Brian Patterson (born January 4, 1965 in Hayward, California U.S.) is a former American "Old School" bicycle motocross (BMX) racer.

Brian Patterson is the younger of the most potent sibling combinations BMX has ever seen. With Brent the Brothers Patterson are the only brothers to both hold the National No.1 Pro title in any major BMX sanctioning body. Brent in 1980 and Brian in 1982 and 1983 in the American Bicycle Association (ABA). They are also the only sibling combination to hold both the no.1 and no.2 national pro plate simultaneously with a major sanctioning body with Brian being ABA number one pro and Brent number two pro in 1982.

Racing career milestones

Note: Professional first are on the national level unless otherwise indicated.

Started racing: At least early 1976 at 11 years old. Took a hiatus from racing beginning in 1979 at 13 due to burn out but resumed racing late 1980 at 15 years old.

First race result: Possibly March 20, 1976 when he won 10 & 11 Novice Class at the Pioneer Area. His brother Brent came in third in 14 novice.

First race bicycle:

First local win: See above.

Sanctioning body:

Home sanctioning body district(s): National Bicycle Association (NBA) District "N" (Northern California);

First National win:

First sponsor: A local Schwinn Bicycle shop in Hayward, California.

Turned Pro: Early 1982 at Age 17.

First Professional race result: Third place at 1982 American Bicycle Association (ABA) Winter Nationals in Chandler, Arizona. It was his only "A" pro race before being moved up to "AA" pro by ABA Vice President Gene Roden at Brian's request.

First Professional win: April 10, 1982 at the ABA Rondo North American Championship Classic in St. Paul, Minnesota in "AA" Pro and Pro Open.

First Junior Pro* result: See "First Professional race result".

First Junior Pro win: None.

First Senior Pro** result: See "First Professional win".

First Senior Pro Win: See above.

Height & weight at his height of his career: (1982–1984): Ht: 6' 3" Wt:~195 lbs.

Retired from the senior pro circuit: Mid 1986 at age 21. As is usual, many former top pro BMXers do not retire completely but race for fun or if there is a particularly large pro purse, such as the 1987 NBL World Cup. Brian occasionally raced in several large races for both reasons in 1987, although both Brian and Brent raced Motorcycle Motocross professionally. Both would race BMX again when they attended the ABA Spring Nationals in 1991. Neither made the main. Both Brent's and Brian's days seriously contending for Senior Pro No.1 racer were over. However, not his career. After a six year hiatus Brian did come back to race in the mid-1990s in the ABA's Veteran Pro Class (along with fellow "Old Schoolers" Harry Leary and Eric Rupe) and did well. He was even reunited with his old Patterson Racing teammate Richie Anderson on the U.S. Boss Racing Products racing team. As for Patterson Racing Products, it went out of business in the summer of 1986 due to production problems.

*In the NBL it is "B" Pro/Superclass/"A" pro (depending on the era); in the ABA "A" Pro.
**In the NBL it is "A" Pro/All Pro/"AA" pro/Elite Men (depending on the era); in the ABA "AA" Pro.

Career factory and major bicycle shop sponsors

Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by BMX press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. When possible exact dates are given.

Amateur
AAA Restaurant Fire Control: 1976
Speedo Racing Products: October 1976-Early November 1977.
Patterson Racing Products: Early November 1977 – 1986. Brain and Brent would turn pro with Patterson Racing. Detailed below.

Professional
Patterson Racing Products: Early November 1977 – 1986. This was the family owned BMX bicycle firm started by their father Vance Patterson in late 1977 after Speedo, who Vance Patterson had invested in, showed no signs of progress toward developing a BMX racing frame, the original reason why Vance Patterson invested in the first place. It was his and his brothers only factory sponsor in their Senior pro careers (Brian would ride for Boss Racing Products in the mid-1990s in the Masters/Veterans Pro classes). That Speedo team, despite getting offers from other firms to join their factory teams, they opted to stay together and thus the original Patterson team of Brian, Brent, Kevin Riding, John Crews, and Mike Koron was formed. Vance Patterson started Patterson racing also in part to fulfill his original intent with Speedo to come out with a BMX bicycle frame and signed up the ex Speedo Team and added Richie Anderson to it. Richie would virtually become part of the Patterson family and stay with Patterson for many years, much longer than the average top amateur would stay with one team.
Retired for approximately six years (1986–1992).
U.S. Boss Racing Products: January 1993-through 1995. Being bitten by the "BMX Bug" again, he restarted his BMX career in 1993 by racing in the ABA's Veteran Pro class. On Boss, he was reunited with John Crews, Richie Anderson and Scott Clark, his old Speedo and Patterson Racing Products teammates.

Career Bicycle Motocross titles

Note: Listed are District, State/Provincial/Department, Regional, National, and International titles in italics. "Defunct" refers to the fact of that sanctioning body in question no longer existing at the start of the racer's career or at that stage of his/her career. Depending on point totals of individual racers, winners of Grand Nationals do not necessarily win National titles. Series and one off Championships are also listed in block.

Amateur
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
1976 11 Expert Grand National Champion
1977 12 Expert Grand National Champion
National Bicycle League (NBL)
None
United Bicycle Racers (UBR)
1981 16 & Over Expert Grandnational Champion
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
None
United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA)
None
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
1981 16 & Over Expert International Champion.

Professional
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
None
National Bicycle League (NBL)
1983 National No.2 Pro
United Bicycle Racers (UBR)
1984 Pro Cruiser Grandnational Champion
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
1982 "Pro Car Main" Grandnational Champion, "AA" Pro Grandnational Champion and Pro Open Grandnational Champion (Triple)
1983 "Pro Car Main" Grandnational Champion
1982, 1983 National No.1 Pro. Brian's brother Brent came in ABA No.2 pro in 1982 when Brian became No.1 pro for that year, the only sibling combination to do so.
1984 Pro Cruiser Grandnational Champion
United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA)
1984 Pro Cruiser Grandnational Champion
1984 Pro Cruiser National No.2
1985 Gatorade Pro Race of Champions Champion
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
1983 20" Pro and Pro Cruiser Murray World Cup II Champion
1985 20" Pro Murray World Cup IV Champion

Notable Accolades
Super BMX magazine's Racer of the Year for 1984. No voter totals, breakdowns or percentage of the vote given.
Brian Patterson is a 1988 ABA BMX Hall of Fame Inductee.

Significant injuries
Broke wrist in first moto of the final race of the 1983 ESPN Pro Spectacular in Burbank, California on December 27, 1983. He raced five more times (the last two motos, a quarter final, and a twice ran semi final. He did not transfer to the main after that semi. He then went to the hospital before confirming his belief he had a broken wrist. Two months before his Brother Brent broke his wrist in a practice session.
Broke arm at Howell, New Jersey NBL race on July 15, 1984. Had to undergo surgery to have plates and screws implanted and was laid up for two months, missing the NBL Grandnational. His first race back was the ABA Great Northwest National in Monroe, Washington on September 16, 1984. It was supposed to be a three month lay up, but Brian had to race in order to get the requisite number of ABA races he had to race-10-in order to keep the Pontiac Trans Am he won for becoming No.1 pro in 1983. Brother Brent injured his knee at the same race.

Racing habits and traits

Miscellaneous
Brain Patterson shares the same birthday and birthyear as fellow racer Mike Poulson: January 4, 1965

Other significant sibling combinations in BMX
Ronnie & Richie Anderson
Mike & Eddy King
Eric & Robby Rupe
Alan & Brian Foster
Gary & Richie Houseman

Post racing career
Like a lot of BMXers, Both Brian and his brother Brent returned to the Motorcycle Motocross roots. Both of them doing rather well with Brent racing Pro. They also raced occasionally BMX in large races.

BMX & general press magazine interviews & articles
"The Other Patterson" Super BMX March 1983 Vol.10 No.3 pg.53
"The Best Pro: Brian Patterson" Bicycles and Dirt May–June 1983 Vol.1 No.9 pg.48
"Brent & Brian Patterson" BMX Action July 1983 Vol.8 No.7 pg.48 Joint interview with his brother Brent.
"Brian Patterson" BMX Plus! December 1983 Vol.6 No.11* pg.76
"The Unquestioned Best!" Super BMX March 1984 Vol.11 No.3 pg.73. One of the four ABA No.1 title holders of 1983 profiled.
"Flashback" Snap BMX Magazine August 1999 Vol.6 Iss.6 No.34 pg.83 Dual retrospective of the Patterson brothers.

*Due to a change in printing companies while being acquired by Daisy/Hi-Torque Publishing Co., Inc., BMX Plus! technically did not publishing a May 1983 issue. The very next issue on the newsstands was called the June 1983 issue.

BMX magazine covers
Bicycle Motocross News:
None
Minicycle/BMX Action & Super BMX:
March 1983 Vol.10 No.3 main image. In insert celebrities Michael Dudikoff & Kathy Maisaik
March 1984 Vol.11 No.3 main image & in insert with fellow racers Doug Davis, Brett Allen & Cheri Elliott.
Super BMX Presents The 1985 World Championship Winter 1985. To Gary Ellis's (47) left in third with Eric Rupe in fourth to Harry Leary's behind/left. Harry Leary (85) is in the rear foreground in second. (SBMX special edition).
Bicycle Motocross Action & Go:
August 1983 Vol.8 No.8 in second place behind Harry Leary and ahead of Clint Miller in third.
BMX Plus!:
December 1983 Vol.6 No.11* In inset Stu Thomsen, Greg Hill, Nelson Chanady, Tim Judge and others at beginning of national banner presentation at the start of a race.
January 1984 Vol.7 No.1 in insert. Mike Dominquez main image; Eric Garcez in second insert.
March 1984 Vol.7 No.3 with Clint Miller.
September 1984 Vol.7 No.9 with Tim Judge in insert.
July 1984 Vol.7 No.7 in third place behind Stu Thomsen & Pete Loncarevich. In insets Mercury Morgan (top "rip"), freestyler Mike Dominguez (circle).

*Due to change of ownership, BMX Plus! did not publish a May issue in 1983.
Total BMX:
March 1983. In insert Steve Veltman.
Bicycles and Dirt:
May–June 1983 Vol.1 No.9 jumping over the hands of Brent Patterson and Richie Anderson.

Snap BMX Magazine & Transworld BMX

BMX World:

NBA World & NBmxA World (The official NBA/NBmxA publication):

Bicycles Today & BMX Today (The official NBL publication under two names):

ABA Action, American BMXer, BMXer (The official ABA publication. Three names but the same publication):
October 1983 Vol.6 No.10 In fourth place directly behind Robert Fehd (472) who is leading and Tinker Jaurez (54) in third place on the outside and Shawn Texas (114) in second on the inside.
April 1984 Vol.7 No.3 lower right with (clockwise) Doug Davis, Brett Allen, Cheri Elliott, Eddy King, Brent Romero and Todd Guss.
June 1984 Vol.7 No.5 ahead of Eddy King.
USBA Racer (The official USBA membership publication):

Notes

External links
 The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website.
 The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website.

1965 births
BMX riders
American male cyclists
Living people
Sportspeople from Hayward, California

Brian Patterson


Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia, , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.

About the case
The plaintiff, Gerald Bostock, was fired after he wanted to work in a gay baseball league. The lower courts followed the Eleventh Circuit's past precedent that Title VII did not cover employment discrimination protection based on sexual orientation.

Decision
The Court ruled in a 6–3 decision by Justice Neil Gorsuch covering all three cases on June 15, 2020 that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity is also discrimination "because of sex" as prohibited by Title VII.

References

2020 in the United States
June 2020 events
United States Supreme Court cases
United States law

Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia


Tinnitus is a symptom of hearing loss and other hearing problems. It is described as hearing sound in the head or ears that does not come from an outside source. Many people will hear ringing, buzzing, hissing or whistling sounds, but tinnitus can be other sounds such as roaring and humming as well.

Different people will hear different sounds from tinnitus but how they hear it can also be different. Tinnitus can be loud or quiet and it can be continuous or occasional and some people will not notice their tinnitus but some people become very annoyed from it, especially when they feel tired or stressed.

There are many things that can cause people to get tinnitus. These are the main reasons:
Listening to loud noises
Extreme stress
Old age
Some diseases
Some medicines

Treatments and therapies
People of different range of age can develop tinnitus. It is not a disorder but the symptom of some underlying health condition.

People with tinnitus may take part in yoga, exercise regularly, perform sound therapies or join a tinnitus community .  Playing a faint background noise in the background also helps in keeping the phantom noise at bay.

References

Other websites
 National Hearing Care Find an audiologist in Australia and get more information on hearing problems.
 Bay Audiology Find an audiologist in New Zealand and get more information on the hearing problem.

Hearing problems

Tinnitus


Dudley George Simpson (4 October 1922 – 4 November 2017) was an Australian composer and conductor. He was the Principal Conductor of the Royal Opera House orchestra for three years and worked as a composer on British television. He worked on the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who, for which he composed incidental music during the 1960s and 1970s. When Simpson died aged 95 in 2017, The Guardian wrote that he was "at his most prolific as the creator of incidental music for Doctor Who in the 1960s and 1970s, contributing to 62 stories over almost 300 episodes – more than any other composer."

Among his television work was the music for Moonstrike (1963), theme music for The Last of the Mohicans (1971), theme music for The Brothers (1972), The Tomorrow People (1973), Moonbase 3 (1973), The Ascent of Man (1973) and Blake's 7 (1978). He also composed music for several plays from the BBC Television Shakespeare series.

Early life and career
Simpson was born in the Melbourne suburb of Malvern East. He learned piano as a child, served in New Guinea during World War II and then studied orchestration and composition at the Melbourne Conservatorium of Music at the University of Melbourne. Simpson became assistant conductor, pianist and later musical director for the Borovansky Ballet Company, forerunner to The Australian Ballet. He moved to the UK and after a season as guest conductor at Covent Garden, he became Principal Conductor of the Royal Opera House orchestra for three years. He accompanied the touring section of the Royal Ballet with Margot Fonteyn as principal ballerina.

Simpson started working for the BBC in 1961.

Music for science fiction television

Doctor Who (1963)
Simpson's first work on Doctor Who was during William Hartnell's era as the First Doctor in Planet of Giants, in 1964, but he is primarily associated with the programme in the 1970s. He also appeared on screen as a music hall conductor in the Fourth Doctor story The Talons of Weng-Chiang (1977) at the invitation of Philip Hinchcliffe, who was the producer at the time. Simpson had to be paid a special fee for this appearance, as he was a member of the Musicians' Union and not Equity.

When John Nathan-Turner became producer of Doctor Who in 1980, he decided that the music needed to be updated, and took Simpson out for a meal telling him how much he appreciated his work on Doctor Who but that it would no longer be required as he intended to have the BBC Radiophonic Workshop provide music from that point. While Simpson was contracted to score Shada, the unfinished nature of that production meant he never started work. As a result, his last broadcast work on Doctor Who was for The Horns of Nimon.

In 1993 Simpson's music for five Doctor Who serials from the early Fourth Doctor era was released on an album called Pyramids of Mars.

In the 2017 restoration of Shada, a dedication to Simpson was shown in the end credits.

Blake's 7 (1978)
In 1978 the BBC launched a new science fiction series, Blake's 7, produced by former Doctor Who director David Maloney. It ran for 4 series and 52 episodes. Simpson provided the theme music for the series and was also responsible for the incidental music for 50 of the episodes that were broadcast from 2 January 1978 to 21 December 1981. The two exceptions are the episode entitled "Duel" (the eighth episode of series one) for which director Douglas Camfield chose to use stock music, and "Gambit" (the eleventh episode of series two), which was scored by Elizabeth Parker of the Radiophonic Workshop, the special sound creator of series two to four.

The Tomorrow People (1973)
Simpson composed the theme tune to the ITV-based Thames Television science fiction series The Tomorrow People (1973–1979).

Doctor Who credits
Between 1964 and 1980, Simpson composed the incidental music for the following Doctor Who serials:

 Planet of Giants
 The Crusade
 The Chase
 The Celestial Toymaker
 The Underwater Menace
 The Macra Terror
 The Evil of the Daleks
 The Ice Warriors
 Fury from the Deep
 The Seeds of Death
 The Space Pirates
 The War Games
 Spearhead from Space
 The Ambassadors of Death
 Terror of the Autons
 The Mind of Evil
 The Claws of Axos
 Colony in Space
 The Dæmons
 Day of the Daleks
 The Curse of Peladon
 The Time Monster
 The Three Doctors
 Carnival of Monsters
 Frontier in Space
 Planet of the Daleks
 The Green Death
 The Time Warrior
 Invasion of the Dinosaurs
 The Monster of Peladon
 Planet of the Spiders
 Robot
 The Ark in Space
 The Sontaran Experiment
 Genesis of the Daleks
 Planet of Evil
 Pyramids of Mars
 The Android Invasion
 The Brain of Morbius
 The Masque of Mandragora
 The Hand of Fear
 The Deadly Assassin
 The Face of Evil
 The Robots of Death
 The Talons of Weng-Chiang
 Horror of Fang Rock
 The Invisible Enemy
 Image of the Fendahl
 The Sun Makers
 Underworld
 The Invasion of Time
 The Ribos Operation
 The Pirate Planet
 The Stones of Blood
 The Androids of Tara
 The Power of Kroll
 The Armageddon Factor
 Destiny of the Daleks
 City of Death
 The Creature from the Pit
 Nightmare of Eden
 The Horns of Nimon

References

External links

1922 births
2017 deaths
Australian classical pianists
Australian conductors (music)
Australian emigrants to England
Australian expatriates in England
Australian television composers
Male classical pianists
Male conductors (music)
Male television composers
University of Melbourne alumni
Musicians from Melbourne
People from Malvern, Victoria

Dudley Simpson


The Hi-Level was a type of bilevel intercity railroad passenger car used in the United States. Car types included coaches, dining cars, and lounge cars; a sleeping car variant was considered but never produced. Most passenger spaces were on the upper level, which featured a row of windows on both sides. Boarding was on the lower level; passengers climbed up a center stairwell to reach the upper level. Vestibules on the upper level permitted passengers to walk between cars; some coaches had an additional stairwell at one end to allow access to single-level equipment.

The Budd Company designed the car in the 1950s for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ("Santa Fe") for use on the El Capitan, a coach-only streamliner which ran daily between Los Angeles and Chicago. The design was inspired by two recent developments in railroading: the dome car, employed in intercity routes in the western United States, and bilevel commuter cars operating in the Chicago area. Budd built 73 Hi-Level cars between 1952 and 1964.

The first two prototype coaches entered service on the El Capitan in 1954 and were immediately successful. Budd built sufficient coaches, dining cars, and lounge cars to fully equip the El Capitan, with additional coaches seeing use on the San Francisco Chief. Amtrak inherited the entire fleet in 1971 and continued to use the equipment on its western routes. Tunnel clearances restricted their use in the eastern United States. In 1979, the first Superliners, based on the Hi-Level concept although built by Pullman-Standard, entered service. Amtrak gradually retired most of its Hi-Levels in the 1990s as more Superliners became available. Five lounges, dubbed "Pacific Parlour Cars", provided first-class lounge service on the Coast Starlight until their retirement in 2018.

Background

The Santa Fe introduced the El Capitan in 1938. The train ran on the Santa Fe's main line between Chicago and Los Angeles. Unusually for streamliners of the period, the El Capitan carried coaches only, and had no sleeping cars; this was meant to provide passengers with a lower-cost alternative to the sleeping car-equipped Super Chief, which served the same route. Passengers flocked to the new train, and the Santa Fe added cars to meet the demand. The train grew from five cars in 1938 to twelve in 1942. By the early 1950s fourteen was common. Only seven or eight of these would be passenger-carrying coaches; other cars included head-end cars, a baggage-dormitory for the crew, two dining cars, and a Big Dome lounge.

Sometimes demand was high enough to justify running a second instance ("section") of the train on the same day. The Santa Fe sought a solution to increase the capacity of the train without lengthening it further. Two popular innovations by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) suggested a solution. First, in 1945, the CB&Q introduced the dome car, in which passengers rode on a second level high above the tracks, affording better views. Second, in 1950, it placed bilevel rail cars in commuter service in the Chicago area. Taken together, these innovations suggested a new possibility: a long-distance bilevel coach, with greater capacity than single-level cars, and the panoramic views of a dome.

History

Santa Fe

The Budd Company approached Santa Fe in 1952 with the proposal to build long-distance bilevel cars, building on the gallery commuter car concept. Santa Fe accepted the proposal, and took delivery of two prototype coaches in 1954. The cars went into regular service on the El Capitan. Following a positive customer response, the Santa Fe ordered 47 more cars: ten 68-seat "step down" coaches, twenty-five 72-seat coaches, six lounges, and six dining cars. These constituted five equipment sets ("consists"), sufficient for daily service on the El Capitan. The project cost $13million.

A press trip took place between Washington, D.C., and Pittsburgh on June 16, 1956, using the route of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (and presaging the use of Superliners on Amtrak's Capitol Limited). Santa Fe exhibited the equipment throughout the United States during June and early July. A formal christening took place in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on July 8, with the duke of Alburquerque in attendance. Regular revenue service began on July 15. The new train was far more efficient than its predecessor. As Fred Frailey explained:

Trains editor David P. Morgan thought the equipment was "comfortable" and "[rode] well, even above 90 mph". S. Kip Farrington wrote that he was "definitely sold on the high level in every angle" and that it was "here to stay". A typical train comprised two step-down coaches, five standard coaches, a lounge, and a dining car. The Hi-Level cars continued in service after the Santa Fe combined the El Capitan and Super Chief in 1958. The Santa Fe also converted six single-level baggage cars to baggage-dormitories ( 3477–3482), with a spoiler at one end to create a visual transition. The cars dated from the 1938 version of the El Capitan.

Despite their success, the cars did not inspire a wave of imitators. By the late 1950s, private-sector passenger travel was in what turned out to be irreversible decline. Most railroads were cutting service; few ordered new equipment of any kind. An exception was the Chicago and North Western Railway (CNW). The CNW, like the Burlington, used bilevel coaches on its Chicago-area commuter routes. In 1958 it ordered thirteen intercity bilevel cars from Pullman-Standard: ten coaches, a parlor car, a coach-parlor, and a coach-lounge. Visually they resembled the CNW's existing commuter equipment; a noticeable difference from the Hi-Levels was the adoption of head-end power (HEP) instead of steam. The cars entered service on the Peninsula 400, a Chicago–Ishpeming, Michigan, day train, on October 26, 1958. The CNW would be the only other railroad to introduce bilevel equipment on intercity runs.

By the 1960s, the Santa Fe encountered capacity problems on the San Francisco Chief, which ran between Chicago and San Francisco. Unlike the El Capitan, the Chief carried a mix of sleeping cars and coaches. To augment capacity, the Santa Fe ordered more coaches in 1963–1964 (standard and step-down, twelve each). This was the final major order for new long-distance passenger equipment before the coming of Amtrak; after Kansas City Southern Railway bought ten new coaches from Pullman-Standard in 1965, no new locomotive-hauled coaching stock would be built until the first Amfleets arrived a decade later. Each San Francisco Chief carried four Hi-Level coaches, displacing six single-level coaches.

Amtrak

Throughout the 1960s passenger ridership declined on American railroads while losses mounted. In 1971 the United States federal government created Amtrak, a subsidized for-profit corporation, to take over intercity services and reverse the decline. The Santa Fe, after some hesitation, participated. Amtrak took over the Santa Fe's remaining trains on May 1, 1971. It acquired the entire Hi-Level fleet and continued to operate them. The primary assignment continued to be the combined Super Chief/El Capitan, known as the Southwest Limited from 1974 to 1984 and the Southwest Chief thereafter. The Chicago–Houston Texas Chief, another ex-Santa Fe train, also carried Hi-Level coaches.

Amtrak was impressed with the Hi-Levels and used them as the basis for the design of the bilevel Superliner family of railcars. The first of 284 SuperlinerI cars began arriving from Pullman-Standard in 1978. As the Superliners went into service, Hi-Levels could be found on more of Amtrak's trains throughout the Western United States. Hi-Level coaches appeared on the San Francisco–Chicago San Francisco Zephyr, Chicago–San Antonio, Texas–Los Angeles Eagle, and the Chicago–Seattle, Washington/Portland, Oregon Empire Builder. Dining cars displaced from the Southwest Limited filled in on the Ogden, Utah–Los Angeles Desert Wind. Tunnel clearances around New York City and elsewhere prevented their use on the Northeast Corridor.

The Superliner I order did not include any "step down" coaches, so Hi-Level coaches continued to fulfill this function on Superliner-equipped trains. In the 1980s, Amtrak rebuilt many of these coaches as dormitory-coaches, with half of the car given over to crew space. Amtrak retired all six single-level baggage-dormitory cars by 1981 in lieu of converting them to HEP. By 1990 the Amtrak fleet stood at 69 cars: 36 dormitory-coaches, 21 coaches, six diner-lounges rebuilt from dining cars, and the six lounge cars, which Amtrak marketed as "See-Level Lounges". The arrival of 195 SuperlinerII cars from Bombardier Transportation in 1993–1995 permitted the retirement of most of the remaining Hi-Level cars. The Chicago–Toronto International used a mix of Superliners and Hi-Levels from 1995 to 2000. Hi-Levels remained in service on the Oklahoma City–Dallas Heartland Flyer into the 2000s. The majority of the Hi-Level fleet was retired at the beginning of 2003. The private equity fund Corridor Capital owns most of the fleet, and has proposed employing them for various passenger projects within the United States, including a plan to revive the Coast Daylight.

The last major Hi-Level assignment on Amtrak was the Los Angeles–Seattle Coast Starlight. In the late 1990s Amtrak refurbished five of the six lounges for use as sleeping car passenger-only lounges, branded as the "Pacific Parlour Car". Amtrak offered separate food and beverage service in the upper level and installed a movie theater in the lower level. The railway writer and historian Karl Zimmermann called them "the greatest treat for sleeping car passengers on Amtrak". By the late 2010s Amtrak was manufacturing new parts for the Hi-Levels at Beech Grove, or in some cases retrofitting the Hi-Levels to use Superliner parts. Amtrak retired the cars after their last run on February 4, 2018, citing safety concerns and rising maintenance costs. They were the last Hi-Levels in regular service, and among the few remaining Heritage Fleet cars. The Steam Railroading Institute, a heritage railroad based in Owosso, Michigan, acquired several for use in excursion service.

Design

The Hi-Levels stood  high,  taller than most conventional equipment. Seating occupied the entire upper level, with restrooms, baggage, and other non-revenue areas on the lower level. In most cars, vestibules connected the upper levels only. A central staircase linked the two levels. Hi-Levels featured a row of windows across the upper level; on the prototype coaches, this row slanted inwards. The two-level design offered several advantages over conventional single-level equipment. Budd and the Santa Fe expected the upper level, located  above the rails, to provide a smoother, quieter ride for passengers. With the lower level free of passengers, designers could provide larger restrooms and baggage areas. Finally, the lower level contained all the electrical equipment, away from the passengers, and with easy access for maintenance. Budd used stainless steel in the construction, with fluted sides. The cars cost $275,000 apiece.

Budd built the Hi-Levels with steam heating, the standard method for ensuring passenger comfort in the 1950s. For air conditioning and other electrical needs, it chose to employ independent diesel generators in each car. Coaches required a single  generator; the massive dining car required two such generators to support the kitchen appliances. In the lounge car a larger  generator was employed. Beginning in the mid-1970s, Amtrak adopted head-end power (HEP) for new orders. HEP and steam are incompatible, so Amtrak had the Hi-Levels converted to HEP to permit their use with new cars. Santa Fe handled the conversion of the Hi-Levels in its Topeka, Kansas, shops. Of the 73 Hi-Levels, all but three underwent the conversion.

Coaches

The 61 coaches could carry either 68 or 72 passengers, more than the 44 of comparable single-level long-distance coaches. This increased capacity permitted the Santa Fe to run the El Capitan with fewer cars, while increasing the total number of passengers carried. The 68-seat coaches featured "step down" stairs at one end to permit access to standard-height equipment; that space was given over to four additional seats on the 72-seat coaches. The prototypes also featured step-down stairs, but carried one fewer passenger.

The passenger windows were  high. The seat pitch was . The Dwight Austin-manufactured "Traveleze" seats reclined, and included both head and leg rests. Hand luggage could be stored in racks above the coach seats, or in large storage racks on the lower level. In the prototypes the upper level had no restrooms; in response to passenger feedback, Budd added a restroom to the upper level in the production models. The prototypes also included a "step up" from the aisle to the coach seats; in the production cars, the seats rested flush with the aisle. Each coach weighed .

Lounges

The lounge cars were similar to the full-length Big Dome lounges which had entered service with the Santa Fe in 1954. The most obvious difference was the absence of a forward-looking view on the Hi-Level cars. Each of the six lounges could seat 60 people on the upper level. The seating was a mixture of single seats and two- and four-top tables. Nicknames for these cars included "Top of the Cap" and "Sky Lounges". A glass top across two-thirds of the car distinguished it from the rest of the Hi-Levels. The lower level featured the "Kachina Coffee Shop" and a lounge area with seating for 26. Passengers on the lower level could look out through large,  windows. The lounge cars weighed . Under Santa Fe operation there were attendants on both levels, and a newsstand on the upper level.

Dining cars

Six dining cars were built. Each dining car seated 80, all on the upper level, compared to 36 in a single-level diner, enabling each car to do the work of two single-level dining cars. The lower level housed the kitchen, including ovens, hot plates, a refrigerator, and a dishwasher. Dumbwaiters carried food to the upper level. A diesel generator supplied power to the appliances. The dining cars, the largest single-unit dining cars ever built, weighed  and rode on six-wheel trucks. As Superliner dining cars arrived in the 1980s, Amtrak rebuilt these cars as diner-lounges, incorporating booths and lounge seating.

Sleeping car proposal

Santa Fe considered equipping the Super Chief with Hi-Level sleeping cars, and Budd drafted a design for such a car in 1957. In this design there was an aisle on the lower level only, and set against one side instead of centerline. The lower level also contained six single bedrooms and a toilet. The upper level would have eight two-person "Vista Bedrooms" which spanned the width of the car. Access to these rooms would be from four sets of stairs from the lower level aside. Each Vista Bedroom would contain an individual toilet and two beds: one stacked above the bed in the single bedroom beneath, and one lengthwise over the aisle. Nothing came of this proposal. Pullman-Standard adopted a more traditional design for Amtrak's SuperlinerI in the 1970s: five bedrooms and ten roomettes on the upper level, two bedrooms and four roomettes on the lower level.

Summary

Including the two prototypes, Budd built 73 Hi-Level cars:

Notes

References

External links

 Santa Fe Hi-Level car plans and elevations
 Hi-Level fact sheet from Corridor Capital

Amtrak rolling stock
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
Rail passenger cars of the United States
Budd Company
Double-decker rail vehicles
Train-related introductions in 1954

Hi-Level


Julius A. Penn (February 19, 1865 - May 13, 1934) was a career officer in the United States Army.  He attained the rank of brigadier general during World War I, and commanded 170th Infantry Brigade, 85th Division and 76th Infantry Brigade, 38th Division, in addition to serving as Chief of the Personnel Bureau for the American Expeditionary Forces.

The son of a Union Army veteran of the American Civil War, Penn was born in Mattoon, Illinois, and raised in Batavia, Ohio.  He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1886, and was a classmate and close friend of John J. Pershing.  After graduation, he served in the Western United States as a member of the 13th and 2nd Infantry Regiments, and he was an 1891 graduate of the Infantry and Cavalry School, the predecessor of the Command and General Staff College.  During the Spanish–American War, Penn served as a quartermaster officer at Camp George H. Thomas, Georgia and the Tampa mobilization point before contracting typhoid. After recovering, he was assigned to the Philippines, where he commanded 2nd Battalion, 34th Infantry.  Penn's post-war assignments included service with the 7th Infantry in the Philippines, aide to General Henry Clark Corbin, and commander of provisional battalions in the 7th and 12th Infantry Regiments.  He was a 1907 graduate of the Army War College, and during the Pancho Villa Expedition, Penn commanded the 3rd Infantry Regiment in Texas.

Penn was promoted to brigadier general at the start of World War I, and he served successively as commander of 170th Infantry Brigade, 85th Division, Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces Personnel Bureau, and commander of 76th Infantry Brigade, 38th Division. He served on the staff of the Adjutant General of the Army following the war, then commanded the US Disciplinary Barracks at Governors Island, New York until retiring in 1924.  In 1934, Penn was decorated with the Silver Star for heroism while assigned to the 34th Infantry in the Philippines.

A lifelong bachelor, in retirement, Penn resided with his sister in Batavia.  He died in Batavia on May 13, 1934, and was buried at Batavia Union Cemetery.

Early life
Julius Augustus Penn Jr. was born in Mattoon, Illinois, on February 19, 1865, the son of Julius A. Penn (1818-1882) and Mary (Brock) Penn.  The senior Penn was an attorney who had known Ulysses S. Grant during Grant's youth in Ohio.  At the start of the American Civil War, he recruited and organized Company D, 22nd Ohio Infantry, which he commanded as a captain.  He was later promoted to major on the regimental staff, and served until the end of the war.

The younger Penn graduated from Batavia High School in 1881, the school's first graduating class. He then took a competitive examination for appointment to the United States Military Academy (West Point) by his district's Congressman, Henry Lee Morey. Penn finished first among 30 applicants, but was too young to begin classes, so the appointment went to the second-place finisher.  The second-place finisher failed his midterm examination in January 1882 and Penn, who would be old enough for admission after he turned seventeen in February, successfully petitioned for the appointment.

Start of career
Penn graduated from West Point in 1886, ranked 69th of 77, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 13th Infantry. Penn formed a lifelong friendship with classmate John J. Pershing, and after fellow Army officer Richard B. Paddock married Pershing's sister Grace, Pershing, Paddock and Penn socialized extensively while assigned to Fort Stanton, New Mexico.  They hired a cook to grow vegetables and prepare meals for all three, and went on extensive hunting and fishing trips, which led to them being dubbed "The Three Green Ps".

While in New Mexico, Penn participated in an 1886 expedition against members of the Jicarilla Apache band, who were resisting attempts to be settled on a reservation.  In 1887, he was involved in an expedition against members of the Mescalero tribe who had left their reservation.

During the early years of his career, Penn served throughout the Western United States, including postings to Oklahoma, Wyoming and Idaho.  He graduated from the Infantry and Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth in 1891 (now the Command and General Staff College), and his thesis on mounted infantry was published in the Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States.  After graduation, he was assigned to the 2nd Infantry and in addition to his regular duties he was assigned to Omaha High School as an instructor in military tactics for the school's corps of cadets.  In 1894, he was in Butte, Montana, as part of the Army's response to labor unrest during the Pullman Strike.  In 1895, he took part in an expedition against the Bannock Indians, which was organized after false reports of an imminent uprising at the Bannock reservation in Wyoming.

Spanish–American War
Penn was the 2nd Infantry's quartermaster from 1896 to 1897, and adjutant from 1897 to 1898.  During the summer of 1898, he performed quartermaster duties for soldiers mustering and training at Camp George H. Thomas, Georgia and departing by ship from Tampa, Florida, for service in Cuba, including: Hamilton S. Hawkins's Provisional Brigade; 1st Division, Seventh Corps; 1st Brigade, Provisional Division, Fifth Corps; 3rd Division, Fourth Corps; and quartermaster in charge of ship transport at the Port of Tampa.

Penn became ill with typhoid in September and was granted several weeks of leave to recover.  From October 1898 to July 1899, he served on the West Point faculty as an assistant instructor of tactics.

Philippine–American War
In July 1899, Penn was promoted to temporary major and assigned to the newly-organized 34th U.S. Volunteer Infantry Regiment.  Selected to command the regiment's 2nd Battalion, he was posted to Fort Logan and spent the summer recruiting soldiers from Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.

Penn's regiment arrived in the Philippines in October 1899 and took part in Arthur MacArthur Jr.'s expedition near Dagupan that attempted to capture Emilio Aguinaldo.  In November and December 1899, he took part in Samuel B. M. Young's operations in Northern Luzon, which resulted in the freeing of over 2,000 Spanish prisoners, as well as several U.S. Navy sailors and American civilians.

Continued career
Penn's subsequent assignments in the Philippines included acting inspector general for the 5th District (Northern Luzon), commander of a battalion in the 7th Infantry, adjutant of the 6th Separate Brigade, adjutant of the 7th Infantry Regiment, and recruiting duty in the United States.  From November 1904 to April 1906, Penn served as aide-de-camp to Henry Clark Corbin while Corbin was commander of the Philippine Division, as well as performing duty as the division's inspector of small arms practice.  When Corbin was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1906, Penn was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel and served as his military secretary until Corbin retired in September.

In September 1906, Penn reverted to his permanent rank of captain and was assigned to the Army staff at the War Department.  While on the Army staff, Penn performed duty as chief of staff for Brigadier General Theodore Wint during Wint's command of the Army's base of operations at Newport News, Virginia.  He next attended the Army War College (1906-1907), followed by duty as an inspector of Army service schools and colleges (1907-1909).  In 1910, Penn returned to the Philippines to serve as adjutant of the Department of Luzon, after which he served as adjutant of the 12th Infantry Regiment at Fort William McKinley and commander of a provisional battalion.

In 1911, Penn was assigned as inspector and instructor of the Nebraska Militia.  In 1914, he was posted to Hawaii as adjutant of the 1st Infantry Regiment.

Pancho Villa Expedition
In 1916, Penn was promoted to colonel and assigned as commander of the 3rd Infantry Regiment at Madison Barracks, New York.  When the regiment was dispatched to Texas during the Pancho Villa Expedition, Penn commanded it as it patrolled the Texas-Mexico border from bases at Fort Sam Houston and Camp Eagle Pass.

When the Army began to expand in anticipation of U.S. entry into World War I, Penn was assigned command the newly-organized 37th Infantry Regiment, which he equipped and trained at Fort Sam Houston.

World War I

After the American entry into World War I, Penn was assigned to the headquarters staff of the Army's Central Department, based in Chicago, and performed inspections of military bases and training facilities.

In August 1917, Penn was promoted to temporary brigadier general and appointed to command the 170th Brigade, a unit of the 85th Division.  After organizing and training his brigade at Camp Custer, Michigan, Penn led it to France in the summer of 1918.

Upon arrival in France, Penn was assigned to the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters as Chief of the Personnel Division and as an observer with the 2nd Division during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.  He was then assigned as commander of 76th Brigade, 38th Division.

In December 1918, a month after the Armistice with Germany which ended hostilities, Penn returned to the United States and served as commander of Camp Zachary Taylor, Kentucky.

Post-World War I
Following World War I, Penn reverted to his permanent rank of colonel.  He served in the office of the Army adjutant general as head of the War Prisoners section and then the General Prisoners section, and was responsible for supervising individuals incarcerated during the war as conscientious objectors and deserters.

In 1922, Penn was assigned as adjutant of the Third Corps Area at Fort Howard, Maryland, and in the summer of that year performed additional duty as honorary aide-de-camp to President Warren G. Harding in Ohio during celebrations to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Ulysses S. Grant's birth.  From 1922 to 1924, Penn was commandant of the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Governors Island, New York.  Penn became ill in late 1924 and retired in December as the result of his disabilities.

Retirement
In retirement, Penn returned to Batavia, Ohio, where he lived in the Penn family home with his sister Jennie.  He was active in the local Methodist church and several civic and fraternal organizations.  Penn attained the 32nd Degree in the Scottish Rite Masons, and maintained Masonic memberships including the lodge at Sackets Harbor, New York, the Army Square Club on Governors Island, and the Scottish Rite Valley of Columbus, Ohio.  By virtue of his Philippines service, Penn was a member of the Military Order of the Carabao.

A lifelong bachelor, Penn was reportedly unusually generous with friends and relatives, including fully financing the college educations of his sister and several women in Batavia, as well as providing partial financing for numerous others.  In 1930, Congress passed legislation allowing general officers from World War I to retire at the highest rank they had held, and Penn was restored to brigadier general on the army's retired list.

Death and burial
Penn died in Batavia on May 13, 1934.  He was buried at Batavia Union Cemetery.

Effective dates of promotion
Penn's dates of rank were:

Second Lieutenant (Regular Army), July 1, 1886
First Lieutenant (Regular Army), July 29, 1893
Captain (Volunteer), May 30, 1898
Major (Volunteer), July 1, 1899
Captain (Regular Army), November 17, 1904
Lieutenant Colonel (Volunteer), April 24, 1906
Captain (Regular Army), September 17, 1906
Major (Regular Army), August 10, 1909
Lieutenant Colonel (Regular Army), October 7, 1915
Colonel (Regular Army), March 2, 1917
Brigadier General (National Army), August 5, 1917
Colonel (Regular Army), March 1, 1919
Colonel (Retired List), December 5, 1924
Brigadier General (Retired List), June 21, 1930

Awards
In 1934, Penn was a recipient of the Silver Star for heroism in the December 1899 Northern Luzon engagements that resulted in the liberation of several U.S. Navy sailors and American civilians who had been held prisoner by Filipino insurgents.  His awards included:

  Silver Star
  Spanish War Service Medal
  Mexican Border Service Medal
  World War I Victory Medal

Family
Penn was a cousin of Major General Thomas Q. Ashburn and Colonel Percy Moreau Ashburn.

References

Bibliography

External links

1865 births
1934 deaths
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army War College alumni
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
Recipients of the Silver Star
People from Mattoon, Illinois
People from Batavia, Ohio
Burials in Ohio
United States Army generals of World War I
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Military Academy faculty
Military personnel from Illinois

Julius Penn


Jakarta is Indonesia's capital and largest city. Located on an estuary of the Ciliwung River, on the northwestern part of Java, the area has long sustained human settlement. Historical evidence from Jakarta dates back to the 4th century CE, when it was a Hindu settlement and port. The city has been sequentially claimed by the Indianized kingdom of Tarumanegara, the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda, the Muslim Sultanate of Banten, and by Dutch, Japanese and Indonesian administrations. The Dutch East Indies built up the area before it was taken during World War II by the Empire of Japan and finally became independent as part of Indonesia.

Jakarta has been known by several names. It was called Sunda Kalapa during the Kingdom of Sunda period and Jayakarta, Djajakarta or Jacatra during the short period of the Banten Sultanate. Thereafter, Jakarta evolved in three stages. The "old city", close to the sea in the north, developed between 1619 and 1799 during the era of the VOC. The "new city" to the south evolved between 1809 and 1942 after the Dutch government took over control of Batavia from the failed VOC whose charter expired in 1799. The third was the development of modern Jakarta since the proclamation of independence in 1945. Under the Dutch, it was known as Batavia  (1619–1945), and was Djakarta (in Dutch) or Jakarta, during the Japanese occupation and the modern period.

For a more detailed history of Jakarta before the proclamation of Indonesian independence, see Batavia, Dutch East Indies.

Early kingdoms (4th century AD)
The coastal area and port of Jakarta in northern West Java has been the location of human settlement since the 4th century BCE Buni culture.  The earliest historical record discovered in Jakarta is the Tugu inscription, which was discovered in Tugu sub-district, North Jakarta. It is among the oldest inscriptions in Indonesian history. The area was part of the Indianized kingdom of Tarumanagara.

In AD 397, King Purnawarman established Sunda Pura, located on the northern coast of West Java, as the new capital city for the kingdom. The capital of Tarumanagara kingdom was most probably located somewhere between Tugu sub-district North Jakarta and Bekasi Regency West Java. Purnawarman left seven memorial stones across the area, including the present-day Banten and West Java provinces, consisting of inscriptions bearing his name.

Kingdom of Sunda (669–1527)

After the power of Tarumanagara declined, its territories became part of the Kingdom of Sunda. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written by Chou Ju-kua in the early 13th Century, the Sumatra-based kingdom of Srivijaya ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java (known as Sunda). The port of Sunda was described as strategic and thriving, with pepper from Sunda renowned for its supreme quality. The people of the area worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles.

One of the ports at the mouth of a river was renamed Sunda Kelapa or Kalapa (Coconut of Sunda), as written in Hindu Bujangga Manik, manuscripts from a monk's lontar and one of the precious remnants of Old Sundanese literature. The port served Pakuan Pajajaran (present day Bogor), the capital of the Sunda Kingdom. By the fourteenth century, Sunda Kelapa became a major trading port for the kingdom.

Accounts of 16th century European explorers make mention of a city called Kalapa, which apparently served as the primary port of a Hindu kingdom of Sunda. In 1522, the Portuguese secured Luso Sundanese padrão, a political and economic agreement with the Sunda Kingdom, the authority of the port. In exchange for military assistance against the threat of the rising Islamic Javan Sultanate of Demak, Prabu Surawisesa, king of Sunda at that time, granted them free access to the pepper trade. Portuguese who were in the service of the sovereign made their homes in Sunda Kelapa.

Banten Sultanate (1527–1619)

To prevent Portuguese gaining a foothold on Java, Fatahillah, on behalf of the Demak attacked the Portuguese in Sunda Kelapa in 1527 and succeeded in conquering the harbour on 22 June, after which Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta.  Later, the port became a part of the Banten Sultanate, located west from Jayakarta.

By the late 16th century, Jayakarta was under the rule of the Sultanate of Banten. Prince Jayawikarta, a follower of the Sultan of Banten, established a settlement on the west banks of the Ciliwung River, erecting a military post to control the port at the mouth of the river.

Dutch Batavia (1610–1942)

Dutch East India Company (1610–1800)
Dutch mercantile activity to East Indies commenced in 1595. Over the next 25 years there was contention between the Dutch and British on the one hand, and between the Sultanate of Banten and Prince Jayawikarta on the other.

In 1602, the Dutch government granted a monopoly on Asian trade to the Dutch East India Company ( (VOC); literally United East Indian Company). In 1603, the first permanent Dutch trading post in Indonesia was established in Bantam, West Java. In 1610, Prince Jayawikarta granted permission to Dutch merchants to build a wooden godown and houses on the east bank of the Ciliwung River, opposite to Jayakarta. This outpost was established in 1611.

The rivalry was ultimately resolved in 1619, when the Dutch established a closer relationship with Banten and militarily intervened at Jayakarta, where they assumed control of the port after destroying the existing city. The new city built on the site was officially named as Batavia on January 18, 1621, from which the Dutch East Indies eventually ruled the entire region. Batavia under VOC control was essentially a Company Town, under the authority of a governor-general in Batavia and a board of directors in Amsterdam that served the Dutch merchants in the region, predominantly the spice trade between Europe and the Moluccas. The administrative center of this new town is the Batavia Castle.

During the era of the VOC, Batavia was centered on the so-called Benedenstad or "Lower City". It consisted of the walled Kota, the older harbor at Sunda Kelapa, and the Chinese quarter at Glodok. In the middle of 18th century, Batavia also included the outskirts area along the canal of the Molenvliet (now Jalan Gajah Mada and Jalan Hayam Wuruk), the Noordwijk (now Jalan Juanda), the Rijswijk (now Jalan Veteran), along Gunung Sahari, and Jacatraweg (Jalan Pangeran Jayakarta). Also included were the markets at Tanah Abang and Senen, Jakarta's oldest markets.

Batavia was under VOC control until the Company went bankrupt and its charter expired in 1799.

Dutch East Indies (1800–1942)

After the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1800, the Batavian Republic nationalized its debts and possessions, expanding all of the VOC's territorial claims into a fully-fledged colony named the Dutch East Indies. Batavia evolved from the site of the company's regional headquarters into the capital of the colony. The city gradually expanded to the south.

During the period, administrative buildings were relocated to the area then known as Weltevreden, e.g. south of the Koningsplein, the Waterlooplein and Rijswijk (Jalan Veteran). The area, then known as Weltevreden, which include the Koningsplein, Rijswijk, Noordwijk, Tanah Abang, Kebon Sirih, and Prapatan became a popular residential, entertainment and commercial district for the European colonial elite. The name Weltevreden lingered until 1931 when it officially became known as Batavia Centrum (Central Batavia).

The period also saw development of the Pasar Baru market in the 1820s, the completion of Tanjung Priok port in 1886, the development of Menteng and Gondangdia garden city in the 1910s, and the inclusion of Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara) into Jakarta in 1935.

Japanese occupation (1942–1945)

On 5 March 1942, Batavia fell to the Japanese. The Dutch formally surrendered to the Japanese occupation forces on 9 March 1942, and rule of the colony was transferred to Japan. The city was renamed Jakarta (officially ジャカルタ特別市 Jakaruta tokubetsu-shi, Special Municipality of Jakarta, in accordance with the special status that was assigned to the city).

To strengthen its position in Indonesia, the Japanese government issued Act No. 42 1942 as part of the "Restoration of the Regional Administration System". This act divided Java into several Syuu ("Resident Administration" or Karesidenan) that were each led by a Bupati (Regent). Each Syuu was divided into several Shi ("Municipality" or Stad Gemeente) that were led by Wedanas ("District Heads"). Below a Wedana was a Wedana Assistant ("Sub-district Head"), who, in turn, oversaw a Lurah ("Village Unit Head"), who, in turn, was responsible over a Kepala Kampung ("Kampung Chief").

A schichoo ("Mayor") was superior to all of these officials, following the law created by the Guisenken ("Head of the Japanese Imperial Administration"). The effect of this system was a "one-man rule" structure with no councils or representative bodies. The first schichoo of Jakarta was Tsukamoto and the last was Hasegawa.

The economic situation and the physical condition of Indonesian cities deteriorated during the occupation, including Jakarta. Beautiful colonial buildings and hotels were converted into military barracks. Many buildings were vandalized, as metal was needed for the war, and many iron statues from the Dutch colonial period were taken away by the Japanese troops. Among the destroyed colonial landmarks during the Japanese occupation were the statue of Jan Pieterszoon Coen at Waterlooplein.

In 1943, the Japanese Imperial administration slightly revised the administration of Jakarta by adding a special counseling body. This agency was composed of twelve local Javanese leaders who were regarded as loyal to the Japanese; among them were Suwiryo (who became the vice for Jakarta's schichoo) and Dahlan Abdullah.

National revolution era (1945–1949)

After the collapse of Japan in 1945, the area went through a period of transition and upheaval during the Indonesian national struggle for independence. During the Japanese occupation and from the perspective of the Indonesian nationalists who declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was renamed Jakarta. After the war, the Dutch name Batavia was internationally recognized until full Indonesian independence was achieved on 27 December 1949 and Jakarta was officially proclaimed the national capital of Indonesia.

Following the surrender of the Japanese, Indonesia declared its independence on 17 August 1945. The proclamation was enacted at Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56 (now Jalan Proklamasi), Central Jakarta, with Suwiryo acting as the committee chairman. Suwiryo was recognised as the first mayor of Jakarta Tokubetsu Shi. The position was soon altered to Pemerintah Nasional Kota Jakarta ("Jakarta City National Administration").

On 19 September 1945, Sukarno held his Indonesian independence and anti-colonialism/imperialism speech, during Rapat Akbar or grand meeting at Lapangan Ikada, now the Merdeka Square.
The grand meeting would start a period of national revolution in Indonesia.

On 29 September 1945, Anglo-Dutch troops arrived in Jakarta to disarm and repatriate the Japanese garrison. They also planned on reasserting control over the colony. On November 21, 1945, Suwiryo and his assistants were arrested by members of the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration.

On 4 January 1946, Indonesian Republicans withdrew from Ally-occupied Jakarta and established the capital in Yogyakarta. War was not apparent in Jakarta and urban development continued in the city as the Dutch tried to re-establish themselves. In 1947, the Dutch succeeded in implementing a set of planning regulations for urban development—the SSO/SVV (Stadsvormings-ordonantie/Stadsvormings-verordening)—that had been devised prior to the war. Batavia was planned to expand with an addition of a new satellite city 8 kilometers south of the Koningsplein. This 730 ha area would become the Kebayoran satellite city, the first urban planning in Indonesia after the World War II.

On 27 December 1949, the Dutch recognised Indonesia as an independent country and sovereign federal state under the name of "Republic of the United States of Indonesia". At this time, the Jakarta City Administration was led by Mayor Sastro Mulyono.

Transition into a capital of an independent nation (1950s)

Expansion of city's boundary
After the recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949, in March 1950, Jakarta was increased in size from 182 square kilometres to 530 square kilometres. Despite the dramatic increase in size, impact on the city's population was minimal: population of Jakarta was 1,340,625 in 1949 to 1,432,085 in 1950 to 1,661,125 in 1951. The new districts added to Jakarta at the time was sparsely populated and rural.

Kebayoran Baru was still a satellite city of Jakarta and located outside the boundaries of Jakarta. The construction of thoroughfares such as Jalan Thamrin and Jalan Sudirman had been underway since 1949 and would only be opened in 1953.

City development

Jakarta in the 1950s was more or less similar with the colonial period: banking districts were still centered in Kota around Kali Besar and Jalan Pintu Besar Utara. Chinese business hub were centered at Glodok, especially Pintu Kecil. The colonial Pasar Baru, Pasar Senen and Glodok were still the busiest markets in Jakarta. The European shopping and leisure districts were still centered at Harmoni Junction. Most colonial hotels retained their Dutch names, e.g. Hotel des Indes or Hotel Duta Indonesia, Hotel der Nederlanden or Hotel Dharma Nirmala, and Hotel des Galeries. Kemayoran airport handled both domestic and international flights.

Jakarta's urban area in 1950 were enclosed within the city's railway network. Areas beyond the railway lines remained empty, e.g. Tomang and Grogol to the west, Pluit and swampy Ancol to the north. Areas to the east and northeast, e.g. the area between Jalan Gunung Sahari and Tanjung Priok remained rural (with the exception of the Kemayoran Airport). Kali Sunter (Sunter River) was in the countryside and would not be developed as residential area until the 1970s.

Among new suburbs developed during the 1950s were Grogol, Tanah Tinggi, Bendungan Hilir and Pejompongan; mostly to provide housing for civic workers.

Despite the slow city development, the beginning of the 1950s saw construction of infrastructure that would lay a foundation for the explosive growth of Jakarta in the 1960s. Jalan Thamrin and Jalan Sudirman were built between 1949 and 1953 to connect Central Jakarta with Kebayoran Baru. These projects are usually collaboration between Dutch and Indonesia. The first buildings that were constructed along the Thamrin-Sudirman were Bank Indonesia headquarters (1958-1962), Hotel Indonesia (1959-1962), and the Welcome Monument. AT that time, Jalan Sudirman  was largely rural and devoid of any buildings until the 1970s, with the exception of Gelora Bung Karno sports complex.

Taking over Dutch assets
After recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949, transition from Dutch to Indonesian leadership occurred immediately as Dutch residences and properties were taken over by the Indonesian government. Among the notable buildings conversion were:

Governor-general's palace on Jalan Merdeka Utara became Istana Merdeka presidential palace.
The Concordia military social club building on Jalan Lapangan Banteng Timur became the national parliament until early 1965.
The Volksraad (People's Council) at Jalan Pejambon, that had earlier been the military commander's residence, became the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
The Binnenlands Bestuur administrative corps headquarters on Jalan Medan Merdeka Utara became the Ministry of Home Affairs.
The Ministry of Finance was moved to the grand Witte Huis on Jalan Lapangan Banteng Timur.
The Jakarta City Council chambers on Jalan Medan Merdeka Selatan remained the home of the Jakarta City Council, with the exception that the council was all Indonesian and under the leadership of an Indonesian mayor. The rank "mayor" would become governor in 1960.
The old STOVIA medical school became the faculty of medicine at the newly created University of Indonesia.
Colonial ANETA news agency on Jalan Antara was taken over by Indonesian owners and management between 1951 and 1955 as a forerunner of present government owned news agency, ANTARA.

Despite the numerous departments converted into Indonesian control, from the economic perspective, the transition was much slower. The Dutch still owned key sectors of Indonesian economy during most of the 1950s, including banking, oil and shipping. Only in late 1957, the nationalization of Dutch assets would begin, partly triggered by the anger over the refusal of the Netherlands to transfer sovereignty of Irian Jaya to Indonesia. By 1960, almost all Dutch assets in Indonesia had been taken over and Dutch citizens were expelled from Indonesia.

Expulsion of the Dutch and population boom
Expulsion of the Dutch caused tremendous social change in Jakarta. In the middle of 1952, 48,280 foreigners (excluding Chinese) were living in Jakarta, of which 90.2% were Dutch. By the end of 1950s, only a few hundred of the Dutch stayed in Jakarta. The 1960s was regarded as a decade when foreigners were no longer a common sight on the streets of Jakarta.

The departure of the Dutch also caused a massive migration of the rural population into Jakarta, in response to a perception that the city was the place for economic opportunities. The kampung areas in Jakarta swelled as a result. There were house shortages, as well the lack of schools, medical services, water and electricity. In 1951 and 1952, 25 hectares of land was opened for housing at Grogol, 25 hectares at Tanah Tinggi (just south of Kemayoran Airport) and 25 hectares at Pejompongan. Another 15 hectares at Pejompongan were set for a water purification plant. The 730 hectare satellite city of Kebayoran Baru, which was conceived by the Dutch in the 1930s, remained the most important housing development in Jakarta in the 1950s.

Infrastructure

Jakarta's tram system, which began in 1869 as horse-drawn trams, and would be developed up until the electric trams from 1899, would face competition with buses and faces financial issues. President Sukarno didn't believe trams was an effective system for Jakarta, and so gradually he began to stop the operation of the trams. By April 1960, tramlines only operated from Senen and Kramat to Jatinegara. By 1962, the tramway disappeared from Jakarta.

The 1950s was known as the decade where the informal becak can be found extensively in Jakarta. Introduced to Jakarta in the 1930s, the number of becak soared in late 1940s, which occurred at the same time with the wave of immigration into Jakarta to find employment. 31,000 becaks were registered in 1953.

Proposal to relocate the capital

In the mid-1950s, driven by a sense of corruption and disproportionate government expenditure in Jakarta, there were proposals to relocate the capital. Those in support included Takdir Alisjahbana, who was unflattering in his depiction of the city. However, by 1957, these proposals were abandoned. Instead, the city's boundaries were expanded, and it became the Daerah Khusus Ibukota (DKI, Special Capital Territory), one of the provinces of Indonesia.

Sukarno's mercusuar projects (1960–1965)

Monumental projects

Dramatic changes in Jakarta's skyline occurred during the period between 1960 and 1965, when President Sukarno, also an architect and an urban planner, personally drove the city into a modern capital that would not only be the pride of the Indonesian nation, but would also be a mercusuar (beacon) of a powerful new nation. The short period would give Jakarta many of its most famous modernist landmarks and monuments.

Sukarno had already transitioned the country to "Guided Democracy" between 1957 and 1959, which greatly increased his own political power. Sukarno's great power allowed him to award the 1962 Asian Games to Indonesia, with Jakarta as the host city. The event was used as a trigger to complete new landmarks in Jakarta, and so the first half of the 1960s saw large government-funded projects that were undertaken with openly nationalistic architecture. By working on the optimistic monumental projects, Sukarno hoped to put the newly independent nation's pride on international display.

Sukarno filled Jakarta with numbers of monuments. Numbers of monumental projects were conceived, planned and initiated during his administration. Some of the notable monumental projects of Sukarno during the first half of the 1960s were: Semanggi "clover-leaf" highway interchange, a broad avenue in Central Jakarta (Jalan M.H. Thamrin and Jalan Jenderal Sudirman), and Jalan Gatot Subroto; a broad by-pass connecting Tanjung Priok harbour with Halim Airport (Jalan Jenderal Ahmad Yani); four high-rise hotels, including Hotel Indonesia; a new parliament building; a stadium; Sarinah Department Store; the development of Ancol on the north coast of Jakarta to become Jakarta's main recreation complex; the largest mosque in Southeast Asia; and the widening of Jalan Thamrin and Jalan Sudirman ahead of the 1962 Asian Games.

Most of Jakarta's monuments were initiated during the first half of the 1960s e.g. the National Monument, Selamat Datang Monument, Pemuda Monument at Senayan, Irian Jaya Liberation Monument at Lapangan Banteng, and the Dirgantara Monument at Pancoran.

During the first half of the 1960s, government projects in Jakarta was so intense to the extent that Jakarta's citizens struggled to find cement and building materials for their own use.

New suburbs
In early 1960s, increasing use of cars allow city development outside the constrain of railway network. Several suburbs began to be developed very far from the city center. Few of such developments were Grogol to the west, which was developed as a flood-proof residential area in the 1950s but was immediately flooded in February 1960; several housings to the west of Kemayoran Airport; and new housing developments on the west of Jalan Gajah Mada (Tanah Sereal, Krukut, Krendang and Duri) and on the east of Jalan Hayam Wuruk (Mangga Besar and Sawah Besar). Several residential projects that were developed in the 1950s began to took shape in the 1960s, among them are Pejompongan (land opened in 1952), Bendungan Hilir, Setiabudi to the east of Jalan Sudirman, Tanah Tinggi (designated in 1951) and Rawa Sari (now Cempaka Putih Timur, designated in 1952).

Fall of Sukarno

The period of monumental projects came to an immediate halt after the September 30 Movement in 1965. The incident would begin Sukarno's downfall from power. As a result, Jakarta's skyline was scarred with unfinished steel and concrete structures. A book Djakarta Through the Ages published in 1969 by the Jakarta City Government claimed: "Djakarta is dotted with steel skeletons and the concrete shells of unfinished buildings. There is no money to finish them. Who is able to finish and utilize these buildings?" Among the delayed projects of Sukarno in Jakarta were Wisma Nusantara, a 30-storey office tower meant to be the tallest in Southeast Asia but was abandoned as an unfinished steel structure from 1966 to 1971; the Istiqlal Mosque, started in 1961 but not completed until 1978; the National Parliament building, started in 1965 and completed in stages up until 1983; the Hotel Borobudur which started in 1963 but to be opened in 1974; and the Balai Sarbini and Veteran's Building complex approved in 1965 but was opened in 1973.

Rise of Ali Sadikin (1966 – late 1970s)

Improvement in infrastructure
In 1966, Ali Sadikin was elected as governor of Jakarta. He would serve as the governor of Jakarta from 1966 to 1977, Jakarta's longest-serving governor. Instead of focusing on monumental projects, Ali Sadikin focused his policy towards providing the basic needs of Jakarta's rapidly expanding population. Kampung improvement programs were one of his best-known projects. He repaired and build roads, provided public transport, better sanitation, health services and educational opportunities for the poor.

Among the roads that were constructed during the 1970s were Jalan Tomang Raya, which was built as a continuation of Jalan Kyai Caringin and which crossed over Jalan Letnan Jenderal S. Parman into Tanjung Duren and the new housing estate of Kebon Jeruk. At that time, the continuation of Jalan Tomang Raya was known as Jalan Arjuna, a relatively modest road which by the 1990s would be developed into the Jakarta-Tangerang-Merak toll road. Another road built in the 1970s was Jalan H R Rasuna Said. When completed, Rasuna Said, Sudirman, and Gatot Subroto formed the Golden Triangle of Jakarta, the business, financial, and diplomatic heart of Jakarta. During this period, the first buildings appeared on Jalan Sudirman north of the Semanggi.

Despite the success of the program, which won the Aga Khan Award for architecture in 1980, it was discontinued for its over-emphasis upon the improvement of only physical infrastructure. Sadikin was also responsible for rehabilitating public services, banning rickshaws, and clearing out "slum dwellers" and "street peddlers".

Completion of delayed projects
The 1970s saw the completion of projects that were begun in the 1960s by Sukarno.

The early 1970s saw Jalan Thamrin become a major thoroughfare with buildings higher than 5 storeys. Jalan Sudirman was still relatively empty, except for the Gelora Bung Karno sports complex and some housing at Bendungan Hilir and Setiabudi. Monuments such as the Irian Jaya Liberation Monument, the Prince Diponegoro Monument, the Heroes Monument, and the Dirgantara Monument were completed in the early 1970s.

During the late 1970s, Ancol, another project proposed by Sukarno in the early 1960s, was already well-established as the Ancol Dreamland recreational area with its Bina Ria beach, a golf course, swimming pools, an oceanarium, Putri Duyung Cottage, Hotel Horison and its casinos, a drive-in theater, and new housing developments on both sides.

Jakarta Fairs and other entertainments
In 1968, the Jakarta Fairs were initiated at Medan Merdeka, and the Taman Ismail Marzuki cultural center at Cikini was opened. Taman Ria Remaja (Youth Recreation Park) was opened in the 1970s next to the Gelora Bung Karno.

Decline of Kemayoran Airport
By 1974, a redeveloped Halim Perdanakusuma Airport became the international airport, with Kemayoran becoming a domestic-only airport. During the late 1970s, some housing west of Kemayoran Airport, such as the grid-like housing development of Pademangan, started to grow closer to the western edge of Kemayoran Airport.

Economic growth (late 1970s – 1980s)
Early on during Ali Sadikin's years as governor, Suharto was elected president of Indonesia in 1967. He decided to promote foreign investment in Indonesia. Ali Sadikin ensured that Jakarta's infrastructure was able to support business opportunities and boost economic growth with the construction of the Jakarta Convention Center (1974) and several hotel projects. The 1970s saw a hotel building boom with the opening of nine major hotels: Hotel Kartika Plaza (1972), President Hotel (1973), Hotel Borobudur (1974), Hotel Ambassador/Aryaduta (1974), Hotel Sahid Jaya (1974), Hotel Kartika Chandra (1974), the Hilton Hotel (1976), Hotel Sari Pan Pacific (1976) and Mandarin Hotel (1978), as well as the extension of Hotel Indonesia in 1974.

The 1970s also witnessed the redevelopment of Jakarta's two oldest markets: Pasar Senen and Pasar Tanah Abang. The Aldiron Plaza shopping center (now Blok M Square), considered to be the precursor of Jakarta's shopping malls, was opened in the mid-1970s.

The situation in the 1970s encouraged the emergence of a large number of private housing projects, but government housing schemes were also implemented to cope with the growth of the urban population.

1980s–present

During the 1980s, smaller land sites were acquired for high-rise projects, while larger parcels of land were subdivided for low-key projects, such as the building of new shophouses. This period also saw the removal of kampongs from the inner-city areas and the destruction of many historical buildings. One infamous case was the demolition of the Society of Harmonie and the subsequent construction of a parking lot.

The period between the late-1980s and the mid-1990s saw a massive increase in foreign investment as Jakarta became the focus of a real estate boom. The investment of overseas capital into joint-venture property and construction projects with local developers brought many foreign architects into Indonesia. However, unlike the Dutch architects of the 1930s, many of these expatriate architects were unfamiliar with the tropics, while their local partners had received similarly Modernist architectural training. As a result, downtown areas in Jakarta gradually resembled those of the large Western cities; and often at a high environmental cost: high-rise buildings consume huge amounts of energy in terms of air-conditioning and other services.

The economic boom period of Jakarta ended abruptly in the 1997 Asian financial crisis and many projects were left abandoned. The city became a center of violence, protest, and political maneuvering, as long-time president, Suharto, began to lose his grip on power. Tensions reached a peak in May 1998, when four students were shot dead at Trisakti University by security forces; four days of riots ensued, resulting in damage to, or destruction of, an estimated 6,000 buildings, and the loss of 1,200 lives. The Chinese of the Glodok district were severely affected during the riot period and accounts of rape and murder later emerged. In the following years, including several terms of ineffective presidents, Jakarta was a center of popular protest and national political instability. Jemaah Islamiah-connected bombings occurred almost annually in the city between 2000 and 2005, with another in 2009. In August 2007, Jakarta held its first-ever election to choose a governor as part of a nationwide decentralisation program that allows direct local elections in several areas, in which Fauzi Bowo got elected as governor. Previously, governors were elected by the city's legislative body.

Since the turn of the century, the people of Jakarta have witnessed a period of political stability and prosperity, along with another construction boom. On 24 March 2019, the first phase of the Jakarta Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) opened.

See also
 Timeline of Jakarta

Notes and references

Further reading

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External links
 Pictures and Map from 1733 (Homannische Erben, Nuernberg-Germany)

History of Jakarta


Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil (Urdu/Punjabi: پنڈ دادن خان) is a small area in Jhelum District, in Punjab, Pakistan.  It is the oldest tehsil in this area of Pakistan.  Its capital city is Pind Dadan Khan.  ("Pind" comes from the Punjabi word for "village.")  The capital city is on the bank of River Jhelum, about 28 kilometres from the M2 motorway.

Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil is well known for having Asia's largest salt mine, Khewra Salt Mines.  The Khewra Salt Mines have been used for over 2000 years, and they have an underground mosque.

The area has a long history going back to the time of Alexander the Great's invasion (see Punjab (Pakistan)).  Alexander the Great's famous horse, Bucephalus, is said to be buried in the small town of Jalalpur Sharif, which is in Pind Dadan Khan.

Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil is named after Nawab Dadan Khan Kamboh.  He was the Muslim Governor of Lahore (the capital city of Punjab) in the 1700s.

One important person from Pind Dadan Khan was Nawabzada Ghzanfar Ali Khan.  He was a Muslim minister in the 1946 cabinet.  Just after the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was created, he became Minister of Health, Food and Agriculture.  In December of 1947, he became the Minister of Refugees and Rehabilitation.

Another important person from this area was Mohammad Ramzan Chotana.  He was awarded several gold medals by the British Government for his skill in different technical fields.

One of the important personalities from the area in recent times was Justice (R) Khawaja Imtiaz Ahmad. He served as Chief Justice of the Lahore Highcourt from 2014-2015.  He has the honor of being the first person from the area to be made judge of the Lahore Highcourt Lahore. He served as the Chief Justice of the Lahore Highcourt for 9 months and he is still remembered for his contributions to the judiciary of Pakistan.

Administration
Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil is divided into 16 Union Councils:

Lilla Bhera
 Ahmedabad
 Chak Shadi
 Daulatpur
 Dharyala Jalap
 Golepur
 Gujjar
 Haranpur
 Jalalpur Sharif

 Kandwal
 Khewra-I
 Khewra-Ii
 Lilla Bhera
 P.D.Khan
 Pindi Saidpur
 Sauwal
 Toba

Tehsils of  Jhelum District

Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil


Nimravidae is an extinct family of carnivorans, sometimes known as false saber-toothed cats, whose fossils are found in North America and Eurasia. Not considered to belong to the true cats (family Felidae), the nimravids are generally considered closely related and classified as a distinct family in the suborder Feliformia. Fossils have been dated from the Middle Eocene through the Late Miocene epochs (Bartonian through Tortonian stages, 40.4–7.2 million years ago), spanning about .

The barbourofelids, which were formerly classified as a subfamily of the Nimravidae, were reassigned to their own distinct family Barbourofelidae in 2004.
However, some recent (2020) studies suggest the barbourofelids are a branch of the nimravids, suggesting that this debate might not be settled yet.

Morphology and evolution
Most nimravids had muscular, low-slung, cat-like bodies, with shorter legs and tails than are typical of cats. Unlike extant Feliformia, the nimravids had a different bone structure in the small bones of the ear. The middle ear of true cats is housed in an external structure called an auditory bulla, which is separated by a septum into two chambers. Nimravid remains show ossified bullae with no septum, or no trace at all of the entire bulla. They are assumed to have had a cartilaginous housing of the ear mechanism.
Nimravid feet were short, indicating they walked in a plantigrade or semiplantigrade posture, i.e., on the flat of the feet rather than the toes, like modern cats.

Although some nimravids physically resembled the saber-toothed cats, such as Smilodon, they were not closely related, but evolved a similar form through parallel evolution. They possessed synapomorphies with the barbourofelids in the cranium, mandible, dentition, and postcranium. They also had a downward-projecting flange on the front of the mandible as long as the canine teeth, a feature which also convergently evolved in the saber-toothed sparassodont Thylacosmilus.

The ancestors of nimravids and cats diverged from a common ancestor soon after the Caniformia–Feliformia split, in the middle Eocene about 50 million years ago (Mya), with a minimum constraint of 43 Mya. Recognizable nimravid fossils date from the late Eocene (37 Mya), from the Chadronian White River Formation at Flagstaff Rim, Wyoming, to the late Miocene (5 Mya). Nimravid diversity appears to have peaked about 28 Mya.

A 2021 study has shown that a sizeable number of species developed feline-like morphologies in addition to saber-toothed taxa.

Taxonomy

The family Nimravidae was named by American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1880, with the type genus as Nimravus. The family was assigned to Fissipedia by Cope (1889); to Caniformia by Flynn and Galiano (1982); to Aeluroidea by Carroll (1988); to Feliformia by Bryant (1991); and to Carnivoramorpha, by Wesley-Hunt and Werdelin (2005).

Nimravids are placed in tribes by some authors to reflect closer relationships between genera within the family. Some nimravids evolved into large, toothed, cat-like forms with massive flattened upper canines and accompanying mandibular flanges. Some had dentition similar to felids, or modern cats, with smaller canines. Others had moderately increased canines in a more intermediate relationship between the saber-toothed cats and felids. The upper canines were not only shorter, but also more conical, than those of the true saber-toothed cats (Machairodontinae). These nimravids are referred to as "false saber-tooths".

Not only did nimravids exhibit diverse dentition, but they also showed the same diversity in size and morphology as cats. Some were leopard-sized, others the size of today's lions and tigers, one had the short face, rounded skull, and smaller canines of the modern cheetah, and one, Nanosmilus, was only the size of a small bobcat.

The Barbourofelids were for a while no longer included in Nimravidae, following elevation to family as sister clade to the true cats (family Felidae). However, several recent studies have returned them to Nimravidae, including as part of Nimravinae.

Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of Nimravidae are shown in the following cladogram:

A 2021 study divides Nimravidae into Hoplophoninae and Nimravinae, the latter including the bulk of species in addition to barbourofelids.

Natural history

Nimravids appeared in the middle of the Eocene epoch, about 40 mya, in North America and Asia. The global climate at this time was warm and wet, but was trending cooler and drier toward the late Eocene. The lush forests of the Eocene were transforming to scrub and open woodland. This climatic trend continued in the Oligocene, and nimravids evidently flourished in this environment. North America and Asia were connected and shared much related fauna. Europe in the Oligocene was more of an archipelago than a continent, though some land bridges must have existed, for nimravids also spread there.

In the Miocene, the fossil record suggests that many animals suited for living in forest or woodland were replaced by grazers suited for grassland. This suggests that much of North America and Asia became dominated by savanna. Nimravids disappeared along with the woodlands, but survived in relictual humid forests in Europe to the late Miocene. When conditions ultimately changed there in the late Miocene, the last nimravids disappeared about 9 Mya.

See also
 Oxyaenidae

References

External links

Prehistoric mammal families
Bartonian first appearances
Tortonian extinctions
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Fossil taxa described in 1880

Nimravidae


Wedding Dash is a series of strategy casual video games by PlayFirst.  It was released on October 18, 2007 as a spin-off to the Diner Dash series of games.

Plot
The player plays as Quinn, a hopeful wedding planner. In every level, the player assists the couple in selecting all the details such as the food, the honeymoon, etc. Once the couple has taken their vows, the player has to look out for obstacles that can wreck their perfect wedding party. There are two modes in this game, similar to Diner Dash: "Career Mode" and "Endless Reception". In Career Mode, the player must pay attention to their clients' wishes (the bride and groom) for the food, honeymoon destination, flowers, and cake. The wedding planner (Quinn) must also prevent the bride and groom from seeing any of the disasters that could or are happening at the wedding. In the Endless Reception mode, the player can make the reception last as long as possible without the bride getting angry and turning into a bridezilla (similar to Bruce Banner becoming The Incredible Hulk). Once the bride turns into a bridezilla, the game ends.

Games

Wedding Dash

Wedding Dash 2: Rings Around the World
In this sequel, there are some changes from the original. The player alternates between Quinn the wedding planner and Joe the photographer. Besides having to keep the bride and groom from seeing any of the disasters that could be or are happening at the wedding, the player must also have the photographer take pictures of the guests. In the "Endless Reception" mode, the player must make the wedding last as long as possible before the groom gets angry and turns into Groom Kong. Once the groom turns into Groom Kong, the game is over.

In the game's story, Quinn is invited by Mr. Bigger, the owner of hotel chains around the world to participate in a competition to select the best wedding planner to plan Mr. Bigger's daughter's wedding.  The player goes to five scenic locations around the world: the Niagara Falls, the Amazon Rainforest, the Arabian Desert, an ice resort in Finland, and the royal resort in Thailand.  Quinn finds out one of the competitors is cheating and that Mr. Bigger's daughter has fallen in love with her photographer,  Joe.

Wedding Dash: Ready, Aim, Love!
In this Wedding Dash, drawings have changed a small bit, and now the player has a budget to stick to when choosing decor and cakes. In this game, Cupid has several people to shoot before the end of the year or he is out of the job. Along with this, Quinn decides to help Cupid in order for him to shoot Joe, the photographer, so he will propose and Quinn can finally begin planning her own wedding. At the end of the first ten levels, Cupid reveals that he has been trying to shoot Flo for months. But at the end of fourth level Quinn gets sneaky and rejects Joe although she still loves him. The game ends with Cupid shooting his arrow at birds.

Wedding Dash 4-Ever
With the wedding between Joe and Quinn off, Quinn is planning the next reception when her mother stops by. She doesn't know that the wedding has been called off, and plans to help Quinn with her wedding. Can Quinn break the news to her?

In this game, the player also helps with the seating at the Wedding Ceremony, and leads the after-reception conga line. The player also has to help the newlyweds find things they have misplaced, and in return they will give the player a small token of their gratitude: a wedding present. The game ends with a surprise by Quinn's father as he and Lynn renew their vows on an anniversary bonus level. At the very end, Joe says he imagines his own wedding with Quinn like this when he sees Quinn's mother and father walking down the aisle. Quinn is also holding his hand while he says it.

References

External links
 Wedding Dash official site
 Wedding Dash 2 official site

2007 video games
Casual games
BlackBerry games
IOS games
MacOS games
Mobile games
Nintendo DS games
Video games featuring female protagonists
Games built with Playground SDK
Works about weddings
Windows games
Video game franchises
Video games developed in the United States
PlayFirst games

Wedding Dash


Beyond the Last Mountain (1976) is a Pakistani English-language movie. It was directed and written by Javed Jabbar. Being Pakistan's first and only English-language movie, which was shown at the first Bombay International Film Festival in 1976, it was also released in Urdu version with title Musafir.

Pakistani movies
1976 movies
English-language movies

Beyond the Last Mountain


Dalmazio Santini (September 11, 1923 – October 4, 2001) was an Italian-born American composer.

Early life
Santini was born in Capestrano in the Abruzzo province of Italy. He immigrated to the United States at age 14. He attended public schools in White Plains, New York.

He was inducted into the US Armed Forces and served in World War II, eventually settling in Valhalla, New York.  Following the war, the G.I. Bill allowed him the opportunity to study composition at Manhattanville College and the Mannes College of Music.  Santini studied composition with Felix Salzer and Tadeusz Kassern, and conducting with Milton Forstat.

Musical career
Santini developed a system of composition using 21-tone rows.  This system is similar to the more familiar 12-tone system of serial composition, but the rows Santini used as the basis of his 21-tone compositions also include all alternative enharmonic spellings for each note in the chromatic scale (except the notes D, G, and A, which have no enharmonic spellings).  Thus, the available tones for a 21-tone row would include B-sharp, C, C-sharp, D-flat, D, D-sharp, E-flat, E, F-flat, E-sharp, F, F-sharp, G-flat, G, G-sharp, A-flat, A, A-sharp, B-flat, B, and C-flat.  In order to generate 21-tone rows, Santini utilized a specially printed deck of cards (each card representing one of the aforementioned pitches), "dealing" himself rows until he found the row or rows he wished to use as the basis for a particular composition.

Other of Santini's innovations include the use of circular notation (in his Continuum for accordion), as well as quarter tones (which he referred to as "quasi tones").  His 2+4,+ calls for inside-the-piano playing as well as other techniques so avant-garde as to approach the theatrical, reminiscent of a John Cage "happening."

Many of Santini's other works are composed in a gentle, tonal, and more accessible style.  Much of his output is for piano, and his numerous accordion works have been performed worldwide.  His most widely performed composition, Ave Maria, has been recorded by the duo of vocalist Mary Mancini and accordionist Mario Tacca.

Santini's many works for orchestra include The White Peaks of Forca and Canti Gabrieleschi.  These works are also tonal, though modern in style, and draw on Santini's Italian heritage.  His Canticum Angelicum was performed by the orchestra of the Teatro dell'Opera San Carlo in Naples.  Among his last works is a concerto for viola and orchestra, composed with the 21-tone system.

A devout Roman Catholic, much of Santini's output is sacred in nature, often with Latin texts.  His Magnificat was selected for performance at the 1992 Incontri di Musica Sacra Contemporanea festival in Rome, Italy.

Santini's music was self-published by his own company, DelSan Publications.

Retirement and death
Upon his retirement in 1981, Santini moved to Cape Coral in southwest Florida. He died in nearby Fort Myers in 2001.

External links
Dalmazio Santini at New Music Jukebox

1923 births
2001 deaths
20th-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Italian classical composers
Italian emigrants to the United States
People from Cape Coral, Florida
People from the Province of L'Aquila
People from Valhalla, New York
Manhattanville College alumni
20th-century Italian composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians

Dalmazio Santini