Iju also known as Iju Oloko [idʒou ɔ:lɔkɔ], is a Nigerian town located in southern Ogun state and about 18 kilometers from Lagos state, a major commercial hub in West Africa. The town is inhabited mostly by Owu and Egba natives whose ancestors settled there between 1842 and 1845.

History
In the mid 19th century after the Egbas and Owus military occupation of the areas that are geographically south of Abeokuta. a party of the Owu/Egba army settled in Iju as they found the terrain to be ideally suitable for ambush in a guerrilla warfare as the invasion of the Dahomean Amazons loomed. As the name implies, Iju was a dense forest. A river, locally called Odo-Iju, flowed through the thick vegetation of several trees with large canopies and into the Ologe Lagoon in Lagos. Before the Owu/Egba military occupation was a territory of the Ilogbos and the Ados.

Wars

Dahomey
Pre-Egba conquest, the Dahomean Amazons were notorious for terrorizing the Egbado, Ado, Ilogbo, and the neighboring communities through their countless raids for slaves. During this period, several people were captured and sold into slavery. A 5yr old princess Omoba Aina (also known as Sara Forbes Bonetta) was captured and enslaved by the Dahomeans after they killed her parents. Ifaremilekun Fagbemi (also known as Seriki Abass) was also captured and sold into slavery. Soon after the region came under Egba rulership, King Ghezo of Dahomey and later his successor, Glele, embarked on a conquest mission to annex Egbado and Awori territories (which included parts of Lagos) en route to war against Abeokuta. These were supposed to be routine conquests for the powerful kingdom that already received tributaries from several towns in Lagos. From the camps and towns under Egba authority, the Owu/Egba army fought the Dahomeans who were defeated in their quest by the army under the leadership of Akindele Gbalefa, Lapeleke and Awaye Sonlu on two occasions

The Dahomean wars were arguably the most significant wars ever fought in this region mainly because of the influence, the size and strength of the Dahomey kingdom. The victory was significant for the region as it preserved the Egba authority, prevented the annexation of Egbado and Awori territories and a war inside of Abeokuta walls. As significant as these wars were, the Egbado and the Aworis did not lead any military effort to defend territories that have been conceded to Egba. However, trusted Egbados and Aworis acted as spies for the region's Owu/Egba army.

War Camp
Gbalefa who acted as the Generalissimo of the Egba army established Iju in the thick forest as one of the many Egba command post in the region. Also, between 1842 and 1913, Iju remained the meeting point where issues of Owu/Egba interest in the region were discussed.

Economy
Early Owu/Egba settlers were mostly hunters, farmers and artisans whose products were transported to Lagos via Odo Iju (river). Canoe building was also fairly common, hence the name Iju Oloko. This translates to "Iju of canoes". Like neighboring towns such as Owode, Oke Odan and Ota, Iju is home to Idi-Iroko inter-country highway that connects the Republic of Benin and Nigeria. This highway facilitates the conduit of goods and services from the region to other parts of Nigeria and Republic of Benin, and vice versa.

Religion
Many of the Owu/Egba settlers were mostly adherents of Ifa and Ogun. At the time of settlement, Ifa was the ubiquitous religion in Yorubaland while Ogun was traditionally the religion of warriors, hunters, blacksmiths and artisans. However, by mid 20th century, many have adopted Christianity or Islam.

Government

Local Government
Ado-Odo/Ota is a local government district that was established in 1989 as a merger of Egbado and Awori communities. Though the district was formed from territories that are overwhelmingly Egbado land, most of the population are concentrated in the smaller the Awori region. Iju and several towns such as Ado-Odo, Owode, Sango, Igbesa, Ota etc make up Ado-Odo/Ota local government and are all under the Egba authority.

Native Government

Military settlements similar to Iju were founded in other strategic locations to protect trade routes within Egba territories outside of Abeokuta. A survey and map of the area drawn by Ilaro Divisional Native Authority in 1913 under the stewardship of Ifaremilekun Fagbemi for district planning recognized Gbalefa Peninsula as an area of native authority that encompassed Iju and other towns. The survey was deemed acceptable by Awori, Egba and Egbado representatives.

Egba satellite towns and villages are customarily headed by a Baale who acts as the town administrator and representative of Alake of Egbaland. In a bid to consolidate the authorities of the Egba Baales in the area called Gbalefa Peninsula, a member of the Gbalefa clan was recommended to be made king, but the Egba Administrative council rejected the recommendation on the grounds that no Egba king can be crowned outside Abeokuta. instead, the Egba satellite communities should have Baales. Another recommendation was made in 2017 and this time around, Oba Alake and Oba Olowu accepted the recommendation.

On November 2, 2017, the executive governor of Ogun state, Ibikunle Amosun, approved request to have an Owu/Egba king in Iju town. On November 11, 2017, Olufemi Sodeinde who is a High Chief in Owu Kingdom was crowned as the first Olu of Iju-Gbalefa Egbaland. In attendance were President Olusegun Obasanjo, HRM Oba Dr. Olusanya Dosumu and several notable dignitaries. The coronation was attended and live-streamed by thousands of people.

Industrialization
The neighboring Ota town which is closer in proximity to Lagos, the commercial hub of the country, is teeming with factories and banks, schools, restaurants and hotels. These economic activities are fueling unprecedented population growth in the local government district. Most of this growth may be the result of migration from Lagos to local government district.

Outside of Ado-Odo/Ota local government district, there are large geographical territories of the Aworis in Lagos state that are not under Egba authority. As the Awori population continues to grow at a fast rate in the local government district, they will be accommodated by the Egba and Egbado (now Yewa) population.

References

 Ogunsiji, O. (1988). Pastoralism in Egbado division of Ogun State. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
 Kola Folayan. (1967). "Egbado to 1832: the birth of a dilemma", Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 4, pp. 15–34.
 Anthony I. A. and Niran O.(2015). "Yewaland: One Hundred Years Before and After 2014" Yewa Descendants Union, Abuja
 "Iwe Itan Ibadan" by Oba I.B. Akinyele, Olubadan of Ibadan, 1955-1964).
 "Iwe Itan Abeokuta" by Ajisafe, p. 73)
 "Owu in History" by Akin L. Mabogunje, John D. Omer-Cooper - 1971 p. 100
 "History of the Yorubas" by Johnson p. 149
 "The history of the Church Missionary Society : its environment, its men and its work. Volume: 2" by Stock, Eugene (1899) p. 108.
 http://www.ogtv.com.ng/iju-ota-gets-first-monarch-to-promote-development/
 Governor charges Oba Sodeinde to promote development http://www.gatewaymail.org/?p=9862

Populated places in Ogun State

Iju, Ogun


Fascism is a book edited by political theorist Roger Griffin. It was published by Oxford University Press in 1995 as a 410-page paperback. It is a reader in the Oxford Readers series, which assembles the writings of various authors on the topic of fascism and the far-right. It serves as an English-language source book to introduce readers to pre-fascist anti-liberalism, interwar fascism in Italy and Germany, as well as associated international variants of fascism from Argentina to Japan.

Description
Griffin attempts a comprehensive survey of the illiberal right-wing throughout the 20th century, including topics as diverse as radical ecologism, neo-paganism, ultra-nationalism, and fanatical racism. Authors include an eclectic mix of philosophers, politicians, poets, agitators, and social critics, ranging from the fairly benign pessimistic poet-scholars of Weimar Germany (such as Stefan George, Ernst Jünger, and Martin Heidegger) to the rhetoric of those such as Heinrich Himmler and the American white supremacist, William Pierce. Griffin principally examines interwar Italian Fascism and German Nazism, with political and historiographical analysis by contemporary and post-war liberals, Marxists, and conservatives.

There are 214 selections in the book, most of them from pre-1945. About half of them are from Italy and Germany, plus a section on "abortive fascisms" with writings from Britain, Spain, France and numerous other countries in Europe, Africa and South America. A section is devoted to "theories of fascism," and the book concludes with a collation of post-war writings.

References

1995 non-fiction books
Books about fascism
Books about the far right
Oxford University Press books
Edited volumes

Fascism (book)


A placebo ( ) can be roughly defined as a sham medical treatment. Common placebos include inert tablets (like sugar pills), inert injections (like saline), sham surgery, and other procedures.

Placebos are used in randomized clinical trials to test the efficacy of medical treatments, so they serve as epistemological tools to screen out the 'noise' of clinical research. Placebos in clinical trials should ideally be indistinguishable from so-called verum treatments under investigation, except for the latter's particular hypothesized remedial factor(s).  This is to prevent the recipient or others from knowing (with their consent) whether a treatment is active or inactive, as expectations about efficacy can influence results.

Placebos are also popular because they can sometimes produce relief through psychological mechanisms (phenomenon known as "placebo effect"). They can affect how patients perceive their condition and encourage the body's chemical processes for relieving pain and a few other symptoms, but have no impact on the disease itself.

Improvements that patients experience after being treated with a placebo can also be due to unrelated factors, such as regression to the mean (a statistical effect where an unusually high or low measurement is likely to be followed by a less extreme one). The use of placebos in clinical medicine raises ethical concerns, especially if they are disguised as an active treatment, as this introduces dishonesty into the doctor–patient relationship and bypasses informed consent. While it was once assumed that this deception was necessary for placebos to have any effect, there is some evidence that placebos may have subjective effects even when the patient is aware that the treatment is a placebo (known as "open-label" placebo).

In a placebo-controlled clinical trial any change in the control group is known as the placebo response, and the difference between this and the result of no treatment is the placebo effect. Some researchers now recommend comparing the experimental treatment with an existing treatment when possible, instead of a placebo.

The idea of a placebo effect—a therapeutic outcome derived from an inert treatment—was discussed in 18th century psychology, but became more prominent in the 20th century. An influential 1955 study entitled The Powerful Placebo firmly established the idea that placebo effects were clinically important, and were a result of the brain's role in physical health. A 1997 reassessment found no evidence of any placebo effect in the source data, as the study had not accounted for regression to the mean.

Etymology
Placebo (pronounced /plaˈkebo/ or /plaˈt͡ʃebo) is Latin for [I] shall be pleasing. It was used as a name for the Vespers in the Office of the Dead, taken from its incipit, a quote from the Vulgate's Psalm 116:9, placēbō Dominō in regiōne vīvōrum, "[I] shall please the Lord in the land of the living." From that, a singer of placebo became associated with someone who falsely claimed a connection to the deceased to get a share of the funeral meal, and hence a flatterer, and so a deceptive act to please.

Definitions
The definition of "placebo" has been debated. One definition states that a treatment process t is a placebo when none of the characteristic treatment factors C are effective (remedial or harmful) in patient X for disease D.

In a clinical trial, a placebo response is the measured response of subjects to a placebo; the placebo effect is the difference between that response and no treatment. The placebo response may include improvements due to natural healing, declines due to natural disease progression, the tendency for people who were temporarily feeling either better or worse than usual to return to their average situations (regression toward the mean), and errors in the clinical trial records, which can make it appear that a change has happened when nothing has changed. It is also part of the recorded response to any active medical intervention.

Measurable placebo effects may be either objective (e.g. lowered blood pressure) or subjective (e.g. a lowered perception of pain).

Effects

Placebos can improve patient-reported outcomes such as pain and nausea but also objective outcomes such as motor functions and immune/endocrine parameters.

A 2001 Cochrane Collaboration meta-analysis of the placebo effect looked at trials in 40 different medical conditions, and concluded the only one where it had been shown to have a significant effect was for pain. That's because placebos do not appear to affect the actual diseases, or outcomes that are not dependent on a patient's perception.  However, exceptions do exist: one example is Parkinson's disease, where recent research has linked placebo interventions to improved motor functions.

Measuring the extent of the placebo effect is difficult due to confounding factors. For example, a patient may feel better after taking a placebo due to regression to the mean (i.e. a natural recovery or change in symptoms), but this can be ruled out by comparing the placebo group with a no treatment group (as all the placebo research does). It is harder still to tell the difference between the placebo effect and the effects of response bias, observer bias and other flaws in trial methodology, as a trial comparing placebo treatment and no treatment will not be a blinded experiment. In their 2010 meta-analysis of the placebo effect, Asbjørn Hróbjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche argue that "even if there were no true effect of placebo, one would expect to record differences between placebo and no-treatment groups due to bias associated with lack of blinding." Hróbjartsson and Gøtzsche concluded that their study "did not find that placebo interventions have important clinical effects in general". This interpretation has been subject to cricitism, as the existence of placebo effects seems undeniable. Jeremy Howick has argued that combining so many varied studies to produce a single average might obscure that "some placebos for some things could be quite effective." To demonstrate this, he participated in a systematic review comparing active treatments and placebos using a similar method, which generated a conclusion that there is "no difference between treatment and placebo effects".

In a study in 2010, patients given open-label placebo in the context of a supportive patient-practitioner relationship and a persuasive rationale had clinically meaningful symptom improvement that was significantly better than a no-treatment control group with matched patient-provider interaction.

Factors influencing the power of the placebo effect
A review published in JAMA Psychiatry found that, in trials of antipsychotic medications, the change in response to receiving a placebo had increased significantly between 1960 and 2013. The review's authors identified several factors that could be responsible for this change, including inflation of baseline scores and enrollment of fewer severely ill patients. Another analysis published in Pain in 2015 found that placebo responses had increased considerably in neuropathic pain clinical trials conducted in the United States from 1990 to 2013. The researchers suggested that this may be because such trials have "increased in study size and length" during this time period.

Children seem to have a greater response than adults to placebos.

The administration of the placebos can determine the placebo effect strength. Studies have found that taking more pills would strengthen the effect. Besides, capsules appear to be more influential than pills, and injections are even stronger than capsules.

Some studies have investigated the use of placebos where the patient is fully aware that the treatment is inert, known as an open-label placebo. A 2017 meta-analysis based on 5 studies found some evidence that open-label placebos may have positive effects in comparison to no treatment, which may open new avenues for treatments, but noted the trials were done with a small number of participants and hence should be interpreted with "caution" until further better controlled trials are conducted. An updated 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis based on 11 studies also found a significant, albeit slightly smaller overall effect of open-label placebos, while noting that "research on OLPs is still in its infancy".

If the person dispensing the placebo shows their care towards the patient, is friendly and sympathetic, or has a high expectation of a treatment's success, then the placebo would be more effectual.

In the Epigenetics and Anticipation book by Springer, Goli (2022) integrates many of the specific and non-specific factors influencing the placebo effect in the perceived healing response formula, developed based on main placebo studies.

Symptoms and conditions
A 2010 Cochrane Collaboration review suggests that placebo effects are apparent only in subjective, continuous measures, and in the treatment of pain and related conditions. Anyway, several objective outcomes are affected as well, like Parkinson's disease symptoms, immune and endocrine parameters,  end-organ functions regulated by the autonomic nervous system, sport performance, and others.

Pain
Placebos are believed to be capable of altering a person's perception of pain. "A person might reinterpret a sharp pain as uncomfortable tingling."

One way in which the magnitude of placebo analgesia can be measured is by conducting "open/hidden" studies, in which some patients receive an analgesic and are informed that they will be receiving it (open), while others are administered the same drug without their knowledge (hidden). Such studies have found that analgesics are considerably more effective when the patient knows they are receiving them.

Depression
In 2008, a controversial meta-analysis led by psychologist Irving Kirsch, analyzing data from the FDA, concluded that 82% of the response to antidepressants was accounted for by placebos. However, there are serious doubts about the used methods and the interpretation of the results, especially the use of 0.5 as the cut-off point for the effect size. A complete reanalysis and recalculation based on the same FDA data discovered that the Kirsch study had "important flaws in the calculations". The authors concluded that although a large percentage of the placebo response was due to expectancy, this was not true for the active drug. Besides confirming drug effectiveness, they found that the drug effect was not related to depression severity.

Another meta-analysis found that 79% of depressed patients receiving placebo remained well (for 12 weeks after an initial 6–8 weeks of successful therapy) compared to 93% of those receiving antidepressants. In the continuation phase however, patients on placebo relapsed significantly more often than patients on antidepressants.

Negative effects

A phenomenon opposite to the placebo effect has also been observed. When an inactive substance or treatment is administered to a recipient who has an expectation of it having a negative impact, this intervention is known as a nocebo (Latin nocebo = "I shall harm"). A nocebo effect occurs when the recipient of an inert substance reports a negative effect or a worsening of symptoms, with the outcome resulting not from the substance itself, but from negative expectations about the treatment.

Another negative consequence is that placebos can cause side-effects associated with real treatment. Failure to minimise nocebo side-effects in clinical trials and clinical practice raises a number of recently explored ethical issues.

Withdrawal symptoms can also occur after placebo treatment. This was found, for example, after the discontinuation of the Women's Health Initiative study of hormone replacement therapy for menopause. Women had been on placebo for an average of 5.7 years. Moderate or severe withdrawal symptoms were reported by 4.8% of those on placebo compared to 21.3% of those on hormone replacement.

Ethics

In research trials
Knowingly giving a person a placebo when there is an effective treatment available is a bioethically complex issue. While placebo-controlled trials might provide information about the effectiveness of a treatment, it denies some patients what could be the best available (if unproven) treatment. Informed consent is usually required for a study to be considered ethical, including the disclosure that some test subjects will receive placebo treatments.

The ethics of placebo-controlled studies have been debated in the revision process of the Declaration of Helsinki. Of particular concern has been the difference between trials comparing inert placebos with experimental treatments, versus comparing the best available treatment with an experimental treatment; and differences between trials in the sponsor's developed countries versus the trial's targeted developing countries.

Some suggest that existing medical treatments should be used instead of placebos, to avoid having some patients not receive medicine during the trial.

In medical practice
The practice of doctors prescribing placebos that are disguised as real medication is controversial. A chief concern is that it is deceptive and could harm the doctor–patient relationship in the long run. While some say that blanket consent, or the general consent to unspecified treatment given by patients beforehand, is ethical, others argue that patients should always obtain specific information about the name of the drug they are receiving, its side effects, and other treatment options. This view is shared by some on the grounds of patient autonomy. There are also concerns that legitimate doctors and pharmacists could open themselves up to charges of fraud or malpractice by using a placebo. Critics also argued that using placebos can delay the proper diagnosis and treatment of serious medical conditions.

Despite the abovementioned issues, 60% of surveyed physicians and head nurses reported using placebos in an Israeli study, with only 5% of respondents stating that placebo use should be strictly prohibited. A British Medical Journal editorial said, "that a patient gets pain relief from a placebo does not imply that the pain is not real or organic in origin...the use of the placebo for 'diagnosis' of whether or not pain is real is misguided." A survey in the United States of more than 10,000 physicians came to the result that while 24% of physicians would prescribe a treatment that is a placebo simply because the patient wanted treatment, 58% would not, and for the remaining 18%, it would depend on the circumstances.

Referring specifically to homeopathy, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Science and Technology Committee has stated:

In his 2008 book Bad Science, Ben Goldacre argues that instead of deceiving patients with placebos, doctors should use the placebo effect to enhance effective medicines. Edzard Ernst has argued similarly that "As a good doctor you should be able to transmit a placebo effect through the compassion you show your patients." In an opinion piece about homeopathy, Ernst argues that it is wrong to support alternative medicine on the basis that it can make patients feel better through the placebo effect. His concerns are that it is deceitful and that the placebo effect is unreliable. Goldacre also concludes that the placebo effect does not justify alternative medicine, arguing that unscientific medicine could lead to patients not receiving prevention advice.
Placebo researcher Fabrizio Benedetti also expresses concern over the potential for placebos to be used unethically, warning that there is an increase in "quackery" and that an "alternative industry that preys on the vulnerable" is developing.

Mechanisms
The mechanism for how placebos could have effects is uncertain. An open-label study in 2010 showed that it had an effect even when patients were clearly told that the placebo pill they were receiving was an inactive (i.e., "inert") substance like a sugar pill that contained no medication. These results challenge the "conventional wisdom" that placebo effects require "intentional ignorance". From a sociocognitive perspective, this intentional placebo response attributes to the "ritual effect" that induces anticipation for transition to a better state. A placebo presented as a stimulant may trigger an effect on heart rhythm and blood pressure, but when administered as a depressant, the opposite effect.

Psychology

In psychology, the two main hypotheses of the placebo effect are expectancy theory and classical conditioning.

In 1985, Irving Kirsch hypothesized that placebo effects are produced by the self-fulfilling effects of response expectancies, in which the belief that one will feel different leads a person to actually feel different. According to this theory, the belief that one has received an active treatment can produce the subjective changes thought to be produced by the real treatment. Similarly, the appearance of effect can result from classical conditioning, wherein a placebo and an actual stimulus are used simultaneously until the placebo is associated with the effect from the actual stimulus. Both conditioning and expectations play a role in placebo effect, and make different kinds of contributions. Conditioning has a longer-lasting effect, and can affect earlier stages of information processing. Those who think a treatment will work display a stronger placebo effect than those who do not, as evidenced by a study of acupuncture.

Additionally, motivation may contribute to the placebo effect. The active goals of an individual changes their somatic experience by altering the detection and interpretation of expectation-congruent symptoms, and by changing the behavioral strategies a person pursues. Motivation may link to the meaning through which people experience illness and treatment. Such meaning is derived from the culture in which they live and which informs them about the nature of illness and how it responds to treatment.

Placebo analgesia
Functional imaging upon placebo analgesia suggests links to the activation, and increased functional correlation between this activation, in the anterior cingulate, prefrontal, orbitofrontal and insular cortices, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, the brainstem's periaqueductal gray matter, and the spinal cord.

Since 1978, it has been known that placebo analgesia depends upon the release of endogenous opioids in the brain. Such analgesic placebos activation changes processing lower down in the brain by enhancing the descending inhibition through the periaqueductal gray on spinal nociceptive reflexes, while the expectations of anti-analgesic nocebos acts in the opposite way to block this.

Functional imaging upon placebo analgesia has been summarized as showing that the placebo response is "mediated by "top-down" processes dependent on frontal cortical areas that generate and maintain cognitive expectancies. Dopaminergic reward pathways may underlie these expectancies". "Diseases lacking major 'top-down' or cortically based regulation may be less prone to placebo-related improvement".

Brain and body

In conditioning, a neutral stimulus saccharin is paired in a drink with an agent that produces an unconditioned response. For example, that agent might be cyclophosphamide, which causes immunosuppression. After learning this pairing, the taste of saccharin by itself is able to cause immunosuppression, as a new conditioned response via neural top-down control. Such conditioning has been found to affect a diverse variety of not just basic physiological processes in the immune system but ones such as serum iron levels, oxidative DNA damage levels, and insulin secretion. Recent reviews have argued that the placebo effect is due to top-down control by the brain for immunity and pain. Pacheco-López and colleagues have raised the possibility of "neocortical-sympathetic-immune axis providing neuroanatomical substrates that might explain the link between placebo/conditioned and placebo/expectation responses". There has also been research aiming to understand underlying neurobiological mechanisms of action in pain relief, immunosuppression, Parkinson's disease and depression.

Dopaminergic pathways have been implicated in the placebo response in pain and depression.

Confounding factors
Placebo-controlled studies, as well as studies of the placebo effect itself, often fail to adequately identify confounding factors. False impressions of placebo effects are caused by many factors including:

 Regression to the mean (natural recovery or fluctuation of symptoms)
 Additional treatments
 Response bias from subjects, including scaling bias, answers of politeness, experimental subordination, conditioned answers;
 Reporting bias from experimenters, including misjudgment and irrelevant response variables.
 Non-inert ingredients of the placebo medication having an unintended physical effect

History

The word placebo was used in a medicinal context in the late 18th century to describe a "commonplace method or medicine" and in 1811 it was defined as "any medicine adapted more to please than to benefit the patient". Although this definition contained a derogatory implication it did not necessarily imply that the remedy had no effect.

It was recognized in the 18th and 19th centuries that drugs or remedies often were perceived to work best while they were still novel:

Placebos have featured in medical use until well into the twentieth century. In 1955 Henry K. Beecher published an influential paper entitled The Powerful Placebo which proposed the idea that placebo effects were clinically important. Subsequent re-analysis of his materials, however, found in them no evidence of any "placebo effect".

Placebo-controlled studies

The placebo effect makes it more difficult to evaluate new treatments. Clinical trials control for this effect by including a group of subjects that receives a sham treatment. The subjects in such trials are blinded as to whether they receive the treatment or a placebo. If a person is given a placebo under one name, and they respond, they will respond in the same way on a later occasion to that placebo under that name but not if under another.

Clinical trials are often double-blinded so that the researchers also do not know which test subjects are receiving the active or placebo treatment. The placebo effect in such clinical trials is weaker than in normal therapy since the subjects are not sure whether the treatment they are receiving is active.

See also
 E. Morton Jellinek and "reactors to placebo"
 List of effects
 List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
 Nocebo
 Homeopathy
 Placebo button
 Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
 Self-fulfilling prophecy

Further reading

References

External links
 Program in Placebo Studies & Therapeutic Encounter (PiPS) (Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School)

Clinical research
Deception
Ethically disputed medical practices
Mind–body interventions

Placebo


St. Martin (, Romansh: Sogn Martin) is a village and was a municipality in the district of Surselva in the Swiss canton of Graubünden. On 1 January 2015 the former municipality of St. Martin merged into the municipality of Vals.

History
The village was settled around the 14th Century by Walser immigrants.  Initially it was a held in fief for the Bishop of Chur by the von Tersnaus and von Mont families.  In 1457 the German-speaking population was forbidden from purchasing land or marrying in the neighboring village of Tersnaus.  The village church (consecrated 1345) was initially under the parish church of St. Vinzenz in Pleif (in Vella municipality), but in 1528 came under the authority of Tersnaus.  After 1776, St. Martin's village church had a German-speaking Prebend though in 1868 it fell back under the authority of Tersnaus.

By 1671 the farm houses of St. Martin's were a neighborhood in Tersnaus, and in 1878 the municipality separated from Tersnaus to become politically independent.  The municipality remained firmly rural, and in 1972-73 became the last municipality in Switzerland to be connected to the electric grid.

Coat of arms
The municipal coat of arms is Azure, Saint Martin statant clad as bishop argent and or holding in his dexter hand a crosier and his sinister hand raised in blessing, between seven mullets of the last.  Saint Martin represents the name of the municipality, while the seven stars represent the seven hamlets that make up the municipality.

Geography
Before the merger, St. Martin had a total area of .  Of this area, 29% is used for agricultural purposes, while 32.5% is forested.  Of the rest of the land, 0.3% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (38.2%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

The municipality is located in the Lugnez sub-district of the Surselva district.  It is a scattered settlement on the steep slopes above both sides of the Valser Rhine canyon at an elevation of between .  The majority German speaking village marks the language border between German and Romansh in the valley.  It consists of hamlets of St. Martin, Lunschania (post office), Bucarischuna, Munt, Gadenstatt, Mariaga and Travisasch.  The additional hamlets of Feistenberg, Haspel and Montaschg are all abandoned.

Demographics
St. Martin had a population (as of 2013) of 35, all Swiss citizens.  Over the last 10 years the population has decreased at a rate of -6.8%.  Most of the population () speaks German (86.1%), with the rest speaking Romansh (13.9%).

, the gender distribution of the population was 48.8% male and 51.2% female. The age distribution, , in St. Martin is: 7 children or 19.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 4 teenagers or 11.1% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, nobody was between 20 and 29 years old. 6 people or 16.7% are between 30 and 39, 6 people or 16.7% are between 40 and 49, and 3 people or 8.3% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 3 people or 8.3% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 5 people or 13.9% are between 70 and 79, there is 1 person who is between 80 and 89, and there is 1 person who is between 90 and 99.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 67.3% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the FDP (20%), the SVP (12.7%) and the SP (0%).

In St. Martin about 40% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

St. Martin has an unemployment rate of 0%.  , there were 13 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 7 businesses involved in this sector.  1 person is employed in the secondary sector and there is 1 business in this sector.  No one is employed in the tertiary sector.

The historical population is given in the following table:

References

External links

Vals, Switzerland
Former municipalities of Graubünden

St. Martin, Graubünden


Sambhaji (Sambhaji Bhonsle; ; c.14 May 1657 – 11 March 1689), also known as Shambhuraje was the second Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire, ruling from 1681 to 1689. He was the eldest son of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. Sambhaji's rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire, as well as other neighbouring powers such as the Abyssinians of Janjira, Wadiyars of Mysore and the Portuguese Empire in Goa. After Sambhaji's death, his brother Rajaram I succeeded him as the next Chhatrapati and continued the Mughal–Maratha Wars.

Early life
Sambhaji was born at Purandar fort to the Maratha Emperor Shivaji, and his first wife Saibai, who died when he was two years old and he was raised by his paternal grandmother Jijabai. At the age of nine, Sambhaji was sent to live with Raja Jai Singh I of Amber as a political hostage to ensure compliance of the Treaty of Purandar that Shivaji had signed with the Mughals on 11 June 1665. As a result of the treaty, Sambhaji became a Mughal mansabdar. He and his father Shivaji attended the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's court at Agra on 12 May 1666. Aurangzeb put both of them under house arrest but they escaped on 22 July 1666. However, the two sides reconciled and had cordial relations during the period 1666–1670. During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb initially refused but later officially recognized the title of Raja that Shivaji assumed, on behalf of the Mughal Empire, after being pressed by Prince Mu'azzam. Aurangzeb looked upon the friendship of Prince Muazzam and Shivaji and Sambhaji with great suspicion. By mediation of Muazzam, Sambhaji was also restored to the Mughal mansabdar rank of 5,000 cavalry. Shivaji then sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to take service under Prince Mu'azzam who was the Mughal viceroy at Aurangabad with Diler Khan as his deputy. Sambhaji visited prince Muazzam at Aurangabad on 4th November 1667 and was then granted rights to territory in Berar on the pretext of revenue collection After a short stay, Sambhaji returned to Rajgad while representative Maratha officers continued to stay in Aurangabad. In this period, the Marathas under Sambhaji fought alongside the Mughals under Muazzam against the Sultanate of Bijapur.

Marriage
Sambhaji was married to Jivubai in a marriage of political alliance and as per Maratha custom, she took the name Yesubai. Jivubai was the daughter of Pilaji Shirke, who had entered Shivaji's service following the defeat of Deshmukh Suryaji Surve who was his previous liege. This marriage thus gave Shivaji the access of the region of Konkan coastal belt. Yesubai had two children, daughter Bhavani Bai and then a son named Shahu I, who later became the Chhatrapati of the Maratha empire.

Arrest and defection to the Mughals
Sambhaji's behaviour, including alleged irresponsibility and addiction to sensual pleasures, led Shivaji to imprison his son at Panhala fort in 1678 to curb his behaviour. Sambhaji escaped from the fort with his wife and rejoined Diler Khan in December 1678 for a year, but then returned home when he learnt of a plan by Diler Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, to arrest him and send him to Delhi. Upon returning home, Sambhaji was put under surveillance at Panhala.

Accession
When Shivaji died in the first week of April 1680, Sambhaji was still held captive at Panhala fort. At that time, Soyrabai, Shivaji's ambitious widow and Sambhaji's step-mother, along with influential courtiers such as Annaji Datto and other ministers conspired against Sambhaji, to prevent him from succeeding the throne. In a rush, they installed Soyrabai's son, and Sambhaji's half-brother, Rajaram, then aged ten, on the throne on 21 April 1680. Upon hearing this news, Sambhaji plotted his escape and took possession of the Panhala fort on 27 April after killing the fort commander. On 18 June, he acquired control of Raigad Fort. Sambhaji formally ascended the throne on 20 July 1680. Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai and mother Soyarabai were imprisoned. Soon after, when there was another conspiracy attempt against Sambhaji with the help of Prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's fourth son, some of Soyarabai's kinsmen from the Shirke clan and some of Shivaji's ministers such as Annaji Datto were executed on charges of conspiracy.

Military expeditions and conflicts
Shortly, following Sambhaji's accession, he began his military campaigns against neighboring states.

Attack on Burhanpur

Bahadur Khan was in charge of the fort of Burhanpur who later entrusted Kakar Khan with the same. Kakar was performing the duty of collecting jizya tax from the Hindu citizens of Burhanpur. The Jizya was collected and stored at the Burhanpur fort. Sambhaji plundered and ravaged Burhanpur in 1680. His forces completely routed the Mughal garrison and punitively executed captives. The Marathas then looted the city and set its ports ablaze. Sambhaji then withdrew into Baglana, evading the forces of Mughal commander Khan Jahan Bahadur.

Mughal Empire
In 1681, Aurangzeb's fourth son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court south to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji. Sambhaji's ministers including Annaji Datto, and other ministers took this opportunity and conspired again to enthrone Rajaram again. They signed a treasonable letter against Sambhaji in which they promised to join Akbar, to whom the letter was sent. Akbar gave this letter to Sambhaji. Enraged, Sambhaji executed the conspirators on charges of treason.

For five years, Akbar stayed with Sambhaji, hoping that the latter would lend him men and money to strike and seize the Mughal throne for himself. Unfortunately for Sambhaji, giving asylum to Akbar did not bear fruit. Eventually, Sambhaji helped Akbar flee to Persia. On the other hand, Aurangzeb after coming to Deccan never returned to his capital in the north.

Siege of Ramsej (1682)

In 1682, the Mughals laid siege to the Maratha fort of Ramsej, but after five months of failed attempts, including planting explosive mines and building wooden towers to gain the walls, the Mughal siege failed.

Aurangzeb tried attacking the Maratha Empire from all directions. He intended to use the Mughal numerical superiority to his advantage. Sambhaji had prepared well for the invasions and the Maratha forces promptly engaged the numerically strong Mughal army in several small battles using guerilla warfare tactics. However, Sambhaji and his generals attacked and defeated the Mughal generals whenever they got an opportunity to lure the Mughal generals into decisive battles in the Maratha stronghold territories. Sambhaji had devised a strategy of minimising the losses on his side. If there used to be an opportunity, then the Maratha army attacked decisively, however, if the Mughals were too strong in numbers then the Marathas used to retreat. This proved to be a very effective strategy as Aurangzeb's generals were not able to capture the Maratha territories for a period of three years.

Mughal invasions of Konkan (1684)

Aurangzeb then decided to attack the Maratha capital Raigad Fort directly from the North and the South directions. He made a pincer attempt to surround the Maratha Capital that led to Mughal invasions of Konkan (1684). The Mughals were badly defeated due to the Maratha strategy and the harsh climate of the region. These failures forced Aurangzeb to look away from the Maratha Empire and search for success against the Qutb Shahi dynasty and Adil Shahi dynasty. Under Sambhaji (1680–89) the Marathas ranged up and down western India.

Siddis of Janjira

The Marathas under Shivaji came into conflict with the Siddis, Muslims of Abyssinian descent settled in India, over the control of the Konkan coast. Shivaji was able to reduce their presence to the fortified island of Janjira. Sambhaji continued the Maratha campaign against them, while at that time the Siddis formed an alliance with the Mughals. At the start of 1682, a Maratha army later joined by Sambhaji personally, attacked the island for thirty days, doing heavy damage but failing to breach its defenses. Sambhaji then attempted a ruse, sending a party of his people to the Siddis, claiming to be defectors. They were allowed into the fort and planned to detonate the gunpowder magazine during a coming Maratha attack. However, one of the female defectors became involved with a Siddi man and he uncovered the plot, and the infiltrators were executed. The Maratha then attempted to build a stone causeway from the shore to the island, but were interrupted halfway through when the Mughal army moved to menace Raigad. Sambhaji returned to counter them and his remaining troops were unable to overcome the Janjira garrison and the Siddi fleet protecting it.

Portuguese and English

Having failed to take Janjira in 1682, Sambhaji sent a commander to seize the Portuguese coastal fort of Anjadiva instead. The Marathas seized the fort, seeking to turn it into a naval base, but in April 1682 were ejected from the fort by a detachment of 200 Portuguese. This incident led to a larger conflict between the two regional powers.

The Portuguese colony of Goa at that time provided supplies to the Mughals, allowed them to use the Portuguese ports in India and pass through their territory. In order to deny this support to the Mughals, Sambhaji undertook a campaign against Portuguese Goa in late 1683, storming the colony and taking its forts. The situation for the colonists became so dire that the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco de Távora, conde de Alvor went with his remaining supporters to the cathedral where the crypt of Saint Francis Xavier was kept, where they prayed for deliverance. The viceroy had the casket opened and gave the saint's body his baton, royal credentials and a letter asking the saint's support. Sambhaji's Goa campaign was checked by the arrival of the Mughal army and navy in January 1684, forcing him to withdraw.

Meanwhile, in 1684 Sambhaji signed a defensive treaty with the English at Bombay, realising his need for English arms and gunpowder, particularly as their lack of artillery and explosives impeded the Maratha's ability to lay siege to fortifications. Thus reinforced, Sambhaji proceeded to take Pratapgad and a series of forts along the Ghats.

Mysore

Much like his father Shivaji's Karnataka campaign, Sambhaji attempted in 1681 to invade Mysore, then a southern principality ruled by Wodeyar Chikkadevaraja. Sambhaji's large army was repelled, as had happened to Shivaji in 1675. Chikkadevraja later made treaties and rendered tribute to the Maratha kingdom during the conflicts of 1682–1686. Chikkadevraja however began to draw close to the Mughal Empiror and ceased to follow his treaties with the Marathas. In response, Sambhaji invaded Mysore in 1686, accompanied by his Brahmin friend and poet Kavi Kalash.

Capture and execution

In the 1687 Battle of Wai, the key Maratha commander Hambirao Mohite was killed and troops began to desert the Maratha armies. Sambhaji's positions were spied upon by his own relations, the Shirke family, who had defected to the Mughals. Ganoji Shirke (Brother in law of Sambhaji) informed his location to Muqarrab Khan a Mughal commander. Sambhaji and 25 of his advisors were captured by the Mughal forces of Muqarrab Khan in a skirmish at Sangameshwar in February 1689.

Accounts of Sambhaji's confrontation with the Mughal ruler and following torture, execution and disposal of his body, vary widely depending on the source, though generally all agree that he was tortured and executed on the emperor's orders.

The captured Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were taken to Bahadurgad in present-day Ahmednagar district, where Aurangzeb humiliated them by parading them wearing clown's clothes and they were subjected to insults by Mughal soldiers.

Accounts vary as to the reasons for what came next: Mughal accounts state that Sambhaji was asked to surrender his forts, treasures and names of Mughal collaborators with the Marathas and that he sealed his fate by insulting both the emperor and the Islamic prophet Muhammad during interrogation and was executed for having killed Muslims. The ulema of the Mughal Empire sentenced Sambhaji to death on allegations of the atrocities his troops perpetrated against Muslims in Burhanpur, including plunder, killing, dishonour and torture .

Maratha accounts instead state that he was ordered to bow before Aurangzeb and convert to Islam and it was his refusal to do so, by saying that he would accept Islam on the day the Aurangzeb presented him his daughter's hand, that led to his death. By doing so, he earned the title of Dharmaveer ("protector of dharma"). Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash. They were tortured and blinded and were executed by beheading on 11 March 1689 at Tulapur on the banks of the Bhima river near Pune.

Other accounts state that Sambhaji challenged Aurangzeb in open court and refused to convert to Islam. Dennis Kincaid writes, "He (Sambhaji) was ordered by the Emperor to embrace Islam. He refused and was made to run the gauntlet of the whole Imperial army. Tattered and bleeding he was brought before the Emperor and repeated his refusal. His tongue was torn and again the question was put. He called for writing material and wrote 'Not even if the emperor bribed me with his daughter!' So then he was put to death by torture".

Some accounts state that Sambhaji's body was cut into pieces and thrown into the river or that the body or portions were recaptured and cremated at the confluence of the rivers at Tulapur. Other accounts state that Sambhaji's remains were fed to the dogs.

Governance
Sambhaji inherited the governance system created by Shivaji. He continued with most of his father's policies. The administration of the state was managed by Sambhaji with the help of Chandogamatya and the council of eight ministers. According to P. S. Joshi, Sambhaji was a good administrator who gave impartial justice to his subjects.

Measures against drought
Maharashtra witnessed severe drought during the reign of Sambhaji (1684–88). Sambhaji had to take several administrative measures to tackle the situation. Sambhaji continued Shivaji's policies by helping poor farmers. Shankar Narayan Joshi has stated that his approach against famine was very constructive and he provided solutions to many complicated problems. His policies of water storage, irrigation and developing crop patterns exhibited his progressive policies.

Sambhaji provided grain seeds, exemptions in taxes, oxen for agricultural work and agricultural tools to the farmers in the drought situation. All these measures were implemented sincerely during the drought period.

Encouragement to agricultural activities

Sambhaji encouraged the agricultural activity in the Maratha state. Agriculture was the backbone of the rural Maratha economy. He encouraged people to cultivate more and more land. The government of Sambhaji gave promises of safety to the Marathas who gained independence from the Mughals and asked them to carry out their previous work of cultivation in their territories. It also called back the people who had absconded because of their inability to pay taxes and asked them to carry on their previous work of cultivation.

Sambhaji in his letter of 3 June 1684 addressed to Hari Shivdev (Subhedar and Karkun of Tarf Chaul), directed his Peshwa Nilkantha Moreshwar to bring the agricultural land of the villages confiscated by the government under cultivation which otherwise would have remained uncultivated. He also asked Hari Shivdev to distribute fifty khandis of grain which were being sent to him from Sagargad, among the cultivators.

Sambhaji tried to increase the income (revenue) from these agricultural activities. He also made efforts to cultivate more wasted or barren lands.

Religious policy
P. S. Joshi states that Sambhaji, his ministers and officers took interest in supporting the cultural and religious activity in the state. They honoured and encouraged learning by granting land, grains and money to scholars.

Innovations
Sambhaji used many innovations during his campaigns, one such innovation was when he made jackets from leather for his soldiers to ensure protection from lethal arrows fired by the Mysore army during his campaign against Mysore which was highly successful, as, after the initial defeat of the Maratha army due to the poisonous arrows, the Maratha army was able to negate the arrows and achieved victory by using these leather jackets.

Literary contributions
Sambhaji was sophisticated, educated and well-versed in a few languages besides Marathi. Keshav Pandit was employed for Sambhaji's education. Keshav Pandit, alias Keshav Bhatta of Shringarpur, was an erudite scholar in the Nitishastra and Sanskrit language and literature. He seemed to have deeper knowledge of the different forms of Sanskrit literature, Hindu jurisprudence and the Puranas. He also seems to have made Sambhaji familiar with the famous works of different sciences and music written by ancient scholars in the Sanskrit language. Keshav Pandit composed Dandaniti on Maratha jurisprudence and also composed the Sanskrit biography of Sambhaji's brother titled 'Shri Rajaramacharitra' detailing his early campaigns and escape to Jinji.

Sambhaji composed several books during his lifetime. The most notable is Budhbhushanam written in Marathi and Sanskrit, and three other books, Nayikabhed, Saatsatak, Nakhshikha which are written in Hindustani language. In Budhbhushanam, Sambhaji wrote poetry on politics. In the book, Sambhaji writes about dos and don'ts for a king and discusses military tactics. The first few shlokas are praises for Shahaji (his grandfather) and his father Shivaji. In Budhbhushan, Sambhaji considers Shahji to be the incarnation of Indra and Shivaji to be the incarnation of Vishnu that saved the earth and restored righteousness. Kavindra Paramanand Govind Newaskar of Poladpur composed Anupurana, a partially-completed Sanskrit biography on the life of Chhatrapati Sambhaji upto the birth of Shahu I as a sequel to his father's Sanskrit biography Shivabharata. Hari Kavi, also known as Bhanubhatta composed Haihayendra Charitra as well as its commentary, Shambu Vilasika on the orders of Sambhaji. Hari Kavi also authored Subhashitaharavalli and composed the Sanskrit biography Shambhuraja Charitra on Sambhaji's life and romance in 1684.

Succession
The Maratha Kingdom was put into disarray by Sambhaji's death and his younger half-brother Rajaram I assumed the throne. Rajaram shifted the Maratha capital far south to Jinji, while Maratha guerrilla fighters under Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav continued to harass the Mughal army. A few days after Sambhaji's death, the capital Raigad Fort fell to the Mughals. Sambhaji's widow, Yesubai, son, Shahu and Shivaji's widow, Sakvarbai were captured; Sakvarbai died in Mughal captivity. Shahu, who was seven years of age when captured, remained prisoner of the Mughals for 18 years from February 1689 until Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Shahu was then set free by Emperor Muhammad Azam Shah, son of Aurangzeb. After his release, Shahu had to fight a brief succession war with his aunt Tarabai, Rajaram's widow who claimed the throne for her own son, Shivaji II. The Mughals kept Yesubai captive to ensure that Shahu adhered to the terms of his release. She was released in 1719 when the Marathas became strong under Shahu and Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.

In popular culture
Films and television shows based on Sambhaji's life have been produced in India.
These include:
 Chhatrapati Sambhaji (1925) by Narayanrao D. Sarpotdar
 Chhatrapati Sambhaji (1934) by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar
 Swarajya Rakshak Sambhaji – TV Series (2017–2020).

Books
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (Vasudeo Sitaram Bendrey)
Sambhajiraja Jwalajwalantejas (Dr. Sadashiv Shivade)
Sambhaji Maharajanchi Patre (Dr. Sadashiv Shivade)
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharajanchi Rajneeti (Dr. Kedar Phalke)
Maharadnyi Yesubai (Dr. Sadashiv Shivade)
Senapati Hambirrao Mohite (Dr. Sadashiv Shivade)
Chhatrapati Sambhaji ek Chikitsa (Dr. Jaisingrao Pawar)
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj Sanskrut Sahitya (R.A. Kadam)
Paramanandkavyam (S.M.Ayachit, Dr. Sadashiv Shivade)
Swarajya Rakshanacha Ladha (Mohan Shete, Pandurang Balakawade, Sudhir Thorat)
ShambhuPratap DinVishesh (Uday A. Sankhe)
Sambhajikalin Patrasarsangraha (S. N. Joshi)

See also
 Bhosale family ancestry
 Maratha clan system
 Marathi people

References

External links

1657 births
1689 deaths
17th-century Indian monarchs
Hindu martyrs
Hindu monarchs
People executed by India by decapitation
17th-century executions by the Mughal Empire
People from Maharashtra
Warriors from the Maratha Empire
People executed for refusing to convert to Islam
Executed monarchs
Maratha emperors

Sambhaji


The Empty Mask (1928) is a painting by Belgian surrealist René Magritte.

In his essay Words and Images, published in 1929, Magritte observed that each image "suggests that there are others behind it". Viewed through a freestanding frame of irregular shape, these images are a sky, a lead curtain festooned with sleigh bells, a house façade, a sheet of paper cut-outs, a forest and a fire.

The title evokes the fear of the invisible which pervades the artist's work and reflects the surrealists' fascination with the subconscious. The painting was purchased in 1973 and is usually on display in the National Museum of Wales.

See also
 List of paintings by René Magritte
 1928 in art

Sources
National Museum Wales

Paintings by René Magritte
Surrealist paintings
1928 paintings
Paintings in National Museum Cardiff

The Empty Mask


Wang Zhuxi (Chinese: 王竹溪; Pinyin: Wáng Zhúxī; June 7, 1911 - January 30, 1983), who had the given name Zhiqi () and the sobriquet Zhuxi, was a Chinese physicist, philologist, and writer.

Biography
Wang was born in Gong'an County, Hubei Province. He graduated from the Department of Physics of Tsinghua University in 1933, and continued his postgraduate study in the university's graduate school. With government support, he went to study in the United Kingdom, where he obtained his doctorate degree from Cambridge University under the supervision of Ralph Fowler in 1938.

Upon his return to China, Wang taught statistical physics, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics at the Department of Physics at Tsinghua. After 1952 he became a professor at Peking University, later serving as the vice president of the university.

In recognition of his advancements in the field of physics, he was elected as a founding member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1955.

Wang authored several textbooks published by the Peking University Press, including "Thermodynamics" and "Introduction to Statistical Physics". He served as the director of the Terminology Committee of the Chinese Physics Society, and created many Chinese translations of new physics terms.

In the meantime he was devoted to studying philology, serving as an editor of the "New Chinese Dictionary by Division Heads" with 2,500,000 words. It simplified 214 division heads of the Kangxi Dictionary into only 56, and arranged over 50,000 Chinese characters by stroke orders from top to bottom and left to right, which was a convenient system for retrieval.

Many of Wang's students are prominent physicists, including Nobel laureate Chen-Ning Yang and former president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhou Guangzhao. In 2003, a bronze bust of Wang was founded at the Peking University campus.

Works
Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition; Wang Z.X; Peking University Press 2005
Statistical Physics, Wang Z. X., Peking University Press
Special Functions, Wang Z. X., Guo D R, Singapore World Scientific Publishing C. 1989
New Chinese Dictionary by Division Heads, Wang Z.X.

References
 The Beauty of Rigor and Conciseness—Wang Zhuxi's Life Long Pursuit of  Physics, by Wang Zhengxing, Peking U Press

1911 births
1983 deaths
Educators from Hubei
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of the National Southwestern Associated University
Academic staff of Peking University
People from Jingzhou
20th-century Chinese science writers
Physicists from Hubei
Academic staff of Tsinghua University
Victims of the Cultural Revolution
Writers from Hubei
20th-century Chinese translators

Wang Zhuxi


The black-headed weaver (Ploceus melanocephalus), also known as the yellow-backed weaver, is a bird with a black head and golden body.  The male black-headed weaver usually does the weaving, however, and the female sits for the eggs. The male stitches strips of straws to make a basket with a roof. He uses grasses to tie knots and make sure the nest is completely secure. Finally, he shows the nest to females, in effort to attract a mate. The males usually mate with many females during the mating season to get more offspring. They all nest in colonies, and in the end the females are left to raise their young alone. The seeds that the black-headed weaver tends to feed on is very common, so they do not need to stay and defend their family's territory or food.

References

Passeri
Birds of Africa

Black-headed weaver


Pearl Iva Edith Withers (July 7, 1917 – October 7, 2014) was a Canadian-born American actress and singer, best remembered as a replacement player who had long runs in some of Rodgers and Hammerstein's biggest musical theatre hits. From 1945-70, she worked almost continuously on Broadway or in national tours, generally as a replacement.

Withers was first hired about 1943 to understudy the leading ladies in the Broadway casts of Oklahoma! and Carousel.  She soon replaced the original star of Carousel, playing Julie Jordan more than 600 times on Broadway and becoming the first Julie in London in 1950.  She was next a replacement for Adelaide in Guys and Dolls. She was a replacement or standby in more than a half dozen other Broadway shows throughout the 1950s and 1960s, and she also toured North America in the leading roles in Carousel, South Pacific and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Her last Broadway role was in Forty Carats (1968–1970), after which she left show business.

Early life and career
Withers was born in Rivers, Manitoba, Canada, the daughter of Roy and Edith Withers, an insurance salesman and a seamstress, respectively, who had emigrated from Ireland around 1913. As a child in Winnipeg, Manitoba, she appeared in local vaudeville productions and continued to sing in church during her teenage years. She moved to New York in 1940 to study singing "so she could improve her voice when she performed in church". She spent seven months in 1942 in wartime England searching for her brother and boyfriend, both of whom had been killed. She took voice lessons from Estelle Liebling.

Withers returned to New York to audition for roles on Broadway, shortening her name to Iva Withers. About 1943, she was hired by Rodgers and Hammerstein in the ensemble of Oklahoma!.  She later understudied the leading soprano roles in Oklahoma! and Carousel. She recalled, "There was even a Saturday that summer [of 1945] where I played Julie in Carousel at the matinee and Laurey in Oklahoma! in the evening and had to hurry from the Majestic Theatre to the St. James Theatre in between." This feat made Withers the first actress ever to play the lead in two different Broadway hits in one day. She played Laurey during the month of September 1945.

Broadway leads and later years

Withers replaced Jan Clayton on January 1, 1946, eventually playing Julie Jordan more than 600 times on Broadway, and was the first Julie in the original London production of Carousel in 1950. The English critic Philip Hope-Wallace wrote that she achieved real pathos in the role. She next was a replacement for Adelaide in Guys and Dolls in the original Broadway production. She also played in American national tours as Julie in Carousel, Nellie in South Pacific and Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Other Broadway roles included Janette in Make a Wish (1951, as standby), May in Redhead (1959, as replacement), Molly in The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960 as standby), Cyrenne in the stage version of Rattle of a Simple Man (1963, as understudy), Elvira in High Spirits (1964, as standby) and Suzanne and Felice in The Happy Time (1968, as standby).

Her last Broadway role (1968–70) as "Mrs. Adams" in Forty Carats, the only role that she ever created, and also as standby to Julie Harris, and later Zsa Zsa Gabor, in the leading role of Ann Stanley. In August 1970, she went on for a matinee show when Gabor was too upset to perform after having been robbed of $600,000 in jewels at gunpoint that morning. Gabor returned for the evening performance. She left show business after Forty Carats, fed up with fighting the show's producers over the "extra $75″ she was supposed to be paid when actually filling in at a performance.

Death
Iva Withers died in Englewood, New Jersey at age 97 on October 7, 2014 at the Lillian Booth Actors Home.

Family
In 1943 Withers married Robert Strom. While on tour in Carousel in 1946, she met Kazimir Kokich, a former Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo ballet dancer turned Broadway actor-dancer. He was also married at the time. In 1949, both annulled their marriages and married. His first wife was ballerina Alexandra Danilova, who remained friendly with the family after he remarried.

Kokich was an American World War II veteran who increasingly struggled with alcoholism; by the late 1960s, this prevented him from working, and he eventually returned to his native Croatia. After leaving the stage, Withers supported herself and their two children by doing clerical work for physicians, retiring at age 77. Their daughter, Kim Alexandra Kokich, is a reporter with NPR. Their son is Jerry Kokich, a ballet coach and former dancer with the Joffrey Ballet.

References

External links
Photos of Withers in costume for The Unsinkable Molly Brown and South Pacific, nytimes.com, August 10, 2010; accessed October 25, 2014.

 Guide to the Iva Withers and Kazimir Kokich Papers, 1917-2011, bulk 1945-1970 SPEC.TRI.IWK  at the Thompson Library Jerome Lawrence & Robert E. Lee Theatre Research Institute

Actresses from Manitoba
American musical theatre actresses
Canadian people of Irish descent
Canadian emigrants to the United States
American people of Irish descent
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
1917 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American women singers
20th-century Canadian women singers
21st-century American women

Iva Withers


Tic Tac is a Chilean telenovela produced by TVN. It was written by Jorge Marchant Lazcano, Perla Devoto, Maité Chapero and Jimmy Daccarett, and directed by María Eugenia Rencoret.

The soundtrack of the soap opera was based primarily on the album Tributo a Queen, with cover versions of songs by the group interpreted by the Latin artists Illya Kuryaki & The Valderramas, Soda Stereo, Molotov, Fito Paez and Aterciopelados.

Plot
After a seance, the ghost of a young high-class young man, Maximilian Ossa, (Enrique Cintolesi), who died in very strange circumstances, comes from 1925 to 1997 to recover the love of his beloved Pola Santa Maria (Leonor Varela).

In 1997, Pola is the great-niece of his beloved, and physically identical with the same name, with whom he falls in love. There is also a named Nicolas (Francisco Pérez-Bannen) Hunt Mysteries who, for his radio program, Magik Radio, tries to prove that Max is a ghost, well away from Pola, who also is in love.

Cast
 Enrique Cintolesi https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_Cintolesi  - Maximiliano Ossa
 Leonor Varela - Pola Santa María
 Bastián Bodenhöfer - Tomás Barcelona
 Ximena Rivas - Eva Félix
 Coca Guazzini - Ivana Gabor
 Mauricio Pesutic - Ángel Mendizábal / Ángela Smith
 Peggy Cordero - Emilia Santa María
 Jaime Vadell - Samuel Gaete
 Anita Klesky - Rosario Pascal
 Ana Reeves - Victoria Grant
 Edgardo Bruna - Renato Puig
 Adriana Vacarezza - Calú Barcelona
 Solange Lackington - Iris Valdés
 Francisco Pérez-Bannen - Nicolás Urrutia
 Alejandra Fosalba - Samantha Rouge
 Roberto Artiagoitía - Memo
 Mónica Godoy - Isidora Ortúzar
 Yuyuniz Navas - Romina Gaete
 Nicolás Fontaine - Matías Mendizábal
 Remigio Remedy - Gaspar "Roca" García
 Pamela Villalba - Dominique Aldunate
 Paulo Meza - Charly Troncoso
 Paola Volpato - Jocelyn Miranda
 Claudio Arredondo - Antonio "Toño"
 Blanca Lewin - Macarena Mendizábal
 Íñigo Urrutia - Ignacio García
 Carola Derpsch - María José Donoso
 Pedro Villagra - José María
 Jorge Hevia Jr. - Diego Gaete
 Antonella Orsini - Aurora Aldunate
 Clemente Gómez - Andrés Mendizábal

References

1997 telenovelas
1997 Chilean television series debuts
1997 Chilean television series endings
Televisión Nacional de Chile telenovelas
Spanish-language telenovelas

Tic Tac (TV series)


One Eye to Morocco is a solo studio album by English Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan. The album material was written during the gap of Deep Purple's 2008 world tour, in the US. It was released on 6 March 2009 on Edel Records as CD, Limited Edition CD and Vinyl.

Background
As Gillan himself tells, he was in the Jewish-quarter of Kraków listening to the related stories of Oskar Schindler when the voice faded – and then returned and somebody told him: 'Ah, Ian you have one eye to Morocco.' – It was Tomasz Dziubiński. Ian didn't understand the meaning of this Polish idiom, until he was told the whole idiom: "To have one eye to Morocco and another to Caucasus". The idiom describes a cross-eyed, or wandering eye person. This idiom inspired Gillan to make another solo album, and the title for the album was set to "One Eye to Morocco."

Recording
In spring 2008 there was a gap between Purple's World Tour, as bassist Roger Glover's mother had died, so Gillan returned to Buffalo to do something new. In a short period of time, with his former bandmate Steve Morris, Ian wrote more than thirty songs. The recording of the album took place in Metalworks Studios, Mississauga, Ontario. Twelve songs were chosen for the album and all of them were recorded in just three days. Recording was mixed and engineered by Nick Blagona, who has previously worked with Deep Purple and mixed Purple's reunion album Perfect Strangers, as well as The House of Blue Light and Slaves & Masters. Also guitarist Michael Lee Jackson contributed to the album.

Music style
Ian Gillan said himself: "It was a conscious decision to avoid the use of a rock rhythm section and you will notice the complete absence of guitar and keyboard solos – we get the very best of all that from Deep Purple. So the instrumentation is perhaps more seductive than thrusting."

Track listing
 "One Eye to Morocco" (Gillan, Morris) – 4:05
 "No Lotion for That" (Gillan, Morris) – 3:11
 "Don't Stop" (Gillan, Appleby) – 2:35
 "Change My Ways" (Gillan) – 3:26
 "Girl Goes to Show" (Gillan, Morris) – 3:59
 "Better Days" (Jackson) – 4:07
 "Deal with It" (Gillan, Morris) – 3:44
 "Ultimate Groove" (Jackson) – 3:48
 "The Sky Is Falling Down" (Gillan, Morris) – 4:09
 "Texas State of Mind" (Jackson) – 3:49
 "It Would Be Nice" (Gillan, Morris) – 3:10
 "Always the Traveller" (Gillan, Morris) – 3:17
 "Lonely Days" (bonus track)
 "She Thinks It's a Crime" (bonus track)

Singles
 "One Eye to Morocco / Better Days" (For promotional use only)

Formats
One Eye To Morocco was released as CD, Vinyl LP and Limited Edition CD+Vinyl (Doppel CD).

Band
Ian Gillan – lead and backing vocals, harmonica
Michael Lee Jackson – guitars
Rodney Appleby – bass
Howard Wilson – drums
Steve Morris – guitars
Joe Mennonna – saxophones
Lance Anderson – Hammond organ
Jesse O'Brien – keyboards
Brownman Ali – flugelhorn
Jaro Jarosil – cello
The Gillanaires – backing vocals

Production
Produced, engineered, mixed and mastered by Nick Blagona –
Executive producers: Michael Lee Jackson, Drew Thompson
Basic tracks recorded at Metalworks Studios, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
Additional recordings at Psychotropic Studios, Dundas, Ontario, Canada
Rehearsal at the Town Ballroom, Buffalo, New York
Calligraphy: Katarina Dorch
Photo: Bob Mussell
Artwork: Patrizio Squeglia

Chart performance

References

2009 albums
Ian Gillan albums
Edel AG albums
Albums produced by Nick Blagona

One Eye to Morocco


Danh sách các thành phố Tiểu bang Colorado, Hoa Kỳ:
 Arvada, Colorado
 Aspen, Colorado
 Aurora, Colorado
 Avon, Colorado
 Bayfield, Colorado
 Basalt, Colorado
 Berthoud, Colorado
 Black Hawk, Colorado
 Boulder, Colorado
 Breckenridge, Colorado
 Brighton, Colorado
 Broomfield, Colorado
 Brush, Colorado
 Burlington, Colorado
 Castle Rock, Colorado
 Cedaredge, Colorado
 Centennial, Colorado
 Cherry Hills Village, Colorado
 Colorado Springs, Colorado
 Commerce City, Colorado
 Cortez, Colorado
 Craig, Colorado
 Creede, Colorado
 Cripple Creek, Colorado
 Delta, Colorado
 Denver, Colorado
 Dillon, Colorado
 Durango, Colorado
 Eagle, Colorado
 Eaton, Colorado
 Edgewater, Colorado
 Englewood, Colorado
 Erie, Colorado
 Estes Park, Colorado
 Evans, Colorado
 Federal Heights, Colorado
 Firestone, Colorado
 Frederick, Colorado
 Fort Collins, Colorado
 Fort Lupton, Colorado
 Fort Morgan, Colorado
 Fountain, Colorado
 Frisco, Colorado
 Fruita, Colorado
 Georgetown, Colorado
 Glendale, Colorado
 Glenwood Springs, Colorado
 Golden, Colorado
 Grand Junction, Colorado
 Greeley, Colorado
 Greenwood Village, Colorado
 Gunnison, Colorado
 Gypsum, Colorado
 Idaho Springs, Colorado
 Ignacio, Colorado
 Johnstown, Colorado
 La Junta, Colorado
 Lafayette, Colorado
 Lakewood, Colorado
 Lamar, Colorado
 Larkspur, Colorado
 Limon, Colorado
 Littleton, Colorado
 Lone Tree, Colorado
 Longmont, Colorado
 Louisville, Colorado
 Loveland, Colorado
 Lyons, Colorado
 Minturn, Colorado
 Montrose, Colorado
 Monument, Colorado
 Morrison, Colorado
 Nederland, Colorado
 New Castle, Colorado
 Northglenn, Colorado
 Olathe, Colorado
 Pagosa Springs, Colorado
 Palmer Lake, Colorado
 Parker, Colorado
 Pueblo, Colorado
 Rifle, Colorado
 Sheridan, Colorado
 Silt, Colorado
 Silverthorne, Colorado
 Silverton, Colorado
 Town of Snowmass Village, Colorado
 South Fork, Colorado
 Steamboat Springs, Colorado
 Sterling, Colorado
 Stratton, Colorado
 Superior, Colorado
 Telluride, Colorado
 Timnath, Colorado
 Thornton, Colorado
 Trinidad, Colorado
 Vail, Colorado
 Westminster, Colorado
 Wheat Ridge, Colorado
 Windsor, Colorado
 Winter Park, Colorado
 Woodland Park, Colorado

Tham khảo

Colorado
Thành phố tiểu bang Colorado

Danh sách thành phố tiểu bang Colorado


El cerco de Numancia (The siege of Numancia) is a tragedy written in 1585 by the Spanish writer and soldier Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. It tells the story of the defeat of Numancia by the Roman Empire in the 2nd century BC.

The play is also known as The Numancia, Comedy of the siege of Numancia, The destruction of Numancia and Tragedy of Numancia. Two handwritten copies of the play have survived.  One copy is in the National Library of Spain which is an actor's script from the 17th century. Another copy, the codex Sancho Rayón, is held by the Hispanic Society of America. This copy was made by Antonio of Sancha in 1784, with modern spelling, together with another play, the Trip of the Parnaso. Both copies are believed to be based closely on the original, although the modern editors prefer to use The Numancia from the manuscript Sancho Rayón.

1580s plays
Spanish literature

El cerco de Numancia


Radostowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Subkowy, within Tczew County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Subkowy,  south of Tczew, and  south of the regional capital Gdańsk.

For details of the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.

References

Radostowo

Radostowo, Pomeranian Voivodeship


Asosiasi Industri Rekaman Indonesia (ASIRI) (English: Recording Industry Association of Indonesia) is a trust that represents the recording industry interests in Indonesia.

It was established in 1978 and represents 84 member labels, which distribute around 95% of the music sold in Indonesia.

Certification levels

ASIRI is responsible for certifying gold and platinum albums in Indonesia. The levels are:

 Domestic albums
 Gold: 15,000
 Platinum: 30,000

 International albums
 Gold: 5,000
 Platinum: 10,000

As of 2016, ASIRI certifies Gold and Platinum based on the nominal of money earned from the sale of albums and singles, both physically and digitally.
 Gold: Rp500 million ($37,300)
 Platinum: Rp1 billion ($74,600)

Repercussions of unauthorized recording
Copyright infringement is not a new phenomenon in Indonesia. Before 1988, all recordings sold in Indonesia are unauthorized. But in the 1990s, the number was reduced to 20%, with retail value of unlicensed recordings in 1995, estimated at US$15 million. In the early 2000s, the infringement rate was increased back to a higher levels, which was at 55% in 2001, and 85% in 2003. Usually, infringement affects domestic artists in particular.

See also

 Music industry
 List of music recording certifications

References

External links

Music industry associations
Indonesian music industry
Music organizations based in Indonesia
Organizations established in 1978
IFPI members
1978 establishments in Indonesia

Asosiasi Industri Rekaman Indonesia


Kunzea rupestris, the rocky kunzea, is a rare Australian plant in the myrtle family. There are some 20 known populations, all just north of Sydney, including Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and Marramarra National Park. Threats to this species include track maintenance, invasive weeds, removal of rocks and sand, fire management and the cut flower industry.

Description
Kunzea rupestris grows as a spreading clonal shrub, 0.5 to 2 metres tall. Foliage is dense with leaves 6 to 11 mm long,1.5 to 3 mm wide. The reverse lanceolate shaped leaves have a triangular shaped tip. New growth is noticeably villous. Mature leaves may be without hairs. White to cream flowers form in stalkless clusters in spring at the edge of branchlets. The sepals have a triangular shape, 1 to 1.5 mm long. Petals are 1 to 1.5 mm long. The hypanthium of the flower is also densely covered in small shaggy hairs.

Distribution and habitat
Kunzea rupestris usually grows on rocky platforms. It is known to occur between Lower Portland in the north and Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park to the south in central New South Wales. Often found in depressions or cracks in the rock with poor quality shallow soil, it is sometimes associated with moss. It grows at elevations between 50 metres and 300 metres above sea level. The habitat is exposed to full sunshine, regular drought, high temperatures, heavy rain and occasional frost and fire.

Regeneration
The indehiscent fruit are 4 to 5 mm long, 2.5 mm wide. They usually do not open at maturity to release seed. These thin-walled fruit have two internal capsules, and support seed dormancy. Placentation is apical, the style is 5 to 6 mm long. The plant regenerates from the base after fire or physical damage. However, seedlings have been observed after fire. Hybrids with Kunzea capitata have been recorded.<ref>{{cite web |title=RESEARCH ARTICLE - Contents Vol 53(4) "Differential seed ecology in the shrubs Kunzea rupestris, K. capitata and associated hybrids (Myrtaceae): the function of thin-walled fruit in a fire-prone vegetation". authors, David A. Tierney & Glenda M. Wardle|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/bt/BT04148|accessdate=2016-10-24}}</ref>

 Taxonomy
First collected by botanists on bare sandstone rocks near Canoelands in 1927. The rock shelf is in the vicinity of the Colo trig station, at an elevation of 262 metres above sea level. The plant first appeared in scientific literature in the journal of the Linnean Society of New South Wales in 1929, published by William Blakely. The specific epithet rupestris'' means near rocks.

References

rupestris
Flora of New South Wales
Myrtales of Australia
Vulnerable flora of Australia

Kunzea rupestris


The Republican Leadership Council (RLC or RLC-PAC) was founded in 1993 as the Committee for Responsible Government. It was a United States political advocacy group and political action committee that promoted Republican candidates who choose a platform that the organization characterized as "fiscally conservative, socially inclusive."  Issues championed by the RLC include small government, lower taxes, balanced budgets, environmental protection and school choice, often including school vouchers.

The organization was chaired by former Missouri Senator John Danforth and former New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman and tended to be critical of what it considered to be the disproportionate role of conservative Christians in the Republican Party.

In 2011, the RLC was dissolved. However, a new Republican Leadership Council of California has been formed to support moderate Republican policies, starting in California.

History

The Committee for Responsible Government (CRG) was founded by a group of moderate Republicans in 1992 as a response to the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston, Texas where Pat Buchanan, an unsuccessful challenger to former President George H. W. Bush, gave a controversial address which has become known as the "culture war" speech.

Founding members of the CRG included financier Lewis M. Eisenberg, New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman, Representative Susan Molinari (NY-14), Representative Richard A. Zimmer (NJ-12), Massachusetts Governor William F. Weld, and Connecticut Governor John G. Rowland. The organization departed notably from the Republican Party platform by including a pro-choice position on abortion in its "guiding principles."

In 1997, the organization renamed itself the Republican Leadership Council in a nod to its Democratic counterpart, the centrist Democratic Leadership Council. The RLC dropped its embattled stance on abortion in favor of a neutral affirmation of the importance of "protecting individual rights" and "promoting strong families." Governor John Engler of Michigan and Senator Jon Kyl of Arizona, Republicans who oppose abortion were recruited to model a more inclusive position on that issue. Financier Henry Kravis and John A. Moran, former Kansas Senator and presidential candidate Bob Dole, 1996 campaign finance chairman, were named as the organization's co-chairs.

In the Republican Party primary of California's 2002 gubernatorial election, the RLC endorsed Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan over Bill Simon, sponsoring attack ads blaming Simon for the 1993 failure of Western Federal Savings and Loan. RLC board members and Senators Jon Kyl and Frank Murkowski condemned the ads and issued statements distancing themselves from the RLC.

The RLC was inactive for several years after 2003, but was revived after the 2006 midterm elections by Whitman, former Missouri Senator John Danforth and former Maryland Lieutenant Governor Michael Steele. Whitman said that the Republicans' loss of control of Congress signaled a need for the party to return to its "fiscally conservative roots" and to be "less judgmental." In March 2007, Whitman's political action committee, "It's My Party, Too" (IMP-PAC), was merged into RLC-PAC.

In 2008, Michael Steele left the RLC, of which he was a founding member, citing disagreements over endorsing primary candidates. Some contend that his departure was an effort to boost his chances of becoming the RNC chair. He contends that he withdrew from the group in early 2008, while the RLC listed him as a member until his campaign for chair of the GOP began in December 2008.

Board members
 John Danforth, co-chair (former senator, MO)
 Christine Todd Whitman, co-chair (former governor, NJ)
 Trammell Crow
 Nancy Johnson (former representative, CT-5)
 David Lack
 James B. Nicholson
 Tom Ridge (former governor, PA)
 Joe Schwarz (former representative, MI-7)
 Rob Simmons (former representative, CT-2)
 Candace Straight
 Jane Swift (former governor, MA)

Former members
 Michael Steele (former RNC chair and original cofounder of RLC; left in 2008 over the endorsement of candidates in primaries)
 Frank Murkowski (former Alaska senator and governor; left over attack ads)
 Jon Kyl (former Arizona senator; left over attack ads)

Disbandment and rebirth in California

In 2011, the RLC national organization was dissolved when Governor Christine Todd Whitman retired from politics.  However, a new RLC political action committee was founded shortly before in California.  Known as the Republican Leadership Council of California (RLCC), it is philosophically aligned with the original RLC organization ; was chaired by RLC's former California state coordinator; and was granted permission to continue using the same name/brand.

RLCC describes its supporters and candidates as practical, "traditional Republicans", in the manner of Abraham Lincoln and Theodore Roosevelt.  RLCC's strategy is heavily focused on achieving long-term electoral gains for moderate Republicans for legislative, congressional, and other high offices by building a strong bench of moderate Republicans elected to local offices in the bluest parts of California.

See also
Blue Dog Coalition
Republican Liberty Caucus
Republican Main Street Partnership

References

General

Specific

External links
 Republicans for responsible Leadership web site

Leadership Council
Centrism in the United States
Centrist political advocacy groups in the United States
United States political action committees
Organizations established in 1993

Republican Leadership Council


Hyder Consulting was a multi-national advisory and design consultancy with particular specialisation in the transport, property, utilities and environmental sectors. The firm employed approximately 4,200 people across the UK, Europe, Germany, Middle East, Asia and Australia and had been listed on the London Stock Exchange since October 2002. The name Hyder is the Welsh word for "confidence".

In October 2014 it was acquired by Arcadis NV.

History
Hyder was formed in 1993 when engineering firms Acer Group and Wallace Evans Ltd were acquired by Welsh Water and subsequently merged.

Acer Group was itself an internationally recognised consultancy practice formed in 1987 by the merger of John Taylor and Sons (established 1739) and Freeman Fox and Partners (established 1857), and joined in 1991 by Sir Bruce White, Wolfe Barry, and Partners.

Hyder Consulting was subsequently acquired by Western Power Distribution, which prompted Hyder's senior management to instigate a management buy-out that was completed in January 2001. The firm was then listed on the London Stock Exchange in October 2002.

Freeman Fox and Partners had been involved in Melbourne's West Gate Bridge disaster in 1970. Thirty-five construction workers were killed and 18 injured in the collapse, and it remains Australia's worst industrial accident to this day.
 Other structures involving Freeman Fox and Partners included the Sydney Harbour Bridge (1932), the Adomi Bridge (1957) and the Erskine Bridge (1971).

References

Further reading

External links
Hyder Consulting website
ACLA Ltd website
Bettridge Turner & Partners website
Cresswell website
ESR Technology website
RPA Group website
World Of Hyder website

Companies of Wales
British companies established in 2001
International engineering consulting firms
Consulting firms established in 2001
Construction and civil engineering companies of the United Kingdom
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 2001

Hyder Consulting


Nicole Oliver (born February 22, 1970) is a Canadian voice actress. She best known for her role as Zoe Trent in Littlest Pet Shop.

Early life
Oliver was born in Ottawa, Ontario. She studied Bachelor of Fine Arts from York University, and gained a Master's degree in Communication from Royal Roads University.

Career
Oliver is a prominent member of the Union of BC Performers, She served on its executive board from 2002–2005, chaired several committees, and continues to be part of the negotiation team during collective bargaining. In which in 2017, Oliver was nominated for the Best Voice Award by UBCP ACTRA.

Personal life
Oliver got married to film composer Chris Ainscough. They live in Vancouver with their two sons. She has stated on her Twitter account that she has battled depression.

References

1970 births
Living people
Canadian voice actors

Nicole Oliver