizont of the Komi Republic of the European section of Russia. It contains a single species, Vytshegdosuchus zheshartensis. Vytshegdosuchus was named by Andreii Sennikov in 1988.

Discovery
Vytshegdosuchus is known from the holotype PIN 3361/134, a right ilium, and possibly from the paratype PIN 3361/127, a partial femur. These specimens were collected from the a fossil assemblage called the Parotosuchus fauna of the Upper Yarenskian Gorizont, in the Zheshart locality along the Vychegda River in Aikino district of the Komi Republic. A pterygoid and postcranial material from the Gam locality, a cervical vertebra (PIN 3369/139) from another locality and postcrania from the Mezhog locality were also assigned to Vytshegdosuchus by Sennikov (1999). Nesbitt (2009) argued that the specimens referred to Vytshegdosuchus cannot unambiguously be assigned to that taxon, as these localities are well separated, and the bones were found isolated. Vytshegdosuchus occurs with the erythrosuchian Garjainia and the possible proterosuchian Gamosaurus and demonstrates there was clear temporal overlap with paracrocodylomorph archosaurs and at least erythrosuchians as predicted earlier by phylogenetic analyses. A similar faunal assemblage is present in the Heshanggou Formation of China, which dates to the late Early and possibly early Middle Triassic, as evidenced by the cooccurrence of the basal erythrosuchian Fugusuchus and the poposauroid Xilousuchus.

The holotype of Vytshegdosuchus is also the oldest material currently considered as belonging to Archosauria from Russia, and the only from the Early Triassic. Furthermore, a numerical phylogenetic analysis performed by Nesbitt (2011) placed it in the Paracrocodylomorpha. The Yarenskian Gorizont is generally considered late Olenekian in age on the basis of palynology and the presence of the characteristic Olenekian temnospondyl Parotosuchus. Parotosuchus also occurs in Germany within three formations of the Middle Buntsandstein, and is therefore broadly of Olenekian age and considered an index taxon for these strata. Vytshegdosuchus is from the Gamskian, the upper biochron of the Yarenskian Gorizont and may therefore be latest Olenekian in age and approximately contemporaneous with the poposauroid Ctenosauriscus.

Description
Vytshegdosuchus was originally assigned to the Rauisuchidae based on comparisons with loricatans such as Rauisuchus, Saurosuchus and Arganasuchus. Gower and Sennikov (2000), who revised its diagnosis, focused on the holotype ilium. It preserved a thickened ridge dorsal to the supra-acetabular crest, which according to Nesbitt (2009) is a character only present in many paracrocodylomorphs. Although the anterior process curves medially at its anterior extent according to Sennikov (1988), a character which is not present in these paracrocodylomorphs, an ilium (SAM-PK-11753) from the Anisian-aged Lifua Member of the Manda Formation shows an identical feature. The femur assigned to Vytshegdosuchus is consistent with proterosuchids, Euparkeria and archosaurs since, according to Gower and Sennikov (2000), it has no intertrochanteric fossa and a low fourth trochanter. Furthermore, the femur has a groove on its proximal surface, a character state found in paracrocodylomorphs, as well as some dinosauriforms. The lack of distinct anteromedial tuber of the femur' proximal end is found in nearly all archosaurs ancestrally. Thus, both the ilium and the femur bear features only present in Archosauria, regardless of their association. Therefore, Nesbitt (2009) suggested that Vytshegdosuchus is an archosaur which is assignable to Paracrocodylomorpha.

References

Paracrocodylomorphs
Early Triassic reptiles of Europe
Prehistoric pseudosuchian genera

Vytshegdosuchus


Placental mammals (infraclass Placentalia ) are one of the three extant subdivisions of the class Mammalia, the other two being Monotremata and Marsupialia. Placentalia contains the vast majority of extant mammals, which are partly distinguished from monotremes and marsupials in that the fetus is carried in the uterus of its mother to a relatively late stage of development. The name is something of a misnomer considering that marsupials also nourish their fetuses via a placenta, though for a relatively briefer period, giving birth to less developed young which are then nurtured for a period inside the mother's pouch.

Anatomical features
Placental mammals are anatomically distinguished from other mammals by:
 a sufficiently wide opening at the bottom of the pelvis to allow the birth of a large baby relative to the size of the mother.
 the absence of epipubic bones extending forward from the pelvis, which are found in all other mammals. (Their function in non-placental mammals is to stiffen the body during locomotion, but in placentals they would inhibit the expansion of the abdomen during pregnancy.)
 the rearmost bones of the foot fit into a socket formed by the ends of the tibia and fibula, forming a complete mortise and tenon upper ankle joint.
 the presence of a malleolus at the bottom of the fibula.

Subdivisions
Analysis of molecular data lead to the rapid changes in assessments of the phylogeny of placental orders at the close of the last millennium. A novel phylogeny and classification of placental orders appeared with Waddell, Hasegawa and Okada in 1999. "Jumping Genes"  retroposon presence/absence patterns have provided corroboration of phylogenetic relationships inferred from molecular sequences, for example . It is now widely accepted that there are four major subdivisions or lineages of placental mammals: Laurasiatheria+Euarchontoglires=Boreoeutheria, Xenarthra, and Afrotheria.

The living orders of placental mammals in the three groups are:

 Magnorder Atlantogenata (armadillos, sloths, anteaters, aardvark, elephant shrews, golden moles, otter shrews, tenrecs, hyraxes, elephants, and sirenians)
 Superorder Xenarthra (armadillos, sloths, and anteaters)
 Order Cingulata (armadillos)
 Order Pilosa (sloths and anteaters)
 Superorder Afrotheria (aardvark, elephant shrews, tenrecs, otter shrews, golden moles, hyraxes, elephants, manatees, and dugong)
 Grandorder Afroinsectiphilia
 Order Tubulidentata (aardvark)
 Mirorder Afroinsectivora (elephant shrews, golden moles, otter shrews, and tenrecs)
 Order Afrosoricida (tenrecs, otter shrews, and golden moles)
 Order Macroscelidea (elephant shrews)
 Grandorder Paenungulata
 Order Hyracoidea (hyraxes)
 Mirorder Tethytheria (elephants, dugongs, and manatees)
 Order Proboscidea (elephants)
 Order Sirenia (dugongs and manatees)
 Magnorder Boreoeutheria
 Superorder Euarchontoglires (treeshrews, colugos, primates, rabbits, hares, and rodents)
 Grandorder Gliriformes
 Mirorder Glires
 Order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas)
 Order Rodentia (rodents: mice, rats, voles, squirrels, beavers, etc.)
 Grandorder Euarchonta
 Order Scandentia (treeshrews)
 Mirorder Primatomorpha
 Order Dermoptera (colugos)
 Order Primates (primates: humans, monkeys, apes, lemurs, lorises, etc.)
 Superorder Laurasiatheria (hedgehogs, shrews, moles, whales, bats, dogs, cats, seals, and hoofed mammals)
 Order Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, moles, and solenodons)
 Order Chiroptera (bats)
 Grandorder Ferungulata
 Mirorder Euungulata
 Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates: cattle, antelope, deer, camels, pigs, whales, etc.)
 Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates: horses, donkeys, zebras, rhinoceroses, and tapirs)
 Mirorder Ferae (pangolins, dogs, cats, bears, seals, mongooses, etc.)
 Order Pholidota (pangolins)
 Order Carnivora (carnivorans: dogs, cats, bears, seals, mongooses, etc.)

The exact relationships among these three lineages is currently a subject of debate, and four different hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal or diverged first from other placentals. These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra), Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria) and a hypothesis supporting a near simultaneous divergence. Estimates for the divergence times among these three placental groups mostly range from 105 to 120 million years ago (MYA), depending on the type of DNA, whether it is translated, and the phylogenetic method (e.g. nuclear or mitochondrial), and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data. In addition, a strict molecular clock does not hold, so it is necessary to assume models of how evolutionary rates change along lineages. These assumptions alone can make substantial differences to the relative ages of different mammal groups estimated with genomic data.

Cladogram and classification based on Amrine-Madsen, H. et al. (2003) and Asher, R. J. et al. (2009) Compare with Waddell, Hasegawa and Okada (1999) and Waddell et al. (2001).

Genomics
, the genome has been sequenced for at least one species in each extant placental order and in 83% of families (105 of 127 extant placental families).

See list of sequenced animal genomes.

Evolutionary history
True placental mammals (the crown group including all modern placentals) arose from stem-group members of the clade Eutheria, which had existed since at least the Middle Jurassic period, about 170 mya. These early eutherians were small, nocturnal insect eaters, with adaptations for life in trees.

True placentals may have originated in the Late Cretaceous around 90 mya, but the earliest undisputed fossils are from the early Paleocene, 66 mya, following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The species Protungulatum donnae is sometimes placed as a stem-ungulate  known 1 meter above the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary in the geological stratum that marks the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event  and Purgatorius, sometimes considered a stem-primate, appears no more than 300,000 years after the K-Pg boundary; both species, however, are sometimes placed outside the crown placental group, but many newer studies place them back in eutherians. The rapid appearance of placentals after the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous suggests that the group had already originated and undergone an initial diversification in the Late Cretaceous, as suggested by molecular clocks. The lineages leading to Xenarthra and Afrotheria probably originated around 90 mya, and Boreoeutheria underwent an initial diversification around 70-80 mya, producing the lineages that eventually would lead to modern primates, rodents, insectivores, artiodactyls, and carnivorans.

However, modern members of the placental orders originated in the Paleogene around 66 to 23 mya, following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The evolution of crown orders such modern primates, rodents, and carnivores appears to be part of an adaptive radiation that took place as mammals quickly evolved to take advantage of ecological niches that were left open when most dinosaurs and other animals disappeared following the Chicxulub asteroid impact. As they occupied new niches, mammals rapidly increased in body size, and began to take over the large herbivore and large carnivore niches that had been left open by the decimation of the dinosaurs (and perhaps more relevantly competing synapsids). Mammals also exploited niches that the non-avian dinosaurs had never touched: for example, bats evolved flight and echolocation, allowing them to be highly effective nocturnal, aerial insectivores; and whales first occupied freshwater lakes and rivers and then moved into the oceans. Primates, meanwhile, acquired specialized grasping hands and feet which allowed them to grasp branches, and large eyes with keener vision which allowed them to forage in the dark.

The evolution of land placentals followed different pathways on different continents since they cannot easily cross large bodies of water. An exception is smaller placentals such as rodents and primates, who left Laurasia and colonized Africa and then South America via rafting.

In Africa, the Afrotheria underwent a major adaptive radiation, which led to elephants, elephant shrews, tenrecs, golden moles, aardvarks, and manatees. In South America a similar event occurred, with radiation of the Xenarthra, which led to modern sloths, anteaters, and armadillos, as well as the extinct ground sloths and glyptodonts. Expansion in Laurasia was dominated by Boreoeutheria, which includes primates and rodents, insectivores, carnivores, perissodactyls and artiodactyls. These groups expanded beyond a single continent when land bridges formed linking Africa to Eurasia and South America to North America.

A study on eutherian diversity suggests that placental diversity was constrained during the Paleocene, while multituberculate mammals diversified; afterwards, multituberculates decline and placentals explode in diversity.

References

Mammal taxonomy
Extant Paleocene first appearances
Taxa named by Richard Owen

Placentalia


Catrake Force is a waterfall on the River Swale in North Yorkshire, England. It is not visible from the road but is accessible via a campsite in Keld. It comprises a series of four steps, each its own small waterfall, and each with a very different character – the largest single drop being about .

It lies just upstream of Keld, downstream from Wain Wath Force. The next waterfall downstream is Kisdon Force. Waterfalls in the north of England are often termed Forces after the Norse word Foss which means waterfall, whilst Catrake derives from the Latin cataracta (waterfall) via Middle English.

East Gill Force
East Gill Force, a nearby waterfall on the tributary of East Gill just above its confluence with the Swale, is more obvious and accessible (being on both the Pennine Way and Coast to Coast Walk) and is often mistaken for Catrake Force.

References

Waterfalls of North Yorkshire
Swaledale

Catrake Force


Chris Bourke Doty (September 8, 1966 – February 2, 2006) was a Canadian journalist, historian, award-winning documentary filmmaker, author and playwright, noted for his many contributions to the cultural life of his hometown of London, Ontario.

A graduate of Tecumseh Public School, London South Collegiate Institute and the journalism school at the University of Western Ontario in 1991, Doty grew up on tree-lined Lyndhurst Place in old south London, where he was a paper boy for The London Free Press during his formative years.

Historical documentary films and plays
His writing included numerous articles in local and area publications such as The London Free Press, the Simcoe Reformer, the Strathroy Age-Dispatch and the UWO Gazette, as well as a book on hangings in London and Ontario.

His documentary films have covered such subjects as:

 Old Theatres: The Return, 1991 (while still a student at UWO)
 Marc Emery: Messing Up the System, 1992
 Slippery the Seal and Storybook Gardens in London (Slippery, 1995)
 London's great flood of 1937 (Lost April: The Flood of '37, 1997)
 the history of London (Vagabonds and Visionaries: The London Story, 1998)
 CBC-TV's Guy Lombardo: When We Danced, 1998
 a Guelph, Ontario, promotional video (Guelph: City of Opportunity, 2000)
 the British Royal visit of 1939 (A Great Day for London: The Royal Visit of 1939, 2000)
 the history of the Grand Theatre, (Let's Go to the Grand!, 2001)
 the history of the local TV station (Rewind: Fifty Years of Local Television), 2003)
 the first 40 years of the London Knights hockey team (Green and Gold: 40 Seasons of the London Knights, 2005)
 The Jack Chambers Film Project, 2005

Doty's historical documentary films earned his film company, Doty Docs, a total of six provincial and national awards.

He also wrote the commemorative book, Fifty Years of Music: The Story of EMI Music Canada, 1999, and was active in film restoration, bringing forgotten Canadian films and documentaries back to the public's attention. These have included Here Will I Nest, 1942, The Turkey Point Witch Project, 1962, and Guy Lombardo: A Royal Canadian, 1977.

Doty restored the only known print of Canada's first feature-length colour movie, Here I Will Nest and produced a series of historical minutes/ videos for The New PL TV-station (now the A-Channel, originally CFPL-TV), Rogers Television the City of London, Museum London and the Banting House Museum.

In 2003, Doty was instrumental in convincing the city to name a park in honour of London-born black actor Richard B. Harrison (1864–1935), in south-central London, as well as having an interpretive historical plaque erected in Richard B. Harrison Park.

Doty was also involved in local theatre as a playwright and a producer, including a dramatized recreation of The Donnelly Trial—the 1880 trial of alleged ringleader James Carroll for the mob killing of the notorious Black Donnellys of Biddulph Township north of London near Lucan, Ontario, on February 4, 1880—in the same courtroom in London's historic courthouse (now the Middlesex County building) where the trial occurred 126 years ago.  The play had two possible endings that a jury, made up of 12 audience members, could determine depending on their verdict.

During Doors Open London, 2005, Doty played a key role in writing the scripts for the Lost Soul Stroll street theatre in downtown London whose theme was London's past, ghosts and hauntings.

The second play that Doty co-wrote and produced was about political-marijuana activist, Marc Emery, called Citizen Marc, The Adventures of Marc Emery.

In addition, Doty co-founded the Brickenden Awards in 2002 to recognize excellence in theatre in London, which Doty last attended on Monday, January 30, 2006, with The Donnelly Trial winning a Brickenden for the "Ballyhoo Award" (best advance promotion) and also one for best costumes (made by Barbara Hunter).

Death
The date of Doty's death is believed to be February 2, 2006, although his body was not discovered until a day later on February 3, 2006 in his home on Trevithen Street in south London — twenty-four hours before the final performance of Citizen Marc, which was playing downtown at the London Arts Project on Dundas Street. Doty's funeral home visitation at Donahue Funeral Home on February 6 and funeral service at Metropolitan United Church in London on February 7, 2006, were both attended by several hundred mourners, including members of London's media, arts-and-heritage communities. In June 2006, The Donnelly Trial was reprised by producer Grant Doty, Chris' younger brother, at the Old Middlesex County courthouse in memory of Chris Doty.

Legacy
Late in 2006, the London Arts Council established the Chris Doty Endowment Fund, a yearly cash award to be given to a local artist whose work involves local history.

External links
 Doty's interest in murder and mayhem
 James Reaney, Chris Doty Endowment Fund article, The London Free Press
 Doty Docs

Canadian documentary film directors
20th-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
Journalists from Ontario
Film directors from London, Ontario
Writers from London, Ontario
Suicides by hanging in Ontario
University of Western Ontario alumni
1966 births
2006 suicides
2006 deaths
Canadian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Canadian historians
20th-century Canadian male writers

Chris Doty


A technical decision is a term used in boxing when a fight has to be stopped because of a headbutt.

Boxing referees must pay close attention to the action between fighters, especially when they are fighting close to each other, because if a fighter is cut, the referee must decide whether it was caused by a punch or a head collision. Only the referee can make that decision.

Most head collisions in boxing are unintentional, especially when both boxers are trying for a knockout and/or fighting at close range. An intentional head butt is considered a flagrant foul that can result in disqualification of the offender.

In the case of a cut to the head, the referee must consult the ringside physician as many times as the referee thinks necessary, whether or not the referee decides the cut was caused by a punch. If the doctor decides that the fighter cannot continue, the referee must stop the fight. If the referee decides that a punch caused the cut, the other boxer wins by technical knockout. If the referee decides it was produced by an unintentional headbutt, then so long as the fight has gone the required distance under the rules in effect for that fight, the judges at ringside must hand over their scorecards, and the fighter ahead on points wins by technical decision.

The rules governing the required distance for a fighter to be declared a winner by technical decision vary by federation.  Some require the fight to be in at least the fourth round; others (and most championship fights) require the fight to be past the halfway point (i.e., five rounds for a 10-round match; six rounds for a 12-round match). If a fight is stopped because of an unintentional headbutt without reaching the required distance, it is automatically declared a technical draw. Generally, every country where boxing is practiced accepts the four round or the halfway point as the right distance for a fight to be won or lost by technical decisions.

A unique case happened between world champions Daniel Santos and Antonio Margarito: both of their fights ended in technical decisions, which is very rare in boxing. Their first bout was declared a draw, as it had gone only one minute before being stopped, and Santos won by a ten-round split technical decision in their rematch.

One of the most controversial technical decisions in boxing history occurred in May 1994, when Julio César Chávez regained the World Boxing Council Light Welterweight title over his previous conqueror, Frankie Randall. Large percentages of both members of the media and the Pay Per View public had Randall ahead by a substantial amount when the fight was stopped in the eighth round by a cut on Chávez's head, but the judges viewed the fight otherwise, giving the fight to Chávez by a split technical decision. Boxing magazines such as The Ring and KO criticized the judges, particularly judge Ray Solis, for scoring the fight for Chávez.

In mixed martial arts, a technical decision occurs when a fighter is rendered unable to continued by a foul and the majority of the final round has already been completed.

See also

10 Point System

References

Boxing rules and regulations

Technical decision


Jean Dumont Baron de Carlscroon (13 January 1667 – 13 May 1727) was a French writer and historian. He followed the profession of arms but, not obtaining promotion so rapidly as he expected, he left the service and travelled through different parts of Europe. He stopped in Holland with the intention of publishing an account of his travels. But in the interval, at the request of his bookseller, he wrote and published several pamphlets, which were eagerly sought after, owing to the unceremonious manner in which he treated the ministry of France. Thus deprived of all hope of employment in his own country, he thought of forming a permanent establishment in Holland, and accordingly commenced a course of lectures on public law. The project succeeded far beyond his expectations and some useful compilations which he published in the same period made him well known in other countries. The emperor appointed him his historiographer, and some time afterwards conferred on him the title of Baron de Carlscroon. He died in Vienna.

Dumont was also the author of Lettres historiques contenant ce qui se passe de plus important en Europe. This periodical, begun in 1692 with two volumes appearing annually, he edited until 1710, when it was continued by Jacques Basnage and others until 1728. The earlier volumes are much prized.

Publications

Voyages en France, en Italie, en Allemagne, a Malte, et en Turquie (Hague, 1699, 4 vols.)
Mémoires politiques pour servir a la parfaite intelligence de l'histoire de la Paix de Ryswick (Hague, 1699, 4 vols.)
Recherches modestes des causes de la presente guerre, en ce qui concerne les Provinces Unies (1713)
Recueil de traites d'alliance, du pai, et de commerce entre les rois, princes, et etats, depuis la Paix de Munster (Amsterdam, 1710, 2 vols.)
Soupirs du l'Europe et la rue du projet de paix contenu dans la harangue de la reine de la Grande-Bretagne (1712)
Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens, contenant un recueil des traités de paix, d'alliance, &c., faits en Europe, depuis Charlemagne jusqu'à present (Amsterdam, 1726, and following years, 8 vols. fol., continued after Dumonts death by J. Rousset)
Batailles gagnees par le Prince Eugene de Savoie (Hague, 1723)

References

External links

1667 births
1727 deaths
17th-century French writers
17th-century French male writers
18th-century French male writers
18th-century French journalists
French military writers
18th-century French historians
French male non-fiction writers
18th-century French memoirists

Jean Dumont (publicist)


Shentong (Wylie: gzhang stong, "emptiness of other") is term for a type of Buddhist view on emptiness (śūnyatā), Madhyamaka, and the two truths in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. It is often contrasted with the term rangtong ("self-emptiness"). The term refers to a range of views held by different Tibetan Buddhist figures.

The classic shentong view was developed and defended by the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism, especially by the great scholar Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (1292–1361). The view also has precursors in some Indian Buddhist works, such as the Ratnagotravibhāga and the writings of Indian figures like Ratnākaraśānti and Sajjana.

Classic Jonang shentong holds that while all relative phenomena are empty of inherent existence (svabhava), ultimate reality (paramartha-satya) is not empty of its own inherent existence. In this view, ultimate reality, the buddha-wisdom (buddha-jñana) or buddha-nature (buddhadhātu), is only empty of relative and defiled phenomena, but it is not empty of its countless awakened qualities. Tibetan defenders of shentong, like Dölpopa, describe opposing views on emptiness and Madhyamaka as rangtong ("empty of self", "self-empty"). These views general hold that all phenomena (relative and ultimate) are equally empty of inherent existence and thus have the same ontological status.

Jonang shentong later influenced the views of various figures in the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism, like Sakya Chokden and Situ Panchen, becoming popular in various lineages. The shentong view was officially banned by Gelug authorities in the 17th century, due to political and doctrinal conflicts with the Jonang school, and shentong texts were sometimes destroyed in this period. After this period of suppression, various shentong views were propagated mainly by Jonang, Kagyu and Nyingma lamas. The 19th century saw a revival of shentong, particularly within the non-sectarian Rimé movement. Nowadays, classic shentong remains the main philosophical theory of the Jonang school, and various other forms of shentong are also taught by some lamas of the Kagyu, Sakya, and Nyingma schools.

Terms

Shentong (, also transliterated zhäntong or zhentong; literally "other-emptiness") is a Tibetan Buddhist philosophical view. It applies the Mahayana theory of emptiness in a specific way. While shentong sees relative reality as empty of self-nature, it argues that absolute reality (paramarthasatya) is a positive "non-dual buddhajñana" which is only "empty" () of "other," () relative phenomena (dharmas). This positive ultimate reality (the buddha-nature, tathagatagarbha, or Dharmadhatu) is not empty of its own nature, and is thus "truly existing."

Another English translation of shentong is "extrinsic emptiness." Shentong was also called "Great Mādhyamaka" (dbu ma chen po), a term which has also been used by other figures to refer to their Madhyamaka views, like Longchenpa and Mipham.

The term rangtong (; "empty of self-nature") was coined by shentong theorist Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, who used the term "shentong" to characterise his own teachings and "rangtong" to refer to the teachings he saw as lesser to shentong. Rangtong generally refers to the Madhyamaka view which holds that all phenomena are empty of self (atman) and inherent nature (svabhava) and that this emptiness is not an absolute reality, but a mere nominal designation.

History

Indian origin and sources
The notion of shentong grew out of various Indian and Tibetan doctrinal discussions on the topics of Madhyamaka, Yogacara, and the theory of Buddha-nature.

Shentong adherents generally trace the shentong view back to India, pointing to numerous Indian sources, including the tathagatagarbha sutras, a group of treatises variously attributed jointly to Asanga and Maitreya (especially the Ratnagotravibhāga), and a body of praises attributed to Nāgārjuna (the "Four Hymns" and the Dharmadhātustava). The Ratnagotravibhāga's statement that "the true end is void of conditioned phenomena in all aspects" is a key source for shentong reasoning. The same text also contains a key passage which states: "the basic element is empty of what is adventitious, which has the characteristic of being separable. It is not empty of the unsurpassable attributes, which have the characteristic of being inseparable."

In developing the shentong view, Dolpopa draws on several Indian Mahayana sutras which he considered to be of definitive meaning (Sanskrit: nītārtha) including: Tathāgatagarbha sūtra, Avikalpapraveśa dhāraṇī (Dharani for Entering the Nonconceptual), Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, Mahābherīsūtra (Sutra of the Great Drum), Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśasūtra (Sutra Presenting the Great Compassion of the Tathagata, also known as the Dhāraṇīśvararāja), Mahāmegha sūtra (Sutra of the Great Cloud), the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the "Maitreya Chapter" (found in two versions of the Tibetan Large Prajñaparamita), the Pañcaśatikāprajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom in 500 Lines), the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and the Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra.

Karl Brunnhölzl notes that several Indian sources contain a view similar to shentong. This view is an alternate interpretation of the yogacara model of the three natures which states that the perfected nature is empty of both the imaginary nature and the dependent nature. This view is found in the Bṛhaṭṭīkā (a Prajñāpāramitā commentary which comments on the 'Maitreya Chapter' in the Large Prajñāpāramitāsūtra), the Bhagavatyāmnāyānusāriṇī (a commentary on the Aṣṭasāhasrikā), as well as in some texts by Ratnākaraśānti, which also state that the perfected nature is the buddha-nature.

The Bṛhaṭṭīkā states that the perfected nature (here called dharmata-form) is empty of the dependent nature (here called "what is conceived") and the imaginary nature:
Here, what is the perfect [nature] - dharmata-form - [is empty of] characteristics such as existing as imaginary form and is empty of the form that appears as the aspect of an object that is conceived as form. It is therefore that it is called "empty."

Furthermore, the Bṛhaṭṭīkā states that "being empty means being devoid of what is other" (*pararahita; gzhan bral). The Prajñāpāramitā commentaries like the Bṛhaṭṭīkā also state that the perfected nature is a naturally luminous mind which is unchanging, and free of adventitious stains. Brunnhölzl also writes that Jñānaśrīmitra's Sākārasiddhiśāstra also promotes similar ideas.

Another Indian source, Sajjana's Mahāyānottaratantraśāstropadeśa, a commentary on the Ratnagotravibhāga, states: [Beings are endowed with] the heart of a tathāgata, because the disposition for the [tathāgata] exists [in them]. The suchness of the dhātu is devoid of what is afflicted—the dependent (paratantra). According to Jamgon Kongtrul's Treasury of Knowledge, shentong is associated with the "third wheel" of Dharma, the highest intention of the Buddha, which can be found in various Indian sources like the treatises of Maitreya (Dharmadharmatāvibhāga and Ratnagotravibhāga) and some of Nāgārjuna's hymns. Kongtrul traces the lineage of the third wheel of Dharma through Indian figures like Asaṅga, Vasubandhu, Dharmapāla (530-561), Candragomī, Ratnākaraśānti, Maitrīpa and his student Vajrapāṇi, who wrote a commentary on Maitrīpa's Tattvadaśaka (Ten Stanzas on True Reality). This lineage was transmitted to Tibet by Ānandakīrti and Sajjana, through Ngog Lotsāwa (1059–1109), Su Gawé Dorje, Dsen Kawoché, and entered the Kagyu tradition through Gampopa and Padampa Sangyé.

Development in Tibet
In the Jonang tradition of Kālacakra, Yumo Mikyö Dorje is considered the key founder of shentong in Tibet. Jonang histories state he was a Kashmiri pandit and a student of a siddha named Candranātha. The only surviving texts of this figure are his "Four Lucid Lamps", which focus on the six-branch yoga of Kālacakra.

Shentong was systematized and spread by Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (1292–1361), a Sakya trained lama who later joined the Jonang school, studied under Khetsun Yonten Gyatso (1260-1327), and became a great scholar practitioner of Jonang Kālacakra. In 1321 Dölpopa visited Tsurphu Monastery for the first time, and had extensive discussions with the third Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (1284–1339). Rangjung Dorje may have influenced the development of some of Dölpopa's theories.

Dölpopa claimed to have extraordinary insights, and his meditational experience seems to have played a great role in the development of his shentong view. Dölpopa developed a new philosophical vocabulary, based on Sanskrit and Tibetan, to express his insights. He coined new terms including shentong, and khunzhi yeshe ("universal-ground primordial awareness"), and popularized other terms like "Great Madhyamaka". He also made use of terms from Mahayana scriptures which were not in use in Tibet at the time, for example, he referred to the ultimate truth as atman, nitya (eternal), and dhruva (immovable). According to Tāranātha, Dölpopa also unified two shentong lineages, the sūtra lineage of Maitreya-Asaṅga (through Maitrīpa, Ratnākaraśānti, Su Gawé Dorje, Dsen Kawoché and so on) and the Kālacakratantra shentong lineage of Kālacakrapāda the Elder (through Bodhibhadra, Paṇḍita Somanātha, and Yumowa Mikyö Dorje).

In the 15th century, shentong had become accepted by some figures in the Sakya and Kagyu schools. Sakya scholar Shakya Chokden (1428–1507), Shakya's teacher Rongton, and Chödrak Gyatso, 7th Karmapa Lama (1454–1506, who was a student of Shakya Chokden), were all proponents of a shentong view, though they had their own unique interpretations of shentong that are not identical to the stronger Jonang form of shentong.

In the Jonang tradition, Tāranātha (1575–1635) is second in importance only to Dölpopa himself. He was responsible for the short-lived renaissance of the school as a whole in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, and of the widespread revitalization of the shentong theory in particular. Tāranātha wrote a commentary on the Heart Sutra which asserts that the Sutra, and prajñāpāramitā, teaches the shentong view.

Criticism and repression
Shentong views have often come under criticism by followers of all four of the main Tibetan Buddhist schools, but particularly by the Sakya and Gelug schools. The Sakya lama Rendawa Shonu Lodro (1348-1413) was one of the earliest critics of the view, and so was his student, Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), the founder of the Gelug school. Rendawa wrote a refutation of Jonang Kalachakra which led to further debates and counter-refutations by Jonang scholars like Jangchup Senge.

The great fourteenth-century Sakya master Buton Rinchen Drub (1290–1364) was also very critical of shentong views. Gyaltsab Je and Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama, two of Gelug founder Je Tsongkhapa's primary disciples, were also particularly critical of shentong in the 15th century.

Shentong was suppressed by the dominant Gelug school for several hundred years, equally for political reasons as doctrinal reasons. In 1658, the Gelug authorities banned the Jonang school and its texts for political reasons, forcibly converting its monks and monasteries to the Gelug school, as well as banning shentong philosophy and books, thus making the rangtong position the overwhelmingly majority one in Tibetan Buddhism. The texts of Shakya Chokden, which promoted shentong and criticized Tsongkhapa, were also banned in the 17th century.

After the suppression of the Jonang school and its texts and the texts of Śākya Chokden by the Tibetan government in the seventeenth century, various shentong views were propagated mainly by Karma Kagyu and Nyingma lamas. Key figures of this revival include Katok Tsewang Norbu (1698–1755), the head of Katok monastery, and the Kagyu lama Situ Panchen (1700–1774), a senior court chaplain in the Kingdom of Derge, a student of Katok Tsewang Norbu and the 8th Tai Situpa. These two figures were instrumental in the spread of shentong views outside of Jonang. Tsewang Norbu was a student of the Jonang lama Künsang Wangpo, and he introduced shentong and the Kālacakra tantra tradition into Kagyu and Nyingma. He was also a teacher of the Thirteenth Karmapa, and the Tenth Shamarpa.

Modern period
The 19th century saw a further revival of shentong, particularly within figures of the Rimé movement like Jamyang Kyentsé Wangpo (1820–1892) and Jamyang Chökyi Lodrö (1896–1958). A key Rime defender of a strong Dölpopa influenced shentong was Jamgön Kongtrül (1813–1899), and his work remains influential in Kagyu circles today. The influential Nyingma scholar Jamgön Ju Mipham (1846–1912) also defended a unique view of shentong in his Lion's Roar of Shentong. However, in spite of this non-sectarian activity, Mipham was clear that his philosophy was ultimately prasangika madhyamaka. In spite of this, at least one of Mipham's students was a known shentongpa, Shechen Gyaltsab Padma Namgyal (1871–1926), who was the root lama of Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche and also a lama of Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö.

In the modern period, the Jonang school also experienced a revival. Key Jonang defenders of shentong in this era include Bamda Gelek Gyatso (1844-1904), Tsoknyi Gyatso (1880-1940), Ngawang Lodro Drakpa (1920-75), Kunga Tukje Palsang (1925-2000) and Ngawang Yonten Sangpo (1928-2002).

The strong form of shentong defended by Dölpopa and Tāranātha remains the main philosophical theory of the Jonang school. Other forms of shentong (mainly influenced by the interpretations of Kongtrul and Mipham) are also taught by some lamas of the Kagyu, Sakya, and Nyingma schools. According to Cyrus Stearns, Kagyu and Nyingma forms of shentong "vary a great deal from the original teachings of Dölpopa" and "represents a synthesis that has developed over time, primarily in order to enable Dölpopa's most profound insights to be incorporated into the established doctrines of the Great Seal and the Great Perfection."

Shentong philosophies

Forms of shentong
As Karl Brunnhölzl notes, there is no single shentong view, rather there is "a great variety of ways in which different Tibetan masters understand this term and how they formulate the associated view." Brunnhölzl mentions a text by the twentieth-century Kagyü scholar Surmang Padma Namgyal, which includes seven main forms of shentong:

 The Jonang shentong of Dölpopa, which sees consciousness as self-empty, and the buddha-wisdom as other-empty (shentong).
 Śākya Chokden's (1428–1507) view, which sees phenomenal appearance as self-empty and luminosity as other-empty.
 Sabsang Mati Paṇchen, a student of Dölpopa, who taught that subject-object dualism is self-empty, and that the expanse (dbyings) and wisdom is other-empty.
 The view of Dudul Dorje (1733–1797), the Thirteenth Karmapa, which holds that while saṃsāra is self-empty, nirvāṇa is other empty.
 The view of Mikyö Dorje (1507–1554), the 8th Karmapa, which holds that the pure buddha-bodies and buddha-wisdom is self-empty in terms of their mode of being, but other-empty in how they appear.
 The view of Situ Panchen (8th Situpa), which sees negation as self-empty and affirmation as other-empty.
 The view of the Gaḥto Monastery Nyingma lama Gédsé Paṇchen (1761–1829), which holds "the phase of conclusive resolve during meditative equipoise to be rangtong and the phase of clearly distinguishing during subsequent attainment to be shentong."
Brunnhölzl adds that the various views listed here are based on three different understandings of the terms rangtong and shentong. As Brunnhölzl writes, "the first—and most common—category takes rangtong and shentong to refer to phenomena as belonging to two different levels of reality (seeming and ultimate), which underlies views (1)–(5). The second category refers to rangtong and shentong as two approaches to conceptually determine the subject in question (6). The third category considers rangtong and shentong as distinct (nonconceptual) experiences or phases in the process of attaining realization (7)." Thus, the term shentong can refer to a metaphysical theory, a doctrinal conceptual schema and a way to explain a specific experience.

Jonang shentong

The shentong doctrine of the Jonang school views the two truths doctrine as distinguishing between an ultimate reality (buddha-nature, the dharmadhatu) and a relative reality (all other phenomena). According to this view, the buddha-nature is real (and not empty of inherent existence), while all other phenomena are empty of inherent existence or self-nature (svabhava). The ultimate reality is also described as empty, but it is empty in a different way. The absolute reality is "empty" () only of "other" () relative phenomena, but it is not empty of its own nature (as the expanse endowed with all buddha qualities).

Thus, Dölpopa distinguishes between two different modes of emptiness, one which applies to relative truth and another which applies to the ultimate. Dölpopa writes:

Because all that is present as the two modes of emptiness are equal in being emptiness, there are statements with the single phrase, "All is emptiness," but there are also statements that distinguish between empty of self-nature and empty of other. So their intent should also be precisely presented. Concerning that, because relative and incidental entities are completely nonexistent in their true mode of existence, they are empty of own-essence. That is being empty of self-nature. Because the original absolute that is empty of those relative phenomena is never nonexistent, it is empty of other.

This "other-empty" (shentong) absolute reality is the "all-basis wisdom" or "gnosis of the ground of all" (kun gzhi ye shes, Skt. ālaya-jñāna) which is "uncreated and indestructible, unconditioned and beyond the chain of dependent origination" and is the basis for both samsara and nirvana. According to Stearns, Dölpopa also considers this absolute as "natural luminosity (which is synonymous with the dharmakaya) and a primordial, indestructible, eternal great bliss inherently present in every living being."

The relative reality (which is empty of itself, i.e. rangtong) refers to the impermanent phenomena which arise and cease and are dependent on causes and conditions. This is particularly used to refer to the impure mental defilements and worldly thoughts which veil the ultimate buddha-nature. It is also associated with the ālāyavijñāna (Tib. kun gzhi rnam shes). Dölpopa compares the pure all-basis wisdom or buddha-nature with a clear sky, while the impure relative phenomena are compared to clouds which only temporarily obscure it.

According to Dölpopa, the tathāgatagarbha (buddha-nature, synonymous with the dharmadhātu) refers to the Ratnagotravibhāga's perfections of supreme purity, permanence, self, and bliss. Brunnhölzl writes that for Dölpopa, this buddha-nature "is liberated from all characteristics of reference points, is beyond terms and thoughts, and is the object of unmistaken nonconceptual wisdom. Since it withstands analysis through reasoning, one can only mistake it for something that it is not when one subjects it to such analysis." Dölpopa states that this ultimate reality is the same as "the reflections of the emptiness endowed with all supreme aspects" (sarvākāravaropetāśūnyatā) taught in the Kālacakra, which is an emptiness endowed with awakened qualities.

Dölpopa referred to another view he termed "rangtong" (self-empty). This was the mainstream interpretation of emptiness and madhyamaka in Tibetan Buddhism, which held that all phenomena (dharmas) are empty of a self-nature (svabhava) in both the relative and absolute sense. The term rangtong is often used by defenders of the shentong view to refer to the views of those who reject the view of shentong, such as Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). What makes "rangtong" a different view is that it rejects the idea that there is anything (even Buddhahood) that is not empty of essential nature (svabhava) and as such, all phenomena only exist dependently (even nirvana and the buddha's wisdom). Shentong meanwhile holds that there is something which truly exists in an absolute sense, and this is the Buddha wisdom (buddhajñana) or the continuum of luminous mind (prabhāsvara).

In Jonang shentong, one initially studies rangtong style madhyamaka analysis through the classic Indian Madhyamaka texts (mainly Nagarjuna's Collection of Reasoning), then one goes beyond these teaching using the "Great Madhyamaka" shentong teachings of the third turning. Thus, Dölpopa did not completely reject the rangtong view, he merely saw it as the lower and incomplete view of the second turning of the wheel of Dharma. According to Dölpopa, rangtong teachings were teachings of provisional meaning, while shentong teachings were the final and definitive teachings. Dölpopa also held that the ultimate intent of the provisional teachings is the same buddha-nature and therefore the scriptures of the second and third turning along with the yogacara and madhyamaka traditions are ultimately all in agreement. Dölpopa draws on various Indian sources to defend this position, including the Maitreya Chapter of the Large Prajñāpāramitā sutra, the Bṛhaṭṭīkā commentary (which he attributed to Vasubandhu) and Nagarjuna's Collection of Hymns.

Shentong in Kagyü

Numerous Kagyu lamas have taught various forms of shentong, including the Seventh Karmapa, the Eighth Karmapa, the Thirteenth Karmapa, the Fifth Shamarpa, the Eighth Situpa Situ Panchen, and Jamgön Kongtrul. Shentong views have also been defended by recent Kagyu Lamas like Kalu Rinpoche, Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso Rinpoche and Thrangu Rinpoche.

The Karmapas
The view of shentong upheld by the Karmapas, the traditional heads of the Karma Kagyü school, is a view which synthesizes prasangika madhyamaka with shentong ideas.

According to Karl Brunnhölzl Rangjung Dorje, the Third Karmapa "is traditionally considered the foremost authority on the view of buddha nature in the Karma Kagyü School." Brunnhölzl notes that his view "neither matches Shentong as understood by Dölpopa, Tāranātha, and other Jonangpas, nor Śākya Chogden's or Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Tayé's presentations of it." The Third Karmapa's view is that the dharmakāya is an "unconditioned and spontaneously present mind" which transcends all concepts and reference points and is all pervading, like space. This is said to "exist as ultimate reality" but it is not said to be "really established, permanent, enduring, and totally unchanging."

This is the view also defended by the Chödrak Gyatso (1454–1506), the Seventh Karmapa, in his Ocean of Texts on Reasoning, who also argues that "rangtong and shentong are not contradictory". The Seventh Karmapa held that the buddha-nature taught in the true shentong is "the great freedom from extremes, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness, and the union of the two realities". He further describes it as "mind as such, unconfined, unbiased, naturally luminous, expanse and awareness inseparable, the great sphere, ordinary mind." He rejected Jonang shentong as eternalistic for positing an eternal and immutable ultimate reality permanent. He also argues that this view insults the Buddhas "by implying that sentient beings are completely perfect buddhas."

Similarly, the Thirteenth Karmapa, Düdül Dorje (1733–1797) states:  both the middle and the final wheel [of dharma] have the purport of the sugata heart, the unity of emptiness and luminosity. The middle [wheel] explains this mainly by teaching emptiness, while the final [wheel] elucidates it mainly by teaching luminosity. I understand that, in actuality, these are not contradictory.

Jamgön Kongtrul
The currently popularity of shentong in the Kagyü school is mainly due to the influence of the great scholar Jamgön Kongtrul.

Kongtrül held that "Shentong Madhyamaka" was the ultimate meaning of the third turning of the wheel of Dharma and of Nagarjuna's hymns. As such, he saw it as the highest view which presents "the primordial wisdom of emptiness free of elaborations." According to Kongtrül, the very nature of primordial wisdom which is free of all extremes is immanent in all consciousnesses. Furthermore, for Kongtrül, this non-dual primordial wisdom is truly established, otherwise the ultimate reality would be a kind of nothingness.

Khenpo Tsültrim Gyamtso
One popular living exponent of Kagyu shentong is Khenpo Tsültrim Gyamtso, and his view is taught in Progressive Stages of Meditation on Emptiness, translated by his student Lama Shenpen Hookham. In this work, Khenpo Tsültrim presents five stages of meditation (related to different schools or approaches), culminating in the shentong view. These five are:
 "Sravaka meditation on non-self" - meditation on the emptiness of the five aggregates and the non-existence of a personal self (atman);
 "Cittamatra-approach" - meditation on the mind-stream, the ever-continuing process of perception, and the non-duality of perceived and perceiver;
 "Svatantrika-Madhyamaka approach" - meditation on all dhammas, which are empty of self-nature, and the negation of any "substance";
 "Prasangika-Madhyamaka approach" - meditation on "the non-conceptual (nisprapanca) nature of both the appearance of phenomena and their self-emptiness." In this approach, all concepts are to be abandoned;
  Shentong (Yogacara-Madhyamaka) - meditation on the non-dual ultimate reality (paramarthasatya), which is the Buddha-wisdom (buddha-jñana), which is beyond concepts, and is described by terms like "truly existing." This buddha wisdom is "the non-dual nature of Mind completely unobscured and endowed with its countless Buddha Qualities" (buddhagunas).
Accoriding to Lama Shenpen Hookham, the absolute reality is described in positive terms by the shentong view because this approach helps one "overcome certain residual subtle concepts" and the habit "of negating whatever experience arises." While the shentong view destroys false concepts (like all madhyamaka), it also alerts the practitioner "to the presence of a dynamic, positive Reality that is to be experienced once the conceptual mind is defeated."

In Nyingma
Katok Tsewang Norbu (1698–1755), head of Katok monastery, is the main figure who introduced shentong into the Nyingma tradition. While shentong is not a widely held view in Nyingma, some important Nyingma scholars have defended shentong, including Lochen Dharmaśrī (1654–1717), and Gedsé Paṇḍita Gyurmé Tsewang Chogdrub (1761–1829).

The noted nineteenth-century Nyingma lama Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso wrote works both supportive and critical of shentong positions.{{refn|group=note|I.e., in his Lion's Roar of Extrinsic Emptiness (q.v. external link cited below) and in his Long Excursus on the Core of Thus-Arrivedness i.e., tathãgatagarbha (bde-gshegs snying-po stong-thun chen-mo seng-ge'i nga-ro). In the Long Excursus Mipham Rinpoche follows closely the gist of an historically much earlier discussion of the subject of "lineage",  that of Longchenpa's Treasure of Philosophical Systems (grub mtha' mdzod). There Mipham identifies two general extremes of interpretation, the nihilistic identification of Buddha-nature with emptiness to the exclusion of form, and the identification of Buddha-nature as a substantially real entity that is "empty-of-other" (gzhan-gyis stong-pa). Thus it appears that Mipham Rinpoche wished to distance himself from both the Gelug/Sakya mainstream (e.g., rangtong or self-emptiness) interpretation as well as the shentong mainstream. However, what Mipham refers to in the Long Excursus as shentong is only vaguely defined as such, and to that extent, bears more resemblance to the stock misinterpretations of shentong as given by its ideological opponents, than with any actual position held by classical Shentongpas themselves. In the final analysis, both Longchenpa's and Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso's interpretations of Buddha-nature in the aforementioned texts are substantially identical with most (though not all) of the most important philosophical distinctions invoked by Dolpopa and others in propounding the superiority and definitude of shentong approaches. Where Longchenpa and Mipham differ most obviously from self-identified Shentongpa commentators is in not applying the shentong label to their positions, such as Great Madhyamaka of Other-Emptiness" (gzhan-stong dbu-ma chen-po).}}

According to Stearns, Nyingma lamas such as Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche (1910-91), Kalu Rinpoche (1905-89), and Dudjom Rinpoche (1904-87) all accepted a form of shentong.

One recent Nyingma lama that taught a shentong view (combined with prasangika madhyamaka) was Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche.

 Shentong in practice
The shentong worldview is supported by different kinds of Buddhist practices in the various Tibetan buddhist traditions.

In the Jonang school, the main spiritual practice which accompanies the view of shentong is the practice of the Kālacakratantra's six branched yoga. Klaus Dieter Mathes has argued that the nonconceptual yogic experiences described by sources like the Śrīlaghukālacakratantra and the Vimalaprabhā commentary are important meditative experiences in this tradition. Particularly important is the experience of the "reflection of emptiness" (śūnyatābimba: stong nyid gzugs brnyan).

In the Kagyu tradition, the main method of practice used by shentong adherents are Mahāmudrā style meditations which are strongly influenced by the Ratnagotravibhāga. Some of these sources have been translated by Karl Brunnholzl in his When the Clouds Part: The Uttaratantra and Its Meditative Tradition as a Bridge between Sutra and Tantra (2015).

 Scholarly studies
According to Burchardi, limited attention is given in academic studies to the various interpretations of gzhan stong.

The contemporary western Kagyu scholar Karl Brunnhölzl argues that there is no such thing as "shentong Madhyamaka," but rather that orthodox Yogācāra philosophy (when understood properly) is entirely compatible with Madhyamaka, and therefore shentong is not a novel position. He argues that Yogācāra has often been mischaracterized and unfairly marginalized in Tibetan Buddhist curricula.

See also
 Nondualism

Notes

References
Citations

Works cited

Further reading

External links

 Nigel Wellings (2009), Is there anything there? – the Tibetan Rangtong Shentong debate Adele Tomlin (2018), The Shentong View of Emptiness – A Short Introduction and Reader'
Alexander Berzin, Self-Voidness and Other Voidness
An exposition of the two truths by Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso Rimpoche
Scholarly disquisition on The Buddha Within

Buddha-nature
Jonang
Tibetan Buddhist philosophical concepts

Rangtong and shentong


Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (Stockholm, Sweden, 16 January 1767 – Uppsala, Sweden, 11 February 1813) was a Swedish analytical chemist who discovered tantalum in 1802.
He was notably deaf.

Education
Anders Gustav Ekeberg was a Swedish scientist, mathematician and expert in Greek literature.
His father, Joseph Erik Ekeberg, was a shipbuilder.  His uncle was Carl Gustaf Ekeberg.

Anders Gustav Ekeberg attended school at Kalmar, Söderåkra, Vestervik, and Karlskrona.
He was a gifted student and enrolled at Uppsala University in 1784, graduating in 1788.  His thesis addressed the extraction of oils from seeds.  In 1789 and 1790, he traveled and studied in Germany, hearing Martin Heinrich Klaproth lecture in Berlin as well as Christian Ehrenfried Weigel in Greifswald.

Career
In 1794, Anders Gustav Ekeberg began teaching at Uppsala. He was a supporter of Antoine Lavoisier's proposals for systematizing chemical nomenclature. In 1795 he and Pehr von Afzelius published the first article to introduce the modern names for chemical elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen into the Swedish language, "On the Present State of Chemical Sciences".

He was made docent in chemistry in 1794 and experimentator (laborator) in 1799, working as a demonstrator in the laboratory of   Torbern Bergman.  In 1798 he lectured on the theory of combustion.
In 1799, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Ekeberg had poor health throughout his life. During his childhood a severe cold had impaired his hearing, which was further weakened over the years, so that it hindered his teaching activities. Subsequently, a gas explosion blinded him in one eye.

Ekeberg was portrayed by his friends and students as a kind and gentle man. He died, unmarried, at the age of 46.

Research

Ekeberg analyzed a number of the minerals found at Ytterby and Falun. In 1802 he analyzed specimens of tantalite from Kimito, Finland, and of yttrotantalite from Ytterby, Sweden. He is credited with finding the element tantalum in both.

Ekeberg named the new element after the mythical Ancient Greek demigod Tantalus. According to legend, he was condemned to eternal frustration when he had to stand in water up to his neck, but the water receded as he attempted to drink.

The Anders Gustaf Ekeberg Tantalum Prize
In 2018 the Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center established The Anders Gustaf Ekeberg Tantalum Prize ("Ekeberg Prize"), an annual award to recognize excellence in tantalum research. The Prize will increase awareness of the many unique properties of tantalum products and the applications in which they excel.
The inaugural winner of the Ekeberg Prize was Yuri Freeman, for his book "Tantalum and Niobium-Based Capacitors" (Springer, 2018).

References

External links

18th-century Swedish chemists
Uppsala University alumni
Academic staff of Uppsala University
1767 births
1813 deaths
Discoverers of chemical elements
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
19th-century Swedish chemists
Tantalum
Swedish deaf people
Rare earth scientists
Scientists with disabilities
Deaf scholars and academics

Anders Gustaf Ekeberg